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Encyclopaedia Britannica,
America. A MERICA (from Americas Vefputius, falfely Lid
'‘““““■v*-—^ Jr\. to be the firft difcoverer of the continent) ; one
of the four quarters of the world, probably the largeft
of the whole, and from its late difcovery frequently
x denominated the New World.
Bgundaries. This vaft country extends from the 8oth degree of
north, to the 56th degree of fouth latitude; and,
where its breadth is known, from the 35th to the 136th
degree weft longitude from London ; ftretching be¬
tween 8000 and 9000 miles in length, and in its great-
eft breadth 3690. It fees both hemifpheres, has two
fummers and a double winter, and enjoys all the varie¬
ty of climates which the earth aftords# It is wafhed by
the two great oceans. To the eaftward it has the At¬
lantic, which divides it from Europe and Africa ; to the
weft it has the Pacific or Great South fea, by which
it is feparated from Afia. By thefe feas it may, and
does, carry on a direft commerce with the other three
parts of the world.
North and America is not of equal breadth throughout its whole
South con- extent; but is divided into two great continents, called
tinent. North and South America, by an ifthmus 1 500 miles
long, and which at Darien, about Lat. 90 N. is only
60 miles over. This ifthmus forms with the northern
and fouthern continents, a vaft gulf, in which lie a
great number of iflands, called the Wejl Indies, in con-
tradiftiinftion to the eaftern parts of Afia, which are
called the Eajl Indies.
Remark-! Between the New World and the Old, there are fe-
able preva- yeral very ftriking differences ; but the moft remarkable
cold? °f 18 the £et*eral Predominance of cold throughout the
whole extent of America. 1 hough wre cannot, in any
country, determine the precife degree of heat merely
by the diftance of the equator, becaufe the elevation
above the fea, the nature of the foil, &c. affecl the cli¬
mate ; yet, in the ancient continent, the heat is much
more in proportion to the vicinity to the equator than
in any part of America. Here the rigour of the frigid
zone extends over half that which Ihould be temperate
by its polition. Even in thofe latitudes where the win¬
ter is icarcely felt on the old continent, it reigns with
great feverity in America, though during a ihort pe¬
riod. Nor does this cold, prevalent in the new' world,
confine itfelf to the temperate zones ; but extends its’
influence to the torrid zone alio, confiderably mitigat¬
ing the excels of its heat. Along the eafteru coart, the
Vox.. II. Part I.
climate, though more fimilar to that of the torrid zone
in other parts of the earth, is neverthelefs confiderably . ,
milder than in thofe countries of Afia and Africa w'hich
lie in the fame latitude. From the fouthern tropic to
the extremity of the American continent, the cold is
faid to be much greater than in parallel northern lati¬
tudes even of America itfelf.
I or this fo remarkable difference between the climate
of the new continent and the old, various caufes have
been affigned by different authors. The following is
the opinion of the learned Dr Robertfon on this fub-
jeeft. “ Though the utmoft extent of America to-^ 4
wards the north be not yet difeovered, we know thatfon’frea
A nearer t0 the pole than either Europe or fons for this
Aha. The latter have large feas to the north, which Superior de-
are open during part of the year ; and, even when co-Sr'e of
yered with ice, the wind that blows over them is lefs S™
mtenfely cold than that which blows over land in the
lame latitudes. But, in America, the land ftretches vol. i. p.
rom the river St Lawrence towards the pole, and
Ipreads out immenfely to the weft. A chain of enor¬
mous mountains, covered with fnow and ice runs
through all this dreary region. The wind palling over
inch an extent of high and frozen land, becomes fo im¬
pregnated with cold, that it acquires a piercing keen-
n . , which it retains in its progrefs through warmer
climates ; and is not entirely mitigated until it reach
the gulf of Mexico. Over all the continent of North
America, a north-wefterly wind and exceffive cold are
lynonymous terms. Even in the moft fultry weather
the moment that the wind veers to that quarter, its pe?
netrating influence is felt in a tranfition from heat to
cold no lefs violent than hidden. To this powerful
cau e we may afenbe the extraordinary dominion of
cold, and its violent inroads into the fouthern provinces
in that part of the globe.
. Other caules, no lefs remarkable, diminilh the ac¬
tive power of heat in thofe parts of the American con-
tinent which he between the tropics. In all that por-
tion of the globe, the wind blows in an invariable di¬
rection irom eaft to weft., As this wind holds its courfe
across the ancient continent, it arrives at the countries
which ftretch along the weftern there of Africa, inflam¬
ed with all the fiery particles which it hath colkaed
from the fultry plains of Afia, and the burning fands
m the African deferts. The coaft of Africa is accord-
A * ^ ingly
A M E [ <
, Areenca. ingly the region of the earth which feels the moft fer-
"v ' vent heat, and is expofed to the unmitigated ardour of
the torrid zone. But this fame wind, which brings fuch
an acceflion of warmth to the countries lying between
the river of Senegal and Caffraria, traverfes the Atlan¬
tic ocean before it reaches the American fliore. It is
cooled in its paffage over this vaft body of water ; and
is felt as a refreshing gale along the coails of Brafil and
Guiana, rendering thofe countries, though amongft the
warmed in America, temperate, when compared with
thofe which lie oppofite to them in Africa. As this
wind. advances in its courfe acrofs America, it meets
with immenfe plains covered with impenetrable forefts j
or occupied by large rivers, marlhes, and Stagnating
waters, where it can recover no considerable degree of
heat. At length it arrives at the Andes, which run
from north to South through the whole continent. In
paSling over their elevated and frozen Summits, it is
So. thoroughly cooled, that the greater part of the coun¬
tries beyond them hardly feel the ardour to which they
feem expofed by their fituation. In the other provin¬
ces of America, from Terra Firma w'elhvard to the
Mexican empire, the heat of the climate is tempered,
in fome places, by the elevation of the land above the
ft a; iu others, by their extraordinary humidity ; and
in all, by the enormous mountains Scattered over this
tradh The islands of America in the torrid zone are
either fmall or mountainous, and are fanned alternate¬
ly by refreshing fea and land breezes.
“ The caufes of the extraordinary cold towards the
fouthern limits of America, and in the Teas beyond it,
cannot be afeertained in a manner equally Satisfying.
It was long fuppofed, that a vaSl continent, distin¬
guished by the name of Terra Aujlralis Incognita, lay
between the fouthern extremity of America and the
antarftic pole. M he fame principles which account for
the extraordinary degree of cold in the northern re¬
gions of America, were employed in order to explain
that which is felt at Cape Horn and the adjacent coun¬
tries. The immenfe extent of the Southern continent,
and the rivers w'hich it poured into the ocean, ivere
mentioned and admitted by philofopbers as caufes Suffi¬
cient to occafion the unufual fenfation of cold, and the
Bill more uncommon appearances of frozen Seas in that
region of the globe. But the imaginary continent to
which fuch influence was aferibed having been Search¬
ed for in vain, and the Space which it v/as fuppofed to
occupy having been found to be an open fea, new' con-
je&ures mult be formed W'ith refpeft to the caufes of a
temperature of climate, fo extremely different from
that which w'e experience in countries removed at the
fame diltance from the opposite pole.
“ The moft obvious and probable caufe of this Su¬
perior degree of cold towards the fouthern extremity
of America, feems to be the form of the continent
there. Its breadth gradually decreafes as it ftretches
from St Antonio Southwards 5 and from the bay of St
Julian to the ftraits of Magellan its dimenfions are much
contra&ed. On the eaft and weft Sides, it is w’alhed
by the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. From its fouth¬
ern point, it is probable that an open fea ftretches to
the antarftic pole. In whichever of thefe directions
the wind blows, it is cooled before it approaches the
Magellanic regions, by pafling over a vaft body of wa¬
ter i nor is the land there of fuch exter.t? that it can
451
*ote xxxu
1 ] A M E
recover any confiderable degree of heat in its progrefs America.
over it. Thefe circumftances concur in rendering the v v'—J
temperature of the air in this diftrict of America more
Similar to that of an infular, than to that of a continen¬
tal climate 5 and hinder it from acquiring the fame de¬
gree of fummer heat with places in Europe and Ana,
in a correfponding northern latitude. The north wind
is the only one that reaches this part of America, after
blowing over a great continent. But, from an atten¬
tive furvey of its pofition, this wull be found to have a
tendency rather to diminiffi than augment the degree
of heat. The fouthern extremity of America is pro¬
perly the termination of the immenfe ridge of the An¬
des, wdoich ftretches nearly in a direft line from north
to fouth, through the wffiole extent of the continent.
The moft fultry regions in South America, Guiana,
Brafil, Paraguay, and Tucuman, lie many degrees to
the eaft of the Magellanic regions. The level country
of Peru, wffiich enjoys the tropical heats, is Situated
considerably to the weft of them. The north wind,
then, though it blow's over land, does not bring to the
fouthern extremity of America an increafe of heat
collefted in its paflage over torrid regions ; but, be¬
fore it arrives there, it muft have fwept along the fum-
mits of the Andes, and become impregnated wuth the
cold of that frozen region.” ^
Another particularity in the climate of America, is Extreme
its exceffive moifture in general. In fome places, in- m°ifture of
deed, on the w'eftern coalt, rain is not known 5 but, inthe Affcri^
all other parts, the moiftnels of the climate is as re-
markable as the cold. The forefts wherewith it is
everywhere covered, no doubt, partly occafion the moif¬
ture of its climate ; but the moft prevalent caufe is the
vaft quantity of water in the Atlantic and Pacific
oceans, with which America is environed on all Tides.
Hence thofe places where the continent is narroweft
are deluged with almoft perpetual rains, accompanied
with violent thunder and lightning, by which fome of
them, particularly Porto Bello, are rendered in a man¬
ner uninhabitable. ^
I'his extreme moifture of the American climate is Large ri-
produfHve of much larger rivers there than in any vers, and
other part of the world. The Danube, the Nile, theexcefl?ve
Indus, or the Ganges, are not comparable to the Mif- of^1^8'
fiffippi, the river St Lawrence, or that5of the Amazons jtiop?86
nor are fuch large lakes to be found anywhere as thofe
which North America affords. To the fame caufe we
are alfo partly to aferibe the exceffive luxuriance of all
kinds of vegetables in almoft all parts of this country.
In the fouthern provinces, where the moifture of the
climate is aided by the warmth of the fun, the woods
are almoft impervious, and the furface of the ground is
hid from the eye, under a thick covering of fhrubs,
herbs, and feeds. In the northern provinces, the fo¬
refts are not encumbered with the fame luxuriance of
vegetation 5 neverthelefs, they afford trees much lar¬
ger of their kind than what are to be found anywhere
elfe.
From the coldnefs and the moifture of America, an Malignity
extreme malignity of climate has been inferred, and af-of climate
ferted by M. de Paw, in his Recherches Philofophiques.
Hence, according to his hypothefis, the fmallnefs and America10
irregularity of the nobler animals, and the fize and en¬
ormous multiplication of reptiles and infers.
But the fuppofed ftnallnefs and iefs ferocity of the
American
A M E [
America. American animals, the Abbe Clavigcro obferves, in-
-v. ,_V'./ ^eac[ 0f the malignity, demonftrate the mildnefs and
Hijicry of i3OUnty 0f the clime, if we give credit to Buffon, at
voMi^p whofe fountain M. de Pa’iv has drank, and of whofe
05-, tellimonyhe has availed himfelf againll Don Pernetty:
Buffon, who in many places of his Natural Hiftory
produces the fmallnefs of the American animals as a
certain argument of the malignity of the climate of
America, in treating afterwards of fav^ge animals, in
tom. ii. fpeaks thus : “ As all things, even the moft
free creatures, are fubjeft to natural laws, and animals
as well as men are fubjefted to the influence of climate
and foil, it appears that the fame caufes which have
civilized and polifhed the human fpecies in our climates,
may have likewife produced fimilar effedls upon other
fpecies. The wolf, which is perhaps the fierceft of all
the quadrupeds of the temperate zone, is however in¬
comparably lefs terrible than the tyger, the lion, and
the panther, of the torrid zone ) and the white bear and
hyena of the frigid zone. In America, where the air
and the earth are more mild than thofe of Africa, the
tyger, the lion, and the panther, are not terrible but in
the name. They have degenerated, if fiercenefs, join¬
ed to cruelty, made their nature •, or, to fpeak more
properly, they have only fuffered the influence of the
climate: under a milder Iky, their nature alfo has be¬
come more mild. From climes which are immoderate
in their temperature, are obtained drugs, perfumes,
poifons, and all thofe plants whofe qualities ate ftrong.
The temperate earth, on the contrary, produces only
things which are temperate j the mildeft herbs, the moft
wholefome pulfe, the fweeteft fruits, the moft quiet
animals, and the moft humane men, are the natives of
this happy clime. As the earth makes the plants, the
earth and plants make animals *, the earth, the plants,
and the animals, make man. The phyfical qualities of
man, and the animals which feed on other animals, de¬
pend, though more remotely, on the fame caufes which
influence their difpofitions and cuftoms. This is the
greateft proof and demonftration, that in temperate
climes every thing becomes temperate, and that in in¬
temperate climes everything is exceflivej and that fize
and form, which appear fixed and determinate qualities,
depend, notwithftanding, like the relative qualities, on
the influence of climate. The fize of our quadrupeds
cannot be compared with that of an elephant, the rhi¬
noceros, or fea horfe. The largeft of our birds are but
fmall, if compared with the oftrich, the condore, and
cafoarey So far M. Buffon, whofe text we have co¬
pied, becaufe it is contrary to what M. de Paw whites
againft the climate of America, and to Buffon himfelf
in many other places.
If the large and fierce animals are natives of intem¬
perate climes, and fmall and tranquil animals of tem¬
perate climes, as M. Buffon has here eitablifhed ; if
mildnefs of climate influences the difpofition and cuftoms
of animals, M. de Paw does not well deduce the malig¬
nity of the climate of America from the finaller lize
and lefs fiercenefs of its animals ; he ought rather to
have deduced the gentlenefs and fweetnefs of its climate
from this antecedent. If, on the contrary, the fmaller
fize and lefs fiercenefs of the American animals, With
refpeft to thofe of the old continent, are a proof of
their degeneracy, arifing from the malignity of the
clime, as M. de Paw would have it, we ought in like
] A M E
manner to argue the malignity of the climate of Fu- America,
rope from the fmaller fize and lefs fiercenefs of its ani-
mals, compared with thofe of Africa. If a philofo-
pher of the country of Guinea fhould undertake a work
in imitation of M. de Paw, with this title, Recherche*
Philofuphiques fur les Europe'ens, he might avail him¬
felf of the fame argument which M. de Paw ufes, to
demonftrate the malignity of the climate of Europe,
and the advantages of that of Africa. The climate
of Europe, he would fay, is very unfavourable to the
produftion of quadrupeds, wrhich are found incompar¬
ably fmaller, and more cowardly than ours. What
are the horfe and the ox, the largeft of its animals,
compared with our elephants, our rhinocerofes, our fea
horfes, and our camels ? What are its lizards, either
in fize or intrepidity, compared with our crocodiles ?
its wolves, its bears, the moft dreadful of its wild
beafts, when befide our lions and tygers ? Its eagles,
its vultures, and cranes, if compared wdth our oftriches,
appear only like hens. g
As to the enormous fize and prodigious multiplica-America
tion of the infers and other little noxious animals, l101 ™<\re
“The furface of the earth~(fays M. de Paw), infecledthanothcr
by putrefaflion, wras overrun w’ith lizards, ferpents, rep-countries
tiles, and infefts monftrous for fize, and the aftivity of with in-
their poifon, which they drew from the copious juices an(^
of this uncultivated foil, that was corrupted and aban-™^^
doned to itfelf, where the nutritive juice became lharp,
like the milk in the breaft of animals which do not
exercife the virtue of propagation. Caterpillars, crabs,
butterflies, beetles, fpiders, frogs, and toads, w’ere for
the moft part of an enormous corpulence in the fpe¬
cies, and multiplied beyond what can be imagined.
Panama is infefted wuth ferpents, Carthagena w’ith
clouds of enormous bats, Porto Bello w ith toads, Suri-
nan with kakerlacas, or cucarachas, Guadaloupe, and
the other colonies of the iflands, w'ith beetles, Quito
with niguas or chegoes, and Lima wuth lice and bugs.
The ancient kings of Mexico, and the emperors of
Peru, found no other means of ridding their fubjefts
of thofe infafts wffich fed upon them, than the impo-
fition of an annual tribute of a certain quantity of lice.
Ferdinand Cortes found bags full of them in the palace
of Montezuma.” But this argument, exaggerated as
it is, proves nothing againft the climate of America
in general, much lefs againft that of Mexico. There;
being fome, lands in America, in which, bn account of
their heat, humidity, or want of inhabitants, large
infefts are found, and exceflively multiplied, will
prove at molt, that in fome places the furface of the
earth is infefted, as he fays, wuth putrefaftion but
not that the foil of Mexico, or that of all America, is
ftinking, uncultivated, vitiated, and abandoned to it¬
felf. If fuch a dedubtion wTere juft, M. de Paw might
alfo fay, that the foil of the old continent is barren,
and ftinks; as in many countries of it there are prodi¬
gious multitudes of monftrous infefts, noxious reptiles,
and vile animals, as in the Philippine ifles, in many of
thofe of the Indian archipelago, in feveral countries of
the fouth of Afia, in many of Africa, and even in fome
of Europe. The Philippine ifles are inferted with
enormous ants and monftrous butterflies, Japan w'ith
fcorpions, the fouth of Afia and Africa w’ith ferpents,
Egypt with afps, Guinea and Ethiopia with armies
of ants, Holland with field rats, Ukrania with toads,
A 2 we
v
A M E [ .
America. as M. de Paw himfelf affirms ; in Italy, the Cam-
pagna di Roma (although peopled for fo many ages)
with vipers, Calabria with tarantulas, the ffiores of
the Adriatic fea with clouds of gnats 5 and even in
France, the population of which is fo great and fo an¬
cient, whofe lands are fo well cultivated, and wffiofe
climate is fo celebrated by the French, there appeared,
a few years ago, according to M. Buffon, a new fpe-
cies of field mice, larger than the common kind, called
by him furmulots, which have multiplied exceedingly,
to the great damage of the fields. M. Bazin, in his
Compendium of the Hiftory of Infe&s, numbers 77
fpecies of bugs wffiich are all found in Paris and its
neighbourhood. That large capital, as M. Bomare
fays, fwarms with thofe difguftful infefts. It is true,
that there are places in America, where the multitude
of infers and filthy vermine make life irkfome 5 but
we do not know that they have arrived to luch excefs
of multiplication as to depopulate any place, at leaft
there cannot be fo many examples produced of this
caufe of depopulation in the new as in the old conti¬
nent, wffiich are atterted by Theophraftus, Varro, Pli¬
ny, and other authors. The frogs depopulated one
place in Gaul, and the locutts another in Africa.
One of the Cyclades was depopulated by mice ; Ami-
clas, near to Taracina, by ferpents j another place,
near to Ethiopia, by fcorpions and poifonous ants;
and another by fcolopendras : and not fo diftant from
our own times, the Mauritius was going to have been
abandoned on account of the extraordinary multiplica¬
tion of rats, as wre can remember to have read in a
French author.
With refped to the fize of the infers, reptiles, and
fuch animals, M. de Paw makes ufe of the teftimony
of M. Dumont, who, in his Memoirs on Louifiana,
fays, that the frogs are fo large there that they weigh
3 7 French pounds, and their horrid croaking imitates
the bellowing of cows. But M. de Paw himfelf fays
(in his anfwer to Don Pernetty, cap. 17.), that all
thofe rvho have written about Louifiana, from Hene-
pin, Le Clerc, and Cav. Tonti, to Dumont, have con-
tradidled each other, fometimes on one and fometimes
on another fubjeft. In fa61, neither in the old or the
new continent are there frogs of 37 pounds in weight*,
but there are in Alia and Africa ferpents, butterflies,
ants, and other animals, of fuch monitrous fize, that
they exceed all thofe which have been difcovered in
the new world. We know very well, that fome A-
merican hiltorians fay, that a certain gigantic fpecies
of ferpents is to be found in the woods, which attra6l
men with their breath, and fwallow them up ; but we
know alfo, that feveral hiilorians, both ancient and
modern, report the fame thing of the ferpents of Afia,
and even fomething more. Megafthenes, cited by
Pliny, faid, that there were ferpents found in Afia, fo
large, that they fwallowed entire llags and bulls. Me-
trodorus cited by the fame .author, affirms, that in Afia
there were ferpents which, by their breath, attradled
birds, however high they were, or quick their flight.
Among the moderns, Gemelli, in vol. v. of his Tour
of the World, when he treats of the animals of the
Philippine ifles, fpeaks thus : There are ferpents in
thefe iflands of immoderate fize j there is one called
ihitin, very long, which fufpending itfelf by the tail
from the trunk of a Uee, waits till Sags, bears, and
- ] A M E
alfo men pafs by, in order to attra6f them with its America.
breath, and devour them at once entirely:” from'-""'v  
whence it is evident, that this very ancient fable has
been common to both continents.
Further, it may be alked, In what country of Ame¬
rica could M. de Paw find ants to equal thofe of the
Philippine illands, called fulwn, refpedfing which Her¬
nandez affirms, that they wrere fix fingers breadth in
length and one in breadth ? Who has ever feen in
America butterflies fo large as thofe of Bourbon, Ter-
nate, the Philippine ifles, and all the Indian Archipe¬
lago ? The largeft bat of America (native to hot ffiady.
countries), which is that called by Buffon vampiro, is,
according to him, of the fize of a pigeon. La rou-
gette, one of the fpecies of Afia, is as large as a raven;
and the roufette, another fpecies of Afia, is as big as a
large hen. Its wings, when extended, meafure from
tip to tip three Parifian feet, and according to Ge¬
melli, who meafured it in the Philippine ifles, fix
palms. M. Bufton acknowdedges the excefs in fize of
the Afiatic bat over the American fpecies, but denies
it as to number. Gemelli fays, that thofe of the ifland
of Luzon were fo numerous that they darkened the air,
and that the noife which they made with their teeth,
in eating the fruits of the woods, was heard at the dif-
tance ot two miles. M. de Paw fays, in talking of
ferpents, “ It cannot be affirmed that the new world
has fhowm any ferpents larger than thofe which Mr A-
danfon faw in the deferts of Africa.” The greateft
ferpent found in Mexico, after a diligent fearch made
by Hernandez, was 18 feet long : but this is not to be
compared wfith that of the Moluccas, which Bomare
fays is 33 feet in length j nor with the anacondaja of
Ceylon, which the fame author fays is more than 33
feet long ; nor with others of Afia and Africa men¬
tioned by the fame author. Laflly, The argument drawn
from the multitude and fize of the American infe61s is
fully as weighty as the argument drawn from the fmall-
nefs and fcarcity of quadrupeds, and both detedl the
fame ignorance, or rather the fame voluntary and flu-
died forgetfulnefs, of the things of the old continent.
With refpe61 to what M. de Paw has faid of the tri¬
bute of lice in Mexico, in that as wrell as in many other
things he difcovers his ridiculous credulity. It is true
that Cortes found bags of lice in the magazines of the
palace of King Axajacatil. It is alfo true, that Mon¬
tezuma impofed fuch a tribute, not on all his fubjeds,
how-ever, but only on thofe w-ho were beggars \ not on
account of the extraordinary multitude of thofe in-
fe6fs, as M. de Paw? affirms, but becaufe Montezuma,
who could not fuffer idlenefs in his fubjefls, refolved
that that miferable fet of people, who could not la¬
bour, ffiould at leaft be occupied in loufing themfelves.
This was the true reafon of fuch an extravagant tri¬
bute, as Torquemada, Betancourt, and other hiftorians-
relate 7 and nobody ever before thought of that wffiich
M. de Paw affirms, merely becaufe it fuited his prepof-
terous fyftem. Thofe difgufting infc6fs poffibly abound
as much in the hair and clothes of American beggars,
as of any poor and uncleanly low people in the world :
but there is not a doubt, that if any fovereign of Eu¬
rope was to exa6t fuch a tribute from the poor in his
dominions, not only bags, but great veffels, might be
filled with them.
At. the. time America was difcovered, it was found
. inhabited
A M E [5
America, inhabited by a race of men no lefs different from thofe
in the other parts of the world, than the climate and
Ceneril de natura^ produftions of this continent are different from
fcription of thofe of Europe, Afia, or Africa. One great peculiari-
the natives, ty in the native Americans is their colour, and the
identity of it throughout the whole extent of the con¬
tinent. In Europe and Alia, the people who inhabit
the northern countries, are of a fairer complexion than
thofe who dwell more to the fouthwaid. In the tor¬
rid zone, both in Africa and Afia, the natives are en¬
tirely black, or the next thing to it. This, however,
muff be underftood with fome limitation. The people
of Lapland, who inhabit the molt northerly part of
Europe, are by no means fo fair as the inhabitants of
Britain j nor are the Tartars fo fair as the inhabitants
of Europe who lie under the fame parallels of latitude.
Neverthelefs, a Laplander is fair when compared with
an Abyflinian, and a Tartar, if compared with a native
of the Molucca iflands. In America, this diftinftion
of colour was not to be found. In the torrid zone there
were no negroes, and in the temperate and frigid zones
there were no white people. All of them were of a kind
of red.copper colour, which Mr Forfter obferved, in the
Pefferays of Terra del Fuego, to have fomething of a
glofs refembling that metal. It doth not appear, how¬
ever, that this matter hath ever been inquired into with
fufficient accuracy. The inhabitants of the inland parts
of South America, where the continent is wideff, and
confequently the influence of the fun the moft power¬
ful, have never been compared with thofe of Cana¬
da, or more northerly parts, at leaft by any perfon of
credit. Yet this ought to have been done, and that
in many inftances too, before it could be afferted fo
pofitively as moft authors do, that there is not the lead:
difference of complexion among the natives of America.
Iqdeed, fo many fyftems have been formed concerning
them, that it is very difficult to obtain a true know¬
ledge of the moft fimple fafts. If we may believe the
Abbe Raynal, the Californians are fwarthier than the
Mexicans 5 and fo pofitive is he in his opinion, that he
gives a reafon for it. “ This difference of colour,” fays
he, “ proves, that the civilized life of fociety fubverts,
or totally changes, the order and laws of nature, fince
we find, under the temperate zone, a favage people that
are biacker than the civilized nations of the torrid zone.”
—On the other hand, Dr Robertfon claffes all the in¬
habitants of Spanifh America together with regard to
colour, whether they are civilized or uncivilized j and
when he fpeaks of California, takes no notice of any
peculiarity in their colour more than others. The ge¬
neral appearance of the indigenous Americans in vari¬
ous dill rifts is thus defcribed by the Chevalier Pinto :
u I hey are all of a copper colour, with fome diverfity
of {hade, not in proportion to their diftance from the
equator, but according to the degree of elevation of
the territory in which they refide. Thofe who live in
a high country are fairer than thofe in the marffiy low
lands on the coart. Their face is round j farther re¬
moved, perhaps, than that of any people from an oval
ihape. Their forehead is fmall 5 the extremity of their
ears far from the face ; their lips thick ; their nofe flat;
their eyes black, or of a chefnut colour, fmall, but ca¬
pable of difcerning objefts at a great diftance. Their
hair is always thick and fleek, and without any ten¬
ancy to curl. At the firft afpeft, a South. American
] A M E
appears to Tie mild and innocent: but, on a more atten- America,
tive view, one dilcovers in his countenance fomething u“—v '
wild, diftruftful, and fullen.” IO
The following account of the native Americans isDonUlloa’s
given by Don Antonio Ulloa, in a work entitled Me- account.
moires philofophiques, hiftoriques, et phyjiques, concernant
la dccouverte de l"1 Amerique, lately publifhed.
The American Indians are naturally of a colour bor¬
dering upon red. Their frequent expofure to the fun
and wind changes it to their ordinary dufky hue. The
temperature of the air appears to have little or no in¬
fluence in this refpeft. There is no perceptible differ¬
ence in complexion between the inhabitants of the
high and thofe of the low parts of Peru ; yet the cli¬
mates are of extreme difference. Nay, the Indians
who live as far as 40 degrees and upwards fouth or
north of the equator, are not to be diftinguiffied, in
point of colour, from thofe immediately under it.
There is alfo a general conformation of features and
perfon, which more or lefs charafterizes them all.
Their chief diftinftions, in thefe refpefts,are a fmall fore¬
head, partly covered with hair to the eyebrows, little
eyes ; the nofe thin, pointed, and bent towards the up¬
per lip ; a broad face; large ears; black, thick, and lank
hair; the legs well formed, the feet fmall, the body
thick and mufcular \ little or no beard on the face, and
that little never extending beyond a fmall part of the
chin and upper lip. It may eafily be fuppofed that this
general defcription cannot apply, in all its parts, to
every individual; but all of them partake fo much of
it, that they may be eafily diftinguiflied even from.,
the mulattoes, who come neareft to them in point of
colour.
The refemblance among all the American tribes is
not lefs remarkable in refpeft to their genius, charafter,
manners, and particular cuftoms. The moft diftant
tribes are, in thefe refpefts, as fimilar as though they
formed but one nation.,
All the Indian nations have a peculiar pleafure in
painting their bodies of a red colour, with a certain fpe-
cies of earth.. The mine of Guancavelica was former¬
ly of no other ufe than to fupply them with this ma¬
terial for dyeing their bodies; and the cinnabar ex-
trafted from it- was applied ^ entirely to this purpofe.
The tribes in Louifiana and Canada have the fame paf-
fion ; hence minium is the commodity moft in demand
there.
It may feem fingular that thefe nations, whofe na¬
tural colour is red, ffiould affeft the fame colour as an
artificial ornament. But it may be obferved, that they
do nothing in this refpeft but what correfponds to the
praftice of Europeans, who alfo ftudy to heighten and
difplay to advantage the natural red and white of their
complexions. 1 he Indians of Peru have now indeed
abandoned the cuftom of painting their bodies : but it
was common among them- before they wTere conquered
by the Spaniards ; and it ftili remains the cuftom of
all thofe tribes wffio have preferved their, liberty. The
northern nations of America, befides the red colour
which is predominant, employ alfo black, white, blue,
and green, in painting their bodies.
The adjuftment of thefe colours is a matter of as Peeuliari-
great confideration with the Indians of Louifiana and ties in re.
the vaft regions extending to the north, as the orna- Sard t0 or-
ments of chefs among the mart poliffied nations. rru„nament and:
rpi 1
rh5drefs.
bufmefs
A M E r
America, bufinefs itfelf they call ma&acher, and they do not fail
' v J ^ app^X a^ their talents and affiduity to accomplifh it
in the moil finiihed manner. No lady of the greateft
failuon ever confulted her mirror with more anxiety,
than the Indians do while painting their bodies. The
colours are applied with the utmoll accuracy and ad-
drefs. Upon the eyelids, precifely at the root of the
eyelaihes, they draw two lines as fine as the fmalleft
thread j the lame upon the lips, the openings of the
noltrils, the eyebrows, and the ears ; of which laft they
even follow all the inflexions and finuofities. As to
the re if of the face, they diftnbute various figures, in
all which the red predominates, and the other colours
are afforted fo as to throw it out to the befl: advantage.
The neck alfo receives its proper ornaments; a thick
coat of vermilion commonly diftinguiflies the cheeks.
Five or fix hours are requifite for accompliftiing all
this with the nicety which they affedl. As their firfl:
attempts do not always fucceed to their wifli, they ef¬
face them, and begin anew uppn a better plan. No
coquette is more faftidious in her choice of ornament,
none more vain when the important adjuftment is finiih¬
ed. Their delight and felf-fatisfaftion are then fo
great, that the mirror is hardly ever laid down. An
Indian tnaEiached to his mind is the vaineft of all the
human fpecies. The other parts of the body are left
in their natural ftate, and, excepting what is called a
cachecul, they go entirely naked.
<» Such of them as have made themfelves eminent for
bravery, or other qualifications, are diftinguiihed by
figures painted on their bodies. They introduce the
colours by making punftures on their ikin, and the ex¬
tent of furface which this ornament covers is propor¬
tioned to the exploits they have performed. Some
paint only their arms, others both their arms and legs,
others again their thighs ; while thofe who have attain-
ed. the fummit of warlike renown, have their bodies
painted from the waifl: upwards. This is the heraldry
of the Indians ; the devices of which are probably more
exactly adjufted to the merits of the perfons who bear
them than thofe of more civilized countries.
Befides thefe ornaments, the warriors alfo cany
plume* of feathers on their heads, their arms, and an¬
cles. Thefe likewife are tokens of valour, and none but
fuch as have been thus difiinguiihed may wear them.
The propenfity to indolence is equal among all the
tribes of Indians, civilized or favage. The only em¬
ployment of thofe who have preferved their indepen¬
dence is hunting and fifliing. In fome diftrifts the
women exercife a little agriculture in raifing Indian
corn and pompions, of which they form a fpecies of
aliment^ by bruifing them together : they alfo prepare
the ordinary beveridge in ufe among them, taking care,
at the fame time, of the children, of whom the fathers
take no charpe.
The female Indians of all the conquered regions of
South America praaife what is called the urcu (a word
which among them fignifies elevation.) It confifts in
throwing forward the hair from the crown of the head
upon the brow, and cutting it round from the ears to
above the eye; fo that the forehead and eyebrows are
entirely covered. I he fame cuftom takes place in the
northern countries. The female inhabitants of both
regions tie the reft of their hair behind, fo exaaiy
h the fame faftiion, that it might be fuppofed the ef-
2
6 ] A M E
feci of mutual imitation. This, hotverer, being i;n- America,
poffible, from the vaft diftance that feparates them, v—11
is thought to countenance the fuppofition of the whole
of America being originally planted with one race of
people.
^ T his cuftom does not take place among the males.
Thofe of the higher parts of Peru wear long and flow¬
ing hair, which they reckon a great ornament. In the
lower parts of the fame country they cut it fhort, on
account of the heat of the climate ; a circumitance in
which they imitate the Spaniards. The inhabitants of
Louifiana pluck out their hair by the roots from the
crown of the head forwards, in order to obtain a large
forehead, otherwife denied them by nature. The reft
of their hair they cut as fhort as poffible, to prevent
their enemies from feizing them by it in battle, and
alfo to prevent them from eafily getting their fcalp,
Ihould they fall into their hands as prifoners.
The whole race of American Indians is diftinguifhedRemaV
by thicknefs of fkin and hardnefs of fibres ; circum- able infen-
ftances which probably contribute to that infenfibility Ability to
to bodily pain for which they are remarkable. An in- Pa^n»
fiance of this infenfibility occurred in an Indian who
was under the neceflity of fubmitting to be cut for the
ftone. This operation, in ordinary cafes, feldom lafts
above four or five minutes. Unfavourable circumftan-
ces in his cafe prolonged it to the uncommon period of
27 uainutes. Yet all this time the patient gave no to¬
kens of the extreme pain commonly attending this ope¬
ration : he complained only as a perfon does who
feels fome flight uneafinefs. At laft the ftone was ex-
trafted. Two days after, he exprefled a defire for
food, and on the eighth day from the operation he
quitted his bed, free from pain, akjiough the wound
was not yet thoroughly doled. TheYame want of fen-
fibility is obferved in cafes of fra&ures, wounds, and
other accidents of a fimilar nature. In all thefe cafes
their cure is eafily effeaed, and they feem to fuffer lefs
prefent pain than any other race of men. The fkulls
that have been taken up in their ancient burying-
grounds are of a greater thicknefs than that bone is
commonly found, being from fix to feven lines from
the outer to the inner fuperficies. The fame is remark¬
ed as to the thicknefs of their fkins.
It is natural to infer from hence, that their compa¬
rative infenfibility to pain is owing to a coarfer and
ftronger organization than that of other nations. The
eafe with which they endure the feverities of climate
is another proof of this. The inhabitants of the high¬
er parts of Peru live amidft perpetual froft and fnow.
Although their clothing is very flight, they fuppott and
this inclement temperature without the leaf! inconve- inclemen-
nience. Habit, it is to be confefled, may contribute cies
a good deal to this, but much alfo is to be afcribed to weather.
the compaft texture of their fkin, which defends them
from the impreflion of cold through their pores.
The northern Indians refemble them in this refpefl.
The utmoft rigours of the winter feafon do not prevent
them from following the chafe almoft naked. It is
true, they wear a kind of woollen cloak, or fometimes
the fkin of a wild heart, upon their fhoulders; but be¬
fides that it covers only a fmall part of their body, it
would appear that they ufe it rather for ornament than
warmth. In hurt, they wear it indifcriminately, in
the feverities of winter and in the moft fultry heats of
fummer,
/
A M E [
America, funimcr, when neither Europeans nor Negroes can fuf-
" ' fer any but the (lighteft clothing. They even fre¬
quently throw alide this cloak when they go a hunt¬
ing, that it may not embarrafs them in traverhng their
forefts, where they fay the thorns and undergrowth
would take hold of it 5 while, on the contrary, they
Hide fmoothly over the furface of their naked bodies.
At all times they go with their heads uncovered, with¬
out fufi’ering the leal! inconvenience, either from the
cold, or from thofe coups de folei/, which in Louifiana
are fo often fatal to the inhabitants of other climates.
The Indians of South America diftinguilh them-
felves by modern dreffes, in which they affedt various
talles. Thofe of the high country, and of the valleys
in Peru, drefs partly in the Spanifh fafhion. Inftead
of hats they wear bonnets of coarfe double cloth, the
weight of which neither feems to incommode them
when they go to warmer climates, nor does the acci¬
dental want of them feem to be felt in lituatiens where
the mold piercing cold reigns. Their legs and feet are
always bare, if w'e except a fort of fandals made of the
Ikins of oxen. The inhabitants of South America,
compared with thofe of North America, are deferibed
as generally more feeble in their frame, lefs vigorous
in the efforts of their mind, of gentler difpofitions,
more addidted to pleafure, and funk in indolence.—
This, however, is not univerfally the cafe. Many of
their nations are as intrepid and enterprifing as any
Terrible others on the whole continent. Among the tribes on
trials un- the banks of the Oroonoko, if a -warrior afpires to the
then°chie<% caPta^n> ^is probation begins with a long fail,
‘ 'more rigid than any ever obferved by the moll ablle-
mious hermit. At the clofe of this the chiefs af-
femble j and each gives him three lalhes with a large
whip, applied fo vigoroufly, that his body is almoil
flayed. If he betrays the leaft fymptom of impatience,
or even of fenflbility, he is difgraced for ever, and re-
jedled as unworthy of the honour. After fome inter¬
val, his conllancy is proved by a more excruciating
trial. He is laid in his hammock with his hands bound
fall ; and an innumerable multitude of venomous ants,
whofe bite occafions a violent pain and inflammation,
are throwm upon him. The judges of his merit Hand
around the hammock 5 and whilfl thefe cruel infedts
fallen upon the mofl fenfible parts of his body, a figh,
a groan, or an involuntary motion expreflive of what
he fuffers, w’ould exclude him from the dignity of
which he is ambitious. Even after this evidence, his
fortitude is not deemed to be fufficiently afeertained,
till he has Hood another tefl more fevere, if poflible,
than the former. He is again fufpended in his ham¬
mock, and covered with the leaves of the palmetto. A
fire of Hinking herbs is kindled underneath, fo as he
may feel its heat, and be involved in fmoke. Though
fcorched and almoH fuffocated, he muH continue to
endure this with the fame patient infenfibility. Many
perilh in this eflay of their firmnefs and courage} but
fuch as go through it with applaufe, receive the enflgns
of their new dignity with much folemnity, and are ever
after regarded as leaders of approved refolution, whofe
behaviour, in the moH trying fituations, will do honour
to their country. In North America, the previous
trial of a warrior is neither fo formal nor fo fevere :
Though, even there, before a youth is permitted to
bear arms, his, patience and fortitude are proved by
r ] A M E
blows, by fire, and by infults, more intolerable to a America,
haughty fpirit than either. 1 v'
Of the manners and cufloms of the North Ameri-Cufto^s
cans more particularly, the following is the molt con-and difpofi-
fillent account that can be colledled from the befl in-tionsof
formed and moH impartial writers. ^ North
When the Europeans firfl arrived in America, they Amenc‘l!’i’
lound the Indians quite naked, except thole parts^lariy,
which even the moH uncultivated people ufually con¬
ceal. Since that time, however, they generally ufe a
coarfe blanket, which they buy of the neighbouring
planters.
Their huts or cabins are made of Hakes of wood
driven into the ground, and covered with branches of
trees or reeds. 'They lie on the floor either on mats-
or the Ikins of wild beafls. Their diflies are of tim¬
ber 3 but their fpoons are made of the fkulls of wild
oxen, and their knives of flint. A kettle and a large
plate conftitute almoft the -whole utenfils of the family.
T heir diet confifts chiefly in what they procure by
hunting 3 and fagamite, or pottage, is likewife ®n«r
of their moft common kinds of food. The moft ho¬
nourable furniture amongft them are the fealps of their
enemies 3 wdth thofe they ornament their huts, which
are erteemed in proportion to the number of this fort
of fpoils.
The character of the Indians is altogether founded
upon their circumftances and way of life. A people
who are conftantly employed in procuring the means
of a precarious fubfiflence, who live by hunting the
wdld animals, and who are generally engaged in war
with their neighbours, cannot be fuppofed to enjoy
much gaiety of temper, or a high flowr of fpirits. The l6-
Indians therefore are in general grave even to fadnefs: Their re-
they have nothing of that giddy vivacity peculiar to markable
fome nations of Europe, and they defpife it. Their Pej^lvei?eis
behaviour to thofe about them is regular, modeft, and ju‘rn[tacl~
refpeftful. Ignorant of the arts of amufement, of
which that of faying trifles agreeably is one of the moft
confiderable, they never fpeak, but when they have
fomething important to obferve 3 and all their a&ions,
words, and even looks, are attended with fome mean¬
ing. This is extremely natural to men who are almoft:
continually engaged in-pnrfuits wdfleh to them are of
the higheft importance. Their fubfiftence depends en¬
tirely on what they procure with their hands 3 and
their lives, their honour, and every thing dear to them,
may be loft by the fmalleft inattention to the defigns
of their enemies. As they have no particular objeft
to attach them to one place rather than another, they
fly wherever they expeft to find-the neceffaries of life
in greateft abundance. Cities, which are the effedls of
agriculture and arts, they have none. The different
tribes or nations are for the fame reafon extremely
fmall, when compared with civilized focieties, in which-
induftry, arts, agriculture, and commerce, have united
a vaft number of individuals, whom a complicated lux¬
ury renders ufeful to one another. Thefe fmall tribes
live at an immenfe diftance ; they are feparated by a
defert frontier, and hid in the bofom of impenetrable
and almoft boundlefs forefts.
There is eftabliflied in each fociety a certain fpeciesporm^f go¬
of government, which over the whole continent of A- vernment
merica prevails wdth exceeding little variation 3 becaufe among
over the whole of this continent the manners and wayt^en!1'"
off
A M E [
Amerxa.^ of life are nearly fimilar and uniform. Without arts,
> riches, or luxury, the great inftruments of fubje&ion
in poliflied focieties, an American has no method by
which he can render himfelf confiderable among his
companions, but by fiiperiority in perfonal qualities of
body or mind. But as Nature has not been very lavifn
in her perfonal diilinctions, where all enjoy the fame
education, all are pretty much equal, and will defire
to remain fo. Liberty, therefore, is the prevailing
paflxon of the Americans $ and their government, un¬
der the influence of this fentiment, is better fecured
than by the wifeft political regulations. They are vety
far, however, from defpifing all fort of authority j they
are attentive to the voice of wifdom, which experience
has conferred on the aged, and they enlift under the
banners of the chief in whole valour and military ad-
drefs they have learned to repofe their confidence. In
every fociety, therefore, there is to be confidered the
power of the chief and of the elders j and, according as
the government inclines more to the one or to the
other, it may be regarded as monarchical, or as a fpe-
cies of arillocracy. Among thofe tribes which are
moll engaged in war, the power of the chief is natu¬
rally predominant j becaufe the idea of having a mili¬
tary leader was the firlt fource of his fuperiority, and
the continual exigencies of the Hate requiring fuch a
leader, will continue to fupport, and even to enhance
it. His power, however, is rather perfuafive than co¬
ercive •, he is reverenced as a father, rather than feared
as a monarch. He has no guards, no prifons, no offi¬
cers of jullice, and one aft of ill-judged violence wrould
pull him from the throne. The elders, in the other
form of government, wdiich may be confidered as an
arillocracy, have no more power. In fome tribes, in¬
deed, there are a kind of hereditary nobility, whofe in¬
fluence being conilantly augmented by time, is more
confiderable. (See the article Niagara.) But this
fource of power which depends chiefly on the imagi¬
nation, by which wTe annex to the merit of our con¬
temporaries that of their forefathers, is too refined to
be very common among the natives of America. In
moll countries, therefore, age alone is fufficient for ac¬
quiring refpeft, influence, and authority. It is age
^ W'hich teaches experience, and experience is the only
Their pu- fource of knowledge among a barbarous people. A-
blic affem- mong thofe perfons bufinefs is condufted wuth the ut-
bliA moll fimplicity, and which may recall to thofe who are
acquainted with antiquity a pifture of the moll early
ages. The heads of families meet together in a houfe
or cabin appointed for the purpofe. Here the bufinefs
is difcmTed •, and here thofe of the nation, dillinguilh-
ed for their eloquence or wifdom, have an opportunity
of difplaying thofe talents. Their orators, like thofe
of Homer, exprefs themfelves in a bold figurative llyle,
llronger than refined, or rather foftened, nations can
well bear, and with gellures equally violent, but often
extremely natural and expreffive. When the bufinefs
is over, and they happen to be well provided with
food, they appoint a feaft upon the occafion, of which
almoll the wkole nation partakes. The feall is accom¬
panied with a fong, in which the real or fabulous ex¬
ploits of their forefathers are celebrated. They have
dances too, though, like thofe of the Greeks and Ro¬
mans, chiefly of the military kifid ; and their mufic
and dancing accompany every feall.
8 ] A M E
To affill their memory, they have belts of fmall America,
(hells or beads, of different colours, each reprefenting " v 1 J'
a particular objeft, which is marked by theii colour
and arrangement. At the conclufion of every fuljeft 19
on which they difeourfe, when they treat with a fo- Wampum
reign (late, they deliver one of thofe belts j for if thisor bcits-
ceremony ihould be omitted, all that they have faid
pafies for nothing. Thofe belts are carefully depofit-
ed in each town, as the public records of the nation j
and to them they occalionally have reccurfe, when any
public conteft happens with a neighbouring tribe. Of
late, as the materials of which thofe belts are made
have become fcarce, they often give fome (kin in place
of the wampum (the name of the beads^), and receive
in return prefents of a more valuable kind from our
commiffioners ; for they never confider a treaty as of
any weight, unlefs every article in it be ratified by
fuch a gratification.
It often happens, that thofe different tribes or na¬
tions, fcattered as they are at an immenfe diftance from
one another, meet in their excurfions after prey. If
there fubfills no animofity between them, wffiich fel-
dom is the cafe, they behave in the moll friendly and
courteous manner j but if they happen to be in a (late
of war, or if there has been no previous intercourfe be¬
tween them, all wffio are not friends are deemed ene¬
mies, and they fight with the mod favage fury. 20
War, if we except hunting, is the only employment Their wars,
of the men j as to every other concern, and even the
little agriculture they enjoy, it is left to the women.
Their moll common motive for entering into war,
wrhen it does not arife from an accidental rencounter
or interference, is either to revenge themfelves for the
death of fome loll friends, or to acquire prifoners wffio
may aflift them in their hunting, and wffiom they adopt
into their fociety. Thefe wars are either undertaken
by fome private adventurers, or at the inllance of the
wffiole community. In the latter cafe, all the young
men wffio are difpofed to go out to battle (for no one
is compelled contrary to his inclination), give a bit of
wood to the chief, as a token of their defign to ac¬
company him } for every thing among thofe people is
tranfafted with a great deal of ceremony and many 2t
forms. The chief wffio is to conduft them faffs feve- Ceremonies
ral days, during which he converfes with no one, and bef°re let-
is particularly careful to obferve his dreams j which tinS out‘
the prefumption natural to favages generally renders as
favourable as he could defire. A variety of other fu-
perftitions and ceremonies are obferved. One of the
mod hideous is fetting the war-kettle on the fire, as an
emblem that they are going out to devour their ene¬
mies ; which among fome nations muff formerly have
been the cafe, fince they dill continue to exprefs it in
clear terms, and ufe an emblem fignificant of the an¬
cient ufage. Then they defpatch a porcelain, or large
(hell, to their allies, inviting them to come along, and
drink the blood of their enemies. For wffiffi the A-
mericans, as with the Greek of old,
“ A generous friendffiip no cold medium knows ;
“ But with one love, with one refentment, glows.”
They think that thofe in their alliance mud not only
adopt their enmities, but have their refentment wound
up to the fame pitch with themfelves. And indeed
no people carry their frienddiip or their refentment fo
far
\
A M E [
America, far as they do ; and this is what fliould be expected
 v- 1 from their peculiar circumltances j that principle in
human nature which is the fpring of the foeial affec¬
tions, acts with fo much the greater force the more it
is reflrained. The Americans, who live in fmall fo-
■cieties, who fee few objects and few perlons, become
wonderfully attached to theie objects and perfons, and
cannot be deprived of them without feeling themielves
miferable. Their ideas are too confined to enable them
to entertain juft fentiments of humanity, or univerfal
benevolence. But this very circumftance, while it
makes them cruel and favage to an incredible degree
towards thofe with whom they are at war, adds a new
force to their particular frienddiips, and to the com¬
mon tie which unites the members of the fame tribe,
or of thole different tribes which are an alliance with
one another. Without attending to this retleftion,
fome fafts we are going to relate would excite our
wmnder without informing our reafon, and we fhould
be bewildered in a number of particulars, feemingly
oppoftte to one another, withwut being fenfible of the
general caufe from which they proceed.
Having finiihed all the ceremonies previous to the
war, and the day appointed for their fetting out on
the expedition being arrived, they take leave of their
friends, and exchange their clothes, or whatever move¬
ables they have, in token of mutual friendfhip ; after
which they proceed from the town, their wives and
female relations walking before, and attending them
to fome diftance. The warriors march all drelfed in
their fineft apparel and moft fhowy ornaments, with¬
out any order. The chief walks flowly before them,
finging the war-fong, while the reft obferve the moll
profound lilence. When they come up to their wo¬
men, they deliver them all their finery, and putting
on their vvorft clothes, proceed on their expedition.
Every nation has its peculiar enfign or ftandard,
which is generally fome beaft, bird, or ft flu Thofe
among the Five Nations are the bear, otter, -wolf, tor-
toife, and eagle ; and by thefe names the tribes are
ufually diftinguifhed. They have the figures of thofe
animals pricked and painted on feveral parts of their
bodies 5 and when they march through the woods, they
commonly, at every encampment, cut the reprefenta-
tion of their enfign on trees, efpecially after a fuccefs-
ful campaign $ marking at the fame time the number
of fcalps or prifoners they have taken. Their military
drefs is extremely lingular. They cut off or pull out
all their hair, except a fpot about the breadth of two
Englilh crown pieces, near the top of their heads, and
entirely deitroy their eyebrows. The lock left upon
their heads is divided into feveral parcels, each of
which is ftiffened and adorned with wampum, beads,
and feathers of various kinds, the whole being twilled
into a form much refembling the modern pompoon.
ft heir heads are painted red down to the eyebrow's,
and fprinkled over with white down. The griftles of
their ears are fplit almoft quite round, and diftended
with wires or fplinters fo as to meet and tie together
on the nape of the neck, Thefe are alfo hung with
ornaments, and generally bear the reprefentation of
fome bird or beaft. Their nofes are likewufe bored and
hung with trinkets of beads, and their faces painted
with various colours, fo as to make an awful appear¬
ance. Their breads are adorned with a gorget or
V-ot. II. Part I.
22
SEnfigns,
23
Military
habits.
9 ] A M E
medal, of brafs, copper, or fome other metal $ and America*
that dreadful weapon the fealping knife hangs by a v
firing from their neck.
The great qualities in an Indian war are vigilance
and attention, to give and to avoid a furprile j and in¬
deed in thefe they are fuperior to all nations in the
world. Accuftomed to continual wandering in the H
forefts, having their perceptions fharpened by keen ne- J
celhty,- and living in every refped according to nature, fenfes.
their external fenfes have a degree of acutenefs which
at firft view appears incredible. They can trace out
their enemies at an immenfe diftance by the fmoke of
their fires, which they fmell, and by the tracks of
their feet on the ground, imperceptible to an Euro¬
pean eye, but which they can count and diftinguifh
writh the utmoft facility. They can even diftinguifh
the different nations with whom they are acquainted,
and can determine the precife time when they paffed,
W'here an European could not, with all his glaffes, di¬
ftinguifh footfteps at all. Thefe circumftances, howr-
ever, are of fmall importance, becaufe their enemies
are no lefs acquainted with them. When they go out,
therefore, they take care to avoid making ufe of any
thing by which they might run the danger of a difeo-
very. They light no fire to warm themfelves or to
prepare their vi&uals; they lie clofe to the ground all
day, and travel only in the night 5 and marching along
in files, he that clofes the rear diligently covers with
leaves the tracks of his own feet and of theirs who
preceded him. When they halt to refrefh themfelves, 25
fcouts are fent out to reconnoitre the country and beat Vigilance
up every place where they fufpedt an enemy to lie con- an^ .S11'
cealed. In this manner they enter unawares the vil- t;on, *
lages of their foes ; and, while the flower of the nation
are engaged in hunting, maffacre all the children, wo¬
men,/ and helplefs old men, or make prifoners of as
many as they can manage, or have ftrength enough to
be ufeful to their nation. But when the enemy is ap-
prifed of their defign, and coming on in arms againll
them, they throw themfelves flat on the ground among
the withered herbs and leaves, which their faces are
painted to refemble. Then they allow' a part to pafs
unmolefted, when all at once, with a tremendous flrout,
rifing up from their ambufh, they pour a ftorm of muf-
ket bullets on their foes. The party attacked returns 26
the fame cry. Every one flickers himfelf with a tree, Manner of
and returns the fire of the adverfe party, as foon as
they raife themfelves from the ground to give a fe-
cond fire. Thus does the battle continue until the
one party is fo much weakened as to be incapable of
farther refiftance. But if the force on each fide con¬
tinues nearly equal, the fierce fpirits of the favages,
inflamed by the lofs of their friends, can no longer be
reflrained. They abandon their diftant wrar, they ruih
upon one another with clubs and hatchets in their
hands, magnifying their own courage, and infulting
their enemies with the bittereft reproaches. A cruel
combat enfues, death appears in a thoufand hideous
forms, which would congeal the blood of civilized na¬
tions to behold, but which roufe the fury of favages.
They trample, they infult over the dead bodies, tear¬
ing the fcalp from the head, wallowing in their blood
like wuld beafts, and fometimes devouring their flefti.
The flame rages on till it meets with no refiftance ;
then the prifoners are fecured, thofe unhappy men,
B whofe
A M E [
-ATieriea. whofe fate is a thoufand times more dreadful than theirs
v 1 who have died in the field. The conquerors fet up a
hideous howling to lament the friends they have loll.
They approach in a melancholy and fevere gloom to
their own village ; a meffenger is fent to announce their
arrival, and the women, with frightful fhrieks, come
out to mourn their dead brothers or their hufhands.
When they are arrived, the chief relates in a low voice
to the elders a circumllantial account of every parti¬
cular of the expedition. The orator proclaims aloud
this account to the people •, and as he mentions the
names of thofe who have fallen, the Ihrieks of the wo¬
men are redoubled. The men too join in thefe cries,
according as each is moft connected with the deceafed
by blood or friendlhip. The laft ceremony is the pro¬
clamation of the viflory ; each individual then forgets
his private misfortunes, and joins in the triumph of
his nation; all tears are wiped from their eyes, and by
an unaccountable tranfition, they pafs in a moment
from the bitternefs of forrow to an extravagance of
joy. Rut the treatment of the prifoners, whofe fate
all this time remains undecided, is what chiefly cha-
ra&erizes the favages.
We have already mentioned the ftrength of their af¬
fections or refentments. United as they are in fmall
locieties, connected within themfelves by the firmed:
ties, their friendly aftedfions, which glow with the
mod intenfe warmth within the walls of their own vil¬
lage, feldom extend beyond them. They feel nothing
for the enemies of their nation ; and their refentment
is eafily extended from the individual who has injured
them to all others of the fame tribe. The prifoners,
who have themfelves the fame feelings, know the in¬
tentions of their conquerors, and are prepared for them.
27 The perfcm -who has taken the captive attends him to
Treatment the cottage, where, according to the diftribution made
by the elders, he is to be delivered to fupply the lofs
of a citizen. If thofe who receive him have their fa¬
mily weakened by war or other accidents, they adopt
the captive into the family, of which he becomes a
member. Rut if they have no occafion for him, or
their refentment for the lofs of their friends be too
high to endure the fight of any conne&ed with thofe
wrho were concerned in it, they fentence him to death.
All thofe who have met with the fame fevere fentence
being colle&ed, the whole nation is afiembled at the
execution, as for fome great folemnity. A fcaffold
is eredled, and the prifoners are tied to the flake, where
they commence their death-fong, and prepare for the
enfuing fcene of cruelty with the mod: undaunted cou¬
rage. Their enemies, on the other fide, are determin¬
ed to put it to the proof, by the moft refined and ex-
quifite tortures. They begin at the extremity of his
body, and gradually approach the more vital parts.
One plucks out his nails by the roots, one by one ;
another takes a finger into his mouth, and tears off the
flelh with his teeth $ a third thrufts the finger, mangled
as it is, into the bowl of a pipe made red hot, which
he fmokes like tobacco; then they pound his toes and
fingers to pieces between two ftones y they cut circles
about his joints, and gafhes in the flefhy parts of his
limbs, which they fear immediately with red-hot irons,
cutting, burning, and pinching them alternately ; they
pull off his flelh, thus mangled and roafted, bit by bit,
devouring it with greedinefs, and faiearing their faces.
of their pri
foners
28
Shocking
tortures.
to ] A M E
with the blood in an enthufiafm of horror and fury. America.
When they have thus torn oft' the flefti, they twill the '    
bare nerves and tendons about an iron, tearing and
fnapping them, whilft others are employed in pulling
and extending their limbs in every way that can in-
creafe the torment. This continues often five or fix
hours 5 and fometimes, fuch is the ftrength of the fa¬
vages, days together. Then they frequently unbind
him, to give a breathing to their fury, to think what
newr torments they lhall inflidl, and to refrelh the
ftrength of the fufferer, who, wearied out with fuch a
variety of un-heard-of torments, often falls into fo pro¬
found a lleep, that they are obliged to apply the fire to
awake him, and renew his fufferings. He is again
fattened to the ftake, and again they renew their cruel¬
ty ; they Hick him all over with fmall matches of
wood that eafily takes fire, but burns flowly ; they con¬
tinually run ftiarp reeds into every part of his body ;
they drag out his teeth with pincers, and thruft out his
eyes j and laftly, after having burned his flelh from the
bones with flow fires } after having fo mangled the
body that it is all but one wound } after having muti¬
lated his face in fuch a manner as to carry nothing hu¬
man in it ; after having peeled the fkin from the head,
and poured a heap of red-hot coals or boiling water on
the naked fkull—they once more unbind the wretch ;
who, blind, and ftaggering with pain and weaknefs,
affaulted and pelted upon every fide with clubs and
ftones, now up, now down, falling into their fires at
every ftep, runs hither and thither, until one of the
chiefs, whether out of compaffion, or weary of cruelty,
puts an end to his life with a club or dagger. The
body is then put into a kettle, and this barbarous em¬
ployment is fucceeded by a feaft as barbarous.
The women, forgetting the human as well as the
female nature, and transformed into fomething worfe
than furies, even outdo the men in this fcene of hor¬
ror ; while the principal perfons of the country fit
round the ftake, fmoking and looking on without the
leaft emotion. What is moft extraordinary, the fuf¬
ferer himfelf, in the little intervals of his torments, coriftznCy
fmokes too, appears unconcerned, and converfes with of the fuf-
his torturers about indifferent matters. Indeed, during te1615,
the whole time of his execution, there feems a conteft
which (hall exceed, they in inflicting the moft horrid
pains, or he in enduring them with a firmnefs and con-
ftancy almoft above human : not a groan, not a figh,
not a diftortion of countenance, efcapes him *, he pof-
ftfles his mind entirely in the midft of his torments j
he recounts his own exploits; he informs them what
cruelties he has inflifted upon their countrymen, and
threatens them with the revenge that will attend his
death ; and, though his reproaches exafperate them to
a perfeCt madnefs of rage and fury, he continues his
infults even of their ignorance of the art of torment-
ing, pointing out himfelf more exquifite methods, and
more fenfible parts of the body to be afflifted. The
women have this part of courage as wHl as the men j
and it is as rare for an Indian to behave otherwife, as
it would be for any European to fuffer as an Indian.
Such is the wonderful power of an early inftitution,
and a ferocious thirll of glory. “ I am brave and in¬
trepid (exclaims the favage in the face of his tormen¬
tors) ; I do not fear death, nor any kind of tortures ;
thofe who fear tliexfii' are cowards j they are lefs than
women ;
A M E [
America, women : life is nothing to thofe that have courage :
y 1 " ' May my enemies be confounded with defpair and rage!
Oh ! that I could devour them, and drink their blood
to the laft drop.”
Surprifing But neither the intrepidity on one fide, nor the in-
th^Ameri ^ex*^ty on t^ie are among themfelves matter
can charac-0^ aft°nilhment : for vengeance, and fortitude in the
ter> midit of torment, are duties which they confider as
facred j they are the effects of their earlieft education,
and depend upon principles inftilled into them from their
infancy. On all other occafions they are humane and
compaflionate. Nothing can exceed the warmth of their
affeftion towards their friends, who confift of all thofe
who live in the fame village, or are in alliance with it.
Among thefe all things are common ; and^this, though
it may in part arife from their not pofleffing very di-
ftinft notions of feparate property, is chiefly to be at¬
tributed to the ftrength of their attachment j becaufe
in every thing elfe, with their lives as well as their for¬
tunes, they are ready to ferve their friends. Their
houfes, their provifions, even their young women, are
not enough to oblige a gueft. Has any one of thefe
fucceeded ill in his hunting j has his harvefl failed j
or is his houfe burned—he feels no other effeft of his
misfortunes, than that it gives him an opportunity to
experience the benevolence and regard of his fellow-
citizens. On the other hand, to the enemies of his
country, or to thofe who have privately offended, the
American is implacable. He conceals his fentiments,
lie appears reconciled, until by fome treachery or fur-
prife he has an opportunity of executing a horrible re¬
venge. No length of time is fufticient to allay his re-
fentment j no difiance of place great enough to protedl
the object : he croffes the fteepeft mountains, he pier¬
ces the moft impracticable forefts, and traverfes the
mort hideous bogs and deferts for feveral hundreds of
miles; bearing the inclemency of the feafons, the fa¬
tigue of the expedition, the extremes of hunger and
thirft, with patience and cheerfulnefs, in hopes of fur-
prifing his enemy, on whom he exercifes the moft
fhocking barbarities, even to the eating of his flefh.
To fuch extremes do the Indians pufh their friendfhip
or their enmity ; and fuch indeed, in general, is the
character of all flrong and uncultivated minds.
But what we have faid refpeCting the Indians would
be a faint picture, did we omit obferving the force of
their friendftup, which principally appears by the treat¬
ment of their dead. When any one of the fociety is
cut off, he is lamented by the whole. On this occafion
a thoufand ceremonies are praCtifed, denoting the moft
lively fsrrow. No bufinefs is tranfaCted, however pref-
fing, till all the pious ceremonies due to the dead are
performed. 1 he body is wafhed, anointed, and paint¬
ed. Thoii the women lament the lofs with hideous
bowlings, intermixed with fongs which celebrate the
great aftions of the deceafed and his anceftors. The
men mourn in a lefs extravagant manner. The whole
village is prefent at the interment, and the corpfe is
habited in their moft fumptuous ornaments. Clofe to
the body of the defunCl are placed his bows and ar¬
rows, with whatever he valued moft in his life, and a
quantity of provifions for his fubfiftence on the journey
which he is fuppofed to take. This folemnity, like every
other, is attended with feafting. The funeral being
ended, the relations of the deceafed confine themfelves
Treatment
of their
dead
friends.
11 ] A M E
to their huts for a confiderable time to indulge their America,
grief. After an interval of fome weeks they vifit the
grave, repeat their forrow, new clothe the remains of
the body, and aft over again all the folemnities of the
funeral.
Among the various tokens of their regard for their
deceafed friends, the moft remarkable is what they call
the feqft of the dead, or the feajl of fouls. The day
for this ceremony is appointed in the council of their
chiefs, who give orders for every thing which may
enable them to celebrate it with pomp and magnifi¬
cence 5 and the neighbouring nations are invited to
partake of the entertainment. At this time, all who
have died fince the preceding feaft of the kind are
taken out of their graves. Even thofe who have been
interred at the greateft diftance from the villages are
diligently fought for, and conduCled to this rendezvous
of the dead, which exhibits a fcene of horror beyond
the power of defcription. When the feaft is conclud¬
ed, the bodies are drefied in the fineft fkins which can
be procured, and after being expofed for fome time in
this pomp, are again committed to the earth with great
foleranity, which is fucceeded by funeral games. ^
Their tafte for war, which forms the chief ingredi-Superftsv.
ent in their chara&er, gives a ftrong bias to their re-dons,
ligion. Arefkoui, or the god of battle, is revered as
the great god of the Indians. Him they invoke be¬
fore they go into the field ; and according as his dif-
pofition is more or lefs favourable to them, they con¬
clude they will be more or lefs fuccefsful. Some na¬
tions worlhip the fun and moon 5 among others there
are a number of traditions, relative to the creation of
the world and the hiftory of the gods: traditions which
referable the Grecian fables, but which are ftill more
abfurd and inconfiftent. But religion is not the pre¬
vailing character of the Indians j and except when
they have fome immediate occafion for the afliftance of
their gods, they pay them no fort of worftiip. Like
all rude nations, however, they are ftrongly addifted
to fuperftition. They believe in the exiftence of a
number of good and bad genii or fpirxts, who inter¬
fere in the affairs of mortals, and pruduce all our hap-
pinefs or mifery. It is from the evil genii, in parti¬
cular, that our difeafes proceed 5 and it is to the good
genii we are indebted for a cure. The minifters of
the genii are the jugglers, who are allb the only phy-
ficians among the favages. Thefe jugglers are fuppof¬
ed to be infpired by the good genii, moft commonly
in their dreams, with the knowledge of future events $
they are called in to the affiftance of the fick, and are
fuppofed to be informed by the genii whether they
will get over the difeafe, and in what way they mull
be treated. But thefe fpirits are extremely fimple in
their fyftem of phyfic, and, in almoft every difeafe,
dire£t the juggler to the fame remedy. The patient
is ericlofed in a narrow cabin, in the midft of which is
a ftone red hot: on this they throw water, until he is
well foaked with the warm vapour and his own fweat.
Then they hurry him from this bagnio, and plunge
him fuddenly into the next river. This coarfe method,
which cofts many their lives, often performs very ex¬
traordinary cures. The jugglers have likewife the ufe
of fome fpecifics of wonderful efficacy j and all the
favages are dexterous in curing wounds by the applica¬
tion of herbs'.' But the power of thefe remedies is al-
B 2 ways
34
Their ar-
' A M E [ i
America, ways attributed to the magical ceremonies with which
they are adminiftered.
Though the women generally bear the laborious part
of their wo- of domeilic economy, their condition is far from be-
men. ing fo flavifh as it appears. On the contrary, the
greateft refpeft is paid by the men to the female fex.
The wTomen even hold their councils, and have their
fhare in all deliberations which concern the Hate. Po¬
lygamy is praiftifed by fome nations, but is not gene¬
ral. In moft, they content themfelves with one wife 5
but a divorce is admitted in cafe of adultery. No na¬
tion of the Americans is wdthout a regular marriage,
in which there are many ceremonies ; the principal of
which is, the bride’s prefenting the bridegroom with a
plate of their corn. The wromen, though before in¬
continent, are remarkable for chaftity after marriage.
Liberty, in its full extent, being the darling paffion
Ubert °Ve 0^°f t^ie ^dians, their education is direfted in fuch a
manner as to cherifh this dilpolition to the utmoft.
Hence children are never upon any account chaftifed
with blows, and they are feldom even reprimanded.
Reafon, they fay, will guide their children when they
, come to the ufe oi it, and before that time their faults
cannot be very great ; but blows might damp their free
and martial fpirit, by the habit of a flavilh motive to
aflion. When grown up, they experience nothing
like command, dependence, or fubordination 5 even
ilrong perfuafion is induftrioufly withheld by thofe
who have influence among them.—No man is held in
great elfeem, unlefs he has increafed the ftrength of
his country with a captive, or adorned his hut with a
fcalp of one of his enemies.
Controverfies among the Indians are few, and quick¬
ly decided. When any criminal matter is fo flagrant
as to become a national concern, it is brought under
the jurifdi&ion of the great council; but in ordinary
cafes, the crime is either revenged or compromifed by
the parties concerned. If a murder be committed, the
Crimes and family which has loft a relation prepares to retaliate on
punifh-
ments,
s\6
Peculiar
that of the offender. They often kill the murderer
and when this happens, the kindred of the laft perfon
flam look upon themfelves to be as much injured, and
to have the fame right to vengeance, as the other party.
In general, however, the offender abfents himfelf; the
friends fend compliments of condolence to thofe of the
perfon that has been murdered. The head of the fa¬
mily at length appears with a number of prefents, the
delivery of which he accompanies with a formal fpeech.
The whole ends, as ufual, in mutual feaftings, fongs,
and dances. If the murder is committed by one of
the fame family or cabin, that cabin has the full right
of judgment within itlelf, either to punilh the guilty
with death, or to pardon him, or to oblige him to give
fome recompenfe to the wife or children of the (lain.
Inftances of fuch a crime, however, very feldom hap¬
pen ; for their attachment to thofe of the fame family
is remarkably ftrong, and is faid to produce fuch friend-
fhips as may vie rvith the moft celebrated in fabulous
antiquity.
Such, in general, are the manners and cuftoms of the
manner5 of jn{jjan nations j but every tribe has fomething pecu-
fiations*. liar to itfelf. Among the Hurons and Natches, the
dignity of the chief is hereditary, and the right of fuc-
ceflion in the female line. When this happens to be
2 ] A M E
extinfl, the moft refpeftable matron of the tribe makes America,
choice of whom (lie pleafes to fucceed. 1 v J
The Cherokees are governed by feveral fachems or
chiefs, ele61ed by the different villages ) as are alio the
Creeks and Chaftaws. The two latter punifti adultery
in a woman by cutting off her hair, which they will
not fuffer to grow till the corn is ripe the next feafon 5
but the Illinois, for the fame crime, cut off the wo¬
men’s nofes and ears.
The Indians on the lakes are formed into a fort of
empire ; and the emperor is defied from the eldeft
tribe, wdiich is that of the Ottowa'waws. He has the
greateft authority of any chief that has appeared on
the continent lince our acquaintance with it. A few
years ago, the perfon who held this rank formed a de¬
sign of uniting all the Indian nations under his iove-
reignty j but he mifcarried in the attempt. ^
In general, the American Indians live to a great age, Longevity
although it is not poflible to know from themfelves the °f In"
exaff number of their years. It was alked of an In-^iuns'
dian, who appeared to be extremely old, what age he
wTas of ? I am above twenty, was his reply. Upon
putting the queftion in a different form, by reminding
him of certain circumftances in former times, My machu,
faid he, ipoke to me when I was young of the Incas j
and he had teen thefe princes. According to this re¬
ply, there muft have elapfed, from the date of his ma-
chu’s (his grandfather’s) remembrance to that time, a
period of at leaft 232 years. The man who made this
reply appeared to be 1 20 years of age: for, beftdes the
whitenefs of his hair and beard, his body was almoft
bent to the ground j without, hoyvever, Trowing any
other marks of debility or fuffpring-., This happened
in 1764. This longevity, attended in general with un¬
interrupted health, is probably the confequence in part
of their vacancy from all ferious thought and employ¬
ment, joined alio with the robuft texture and conforma¬
tion of their bodily organs. If the Indians did not
deftroy one another in their almoft perpetual wars, and
if their habits of intoxication were not fo univerfal and
incurable, they wnuld be, of all the races of men who
inhabit the globe, the moft likely to prolong, not only
the bounds, but the enjoyments, of animal life to their
utmoft duration.
38'
Let us now attend to other pictures which have Other pic-
been given of the aboriginal inhabitants of the new’ tures of the
world. The vices and defects of the American In- Americans.,
dians have by feveral writers been moft unaccountably
aggravated, and every virtue and good quality denied
them. Their cruelties have been already defcribed
and accounted for. The following anecdote of an Al¬
gonquin woman we find adduced as a remarkable
proof of their innate thirft of blood. That nation
being at w ar with the Iroquois, ftie happened to be
made prifoner, and wras carried to one of the villages
belonging to them. Here Ihe wras ftripped naked, and
her hands and feet bound with ropes in one of their
cabins. In this condition Ihe remained ten days, the
favages fleeping round her every night. I he eleventh Anecdotes
night, while they wrere afleep, ftie found means to dif- 0f an Al-
engage one of her hands, with which Ihe immediately gonquin
freed herfelf from the ropes, and went to the door. womaia»
Though flie had now’ an opportunity of efcaping unper-
ceived, -
A M E [ i;
America, ceivecf, her revengeful temper could not let dip fo fa-
 -v ' vourable an opportunity of killing one of her enemies.
The attempt was manifeftly at the hazard of her own
life; yet, fnatching up a hatchet, fhe killed the favage
that lay next her; and, fpringing out of the cabin, con¬
cealed herfelf in a hollow tree which (he had obferved
the day before. The groans of the dying perfon foon
alarmed the other favages, and the young ones imme¬
diately fet out in purfuit of her.—Perceiving from her
tree, that they all dire£ted their courfe one way, and
that no lavage was near her, die left her fancluary, and,
flying in an oppofite direction, ran into a forelt with¬
out being perceived. The fecond day after this hap¬
pened, her footfteps were difcovered, and they purfued
her with fuch expedition, that the third day ftie difco¬
vered her enemies at her heels. Upon this fhe threw
herfelf into a pond of water; and, diving among fome
weeds and bulrulhes, fhe could juit breathe above wa-
ter without being perceived. Her purfuers, after mak¬
ing the molt diligent fearch, were forced to return.—
For 35 days this woman held on her courfe through
woods and deferts, without any other fultenance than
roots and wild berries. When ihe came to the river
St Lawrence, fhe made with her own hands a kind of
a wicker raft, on which fhe croffed it. As Ihe went by
the French fort Trois Rivieres, without well knowing
where Ihe was, flie perceived a canoe full of favages ;
and, fearing they might be Iroquois, ran again Atothe
woods, where Ihe remained till funfet.—Continuing
her courfe, foon after Ihe faw the Trois Rivieres; and
was then difcovered by a party whom Ihe knew to be
Hurons, a nation in alliance with the Algonquins. She
then fquatted down behind a bulb, catling out to them
that fire was not in a condition to be feen, becaufe lire
was naked. They immediately threw her a blanket,
and then conduced her to the fort, where Ihe recount-
ed her dory.
Reproach- Perfonal courage has been denied them. In proof
ed with pu- of their pufillanimity, the following incidents are quot-
liilanimity. eq from Charlevoix by Lord Kames, in his Sketches
of the Hiltory of Man. “ The fort de Vercheres in Ca¬
nada, belonging to the French, was, in the year 1690,
attacked by fome Iroquois. They approached lilently,
preparing to fcale the palifade, when fome mulket fhot
made them retire. Advancing a fecond time, they were
again repulfed, wondering that they could difcover none
but a woman wdro w^as feen everywdiere. This was
Madame de Vercheres, who appeared as refolute as if
fupported by a numerous garrifon. The hopes of ftorm-
ing a place without men to defend it occafioned reite¬
rated attacks. After two days fiege, they retired, fear¬
ing to be intercepted in their retreat. Two years after,
a party of the fame nation appeared before the fort fo
unexpeftedly, that a girl of fourteen, daughter of the
proprietor, had but time to fhut the gate. With the
voung woman there was not a foul but one raw foldier.
She fhowed herfelf with her afliftant, fometimes in one
place and fometimes in another ; changing her drefs
frequently, in order to give fome appearance of a gar¬
rifon ; and always fired opportunely. The faint-hearted
' Iroquois decamped without fuccefs.”
There is no inftance, it is faid, either of a Angle
Indian facing an individual of any other nation in fair
and open combat, or of their jointly venturing to try
the fate of battle with an equal number of any foes.
] A M E
Even with the greatel! fuperiority of numbers, they | America.,
dare not meet an open attack. Vet, notwithftanding
this want of courage, they are ftill formidable ; nay,
it has been known, that a fmall party of them has
routed a much fuperior body of regular troops : but
this can only happen when they have lurprifed them in
the faflnefles of their forefts, where the covert of the
wood may conceal them until they take their aim with
the utmoll certainty. After one fuch difcharge they
immediately retreat, without leaving the fmalleit trace
of their route. It may eafily be fuppofed, that an on-
fet of this kind muff produce confufion even among
the fteadieft troops, when they can neither know the
number of their enemies, nor perceive the place where
they lie in ambulh. 41
Perfidy combined with cruelty has been alfo made a Accufed of
part of their chara&er. Don Ulloa relates, That the In- Perhdi>
dians of the country called Natches, in Louifiana, laid
a plot for maffacring in one night every individual be¬
longing to the French colony eftablilhed there. This
plot they actually executed,, notwithftanding the feem-
ing good underftanding that fubfifted between them
and thefe European neighbours. Such wras the fecre-
cy w’hich they obferved, that no perfon had the leaft
fufpicion of their defign until the blow wras ftruck.
One Frenchman alone efcaped, by favour of the dark-
nefs, to relate the difafter of his countrymen. The
compaflion of a female Indian contributed alfo in fome
meafure to his exemption from the general maffacre.
The tribe of Natches had invited the Indians of other
countries, even to a confiderable didance, to join in
the fame confpiracy. The day, or rather the night,
wras fixed, on which they were to make an united at¬
tack on the French colonifts. It wTas intimated by
fending a parcel of rods, more or lefs numerous accord¬
ing to the local diftance of each tribe, with an injunc¬
tion to abftraft one rod daily the day on which the
laft fell to be taken away being that fixed for the exe¬
cution of their plan. The women were partners of the
bloody fecret. The parcels of rods being thus diftri-
buted, that belonging to the tribe of Natches happen¬
ed to remain in the cuftody of a female. This w’oman,
either moved by her own feelings of compaflion, or by
the commiferation expreffed by her female acquaint¬
ances in the view of the propofed fcene of bloodfhed,
abftrafled one day"three or four of the rods, and thus
anticipated the term of her tribe’s proceeding to the
execution of the general confpiracy. The confequence
of this was, that the Natches were the only a£Iors in
this carnage; their diftant aftbciates having ftill feveral
rods remaining at the time when the former made the
attack. An opportunity was thereby given to the co-
lonifts in thofe quarters to take meafures for their de¬
fence, and for preventing a more extenfive execution
of the defign.
It was by confpiracies fimilar to this that the Indians
of the province of Macas, in the kingdom of Quito,
deftroyed the opulent city of Logrogno, the colony of
Guambaya, and its capital Sevilla del Oro ; and that
fo completely, that it is no longer known in what place
thefe fettlements exifted, or where that abundance of
gold was found from wftiich the laft mentioned city took
the addition to its name. Like ravages have been com¬
mitted upon 1’lmperiale in Chili, the colonies of the
Millions of Chuncas, thofe of Darien in Terra Firma,.
andi
.4*
Their un-
A M E [ ,
, Am^rio:i'i and many otlier places which have afforded fcenes of
v ' this barbarous ferocity. Thefe confpiracies are always
earned on in the lame manner, dhe lecret is inviola¬
bly rvept, the aftors ailemble at the precile hour ap¬
pointed, and every individual is animated with the fame
languinary purpofes. The males that fall into their
hands are put to death with every Ihocking circum-
llance that can be fuggefted by- a cool and determined
cruelty. The females are carried off, and preferved as
monuments of their victory, to be employed as their
occalions require.
Nor can this odious cruelty and treachery, it is faid,
be juftly aferibed to their iubjeftion to a foreign yoke,
feeing the fame charafter belongs equally to all the
original inhabitants of this vail continent, even thofe
who have preferved their independence molt complete¬
ly. Certain it is, continues he, that thefe people, wdth
the moll limited capacities for every thing elfe, difplay
an allonilhing degree of penetration and fubtlety with
refpeft to every objeft that involves treachery, blood-
Ihed, and rapine. As to thefe, they feem to have been
all educated at one fchool j and a fecret, referring to
any fuch plan, no confideration on earth can extort
from them.
T heir underftandings alfo have been reprefented as
reprefented n0t lefs contemPtib.le than their manners are grofs and
as weak. brutal. IVIany nations are neither capable of forming
an arrangement for futurity j nor do their folicitude
or forefight extend fo far. They fet no value upon
thofe things of which they are not in fome imme¬
diate wTant. In the evening, w7hen a Carib is going to
reft, no confideration will tempt him to fell his ham¬
mock j but in the morning he will part with it for
the flighteft trifle. At the clofe of winter, a North
American, mindful of what he has fuffered from the
cold,, fets himfelf wfith vigour to prepare materials for
eredting a comfortable hut to protedl him againft the
inclemency of the fucceeding feafon : but as foon as
the weather becomes mild, he abandons his vrork, and
never thinks of it more till the return of the cold
compels him to refume it.—In Ihort, to be free from
labour feems to be the utmoft wfllh of an American.
They will continue whole days ftretched in their ham¬
mocks, or feated on the earth, without changing their
pofture, raifing their eyes, or uttering a fingle wmrd.
They cannot compute the fucceflion of days nor of
43 weeks. The different afpedls of the moon alone engage
Alleged In-^heir attention as a meafure of time. Of the year they
dolence and have no other conception than what is fuggefted to
ftupidity. them by the alternate heat of fummer and cold of win¬
ter.; nor have they the leaft idea of applying to this
period the obvious computation of the months wTich
it contains. When it is alked of any old man in Peru,
even the moft civilized, what age he is of; the only
anfwer he can give is the number of caciques he has
leen. It often happens, too, that they only recolledl
the moft diftant of thefe princes in whofe time certain
circumftances had happened? peculiarly memorable,
while of thofe that lived in a more recent period they
have loft all remembrance.
The fame grofs ftupidity is alleged to be obfervable
in thofe Indians who have retained their original liberty.
They are never known to fix the dates of any events in
their minds, or to trace the fucceflion of circumftances
that have arifen from fuch events. Their imagination
4 ] A M E
takes in only the prefent, and in that only what inti- America.
mately concerns themfelves. Nor can difeipline .or in-' v  
ftruchon overcome this natural defed of apprehenfion.
In fad, the fubjefted Indians in Peru, who have a con¬
tinual mtercourfe with the Spaniards, who are furnifli-
ed with curates-perpetually occupied in given them
leflons of religion and morality, and who mix with all
ranks of the civilized fociety eftablilhed among them
are almoft as ftupid and barbarous as their countrymen
who have had no fuch advantages. The Peruvians
while they lived under the government of their Incas*
preferved the records of certain remarkable events!
j u i a^° 3 kind regular government, deferib-
ed by the hiftori.ans of the conqueft of Peru. This
government originated entirely from the attention and
abilities of their princes, and from the regulations en¬
acted by them for directing the condua: of their fub-
jefts. Phis ancient degree ol civilization among them
gives ground to prefume, that their legiflators fprung
from fome race more enlightened than the other tribes
of Indians; a race of which no individual feems to re¬
main in the prefent times.
. Vanity and conceit are faid to be blended with thei-n •4,
Ignorance and treachery. Notwithftanding all they nitykT
utter from Luropeans, thev ftill, it is faid, confider conceft*
themfelves as a race of men far fuperior to their con¬
querors. This proud belief, arifing from their perverted
ideas ot excellence, is univerfal over the whole known
continent of America. They do not think it poffible
that any people can be fo intelligent as themfelves,
When they are dete&ed in any of their plots, it is their
common obfervation, that the Spaniards, or Viracohas
want to be as knowing as they are. Thofe of Loui!
liana, and .the countries adjacent, are equally vain of
their fuperior underftanding, confounding that quality
with , the cunning which they themfelves conftantly
pradlife. The whole objeft of their tranfadlions is to
overreach thofe with whom they deal. Yet though
faithlefs themfelves, they never forgive the breach of
promife on the part of others. While the Europeans
leek their amity by prefents, they give themfelves no
concern to fecure a reciprocal friendftiip. Hence, pro¬
bably, arifes their idea, that they muft be a fuperior
race of men, in ability and intelligence, to thofe wTho
are at fuch pains to court their alliance and avert their
enmity.
I heir natural eloquence has alfo been decried. The Their^elo-
free tribes of lavages who enter into conventions withq»ence dif-
the Europeans, it is obferved, are accuftomed to make?31'^*
long, pompous, and, according to their own notions,
fublinm harangues, but without any method or connec¬
tion. I he wTole is a colleftion of disjointed meta¬
phors and comparifons. The light, heat, and courfe
of the fun, form the principal topic of their difeourfe •
and thefe unintelligible reafonings are always accompa!
nied with violent and ridiculous geftures. * Number lefs
repetitions prolong the oration, which, if not inter¬
rupted, would laft whole days: At the fame time,
they meditate very accurately beforehand, in order to
avoid mentioning any thing but what they are defirous
to obtain. This pompous faculty of making fpeeches
is alfo one of the grounds on which they conceive them¬
felves to be fuperior to the nations of Europe : They
imagine that it is their eloquence that procures them
the favours they afle. The lubje&ed Indians converfe
precifely
A M E [ i
America, precifely in the fame ftyle. Prolix and tedious, they
-v~—' never know when to flop •, fo that, excepting by the
difference in language, it would be impoffible, in this
refpe6l, to dittinguiili a civilized Peruvian from an
inhabitant of the rnoff favage diitri£ts to the north¬
ward.
45
All thefe But fuch partial and detached views as the above,
views par- 'syere they even free from mifreprefentation, are not the
tial, and not jup. grout)C[ Upon wdiich to form an eftirnate of their cha-
mifrepre- ra&er’ Their qualities, good and bad (for they certain-
fentation. ly poffefs both), their way of life, the ftate of fociety
among them, with all the circumftances of their con¬
dition, ought to be conlidered in connexion, and in
regard to their mutual influence. Such a view has
been given in the preceding part of this article : from
which, it is hoped, their real charafter may be eafily
deduced.
Many of the difagreeable traits exhibited in the anec¬
dotes juft quoted, are indeed extracted from Don Ulloa,
an author of credit and reputation, but a Spaniard,
and evidently biaffed in fome degree by a defire to pal¬
liate the enormities of his countrymen in that quarter
of the globe. And with regard to the worfl and leaf!
equivocal parts of the American charafter, cruelty and
revenge, it may be fairly queflioned, w-hether the in-
ftances of thefe, either in refpedl; of their caufe or their
atrocity, be at all comparable to thofe exhibited in Eu¬
ropean hiftory, and llaining the annals of Chriftendom :
—to thofe, for initance, of the Spaniards themfelves,
at their firft difcovery of America j to'thofe indicated
by the engines found on board their mighty Armada j
to thofe which, in cold blood, were perpetrated by
the Dutch at Amboyna ; to the dragoonings of the
French •, to their religious maffacres ; or even to the
47 tender mercies of the Inquifition !
The phyfi- Still harlher, however, are the defcriptions given by
t'5 nf o'fr'^" ^uffon and De Paw of the natives of this whole conti-
Bufton and in which the moft mortifying degeneracy of the
De Paw re-human race, as wTell as of all the inferior animals, is
futcd. afferted to be confpicuous. Againft thofe philofo-
Hijl. of phers, or rather theorifts, the Americans have found
ffixico, an agje advocate in the Abbe Clavigero; an.hiftorian
p. 328. whofe fituation and long refidence in America afford¬
ed him the belt mean'; of information, and wrho, though
himfelf a fubjeft of Spain, appears fuperior to preju¬
dice, and difdains in his defcription the gloffes of po¬
licy.
Concerning the ftature of the Americans, M. de Paw
fays in general, that although it is not equal to the
llature of the Caftilians, there is but little difference
between them. But the Abbe Clavigero evinces that
the Indians who inhabit thofe countries lying between
9 and 40 degrees of north latitude, which are the li¬
mits of the difcoveries of the Spaniards, are more than
five Parifian feet in height, and that thofe who do not
reach that llature are as fewr in number among the In¬
dians as they are amongft the Spaniards. It is befides
certain, that many of thofe nations, as the Si finches,
the Hiaquefe, the Pimefe, and Cochimies, are at leal! as
tall as the tailed: Europeans } and that, in all the vaft
extent of the new world, no race of people has been
found, except the Efquimaux, fo diminutive in llature
as the Laplanders, the Samojeds, and Tartars, in the
north of the old continent. In tins re Ip eel, therefore,
5 ] A M E
the inhabitants of the two continents are upon an American
equality. * "J
Of the lhape and character of the Mexican Indians ^ ^4®
the Abbe gives a moll advantageous defcription; which
he afferts no one who reads it in America will contra-
di£l, unlefs he views them with the eye of a prejudi¬
ced mind. It is true, that Ulloa fays, in fpeaking of
the Indians of Quito, he had obferved, “ that imperfeft
people abounded among them •, that they were either
irregularly diminutive, or monltrous in fome other re-
fpedt ; that they became either infenfible, .dumb, or
blind, or wanted fome limb of their body.” Having
therefore made fome inquiry refpebling this Angularity
of the Quitans, the Abbe found that fuch defebls were
neither caufed by bad humours, nor by the climate,
but by the millaken and blind humanity of their pa¬
rents, who, in order to free their children from the
hardlhips and toils to which the healthy Indians are
fubjebled by the Spaniards, fix fome deformity or w7eak-
nefs upon them that they may become ufelefs : a cir-
cumltance of mifery w?hich does not happen in other
countries of America, nor in thofe places of the fame
kingdom of Quito, where the Indians are under no
fuch oppreflion. M. de Paw7, and, in agreement with
him, Dr Robertfon, fays, that no deformed perfons are
to be found among the lavages of America j becaufe,
like the ancient Lacedemonians, they put to death,
thofe children wdiich are born hunch-backed, blind,
or defedlive in any limb } but that in thofe countries
where they are formed into focieties, and the vigilance
of their rulers prevents the murder of fuch infants,
the number of their deformed individuals is greater
than it is in any country of Europe. This would
make an exceeding good folution of the difficulty
if it were true \ but if, poffibly, there has been in A-
merica a tribe of favages who have imitated the bar¬
barous example of the celebrated Lacedemonians, it is
certain that thofe authors have no grounds to impute
fuch inhumanity to the reft of the Americans; for that
it has not been the pradHce, at leaft with the far
greater part of thofe nations, is to be demonftrated
from the atteftations of authors the beft acquainted
with their cuftoms. ^
No argument againft the new wTorld can be drawn Errors con^
from the colour of the Americans $ for their colour is cerping
lefs dill ant from the white of the Europeans than it is gf ^card^^
from the black of the Africans, and a great part of the $j,c<
Afiatics. The hair of the Mexicans, and of the greater
part of the Indians, is, as we have already faid, coarfe
and thick ; on their face they appear to have little, and
in general none on their arms and legs : but it is an
error to fay, as M. de Paw' does,, that they are entirely
deftitute of hair on all the other parts of their body.
This is one of the many paffages of the Philofophical
Refearches, at wdiich the Mexicans, and all the other
nations, muft fmile to find an European philofopher fo
eager to diveft them of the drefs they had from nature.
Don Ulloa, indeed, in the defcription vffiich he gives
of the Indians of Quito, fays, that hair neither grows
upon the men nor upon the women when they arrive
at puberty, as it does on the reft of mankind j but,,
whatever Angularity may attend the Quitans, or occn-
fion this circumftance, there is no doubt that among
the Americans in general, the period of puberty is ac¬
companied with the lame fymptoms as it is among
other:
/
A M E [ i
,An^wca-, other nations of the world. In fuel, with the North
v Americans, it is difgraceful to be hairy on the body.
I hey fay it likens them to hogs. They therefore
pluck out the hair as fall as it appears. But the
traders who marry their wTomen, and prevail on them
to dilcontinue this practice, iay, that nature is the fame
w ith them as with the whites. As to the beards of the
men, had Buffon or De Paw known the pains and
trouble it coils them to pluck out by the roots the hair
that grow’s on their faces, they -would have feen that
nature had not been deficient in that refpeft. Every
nation has its cuftoms. “ I have feen an Indian beau,
with a looking-glafs in his hand (fays Mr Jefferfon),
examining his face for hours together, and' plucking
out by the roots every hair he could difeover, with a
kind of tweezer made of a piece of fine brafs ware, that-
had been twilled round a Hick, and which he ufed
50 with great dexterity,
Sdaf eelS The Very arpeA °f an Ang°lan> Mandmgan, or Con-
contralted San> wou^ have fhocked M. de Paw, and made him
with thofe recah that cenfure which he pailes on the colour, the
of fome make, and hair, of the Americans, What can be ima-
dom na' Sined more contrary to the idea we have of beauty, and
the perfeftion of the human frame, than a man whofe
body emits a rank fmell, whofe fkin is as black as ink,
whofe head and face are covered with black rvool in-
llead of hair, whofe eyes are yellow and bloody, whofe
lips are thick and blackifh, and whofe nofe is flat ?
Such are the inhabitants of a very large portion of A-
frica, and of many iflands of Afia, What men can be
more imperfedl than thofe who meafure no more than
four feet in flature, whofe faces are long and flat, the
nofe compreffed, the irides yellowifh black, the eyelids
turned back towards the temples, the cheeks extraor¬
dinarily elevated, their mouths monftroufly large, their
lips thick and prominent, and the lower part of their
vifages extremely narrow ? Such, according to Count
de Buffon, are the Laplanders, the Zemblans, the Bo-
randines, the Samojeds, and Tartars in the eait. What
objefls more deformed than men whofe faces are too
long and wrinkled even in their youth, their nofes thick
and compreffed, their eyes fmall and funk, their cheeks
very much raifed, their upper jaw long their teeth
long and difunited, eyebrows fo thick that they fliade
their eyes 5 the eyelids thick, fome briftles on their
■ faces inftead of beard, large thighs and fmall legs ?
Such is the pidlure Count de Buffon gives of the Tar¬
tars ; that is, of thofe people rvho, as he fays, inhabit
a tradl of land in Afia 1200 leagues long and upwards,
and more than 750 broad. Amongft thefe the Cal-
mucks are the moll remarkable for their deformity ;
which is fo great, that, according to Tavernier, they
are the moll brutal men of all the univerfe. Their faces
are io broad, that there is a fpace of five or fix inches
between their eyes, according as Count de Buffon
himfelf affirms. In Calicut, in Ceylon, and other
countries of India, there is, fay Pyrard and other wri¬
ters on thefe regions, a race of men wffio have one or
both of their legs as thick as the body of a man 5 and
that this deformity among them is almoft hereditary.
The Hottentots, befides other grofs imperfe&ions,
have that monftrous- irregularity attending them of a
callous appendage extending from the os pubis down¬
wards, according to the tellimony of the hillorians of
the Cape of Good Hope. Struys, Gemelli, and other
I
6 ] A M E
travellers affirm, that in the kingdom of Lambry, in the Amerira.
the itlands of Formoia and of Mindoro, men have been L  *
found with tads. Bomare fays, that a thing of this
kind in men is nothing elle than an elongation of the
os coccygis 5 but what is a tail in quadrupeds but the
elongation of that bone, though divided into diftinft
articulations ? However it may be, it is certain, that
that elongation renders thofe Afiatics fully as irregular
as if it was a real tail.
If we were, in like manner, to go through the na¬
tions of Afia and Africa, we Ihould hardly find any ex-
tenfive country where the colour of men is not darker,
where there are not ftronger irregularities oblerved,
and groffer dtfefts to be found in them, than M. de
Paw finds fault with in the Americans. The colour of
the latter is a good deal clearer than that of almoll all
the Africans and the inhabitants of fouthern Afia.
Even their alleged fcantinefs of beard is common to the
inhabitants of the Philippine iilands, and of all the In¬
dian Archipelago, to the famous Chinefe, Japanefe,
I artars, and many other nations of the old continent.
I he imperfeclions of the Americans, howTever great
they may be reprefented to be, are certainly not com¬
parable with the defedls of that immenfe people, whole
charafler we have Iketched, and others whom we
omit. 51
M. de Pawr reprefents the Americans to be a feeble con*
and difealed fet of nations •, and, in order to demon- Hitution
ftmte the weaknefs and diforder of their phyfical con-ralaSffies.
ftitution, adduces feveral proofs equally ridiculous and
ill-founded, and which it will not be expe&ed we fhould
enumerate. He alleges, among other particulars, that
they were overcome in wreftling by all the Europeans,
and that they funk under a moderate burden •, that by
a computation made, 200,000 Americans were found
to have perilhed in one year from carrying of baggage,
With refpedl to the firft point, the Abbe Clavigero
obferves, it would be neceffary that the experiment of
wreftling was made between many individuals of each
continent, and that the viftory ffiould be attefted by the
Americans as well as the Europeans. It is not, how*-
ever meant to infill, that the Americans are ftronger
than the Europeans. They may be lefs ftrong, with¬
out the human fpecies having degenerated in them.
The Swifs are ftronger than the Italians j and Hill we
do not believe the Italians are degenerated, nor do we
tax the climate of Italy. The inllance of 200,000
Americans having died in one year under the weight of
kaggage> were it true, would not convince us fo much of
the weaknefs of the Americans, as of the inhumanity of
the Europeans. In the fame manner that thofe 200,000
Americans perilhed, 200,000 Pruffians would alfohave
penftied, had they been obliged to make a journey of
between 300 and 400 miles, with 100 pounds of bur¬
den upon their backs 5 if they had collars of iron
about their necks, and were obliged to carry that load
over rocks and mountains ; if thofe who became ex-
haufted with fatigue, or -wounded their feet fo as to
impede their progrefs, had their heads cut oft' that they
might not retard the pace of the reft; and if they were
not allowed but a fmall morfel of bread to enable them
to fupport fo fevere a toil. Las Cafas, from whom M.
de Paw got the account of the 200,coo Americans
wffio died under the fatigue of carrying baggage, re¬
lates alfo all the above-mentioned circumftances. If
that
A M E [ 17 ] A M E
America, that author therefore is to be credited in the laft, he is
v—-v 1 alfo to be credited in the firft. But a philofopher who
vaunts the phyfical and moral qualities of Europeans
over thofe of the Americans, would have done better,
we think, to have fuppreffed fafts fo opprobrious to
5a the Europeans themfelves.
Their la- Nothing in fact demonftrates fo clearly the robuft-
k°ur aud nefs of the Americans as thofe various and lading fa-
^ U r^' tigues in which they are continually engaged. M. de
Paw fays, that when the new world was difcovered,
nothing was to be feen but thick woods j that at pre-
fent there are fome lands cultivated, not by the Ame¬
ricans, however, but by the Africans and Europeans j
and that the foil in cultivation is to the foil which is
uncultivated as 2000 to 2,000,opo. Thefe three af-
fertions the Abbe demonftrates to be precifely as many
errors. Since the conqueft, the Americans alone have
been the people who have fupported all the fatigues of
agriculture in all the vaft countries of the continent of
South America, and in the greater part of thofe of
North America fubjedl to the crown of Spain. No
European is ever to be feen employed in the labours
of the field. The Moors who, in comparifon of the
Americans, are very few in number in the kingdom
of New Spain, are charged with the culture of the fu-
gar cane and tobacco, and the making of fugar j but
the foil deilined for the cultivation of thofe plants is
not with refpeft to all the cultivated land of that coun¬
try in the proportion of one to two thoufand. The
Americans are the people who labour on the foil.
They are the tillers, the fowers, the weeders, and the
reapers of the wheat, of the maize, of the rice, of the
beans, and other kinds of grain and pulfe 5 of the ca¬
cao, of the vanilla, of the cotton, of the indigo, and
all other plants ufeful to the fuftenance, the clothing,
and commerce of thofe provinces j and without them
fo little can be done, that in the year 1762, the har-
velt of wheat was abandoned in many places on ac¬
count of a ficknefs which prevailed, and prevented the
Indians from reaping it. But this is not all ; the A-
mericans are they who cut and tranfport all the necef-
fary timber from the woods j who cut, tranfport, and
■work the Hones j who make lime, plafter, and tiles j
who conftruft all the buildings of that kingdom, ex¬
cept a few places where none of them inhabit j -who
open and repair all the roads, who make the canals
and lluices, and clean the cities. They work in many
mines of gold, of filver, of copper, &c. they are the
lliepherds, herdfmen, weavers, potters, balket-makers,
bakers, couriers, day-labourers, &c. j in a word, they
are the perlons who bear all the burden of public la¬
bours. I'hele, fays our juftly indignant author, are
the employments of the weak, daftardly, and ufelefs
Americans j while the vigorous M. de Paw, and other
indefatigable Europeans, are occupied in writing in-
weftives againft them.
rheie a fuf- 1 hele labours, in which the Indians are continually
tofTheir 100rCmP.loyeC*’ certainly atteft tbeir healthinefs and ftrength;
liealthinefs ^0r ^ are to undergo fuch fatigues, they can-
-&• ftrength.Pot be difeafed, nor have an exhaurted ilream of blood
in their veins, as M. de Paw infinuates. In order to
make it believed that their conllitutions are vitiated,
he copies whatever he finds written by hillorians of
America, whether true or falfe, refpecting the difeafes
Vol. II. Part L
which reign in forfle particular countries of that great America,
continent. It is not to be denied, that in fome coun-' *
tries in the wide compafs of America, men are expofed
more than elfewhere to the diftempers which are oc-
cafioned by the intemperature of the ait, or the perni¬
cious quality of the aliments 5 but it is certain, accord¬
ing to the affertion of many refpeilable authors ac¬
quainted with the new world, that the American
countries are, for the molt part, healthy ; and if the
Americans were difpofed to retaliate on M. de Pawq
and other European authors who write as he does, they
wrould have abundant fubjeft of materials to throw dif-
credit on the clime of the old continent, and the con-
flitution of its inhabitants, in the endemic diftempers
which prevail there.
Laftly, The fuppofed feeblenefs and unfound bodily
habit of the Americans do not correfpond with the
length of their lives. Among thofe Americans w hofe
great fatigues and exceflive toils do not anticipate their
death, there are not a few who reach the age of 80,
90, and 100 or more years, as formerly mentioned j
and wThat is more, without there being obferved in them
that decay which time commonly produces in the hair,
in the teeth, in the Ikin, and in the mufcles of the hu¬
man body. This phenomenon, fo much admired by
the Spaniards who refide in Mexico, cannot be afcribed
to amy other caufe than the vigour of their conftitu-
tions, the temperance of their diet, and the falubrity
of their clime. Hiftorians, and other perfons wrho
have fojourned there for many years, report the fame
thing of other countries of the new world. ^
As to the mental qualities of the Americans, M. de Their men.
Paw has not been able to difcover any other charadlers1^ quali-
than a memory fo feeble, that to-day they do not re-ties*
member what they did yefterday } a capacity fo blunt,
that they are incapable of thinking, or putting their
ideas in order ; a difpofition fo cold, that they feel no
excitement of love ; a daftardly fpirit, and a genius that
is torpid and indolent. Many other Europeans, in¬
deed, and wrhat is ftill more wonderful, many of thofe
children or defcendants of Europeans who are born in
America, think as M. de Paw does •, fome from igno¬
rance, fome from want of refleftion, and others from
hereditary prejudice and prepoflfeflion. But all this
and more would not be fufficient to invalidate the tefti-
monies of other Europeans, whole authority has a
great deal more weight, both becaufe they were men
of great judgment, learning, and knowledge of thefe
countries, and becaufe they gave their tellimony in fa¬
vour of ftrangers againft their own countrymen. In
particular, Acofta, whofe natural and moral hiftory
even M. de Pawr commends as excellent work, em¬
ploys the whole fixth book in demonftrating the good
fenfe of the Americans, by an explanation of their an¬
cient government, their laws, their hiftories in paint¬
ings and knots, kalendars, &c. M. de Paw thinks
the Americans are beftial $ Acofta, on the other hand,
reputes thofe perfons weak and prefumptuous who think
them fo. M. de Paw fays, that the mort acute Ameri¬
cans were inferior in induftry and fagacity to the rudeft
nations of the old continent ; Acofta extols the civil
government of the Mexicans above many republics of
Europe. M. de Paw finds, in the moral and political
cojidufl of the Americans, nothing but barbarity, ex-
C travaganpe,
American
cowardice
56
Refuted,
A M E [ 1
America, travagance, and brutality; and Acofla finds there,
' v laws that are admirable, and worthy of being preferved
^ for ever.
M.de Paw’s M. de Patv denies them courage, and alleges the
proofs of conqueft of Mexico as a proof of their cowardice.
“ Cortes (he fays) conquered the empire of Mexico
with 450 vagabonds and 15 horfes, badly armed; his
miferable artillery confifted of fix falconets, which would
not at the prefent day be capable cf exciting the fears
of a fortrefs defended by invalids. During his abfence
the capital was held in awe by the half of his troops.
What men ! what events !—It is confirmed by the de-
pofitions of all hiflorians, that the Spaniards entered the
firft time into Mexico without making one fingle dif-
charge of their artillery . If the title of hero is appli¬
cable to him who has the difgrace to occafion the death
of a great number of rational animals, Ferdinand Cor¬
tes might pretend to it; otherwife I do not fee what
true glory he has acquired by the overthrow of a tot¬
tering monarchy, which might have been deftroyed in
the fame manner by any other affaffin of our continent.”
Thefe paffages indicate either M. de Paw’s ignorance
of the hiftory of the conqueft of Mexico, or a wilful
fupprefiion of what would openly contradicl his fyftem;
fince all who have read that hiftory know well, that the
conqueft of Mexico was not made with 450 men, but
with more than 200,000. Cortes himfelf, to whom it
was of more importance than to M. de Paw to make
his bravery confpicuous, and his conqueft appear glo¬
rious, confefles the exceflive number of the allies who
were under his command at the fiege of the capital,
and combated with more fury againft the Mexicans
than the Spaniards themfelves. According to the ac¬
count which Cortes gave to the emperor Charles V.
the fiege of Mexico began with 87 horfes, 848 Spanilh
infantry, armed with guns, crofs-bows, fwords, and lan¬
ces, and upwards of 75,000 allies, of Tlafcala, Hue-
xotzinco, Cholula, and Chaleo, equipped -with various
forts of arms; with three large pieces of iron cannon,
15 fmall of copper, and r 3 brigantines. In the courfe
of the fiege were afiembled the numerous nations of
the Otomies, the Cohuixcas, and Matlazincas, and the
troops of the populous cities of the lakes ; fo that the
army of the befiegers not only exceeded 200,000, but
amounted to 4,000,000, according to the letter from
Cortes ; and befides thefe, 3000 boats and canoes came
to their affiftance. Did it betray cowardice to have fuf-
tained, for full 75 days, the fiege of an open city, en¬
gaging daily with an army fo large, and in part pro¬
vided with arms fo fuperior, and at the fame time hav¬
ing to withftand the ravages of famine ? Can they me¬
rit the charge of cowardice, who, after having loft fe-
ven of the eight parts of their city, and about 50,000
8 ] A M E
citizens, part cut off by the fword, part by famine and Amen?*,
ficknefs, continued to defend themfelves until they' v1™"
Were furioufly affaulted in the laft hold which was left
them ? See the article Mexico.
According to M. de Paw, “ the Americans at firft Remark-
were not believed to be men, but rather fatyrs, or large able in¬
apes, which might be murdered without remorfe or^^0^3*
reproach. At laft, in order to add infult to the op-M-4e paw>
predion of thofe times, a pope made an original bull, in
which he declared, that being defirous of founding bi-
fhoprics in the richeft countries of America, it pleafed
him and the Holy Spirit to acknowledge the Ameri¬
cans to be true men : in fo far, that without this deci-
fion of an Italian, the inhabitants of the new world
would have appeared, even at this day, to the eyes of
the faithful, a race of equivocal men. There is no ex¬
ample of fuch a decifion fince this globe has been in¬
habited by men and apes.” Upon this paffage the
Abbe animadverts, as being a fingular inftance of ca¬
lumny and mifreprefentation ; and gives the following
hiftory of the decifion alluded to. ^
“ Some of the firft Europeans wbo eftablilhed them-0CCaiionof
felves in America, not lefs powerful than avaricious, the famou*
defirous of enriching themfelves to the detriment of the bull of
Americans, kept them continually employed, and made Paiu
ufe of them as flaves; and in order to avoid the re¬
proaches which -were made them by the bilhops and
miftionaries who inculcated humanity, and the giving
liberty to thofe people to get themfelves inftrufted in
religion, that they might do their duties towards the
church and their families, alleged, that the Indians
were by nature Haves, and incapable of being inftruft-
ed ; and many other falfehoods of which the chronicler
Herrera makes mention againft them. Thofe zealous
ecclefiaftics being unable, either by their authority or
preaching, to free thofe unhappy converts from the ty¬
ranny of fuch mifers, had recourfe to the Catholic kings,
and at laft obtained from their juftice and clemency
thofe laws, as favourable to the Americans as honour¬
able to the court of Spain, that compofe the Indian
code, which were chietly due to the indefatigable zeal
of the bilhop de las Cafas. On another fide, Garces
bilhop of Tlafcala, knowing that thofe Spaniards bore,
notwithftanding their perverfity, a great refpedl to the
decifions of the vicar of Jefus Chrift, made application
in the year 1586 to Pope Paul III. by that famous let¬
ter of which we have made mention; reprefenting to-
him the evils which the Indians fuffered from the wick¬
ed Chriftians, and praying him to interpofe his autho¬
rity in their behalf. The pope, moved by fuch heavy
remonftrances, defpatched the next year the original
bull, a faithful copy of which we have here fubjoin-
ed (a), which was not made, as is manifeft, to declare
the
(a) Paulus papa III. univerfis Chrifti Fidelibus prefentes Literas infpe&uris Salutem et Apoftolicam Bene-
diefionem—“ Veritas ipfa, quae nec falli nec fallere poteft, cum Praedicatores lidei ad ofticium praedicationis
deftinaret, dixiffe dignofeitur : Euntes docete omnes gentes ; omnes, dixit, abfque omni deledtu, cum omnes Fidei
difeiplina capaces exiftant. Quod videns et invidens ipfius human! generis aemulus, qui bonis openbus, ut pe-
reant, femper adverfatur, modum excogitavit haftenus inauditum, quo impediret, ne \ erbum Dei Gentibus, ut
falvae fierent, praedicaretur : ut quofdam fuos fatellites commovit, qui fuam cupiditatem adimplere cupientes,
Occidentales et Meridionales Indos, et alias Gentes, quae temporibus iftis ad noftram notitiam pervenerunt, fub
praetextu quod Fidei Catholicae expertes exiftant, uti bruta animalia, ad noftra obfequia redigendos effe, paflim
afferere praefumant, et eps in fervkutem redigunt, tantis afflidionibus illos urgentes, quantis vix bruta animalia
America.
59
F.eprefen-
tatioti of
Cslumbus.
60
Conclufions
concerning
the capaci¬
ties of the
Americans.
A M E [ i
the Americans true men ; for fuch a piece of weak-
nefs was very diitant from that or any other pope : but
folely to fupport the natural rights of the Americans
againlt the attempts of their opprefibrs, and to con¬
demn the injuftice and inhumanity of thofe, who, un¬
der the pretence of fuppofing thefe people idolatrous,
or incapable of being imlru&ed, took from them their
property and their liberty, and treated them as Haves
and beails.
If at firft the Americans were deemed fatyrs, no¬
body can better prove it than Chriftepher Columbus,
their difcoverer. Let us hear, therefore, how that ce¬
lebrated admiral fpeaks, in his account to the Catholic
fovereigns Ferdinand and Ifabella, of the firlt fatyrs he
faw in the illand of Haiti or Hifpamola. “ I fwear,”
he fays, “ to your majelties, that there is not a better-
people in the world than thefe, more affe&ionate, af¬
fable, or mild. They love their neighbours as them-
felves: their language is the fweeteft, the fofteft, and
the molt cheerful j for they always fpeak fmiling ; and
although they go naked, let your majefties believe me,
their cuiloms are very becoming j and their king, who
is ferved -with great majefty, has fuclr engaging man¬
ners, that it gives great pleafure to fee him, and
alfo to confider the retentive faculty of that people,
and their defire of knowdedge, which incites them to
alk the caufes and the effects of things.”
“ We have had intimate commerce with the Ameri¬
cans (continues the Abbe) j have lived for fome years
in a feminary deltined for their inftruftion 5 faw the e-
reiffion and progrefs of the royal college of Guadaloupe,
founded in Mexico by a Mexican Jefuit, for the edu¬
cation of Indian children had afterwards fome Indians
amongft our pupils; had particular knowledge of many
American redtors, many nobles, and numerous artifts ;
attentively obferved their charabler, their genius, their
difpofition, and manner of thinking; and having exa¬
mined befides, with the utmoft diligence, their ancient
hiftory, their religion, their government, their laws,
and their cuttoms: After fuch long experience and ftu-
dy of them, from which we imagine ourfelves enabled
to decide without danger of erring, we declare to M.
de Paw, and to all Europe, that the mental qualities of
the Americans are not in the leaft inferior to thofe of
the Europeans; that they are capable of all, even the
mod abitraft fciences; and that, if equal care was taken
of their education, if they were brought up from child¬
hood in feminaries under good mafters, were protebled
and ftimulated by rewards, we fhould fee rife among
the Americans, philofophers, mathematicians, and di¬
vines, who would rival the firft in Europe.”
9 ] A M E
But although we Ihould fuppofe, that, in the torrid Americas*
climates of the new world, as well as in thofe of the ' *
old, efpecially under the additional depreflion of 11a-
very, there was an inferiority of the mental powers,
the Chilefe and the North Americans have difeovered ^
higher rudiments of human excellence and ingenuity
than have ever been known among tribes in a fimilar
Hate of fociety in any part of the world.
M. de Paw affirms, that the Americans were unac¬
quainted with the uie of money, and quotes the follow¬
ing well-known paffage from Montefquieu : “ Imagine
to yourfelf, that, by fome accident, you are placed in
an unknown country ; if you find money there, do not
doubt that you are arrived among a poliftied people.”
But if by money we are to underftand a piece of metal
with the ftamp of the prince or the public, the want of.
it in a nation is no token of barbarity. The Athe¬
nians employed oxen for money, as the Romans did
(heep. The Romans had no coined money till the time
of Servius Tullius, nor the Perfians until the reign of
Darius Hyftafpes. But if by money is underftood a
fign reprefenting the value of merchandife, the Mexi¬
cans, and other nations of Anahuac, employed money
in their commerce. The cacao, of which they made
conftant ufe in the market to purchafe whatever they
wranted, was employed for this purpofe, as fait is in
Abyffima.
It has been affirmed that ftone bridges were unknown
in America when it was firft difeovered ; and that the
natives did not know how to form arches. But thefe
affertions are erroneous. The remains of the ancient
palaces of Tezcuco, and ftill more their vapour baths,
ffiow the ancient ufe of arches and vaults among the
Mexicans. But the ignorance of this art would have
been no proof of barbarity. Neither the Egyptians nor
Babylonians underftood the conftruftion of arches.
M. de Paw affirms, that the palace of Montezuma
was nothing elfe than a hut. But it is certain, from
the affirmation of all the hiftorians of Mexico, that the
army under Cortes, confifting of 6400 men, was all
lodged in the palace ; and there remained ftill fufficient
room for Montezuma and his attendants. ^
The advances which the Mexicans had made in the Tokens of
ftudy of aftronomy is perhaps the moft furprifing proof Mence.
of their attention and fagacity; for it appears from
Abbe Clavigero’s hiftory, that they not only counted
365 days to the year, but alfo knew of the excels
of about fix hours in the folar over the civil year,
and remedied the difference by means of intercalary
days. *
Of American morality, the following exhortation of
C 2 a
illis fervientia urgeant. Nos igitur, qui ejufdem Domini noftri vices, licet indigni, gerimus in terris, et Oves
gregis fui nobis commiffas, quse extra ejus Ovile funt, ad ipfum Oyile toto nixu exquirimus, attendentes Indos
ipfos, utpote veros homines, non folum Chriilianae Fidei capaces exiftere, fed, ut nobis innotuit, ad Fidem ip-
fam promptiffime currere, ac volentes fuper his congruis remediis providere, praediclos Indos et omnes alias gen-
tes ad notitiam Chriftianorum in pofterum deventuras, licet extra fidem Chrifti exiftant, fua libertate et dominio
hujufmodi uti, et potiri, et gaudere libere, et licite poffe, nec in fervitutem redigi debere, ac quicquid fecus fieri
contigerit irritum et inane, ipfofque Indos, et alias Gentes Verbi Dei praedicatione, et exemplo bonae vitae ad
diiftam Fidem Chrifti invitandos fore. Auftoritate Apoftolica per praefentes literas decernimus, et declaramus,
non obftantibus premiffis, cmterifque contrariis quibulcunque.” Datum Romae anno 1537* IV. Non. lun. Pon-
tificatus noftri anno III. Qmefta, ^ non altra e qjjfella famofa bolla, per la quale s’ e fatto un fi grande fchia-
mazzo.
A M E [ 20 ] A M E
Amrnrn. a Mexican to his fon may ferve as a fpecimen. “ My
fon, who art come into the light from the womb of thy
Specimen mother like a chicken from the egg, and like it art
of their mo- preparing to fly through the world, we know not how
rality. long Heaven will grant to us the enjoyment of that
precious gem which we pofTefs in thee ; but however
fhort the period, endeavour to live exaffly, praying
God continually to affift thee. He created thee : thou
art hix property. He is thy father, and loves thee flill
more than 1 do : repofe in him thy thoughts, and day
and night direfl thy fighs to him. Reverence and fa-
lute thy elders, and hold no one in contempt. To the
poor and diftrefled be not dumb, but rather ufe words
of comfort. Honour all perfons, particularly thy pa¬
rents, to'whom thou oweft obedience, refpeft, and fer-
vice. Guard againft imitating the example of thofe
wicked fons, who, like brutes that are deprived of i-ea-
fon, neither reverence their parents, liften to their in-
Rruftion, nor fubmit to their correcfion 5 becaufe who¬
ever follows their fteps will have an unhappy end, will
die in a defperate or fudden manner, or will be killed
and devoured by wild beads.
“ Mock not, my fon, the aged or the imperfeft.
Scorn not him whom you fee fall into fome folly or
tranfgreffion, nor make him reproaches; but reftrain
thyfelf, and beware left thou fall into the fame error
which offends thee in another. Go not where thou
art not called, nor interfere in that which does not
concern thee. Endeavour to manifeft thy good breed¬
ing in all thy words and aftions. In converfation, do
not lay thy hands upon another, nor fpeak too much,
nor interrupt or difturb another’s difcourfe. When
any one difcourfes with thee, hear him attentively, and
hold thyfelf in an eafy attitude, neither playing with
thy feet, nor putting thy mantle to thy mouth, nor
fpitting too often, nor looking about you here and
there, nor rifmg up frequently, if thou art fitting ; for
fuch actions are indications of levity and low breed¬
ing.”—He proceeds to mention feveral particular vices
which are to be avoided, and concludes,—“ Steal not,
nor give thyfelf to gaming •, otherwife thou wilt be a
difgrace to thy parents, whom thou oughteft rather to
honour for the education they have given thee. If
thou wilt be virtuous, thy example will put the wicked
to fhame. No more, my fou; enough hath been faid
in difeharge of the duties of a father. With thefe
eounfels I wifh to fortify thy mind. Refufe them not,
nor aft in contradiction to them j for on them thy life
and all thy happinefs depend.”
M° de^uf '^'S r"n§*n& on t^e ^lITle the Abbe Clavi-
fon con- " gercb the, ingenious Mr Jefferfon deferves particular
cerningthe attention. This gentleman, in his Notes on the State
degeneracy of Virginia, &c. has taken occafion to combat the
el animal opinions of Buffon 5 and feems to have fully refuted
America1 them both by argument and faCts. The French phi-
lofopher afferts, “ That living nature is lefs aCHve, lefs
energetic, in the new world than in the old.” He
affirms, 1. That the animals common to both conti¬
nents are fmaller in America. 2. That thofe peculiar
to the new are on an inferior feale. 3. That thofe
which have been domefticated in both have degenera¬
ted in America. And, 4. That it exhibits fewer fpe-
cies of living creatures. The caufe of this he aferibes America!
to the diminution of heat in America, and to the pre-
valence of humidity from the extenfion of its lakes and
waters over a prodigious furface. In other words, he
affirms, that heat is friendly and moijlure adverle to the
production and developement of the larger quadrupeds. 6-
i he hypothefis, that moifture is unfriendly to animal The hypo-
growth, Mr Jefferfon ffiows to be contradicted by ob- thefis, that
fervation and experience. It is by the affiftance 0fni0ll*ulx\is
heat and moifture that vegetables are elaborated from ^anlmaf
the elements. Accordingly we find, that the more hiv- growth,
mid climates produce plants in greater profufion than confukrtT.
the dry. Vegetables are immediately or remotely the
food of every animal; and, from the uniform opera¬
tion of Nature’s laws we difeern, that, in proportion
to the quantity of food, animals are not only multi¬
plied in their numbers, but improved in their fize. Of
this laft opinion is the count dc Buffon himfelf, in
another part of his work : “ En general, il paroit que
les pays un pen froids conviennent mieux a nos boeufs
que les pays chauds, et qu’ils font d’autant plus gros
et plus grands que le climat eft plus humide et plus
abondans en paturages. Les bceufs de Danemarc,
de la Podolie, de 1’Ukraine, et de la Tartaric qu’ha-
bitent les Calmouques, font les plus grands de tons.” 6f.
Here, then, a race of animals, and one of the largeft The Con-
too, has been increafed in its dimenfions by cold and trary main-
moifture, in direCl oppofition to the hypothefis, which tained by
fuppofes that thefe two circumftances diminiffi animal ^ Jefter-
bulk, and that it is their contraries, heat and drynefs, 01 ‘
which enlarge it. But to try the queftion on more
general ground, let us take two portions of the earth,
Europe and America for inftance, fufficiently extenfivc
to give operation to general caufes; let us confider the
circumftances peculiar to each, and obferve their effeCl
on animal nature. America, manning through the tor¬
rid as well as temperate zone, has more heat colleCHve-
ly taken, than Europe. But Europe, according to
our hypothefis, is the drieft. They are equally adapt¬
ed then to animal productions 5 each being endowed
with one of thofe caufes which befriend animal growth,
and with one which oppofes it. Let us, then, take a
comparative view of the quadrupeds of Europe and
America, prefenting them to the eye in three different
tables \ in one of which (hall be enumerated thofe
found in both countries •, in a fecond, tbofe found in
one only 5 in a third, thofe which have been domefti¬
cated in both. To facilitate the comparifon, let thofe
of each table be arranged in gradation, according to
their fizes, from the greateft to the fmalleft, fo far as
their fizes can be conjeftured. The weights of the ,
large animals ffiall be exprefled in the Engliffi avoirdu¬
pois pound and its decimals; thofe of the fmaller in
the ounce and its decimals. Thofe which are mark- •
ed thus *, are aftual weights of particular fubjefts,
deemed among the largeft of their fpecies.. Thofe
marked thus f, are furnilhed by judicious perfons, well
acquainted with the fpecies, and faying, from conjec¬
ture only, what the largeft individual they had feen
would probably have weighed. The other weights
are taken from Mefffs Buffon and D’Aubenton, and
are of fuch fubje&s as came cafuaily to their hands for
diffe.iStion,
“ Comparative
A M E
America.
“ Comparative View of tire Quadrupeds of Europe and
of America.
[ 2i T A M E
Table II. continued.
EUROPE. AMERICA.
Am erica}
Table I. Aboriginals of both.
Mammoth
Buffalo. Bifon
Wiffterbear. Ours bianc
Caribou. Renne
Bear. Ours
Elk. Elan. Original, palmated
Red deer. Cerf.
Fallow deer. Daim
Wolf. Loup
Roe. Chevrtuil
Glutton. Glouton. Carcajou
Wild cat. Chat fauvage
Lynx. Loup cervier
Beaver. Callor
Badger. Blaireau
Red fox. Renard
Gray fox. Ifatis
Otter. Loutre
Monax. Marmotte
Vifon. Fouine
Eledgehog. Heriffon
Martin. Marte
Water rat. Rat d’eau
Weafel. Belette
Flying fquirrel. Polatouche
Shrew moul'e. Mufaraigne
Europe.
lb.
J53-7
288.8
167.8
69.8
56-7
25*
18.5
13.6
l3-5
8.9
6.5
2-. 8
2.2
1.9
oz.
7-5
2.2
2.2
1.
America.
lb.
*1803
*413
*27J
t3°
*45
f 12
f6
oz.
f 4
Table II. Aboriginals of one only.
EUROPE. AMERICA.
lb.
Sanglier. Wild boar 280.
Moudon. Wild fheep 56.
Bouquetin. Wild goat
Lievre. Flare 7.6
Lapin. Rabbit 3.4
Putois. Polecat 3.3-
Genette 3.1
Defman. Mulk rat oz.
Ecureuil. Squirrel X 2.
Hermine. Ermine 8.2
Rat. Rat 7.5
Loirs 3.1
Lerot. Dormoufe 1.8
Toupe. Mole 1.2
Hamfter .9
Zifel
Leming
Souris. Moufe .6
lb.
Tapir 534.
Elk, round horned f 450..
Puma
Jaguar 2.18.
Cabiai 109.
Tamanoir 109.
Tamandua ^5-4
Cougar of N. Amer. 75.
Cougar of S. Amer. 59-4
Ocelot
Pecari 4^*3
Jaguaret 43-^
Alco
Lama
Paco
Paca 32.7
Serval
Sibth. Unau 27^
Saricovienne
Kincajou
Tatou Kabaffou 21.8
Urforu Urchin
lb.
16.5
16.3
I3*
9-8
6.;
Raccoon. Raton
Coati
Coendbu
Sloth. Ai
Sapajou Ouarini
SapajoU Coaita
Tatou Encubeft
Tatou Apar
Tatou Cachica
Little Coendou
Opoffum. Sarigue
Tapeti
Margay
Crabier
Agouti 4.2
Sapajou Sa'i 3.5
Tatou Cirquingon
Tatou Tatouate 3.3
Mouffette Squafh
Mouffette Chiche
Mouftette Conepate.
Scunk
Mouffette. Zorilla
Whabus. Hare. Rab¬
bit
Aperea
Akouchi
Ondatra. Mulk rat
Pilori
Great gray fquirrel
Fox fquirrel of Vir¬
ginia f 2.62 5
Surikate 2.
Mink f2.
Sapajou. Sajou 1.8
Indian pig. Cochon
d’Inde 1.6
Sapajou. Saimiri 1.3
Phalangcr
Coquallin
Leffer gray fquirrel fi.5
Black fquirrel
Red fquirrel 10.0*.
Sagoin Saki
Sagoin Pinche
Sagoin Tamar in oz.
- Sagoin Ouiftiti 4.4
Sagoin Marikine
Sagoin Mico
Cayopollin
Fourmillier
Marm-efe
Sarigue of Cayenne
Tucan
Red mole 02.
u Ground fquirrel 4,
America.
A M E ' [
Table III, Domejlicated in both.
Cow
Horfe
Afs
Hog
Sheep
Goat
Dog
Cat
Europe. I America.
lb.
763-
67,6
7*
lb.
*2500
*1366
^1200
*125
*80
*1
ftefult of
the tirft
table.
68
Explana¬
tion and
refult of
the fecond
table.
69
Of the third
table.
“ The refult of this view is, that of 26 quadrupeds
common to both countries, feven are faid to be larger
in America, feven of equal fize, and 12 not fufficiently
examined. So that the fifft table impeaches the firlt
member of the affertion, that of the animals common
to both countries the American are fmallelt, “ Et cela
fans aucune exception.” It Ihows it not juft, in all
the latitude in which its author has advanced it, and
probably not to fuch a degree as to found a diftindlion
between the two countries.
“ Proceeding to the fecond table, which arranges
the animals found in one of the two countries only,
M. de Euffon obferves, that the tapir, the elephant of
America, is but of the fize of a fmall cow. To pre-
ferve our comparifori, Mr Jefferfon ftates the wild
boar, the elephant of Europe, as little more than half
that fize. He has made an elk with round or cylin*
drical horns an animal of America, and peculiar to
it; becaufe he has feen many of them himfelf, and
more of their horns; and becaufe, from the beft infor¬
mation, it is certain that in Virginia this kind of elk
has abounded much, and ftill exifts in fmaller numbers.
He makes the American hare or rabbit peculiar, be¬
lieving it to be different from both the European ani¬
mals of thefe denominations, and calling it therefore
by its Algonquin name whabus, to keep it diftinfl
from thefe. Kalm is of the fame opinion. The fquir-
rels are denominated from a knowledge derived from
daily fight of them, becaufe with that the European ap¬
pellations and defcriptions feem irreconcilable, Thefe
are the only inftahces in which Mr Jefferfon departs
from the authority of M. de Buffon in the conftru&ion
of this table j whom he takes for his ground-work,
becaufe he thinks him the bell informed of any natu-
ralift who has ever Written. The refult is, that there
are 18 quadrupeds peculiar to Europe ; more than four
times as many, to wit 74, peculiar to America; that
the flrft of thefe 74, the tapir, the largeft of the ani¬
mals peculiar to America, weighs more than the whole
column of Europeans; and confequently this fecond
table difproves the fecond member of the affertion,
that the animals peculiar to the new world are on a
fmaller fcale, fo far as that affertion relied on Euro¬
pean animals for fupport : and it is in full oppofition to
the theory which makes the animal volume to depend
on the circumftances of heat and moifture.
“ The third table comprehends thofe quadrupeds
only which are domeftic in both countries. That fome
of thefe, in fome parts of America, have become lefs
than their original ftock, is doubtlefs true"; and the
reafon is very obvious. In a thinly peopled country,
1
/
J2 ] A M E
the fpontaneous productions of the forefts and wafte Aftieriea.
fields are fufticient to fupport indifferently the domeftic 1
animals of the farmer, with a very little aid from him
in the ferereft and fcarceft feafon. He therefore finds
it more convenient to receive them from the hand of
Nature in that indifferent ftate, than to keep up their
fize by a care and nourifhment which wmuld coft him
much labour. If, on this low fare, thefe animals
dwindle, it is no more than they do in thofe parts of
Europe where the poverty of the foil, or poverty of the
owner, reduces them to the fame fcalrty fubliftence. It
is the uniform effecl of one and the fame caufe, whe¬
ther aCling on this or that fide of the globe. It would
be erring, therefore, againft that rule of philofophy,
which teaches us to afcribe like effeCls to like caufes,
fhould we impute this diminution of fize in America
to any imbecility or want of uniformity in the opera¬
tions of nature. It may be affirmed with truth, that
in thofe countries, and with thofe individuals of Ame¬
rica, where Heceffity or curiofity has produced equal
attention as in Europe to the nourifhment of animals,
the horfes, cattle, fheep, and hogs, of the one conti¬
nent are as large as thofe of the other. There are
particular inftances, well attefted, where individuals of
America have imported good breeders from England,
and have improved their fize by care in the courfe of
fome years. And the weights aftually known and
ftated in the third table, will fuffice to fhow, that we
may conclude, on probable grounds, that, wdth equal
food and care, the climate of America will preferve
the races of domeftic animals as large as the European
ftock from wffiich they are derived ; and confequently
that the third member of Monf. de Buffon’s affertion,
that the domeftic animals are fubjedl to degeneration
from the climate of America, is as probably wrong as
the firft and fecond Were certainly fo.
That the laft part of it is erroneous, which affirms,
that the fpecies of American quadrupeds are compara¬
tively few, is evident from the tables taken all toge¬
ther ; to which may be added the proof adduced by
the Abbe Clavigero. According to Buffon’s lateft
calculation, in his Epoques de la Nature, there are 300
fpecies of quadrupeds ; and America, though it does
not make more than a third part of the globe, con¬
tains, according to Clavigero, almoft one half of the
different fpecies of its animals.
Of the human inhabitants of America, to whom the The human
fame hypothefis of degeneracy is extended, M. Buffon inhabitants
gives the following defcription : “ Though the Ame- compre-
rican favage be nearly of the fame ftature with men in
poliffied focieties; yet this is not a fufficient exception hypothefis
to the general contraftion of animated nature through- oi degene-
out the whole continent. In the favage, the organs ofracy*
generation are fmall and feeble. He has no hair, no
beard, no ardour for the female. Though nimbler than
the European, becaufe more accuftomed to running,
his ftrength is not fo great. His fenfations are lefs
acute ; and yet he is more timid and cowardly. He
has no vivacity, no aflivity of mind. The a&ivity of
his body is not fo much an exercife or fpontaneous mo¬
tion, as a neceffary aftion produced by want. Deftroy
his appetite for victuals and drink, and you wall at once
annihilate the active principle of all his movements :
He remains in ftupid repofe, on his limbs or couch, for
whole days. It is eafy to difeover the caufe of the
fcattered
A M E [ 23 ] AM
America, fcattered life of favages, and of their eftrangement he'would incur indelible difgrace
They have been refufed the moll pre-
71
Obferva-
Jefferfon.
from fociety.
cious fpark of Nature’s fire : They have no ardour for
women, and, of courfe, no love to mankind. Unac¬
quainted with the moll lively and moll tender of all
attachments, their other fenfations of this nature are
cold and languid. Their love to parents and children
is extremely weak. The bounds of the moll intimate
of all focieties, that of the fame family, are feeble 5
and one family has no attachment to another. Hence
no union, no republic, no focial Hate, can take place
among them. The phylical caufe of love gives rife to
the morality of their manners. Their heart is frozen,
their fociety cold, and their empire cruel. They regard
their females as fervants deltined to labour, or as beads
of burden, whom they load unmercifully with the pro¬
duce of their hunting, and oblige, without pity or gra¬
titude, to perform labours which often exceed their
flrength. They have few children, and pay little at¬
tention to them. Every thing mull be referred to the
firll caufe : They are indifferent, becaufe they are
weak; and this indifference to the fex is the original
flain which difgraces Nature, prevents her from ex¬
panding, and, by dellroying the germs of life, cuts the
root of fociety. Hence man ur.kes no exception to
what has been advanced. Nature, by denying him the
faculty of love, has abufed and contracted him more
than any other animal.”
A humiliating picture indeed ! but than which, Mr
tions by Mr Jefferfon affures us, never one was more unlike the
original. M. Buffon grants, that their llature is the
fame as that of the men of Europe ; and he might have
admitted, that the Iroquois were larger, and the Lenopi
or Delawares taller, than people in Europe generally
are : But he fays their organs of generation are fmaller
and weaker than thofe of Europeans; which is not a
faCl. And as to their want of beard, this error has
been already noticed (N® Jupra.')
“ They have no ardour for their females.” It is
coldnefs of true, they do not indulge thofe exceffes, nor difcover
the Ameri-that fondnefs, which are cullomary in Europe j but
cans to the js not owing j-q a defeCl in nature, but to manners.
ex account-TT^j^ foul is wholly bent upon war. This is what
procures them glory among the men, and makes them
the admiration of the women. To this they are edu¬
cated from their earliell youth. When they purfue
game with ardour, when they bear the fatigues of the
chafe, when they fullain and fuffer patiently hunger
and cold, it is not fo much for the fake of the game they
purfue, as to convince their parents and the council of
the nation, that they are fit to be enrolled in the number
of the warriors. The fongs of the women, the dance of
the warriors, the fage counfel of the chiefs, the tales
of the old, the triumphant entry of the warriors return¬
ing with fuccefs from battle, and the refpeft paid to
thofe who ditlinguilh themfelves in battle, and in fub-
duing their enemies j in ffiort, every thing they fee or
hear tends to infpire them with an ardent defire for
military fame. If a ybung man were to difcover a
fondnefs for women before he has been to war, he
would become the contempt of the men, and the fcorn
and ridicule of the women : or were he to indulge
himfelf with a captive taken in war, and much more
were he to offer violence in order to gratify his luff,
7*
Seeming
cd for.
The feeming frigi- America,
dity of the men, therefore, is the effefl of manners,
and not a defefl of nature. They are neither more
defeflive in ardour, nor more impotent with the fe¬
male, than are the whites reduced to the fame diet and
exercife. ■ 73
“ They raife few children.”—They indeed raife few-Why they
er children than we do •, the caufes of which are to be
found, not in a difference of nature, but of circum-
fiance. The women very frequently attending the men
in their parties of -war and of hunting, childbearing
becomes extremely inconvenient to them. It is faid,
therefore, that they have learned the praftice of pro¬
curing abortion by the ufe of fome vegetable 5 and that
it even extends to prevent conception for a confider-
able time after. During thefe parties they are expofed
to numerous hazards, to exceflive exertions, to the
greatefl extremities of hunger. Even at their homes,
the nation depends for food, through a certain part of
every year, on the gleanings of the forell; that is, they
experience a famine once in every year. With all ani¬
mals, if the female be badly fed, or not fed at all, her
young perifli 5 and if both male and female be reduced
to like want, generation becomes lefs adlive, lefs pro-
dudlive. To the obftacles, then, of want and hazard,
which Nature has oppofed to the multiplication of
wild animals, for the purpofe of reflraining their num¬
bers within certain bounds, thofe of labour and of vo¬
luntary abortion are added with the Indian. No wonder,
then, if they multiply lefs than we do. Where food
is regularly fupplied, a fingle farm will fhow more of
cattle than a whole country of forefts can of buffaloes.
The fame Indian women, when married to white trad¬
ers, who feed them and their children plentifully arid
regularly, who exempt them from exceflive drudgery,
who keep them ftationary and unexpofcd to accident,
produce and raife as many children as the white wo¬
men. Inftances are known, under thefe circumftances,
of their rearing a dozen children. ^
Neither do they feem to be “deficient in natural af-Of their
feflion.” On the contrary, their fenfibility is keen, fenfibility
even the warriors weeping moll bitterly on the lofs of1^'
their children; though in general they endeavour to
appear fuperior to human events.
Their friendflnps-are ftrong, and faithful to the ut-
termoll extremity. A remarkable inftance of this ap¬
peared in the cafe of the late Col. Byrd, who was fent
to the Cherokee nation to tranfacl fome bufinefs with
them. It happened that fome of our diforderly peo¬
ple had juft killed one or two of that'nation. It was
therefore propofed'in the council of the Cherokees,
that Col. Byrd fhould be put to death, in revenge for
the lofs of their countrymen. Among them was a
chief, called Silbuee, who, on fome former occafion, had
contradled an acquaintance and friendftiip with Col.
Byrd; He came to him every night in his tent, and
told him not to be afraid, they ftiould not kill him.
After many days deliberation, however, the determi¬
nation was, contrary to Silbuee’s expectation, that
Byrd Ihould be put to death, and fome warriors were-
defpatched as executioners. Silbuee attended them j
and when they entered the tent, he threw himfelf be¬
tween them and Byrd, and faid to the warriors, “ This
man is my friend ; before you get at him, you muft
kill
A M E
[ H ]
A M E
75
Of their
-courage.
(See alfo
America, kill me.” On which they returned } and the council
^ rerpetled the principle fo much as to recede from their
determination.
That “ they are timorous and cowardly,” is a cha-
radler with which there is little reafon to charge them,
when we re coll eel the manner in which the Iroquois
met Monf. , who marched into their country ;
in which the old men, who fcorned to fly, or to lurvive
the capture of their to.wn, braved death like the old
Romans in the time of the Gauls, and in which they
foon after revenged themfelves by facking and deftroy-
ing Montreal. In Ihort, the Indian is brave, when an
^os 54> 55* enterprife depends on bravery ; education with him ma-
" * J king the point of honour conlift in the deftrudtion of
an enemy by ftratagem, and in the preferv'ation of his
own peifon free from injury : or perhaps this is nature,
while it is education which teaches us to honour force
more than hneffe. He will defend himfelf againft an
holt of enemies, always drooling to be killed rather
than to furrender, though it be to the whites, who he
knows will treat him well. In other frtuations alfo, he
meets death with more deliberation, and endures tor¬
tures with a firmnefs unknown almoft to religious
enthuliafm among us.
Much lefs are they to be characterized as a people of
no vivacity, and who are excited to aCtion or motion
only by the calls of hunger and third. Their dances,
in which they fo much delight, and which to a Euro¬
pean would be the moil fevere exercife, fully contradict
this j not to mention their fatiguing marches, and the
toil they voluntarily and cheerfully undergo in their
military expeditions. It is true, that when at home
they do not employ themfelves in labour or the culture
of the foil: but this, again, is the efteCl of cuiloms and
manners which have afligned that to the province of the
women. But it is faid, “ they are averfe to fociety
and a focial life.” Can any thing be more inapplicable
than this to people who always live in towns or in
clans ? Or can they be faid to have no repubhque, who
conduCl all their affairs in national councils ; who pride
themfelves in their national charafter ; who confider an
infult or injury done to an individual by a ftranger as
done to the whole, and refent it accordingly ?
To form a juft eftimate of their genius and mental
powers, Mr Jefferfon obferves, more fade are want¬
ing, and great allowance is to be made for thofe cir-
cumftances of their fttuation which call for a difplay
of particular talents only. This done, we ftiall pro¬
bably find that the Americans are formed, in mind as
well as in body, on the fame model with the homo fa-
piens Europceus. The principles of their fociety for-
>• bidding all compulfion, they are to be led to duty .and
to enterprife by perfonal influence and perfuafion.
Hence eloquence in council, bravery and addrefs in
war, become the foundations of all confequence with
them. To thefe acquirements all their faculties are
directed. Of their bravery and addrefs in war we have
multiplied proofs, becaufe we have been the fubjedts
on which they wrere exercifed. Of their eminence in
oratory we have fewer examples, becauie it is difplayed
chiefly in their own councils. Some, however, we
have of very fuperior luftre. We may challenge the
whole orations of Demofthenes and Cicero, and of any
more eminent orator, if Europe has furniihed more
eminent, to produce a Angle paflage fuperior to the
2
fpeech of Logan, a Mingo chief, to Lord Duntnore America,
when governor of this ftate. The ftory is as follows ;1 ^ ' ‘
of which, and of the fpeech, the authenticity is un- 76
queftionable. In the fpring of the year 1774, a rob-Story°f
bery and murder were committed on an inhabitant of^J^dn*
the frontiers of Virginia by two Indians of the Shawa-
nee tribe. The neighbouring v.'hites, according to their
cuftom, undertook to puniflr this outrage in a fummary
way. Colonel Crefap, a man infamous for the many
murdershe had committed on thofe much-injured people,
colledled a party, and proceeded down the Kanhaway
in quell of vengeance. Unfortunately a canoe of wo¬
men and children, with one man only, wras feen coming
from the oppofite ftiore, unarmed, and unfufpedting
any hoftile attack from the whites. Crefap and his
party concealed themfelves on the bank of the river ;
and the moment the canoe reached the fhore, fingled
out their objects, and at one fire killed every perfon in
it. This happened to be the family of Logan, who
had long been diftinguiftied as a friend of the whites.
This unworthy return provoked his vengeance. He ac¬
cordingly fignalized himfelf in the war which enfued.
In the autumn of the fame year, a decifive battle was
fought at the mouth of the Great Kanhaw ay, between
the colledled forces of the Shaw^anees, Mingoes, and
Delawares, and a detachment of the Virginian militia.
The Indians were defeated, and fued for peace. Logan,
however, difdained to be feen among the fuppliants j
but, left the fincerity of a treaty ftiould be diftrufted
from which fo diftinguilhed a chief abfented himfelf,
he fent by a meffenger the following fpeech, to be de¬
livered to Lord Dunmore r—I appeal to any white
man to fay if ever he entered Logan’s cabin hungry, of Indian
and he gave him not meat: if ever he came cold and eloquence,
naked, and he clothed him not. During tire courfe
of the laft long and bloody war, Logan remained idle
in his cabin, an advocate for peace. Such was my
love for the W’hites, that my countrymen pointed as
they pafled, and faid, Logan is the friend of vchite men.
I had even thought to have lived with you, but for
the injuries of one man. Colonel Crefap, the laft
fpring, in cold blood, and unprovoked, murdered all
the relations of Logan, not (paring even my women
and children. There runs not a drop of my blood in
the veins of any living creature. This called on me
for revenge. I have fought it j I have killed many j
I have fully glutted my vengeance. For my country,
I rejoice at the beams of peace j but do not harbour a
thought that mine is the joy of fear. Logan never
felt fear. He will not turn on his heel to fave his life.
Who is there to mourn for Logan ? Not one.”
To the preceding anecdotes in favour of the Ameri- Other a-
can charafter, may be added the following by Dr Ben- necdotes,
jamin Franklin. The Indian men, when young, are
hunters and warriors : when old, counfellors 5 lor all
their government is by the counfel or advice of the
fages. Hence they generally ftudy oratory 5 the belt
fpeaker having the moft influence. 'I he Indian w o-
men till the ground, drefs the. food, nurfe and bring
up the children, and preferve and hand down to pofte-
rity the memory of public tranfaftions. Thefe employ¬
ments of men and women are accounted natural and ho¬
nourable. Having few' artificial wants, they have abun¬
dance of leifure for improvement by converlation. Gu.r
laborious manner of life, compared with theirs,, they
efteem
America.'
.79
Politenefs
and civility
of the Arne-
rman In¬
dians.
So
Their hof-
pitality.
A M E [
eflecm flaviih and bafe } and the learning on which
we value ourfelves, they regard as frivolous and ufe-
lefs. . *
Having frequent occafions to hold public councils,
they have acquired great order and decency in conduct¬
ing them. The old men fit in the foremoit ranks, the
warriors in the next, and the women and children in
the hindmoft. The bufinefs of the women is to take
cxadt notice of what paffes j imprint it in their memo¬
ries, for they have no writing, and communicate it to
their children. They are the records of the council,
and they preferve tradition of the ftipulations in trea¬
ties a hundred years back ; which, when we compare
with our writings, we always find exaft. He that
would fpeak rifes. The reft obferve a profound filence.
When he has finilhed, and fits down, they leave him
five or fix minutes to recoiled, that if he has omitted
any thing he intended to fay, or has any thing to add,
he may rile again and deliver it. d o interrupt ano¬
ther, even in common converfation, is reckoned highly
indecent.
The politenefs of thefe favages in converfation is,
indeed, carried to excefs; fince it does not permit
'them to contradift or deny the truth of wdrat is afferted
in their prefence. By this means they indeed avoid dif-
putes j but then it becomes difficult to know their
minds, or what impreffion you make upon them. The
miffionaries who have attempted to convert them to
Chriftianity, all complain of this as one of the great-
eft difficulties of their million. The Indians hear with
patience the truths of the gofpel explained to them,
and give their ufual tokens of alfent and approbation $
but this by no means implies conviction j it is mere ci¬
vility.
When any of them come into our towns, our people
are apt to crowd round them, gaze upon them, and in¬
commode them where they defire to be private j this
they efteem great rudenefs, and the effeCt of the want
of inftruftion in the rules of civility and good manners.
“ We have (fay they) as much curiofity as you; and
when you come into our towns, we wiffi for opportu¬
nities of looking at you} but for this purpofe we hide
ourfelves behind bulhes where you are to pafs, and never
intrude ourfelves into your company.”
Their manner of entering one another’s villages has
likewife its rules. It is reckoned uncivil in travelling
ftrangers to enter a village abruptly, without giving
notice of their approach. Therefore, as foon as they
arrive within hearing, they flop and holla, remaining
there till invited to enter. Two old men ufually come
out to them and lead them in. There is in every vil¬
lage a vacant dwelling, called theJlrangers houfe. Here
they are placed, while the old men go round from hut
to hut, acquainting the inhabitants that ftrangers are
arrived, who are probably hungry and wTeary j" and
every one fends them what he can fpare of victuals, and
Ikins to repofe on. When the ftrangers are refreffied,
pipes and tobacco are brought j and then, but not be¬
fore, converfation begins, with inquiries who they are,
whither bound, what news, Sec. and it ufually ends with
offers of fervice \ if the ftrangers have occafion for
guides, or any necefl'aries for continuing their journey $
and nothing ij exaCted for the entertainment.
The fame hofpitality, efteemed among them as a
Vox.. II. Part I.
5 ] A M E
principal virtue, is praCtifed by private perfons 5 of
which Conrad Weifer, the interpreter, gave Dr Frank¬
lin the following inftance : He had been naturalized
among the Six Nations, and fpoke well the Mohock
language. In going through the Indian country to
carry a meflage from our goverpor to the council at
Onondaga, he called at the habitation of Canafletego,
an old acquaintance, who embraced him,,fpread furs
for him to fit on, placed before him fomc boiled beans
and venifon, and mixed fpme rum and water for his
drink. When he was well refreffied, and had lit his
pipe, Canaffetego began to converfe with him ; afked
how he had fared the many years fince they had feen
each other, -whence he then came, what had occafion-
ed the journey, &c. Conrad anfwered all his queftions,
and when the difeourfe began to flag, the Indian, to
continue it, faid, “ Conrad, you have lived long among
the white people, and know fomething of their cu-
ftoms; I have been iometimes at Albany, and have ob-
ferved, that once in feven days they ftiut up their (hops,
and affemble all in the great houfe j tell me what it is
for !—What do they do there ?” “ They meet there
(fays Conrad) to hear and Izwngood things."" “ I do
not doubt (ft./s the Indian) that they tell you fo ; they
have told me the fame : but I doubt the truth of what
they fay, and I will tell you my reafons. I went lately
to Albany to fell my fkins, and buy blankets, knives,
powder, rum, &c. You know I generally ufed to deal
with Hans Hanfon •, but I was a little inclined this
time to try fome other merchants. However, I called
firft upon Hans, and afked him what he would give for
beaver. He faid he could not give more than 4s. a-
pound ; but (fays he) I cannot talk on bufinefs now;
this is the day when we meet together to learn good
things, and I am going to the meeting. So I thought
to myfelf, fince I cannot do any bufinefs to-day, I may
as well go to the meeting too j and I went w ith him.
—There flood up a man in black, and began to talk
to the people very angrily. I did not underftand what
he faid j but perceiving that he looked much at me
and at Hanfon, I imagined he wras angry at feeing me
there : fo I went out, fat down near the houfe, ftruck
fire, and lit my pipe, waiting till the meeting fhould
break up. I thought too, that the man had mentioned
fomething of beaver, and I fufpe&ed that it might be
the fubjecl of their meeting. So when they qame out,
I accofted my merchant.—Well Hans (fays I), I
hope you have agreed to give more than 4s. a-pound ?”
“ No (fays he), I cannot give fo much, I cannot give
more thmi 3s. 6d.” “ I then fpoke to feveral other
dealers, but they all fung the fame fong, three and fix-
p.ence, three and fixpence. This made it clear to me
that my fufpicion was right j and that whatever they
pretended of meeting to learn good things, the real pur¬
pofe was, to confult how to cheat Indians in the price
of beaver. Confider but a little, Conrad, and you muft
be of my opinion. If they met fo often to learn good
things, they certainly would have learned fome before
this time. But they are ftill ignorant. You know our
pra&ice. If a white man, in travelling through our
country, enters one of our cabins, wTe all treat him as
I treat you •, wre dry him if he is wet, we warm him
if he is cold, and give him meat and drink, that he
may allay his thirft and hunger: and w e fpread foft
D " fur#.
A M E [2
(America., furs for him to reft and deep on : we demand nothing
' ^ ' in return. But if I go into a white man’s houfe at
Albany, and alk for vittuals and drink, they fay, Where
is your money ? And if I have none, they fay, Get out,
you Indian dog. You fee they have not yet learned
thofe little good things that we need no meeting to be
inftru&ed in ; becaufe our mothers taught them to us
when we were children ; and therefore it is impoftible
their meetings ftiould be, as they fay, for any fuch pur-
pofe, or have any fuch effe£l 5 they are only to contrive
the cheating of Indians in the price of beaver.’1'1
The next queftion that occurs is, Whether the pecu¬
liarities of the Americans, or the difparity between them
and the inhabitants of Europe, afford fufficient grounds
for determining them, as fome have done, to be a race
of men radically different from all others ?
In this queftion, to avoid being tedious, we fhall
confine ourfelves to what has been advanced by Lord
Kames ; who is of opinion, that there are many dif¬
ferent fpecies of men, as well as of other animals ; and
gives a hypothefis, whereby he pretends his opinion
Si may be maintained in a confiftency with revelation.
Lord ^ “ If (fays he) the only rule afforded by nature for claf-
frTmerts ^inS an^ma^s can he depended on, there are different
for differentraces men as we^ as d°gs : a maftiff differs not
fpecies. more from a fpaniel, than a white man from a negro,
or a Laplander from a Dane. And if we have any
faith in Providence, it ought to be fo. Plants were
created of different kinds, to fit them for different cli¬
mates ; and fo were brute animals. Certain it is, that
all men are not fitted equally for every climate. There
is fcarce a climate but what is natural to fome men,
where they profper and ilourifh 5 and there is not a
climate but where fome men degenerate. Doth not
then analogy lead us to conclude, that, as there are
different climates on the face of this globe, fo there are
different races of men fitted for thefe different climates ?
“ M. Bufton, from the rule, That animals which can
procreate together, and whofe progeny can alfo pro¬
create, are of one fpecies 5 concludes, that all men are
of one race or fpecies ; and endeavours to fupport that
favourite opinion, by aferibing to the climate, to food,
or to other accidental caufes, all the varieties that are
found among men. But is he ferioufly of opinion, that
any operation of climate, or of other accidental caufe,
can account for the copper colour and fmooth chin
univerfal among the Americans 5 the prominence of the
pudenda univerfal among the Hottentot women ; or the
black nipple no lefs univerfal among the female Samoi-
edes ?—It is in vain to aferibe to the climate the low
ftature of the Efquimaux, the fmallnefs of their feet, or
the overgrown fize of their heads. It is equally in vain
to aferibe to climate the low ftature of the Laplanders,
or their ugly vifage. The black colour of negroes,
thick lips, flat nofe, crifped woolly hair, and rank fmell,
diftinguifh them from every other race of men. The
Abyftinians, on the contrary, are tall and well made,
their complexion a brown olive, features well propor¬
tioned, eyes large and of a fparkling black, thin lips,
a nofe rather high than flat. There is no fuch differ¬
ence of climate between Abyflinia and Negroland as
to produce thefe linking differences.
Nor Ihall our author’s ingenious hypothefis con¬
cerning the extremities of heat and cold, purchafe him
6 ] A M E
impunity with refpecl to the fallow complexion of the
Samoiedes, Laplanders, and Greenlanders. The Fin-'
landers, and northern Norwegians, live in a climate
not lefs cold than that of the people mentioned } and
yet are fair beyond other Europeans. I fay more,
there are many inftances of races of people preferving
their original colour, in climates very different from
their own 5 but not a fingle inftance of the contrary, as
far as I can learn. There have been four complete ge¬
nerations of negroes in Pennfylvania, without any vifible
change of colour 5 they continue jet black, as origi¬
nally. Thofe who aferibe all to the fun, ought to confi-
der how little probable it is, that the colour it impref-
fes on the parents Ihould be communicated to their
infant children, who never faw the fun : I Ihould be as
foon induced to believe with a German naturalift, whofe
name has efcaped me, that the negro colour is owing to
an ancient cuilora in Africa, of dyeing the Ikin black.
Let a European, for years, expofe himfelf to the fun
in a hot climate, till he be quite brown 5 his children
will neverthelefs have the fame complexion with thofe
in Europe. From the aftion of the fun, is it poffible
to explain, why a negro, like a European, is born with
a ruddy Ikin, which turns jet black the eighth or ninth
day r”
Our author next proceeds to draw fome arguments
for the exiftence of different races of men, from the
various tempers and difpofitions of different nations j
which he reckons to be fpecifc differences, as well as
thole of colour, ftature, &c. and having fummed up his
evidence he concludes thus: “ Upon lumming up the
whole particulars mentioned aboverwould one hefitate
a moment to adopt the following opinion, were there
no counterbalancing evidence, viz,. 1 That God creat-
‘ ed many pairs of the human race, differing from
‘ each other, both externally and internally 3 that Ire
‘ fitted thofe pairs for different climates, and placed
‘ each pair in its proper climate 3 that the peculiari-
1 ties of the original pairs were preferved entire in
‘ their defendants 3 who, having no afliftancebut their
‘ natural talents, were left to gather know ledge from
‘ experience : and, in particular, were left (each tribe)
‘ to form a language for itfelf 3 that figns were fuffi-
‘ cient for the original pairs, without any language
‘ but what nature fuggefts 3 and that a language was
‘ formed gradually as a tribe increafed in numbers,
‘ and in different occupations, to make fpeech necef-
‘ lary ?’ But this opinion, however plaufible, we are
not permitted to adopt 3 being taught a different leffon
by revelation, viz. That God created but a fingle
pair of the human fpecies. Though we cannot doubt
the authority of Mofes, yet his account of the crea¬
tion of man is not a little puzzling, as it feems to con-
tradidl every one of the fa£Is mentioned above. Ac¬
cording to that account, different races of men were
not formed, nor were men formed originally for differ¬
ent climates. All men muft have fpoken the fame
language, visa, that of our firft parents. And -what of
all feems the moft contradiflory to that account, is the
favage ftate : Adam, as Mofes informs us, wras endued
by his Maker wdth an eminent degree of knowdedge 5
and he certainly wras an excellent preceptor to his chil¬
dren and their progeny, among whom he lived many-
generations. Whence then the degeneracy of all men
into the favage ftate ? To account for that difmal ca-
taftrophe.
America.
82
His hypo-
thelis con.
cerning
the origin
of the dif¬
ferent fpe-
cies,
S-3
incomplete
84
General
principles
to be kept
in view in
realoning
on this
fubjeCl.
A M E f 2
taftropKe, mankind muft have fuffercd Tome terrible con-
vullion. That terrible convulfion is revealed to us in the
hiftory of the tower of Babel contained in the nth
chapter of Genefis, which is, ‘ That, for many cen-
‘ turies after the deluge, the whole earth was of one
< language, and of one fpeech ; that they united to
1 build a city on a plain in the land of Shinar, with a
‘ tower, whofe top might reach unto heaven ; that the
( Lord, beholding the people to be one, and to have
‘ all one language, and that nothing would be re-
‘ Brained from them wLich they imagined to do, con-
‘ founded their language that they might not under-
‘ Band one another, and fcattered them abroad upon
‘ the face of all the earth.’ Here light breaks forth
in the midB of darknefs. By confounding the language
of men, and Battering them abroad upon the face of
all the earth, they were rendered favages. And to har¬
den them for their new habitations, it was neceflary
that they fliould be divided into different kinds, fitted
for different climates. Without an immediate change
of conBitution, the builders of Babel could not poflibly
have fubfiBed in the buiming region of Guinea, nor in
the frozen region of Lapland ; houfes not being prepa¬
red, nor any other convenience to prote£t them againff
a deffru&ive climate.”
We may firB remark, on his Lordihip’s hypothefis,
that it is evidently incomplete; for, allowing the human
race to have been divided into different fpecies at the
confufion of languages, and that each fpecies was ad¬
apted to a particular climate 5 by what means w-ere
they to get to the climates proper for them, or how
were they to know that fuch climates exifled ? How
was an American, for inBance, when languiflung in an
improper climate at Babel, to get to the land of the
Amazons, or the banks of the Oroonoko, in his own
country ? or how was he to know that thefe places
were more proper for him than others ?—If, indeed
we take the Scripture phrafe, “ The Lord fcattered
them abroad upon the face of all the earth,” in a cer¬
tain lenfe, we may account for it. If we fuppofe that
the different fpecies were immediately carried off by
a whirlwind, or other fupernatural means, to their pro¬
per countries, the difficulty will vaniffr : but if this is
his Lordlhip’s interpretation, it is certainly a very lin¬
gular one.
Before entering upon a confideration of the particu-
htr arguments ufed by our author for proving the di-
verfity of fpecies in the human race, it will be proper
to lay down the following general principles, which
may ferve as axioms. (1.) When we affert a multi¬
plicity of Ipecies in the human, race 5 we bring in a fu¬
pernatural xaufe to folve a natural phenomenon: for
thefe fpecies are fuppofed to be the immediate work
or the Deity. (2.) No perfon has a right to call any
thing the immediate effect of omnipotence, unlefs by
exprefs revelation from the Deity, or from a certain¬
ty that no natural caufe is fufficient to produce the ef¬
fect. I he reafon is plain. The Deity is invifible, and
fo are many natural cauies } wffien we lee an effect there¬
fore, of which the caufe does not manifeB itfelf, we
cannot know whether the immediate caufe is the Deity
or an invifible natural power. An example of this wc
have in the phenomena of thunder and earthquakes,
which were often aferibed immediately to the Deity,
but are now dilcovered to be the effe&s of electricity.
7 ] A M E
(ff.) No perfon can affert natural caufes to be infuffi- America.
cient to produce fuch and fuch effe&s, unlefs he per-' v 
fecffly knows all thefe caufes and the limits of th.ir
power in all poffible cafes 5 and this no man has e\ er
known or can known
By keeping in view thefe principles, which rve hope
are felf-evident, we will eafily fee Lord Karnes’s ar¬
guments to confiff entirely in a petitio principii.—In
fubBance they are all reduced to this fingle fentence :
“ Natural philoiophers have been hitherto unfuccefsful
in their endeavours to account for the differences ob-
ferved among mankind, therefore thefe differences can¬
not be accounted for from natural caufes.”
His Lordihip, however, tells us in the pafiages al-Inconfilt-
ready quoted, that “ a mafliff differs not more from a ency in
fpaniel, than a Laplander from a Dane that “ it is^or<* ,
vain to aferibe to climate the low Bature of the Lap- argument,
landers, or their ugly vifage.”—Yet, in a note on the
word Laplanders, he fubjoins, that, “ by late accounts
it appears, that the Laplanders are only degenerated
Tartars 5 and that they and the Hungarians originally
fprung from the fame breed of men, and from the fame
country.”—The Hungarians are generally handfome
and wrell made, like Danes, or like other people. The
Laplanders, he tells us, differ as much from them as a
maffiff from a fpaniel. Natural caufes, therefore, ac¬
cording to Lord Karnes himfelf, may caufe two indivi¬
duals of the fame fpecies of mankind differ from each
other as much as a mafliff does from a fpaniel.
While w7e are treating this fubjeft of colour, it may Remark-
not be amifs to obferve, that a very remarkable differ- able differ¬
ence of colour may accidentally happen to individuals
oi the fame fpecies. In the iflhmus of Darien, a fin-accidental
gular race of men has been difeovered.-—They are of cauies.
low Bature, of a feeble make, and incapable of endur¬
ing fatigue. Their colour is a dead milk white; not
refembling that of fair people among Europeans, but
without any bluffi or fanguine complexion. Their ikin
is covered with a fine hairy down of a chalky white ;
the hair of their heads, their eyebrows, and eyelaffies,
are of the fame hue. Their eyes are of a fingular
form, and fo wreak, that they can hardly bear the light
of the fun j but they fee clearly by moonlight, and
are mofl active and gay in the night. Among the ne¬
groes of Africa, as well as the natives of the Indian
iilands, a fmall number of thefe people are produced.
They are called Albinos by the Portuguefe, and Rac¬
ier lakes by the Dutch. ^ g,
I his race of men is not indeed permanent \ but it is C°lour no
fufficient to llrowq that mere colour is by no means the cbarafter-
chara&eriftic of a certain fpecies of mankind. The dif-
ference of colour in thefe individuals is undoubtedly fpecies;
owing to a natural caufe. To conffitute, then, a race
of men of this colour, it wrould only be neceflary that
this caufe, w hich at prefent is merely accidental, ffrould
become permanent, and we cannot know but it may be
fo in fome parts of the world. ’ ^
If a difference in colour is no characleriflic ofa dif- nor ftature.
ferent fpecies of mankind, much lefs can a difference
in Bature be thought fo. In the fouthern parts of A-
menca, there are faid to be a race of men exceeding
the common fize in height and Brength *. This ac- * See Pat**
count, however, is doubted of by fome : but be that^0"^
as it will, it is certain that the Efquimaux are as much
under the common fize, as the Patagonians are faid to
Da be
. ,89
Different
caufes con¬
tribute to¬
wards an
alteration
in colour.
A M E [2
Anjerica. be above it. Neverthelefs we are not to imagine, that
either of thefe are i’pecific ditferences "7 feeing the Lap¬
landers and Hungarians are both of the fame fpecies,
and yet the former are generally almoft a foot fhorter
than the latter ; and if a difference of climate, or other
accidental caufes, can make the people of one country
a foot fhorter than the common fize of mankind, un¬
doubtedly accidental caufes of a contrary nature may
make thofe of another country a foot taller than other
men.
Though the fun has undoubtedly a fliare in the pro-
duclion of the fwarthy colour of thofe nations which
are moft expofed to his influence 5 yet the manner of
living to which people are accuflomed, their victuals,
their employment, &c. muff contribute very much to
a difference of complexion. There ate fome kinds of
colouring roots, which if mixed with the food of cer¬
tain animals, will tinge even their bones of a yellow
colour. It cannot be thought any great degree of cre¬
dulity to infer from this, that if thefe roots wTere mixed
with the food of a ryhite man, they might, without a
miracle, tinge his fkin of a yellow colour. If a man and
woman were both to ufe food of this kind for a length
of time, till they became as it were radically dyed, it is
impoflible, without the intervention of divine power,
or of fome extraordinary natural caufe, but their chil¬
dren muff be of the fame colour : and was the fame
kind of food to be continued for feVeral generations,
it .is more than probable that this colour might refill
the continued ufe of any kind of food whatever. See
further the article Com r lex ion.
Of this indeed we have no examples, but we have
' an example of changes much more wonderful. It is
allowed on all hands, that it is more eafy to work a
change upon the body of a man, or any other animal,
than upon his mind. A man that is naturally cho¬
leric may indeed learn to prevent the bad effeCls of his
paflion by reafdn, but the paflion itfelf will remain as
immutable as his colour. But to reafon in a manlier
limilar to Lord Karnes •, though a man Ihould be na¬
turally choleric, or fubjeft to any other palTion, why
Ihould his children be fo r—This Way of reafoning,
however plaulible, is by ho means conclufive, as will
appear from the following paflage in Mr Forller’s
Voyage.
June 9th. “ The officers who could hot yet relilh
their fait provilions after the refrefhments of New Zea¬
land, had ordered their black dog* mentioned p. 135.
to be killed : this day, therefore, we dined for the firll
time on a leg of it roalled ) vffiich tailed fo exaftly
like mutton, that it was abfolutely undiilinguiih-
able. In our cold countries, where animal food is fo
much ufed, and where to be carnivorous perhaps lies
in the nature of men, or is indifpenfably heceflary to
the prefervation of their health and ilrength, it is
ftrange that there ihould exiil a Jewiili averfion to dogs
flcilu when hogs, the moil uncleanly of all animals,
are emen without fcruple. Nature feems exprefsly to
have intended them for this ufe, by making their off¬
spring fo very numerous, and their increafe fo quick
and frequent. It may be objefled, that the exalted
degree of intlinfl which we obferve in our dogs* in-
ipires us with great unwillingnefs to kill and eat them.
But it is owing to the time we fp£nd on the education
of dogs* that they acquire thofe eminent qualities
90
Habit ca¬
pable of al¬
tering the
inftindl of
animals.
Fsyage
round the
World,
vol. i.
p. 234.
S ] A M E
which attach them fo much to us. The natural qua- America,
lities of our dogs may receive a wmnderful improve- ' ^ v~*
ment •, but education mull give its affiilance, w ithout
which the human mind itfelf, though capable of an im-
meni’e expaniion, remains in a very contracled ilate.
In New Zealand, and (according to former accounts s
of voyages) in the tropical ifles of the South fea, the
dogs are the moil ilupid dull animals imaginable, and
do not feem to have the leail advantage in point of fa-
gacity over our ilieep, which are commonly made the
emblems of iillinefs. In the former country they are
fed upon fi!h, in the latter on vegetables, and both thefe
diets may have ferved to alter their difpofition. Edu¬
cation may perhaps likew’ffe graft newr initincls j the
Newr Zealand dogs are fed on the remains of their ma¬
iler’s meals ; they eat the bones of other dogs •, and the
puppies become true cannibals from their birth. We
had a young New Zealand puppy on board, which had
certainly had no opportunity of tailing any thing but
the mother’s milk before wTe purchafed it : how'ever,
it eagerly devoured a portion of the fleih and bones of
the dog on which we dined to-day 5 while feveral others
of the European breed taken on board at the Cape,
turned from it without touching it.
“ On the 4th of Auguil, a young bitch, of the ter- Ibid. p. 243*
rier breed, taken onboard at the Cape of Good Hope,
and covered by a fpaniel, brought ten young ones, one
of which was dead. The New Zealand dog mention¬
ed above, which devoured 'the bones of the roalled
dog, now fell upon the dead puppy, and ate of it wdth
a ravenous appetite. This is a proof how far education
may go in producing and propagating new inftindls in
animals. European dogs are never fed on the meat of
their own fpecies, but rather feem to abhor it. The
New Zealand dogs, in all likelihood, are trained up
from their earlieil age to eat the remains of their ma¬
iler’s meals : they are therefore ufed to feed upon fiih,
their own fpecies, and perhaps human ileih •, and what
was only owing to a habit at firil, may have become
initincl by length of time. This was remarkable in our
cannibal dog •, for he came on board fo young, that he
could not have been w'eaned long enough to have ac¬
quired a habit of devouring his own fpecies, and much
lefs of eating human fleih j however, one of our fea-
men having cut his finger, held it out to the dog*
who fell to greedily, licked it, and then began to
bite it.”
From this account it appears, that even the inilimffs
of animals are not unchangeable by natural caufes; and
if thefe caufes are powerful enough to change the diL
pofitions of fucceeding generations, much more may we
fuppofe them capable of making any poffible alteration
in the external appearance. ^
We are not here neceffitated to confine ourfelves tOQonfirme(j
obfervations made on brute animals. The Franks are by an obfer-
an example of the production of one general character, vation on
formed by fome natural caufe from a mixture of many1-*16 lranli'*
different nations.—They were a motley multitude,
cbnfiiling of various German nations dwelling beyond
the Rhine : who, uniting in defence of their common
liberty, took thence the name of Yranhs ; the word
frank fignifying in their language, as it Hill does in
ours, free. Among them the following nations were
mentioned, viz. the ACluarii, Chamavi, Brudleri, Sa-
Frifii, Chaufi, Amfwarii, and Catti. We cannot
fuppofe
*
A M E
[ 29 ]
A M E
92
Of the peo¬
pling of
America.
America, fuppofe one chara&er to belong to fo many different
*—-v—' nations; yet it is certain, that the Franks were na¬
tionally charaderized as treacherous; and fo deeply
feems this quality to have been rooted in their nature,
that their defcendants have not got quite free of it in
1500 years. It is in vain, then to talk of different
races of men, either from their colour, fize, or prevail¬
ing difpofitions, feeing we have undeniable proofs that
all thefe may be changed, in the mod remarkable _
manner, by natural caufes, without any miraculous in-
terpolition of the Deity.
The next queftion, then, which prefents itfelf is,
From what part of the old world America has mod
probably been peopled ?
Difcoveries long ago made inform us, that an inter-
courfe between the old continent and America might
be carried on with facility from the north wed extre¬
mities of Europe and the north-ead boundaries of A-
fia. In the ninth century the Norwegians difcovered
Greenland, and planted a colony there. The com¬
munication wnth that country was renewed in the lad
century by Moravian miffionaries, in order to propa¬
gate their doftrines in that bleak and uncultivated re¬
gion. By them we are informed that the north-wTed
coad of Greenland is feparated from America by a
very narrow drait 5 that at the bottom of the bay it is
highly probable that they are united ) that the Efqui-
maux of America perfe6Ily refemble the Greenlanders
in their afpeft, drefs, and mode of living •, and that a
Moravian miffionary, wTell acquainted with the lan-
A comma- guage of Greenland, having vidted the country of the
nication Efquimaux, found, to his adonidiment, that they fpoke
the'okf and the fame language with the Greenlanders* and were
new conti- in every refpetl the fame people. The lame fpecies of
animals, too, are found in the contiguous regions. The
bear, the wolf* the fox, the hare, the deer, the roe¬
buck, the elk, frequent the foreds of North America,
as well as thofe in the north of Europe.
Other difcoveries have proved, that if the two con¬
tinents of Afia and America be feparated at all, it is
only by a narrow drait. From this part of the old
continent, alfo, inhabitants may have paffed into the
newr ; and the refemblance between the Indians of A-
merica and the eadern inhabitants of Afia, woiild in¬
duce us to conjefture that they have a common origin.
This is the opinion adopted by Dr Robertfon in his Hi-
•* ffyiory o/dory of America *, wdiere we find it accompanied with
America, the following narrative.
“ While thofe immenfe regions which dretched ead-
ward from the river Oby to the fea of Kamtfchatka
were unknown, or imperfe&ly explored, the north-ead
extremities of our hemifphere w7ere fuppofed to be fo
far didant from any part of the new wmrld, that it
was not eafy to conceive how any communication fliould
have been carried on between them. But the Ruffians,
having fubjefted the wedern part of Siberia to their
empire, gradually extended their knowledge of that vad
country, by advancing towards the ead into unknown
provinces. Thefe wTere difcavered by hunters in theit
excurfions after game, or by foldiers employed in levy¬
ing the taxes * and the couit of Mofcow edimated the
importance of thofe countries only by the fmall addi¬
tion which they made to its revenue. At length, Pe¬
ter the Great afcended the Ruffian throne : His en-
93
nents by
two ways
vol.
P* 273-
lightened comprehenfive mind, intent upon every cir-
cumdance that could.aggrandife his empire, or render
his reign illudrious, difcerned confequences of thefe
difcoveries, which had efcaped the obfervation of his
ignorant predeceflots. He perceived that, in propor¬
tion as the regions of Afia extended towards the ead,
they mud approach nearer to America} that the com¬
munication between the continents, w’hich had long been
fearched for in vain, would probably be found in this
quarter ; and that, by opening this intercourfe, fome
part of the wealth and commerce of the wedern world
might be made to flow into his dominions by a new
channel. Such an objeft fuited a genius that delight¬
ed in grand fchemes. Peter drew up indruftions with
his own hands for profecuting this defign, and gave or¬
der’s for carrying it into execution.
“ His fucceffors adopted his ideas, and purfued his
plan. The officers whom the Ruffian court employed
in this fervice, had to druggie with fo many difficulties,
that their progrefs was extremely flow. Encouraged
by fome faint traditions among the people of Siberia
concerning a fuccefsful voyage in the year 1648 round
the north-ead promontory of Afia, they attempted to
follow" the fame courfe. Veffels w’fere fitted out, with
this viewq at different times, from the rivers Lena and
Kolyma j but in a frozen ocean, which nature feems
not to have dedined for navigation, they w’ere expofed
to many difaders, without being able to accomplifh
their purpofe. No veffel-fitted out by the Ruffian court
ever doubled this formidable cape; we are indebted for
w’hat is known of thofe extreme regions of Afia, to the
difcoveries made in excurfions by land. In all thofe
provinces, an opinion prevails, that countries of great
extent and fertility lie at no confiderable didance from
their own coaffs. Thefe the Ruffians imagined to be
part of America *, and feveral circumdances concurred
not only in confirming them in this belief, but in per-
fuading them that fome portion of that continent could
not be very remote. Trees of various kinds, unknowm
in thofe naked regions of Afia, are driven upon the
coad by an eaderly wind. By the fame wind floating
ice is brought thither in a few days •, flights of birds
arrive annually from the fame quarter j and a tradition
obtains among the inhabitants, of an intercourfe for¬
merly carried on with fome countries fituated to the
ead.
“ After weighing all thefe particulars, and compar¬
ing the pofition of the countries in Afia which they
had difcovered, with fuch parts in the north-wed of A-
merica as were already known ^ the Ruffian court form¬
ed a plan, which would have hardly occurred to any
nation lefs accudomed to engage in arduous underta¬
kings and to contend with great difficulties. Orders
were iffued to build two veffels at Ochotz, in the
fea of Kamtfchatka, to fail on a voyage of difcovery.
Though that dreary uncultivated region furnifhed no¬
thing that could be of ufe in conflrucling them but
fome larch trees : though not only the iron, the cord¬
age, the fails, and all the numerous articles requifite
for their equipment, but the provifions for vidhialling
them, w?ere to be carried through the immenfe deferts
of Siberia, along rivers of difficult navigation, and roads
almod impaffabk, the mandfte of the fovereign, and
the perfeverance of the people, at laft furmounted every
obftacle. Two veffels were finiftied j and, under the
command?
America.
America.
A M E
the two
continents
to have
been once
joined.
C°m,man<3 of the captains Behring and Tfchirikow, fail-
e horn Kamtichatka in queft of the new world, in
a quarter where it had never been approached. They
fliaped their courfe towards the eaft ; and though a ftorm
loon leparated the veffels, which never rejoined, and
many difalters befel them, the expeftations from the
voyage were not altogether fr ultra ted. Each of the
commanders difeovered land, which to them appeared
to be part of the American continent 5 and, according
to their obfervations, it feems to be fituated within a
few degrees of the north-weft coaft of California. Each
fet fome of his people alhore : but in one place the in¬
habitants ded as the Ruflians approached 5 in another,
they carried off thofe who landed, and deftroyed their
boats. The violence of the weather, and the diftrefs of
their crews, obliged both to quit this inhofpitable coaft.
In their return they touched at feveral iflands, which
ft retch in a chain from eaft to weft between the country
which they had difeovered and the coaft of Alia. They
had fome intercourle with the natives, who feemed to
them to referable the North Americans. They pre¬
sented to the Ruffians the calumet, or pipe of peace
which is a fymbol of friendlhip univerfal among the’
people.of North America, and a ufage of arbitrary
inftitution peculiar to them.”
Aeafons for The more recent and accurate difeoveries of the il-
fuppofing luftrious navigator Cook, and his fucceffor Clerke,
have brought the matter ftill nearer to certainty. The
fea., from the fouth of Behring’s ftraits to the crefcent
of illes between Afia and America, is very lhallow. It
deepens from thefe.ftraits (as the Britilh feas do from
thofe of Dover) till foundings are loft in the Pacific
ocean ; but that does not take place but to the fouth
of the illes. Between them and the ftraits is an in-
creafe from twelve to fifty-four fathom, except only off
St 1 haddeus Nofs, where there is a channel of greater
depth. From the volcanic difpofition, it has been
judged probable, not only that there was a feparation
of the continents at the ftraits of Behring, but that the
whole fpace from the ifles to that fmall opening had
once been occupied by land ; and that the fury of the
■watery element, a&uated by that of fire, had, in molt
remote times, fubverted and overwhelmed the tradi, and
left the illands monumental fragments.
Without adopting all the fancies of Buffon, there
theirfubfe- Can ^ no dmibt, as the Abbe Clavigero obferves, that
quent fepa'- our Planet ^as been fubjeft to great viciff tudes, fince
ration. the deluge. Ancient and modern hiftories confirm the
truth which Ovid has fung in the name of Pythagoras :
F/Weo ego quod fuerat quondam folidijfima teiius,
fffe freturn ; vidi faflas ex cequore terras.
At prefent they plough thofe lands over which ffips
formerly failed, and now they fail over lands which
were formerly cultivated ; earthquakes have fwallowed
fome lands, and fubterraneous fires have thrown up
others: the rivers have formed new foil with their
mud ; the fea retreating from the fhores has lengthen¬
ed the land in fome places, and advancing in others
has diminilhed it j it has feparated fome territories
which were formerly united, and formed new ftraits
and gulfs. We have examples of all thefe revolutions
in the paft century. Sicily was united to the con¬
tinent of Naples, as the iiland Euboea to Bceo-
tia. Diodorus, Strabo, and other ancient authors, fay
[ 30 ]
A M E
95
Probable
eaufe of
the. fame thing of Spain and Africa, and affirm, that by America-
a violent irruption of the ocean upon the land between ' v 
the mountains Abyla and Calpe, that communication
was broken, and the Mediterranean fea was formed.
Among the people of Ceylon there is a tradition that
a fimilar irruption of the fea feparated their ifiand from
the penmfula of India. The fame thing is believed by
thofe of Malabar with refpeft to the ifles of Maldivia,
and with the Malayans with refped to Sumatra. It
is certain, fays the count de Buffon, that in Ceylon the
earth has loft thirty or forty leagues, which the fea has
taken from it 5 on the contrary, Tongres, a place of
the Low Countries, has gained 30 leagues of land from
the fea. The northern part of Egypt owes its exift-
cnce ^0 inundations of the Nile. The earth which
this river has brought from the inland countries of A-
frica, and depofited in its inundations, has formed a
foil of more than 25 cubits in depth. In like manner,
adds the above author, the province of the Yellow
River in China, and that of Louifiana, have only been
formed of the mud of rivers. Pliny, Seneca, Diodorus,
and Strabo, report innumerable examples of fimilar re¬
volutions, which wre omit, that our differtation may not
become too prolix 5 as alio many modern revolutions,
which are related in the theory of the earth of the
count de Buffon and other authors. In South Ameri¬
ca, all .thofe who have obferved with philofophic eyes
the peninfula of Yucatan, do not doubt that that coun¬
try has once been the bed of the fea ; and, on the con¬
trary, in the channel of Bahama many indications fliow
the Aland of Cuba to have been once united to the
continent of Florida. In the ftrait which feparates
America from Afia many iflands are found, which
probably were the mountains belonging to that trad! of
land which wre fuppofe to have been fwallowed up by
earthquakes ; w hich is made more probable by the
multitude of volcanoes which w-e know of in the penin-
fula of Kamtfchatka. It is imagined, however, that the
finking of that land, and the feparation of the two
continents, has been occafioned by thofe great and ex¬
traordinary earthquakes mentioned in the hiftories of
the Americans, which formed an era almoft as memo¬
rable as that of the deluge. The hiftories of the Tol-
tecas fix fuch earthquakes in the year I Tecpatl; but
as we know not to wdiat century that belonged, we can
form no conje&ure of the time that great calamity
happened. If a great earthquake ffiould overwhelm
the ifthmus of Suez, and there ffiould be at the fame
time as great a fcarcity of hiftorians as there w’ere in
the firft ages after the deluge, it wmuld be doubted,
in .300 or 400 years after, whether Afia had ever been
united by that part to Africa ; and many wfould firmly
deny it. . ^
Whether that great event, the feparation of the SeParat(“d
continents, took place before or after the population ofonly a
America, is as impoffble as it is of little moment for us^aitT
to know ; but we are indebted to the above-mentioned
navigators for fettling the long difpute about the point
from which it was effedfed. Their obfervations prove,
that in one place the diftance between continent and
continent is only 39 miles, not (as the author of the
Recherches Philofophiques fur les fmericams would have ^
it) 800 leagues. This narrow ftrait has alfo in theEafmefsof
middle two iflands, which would greatly facilitate the tlie Pelage
migration of the Afiatics into the new world, fuppo-|j^een
fing
A M E
[ 3
98
Conjec¬
tures con-
the new
continent.
, 99
Mr Pen-
America. fing that it took place In canoes after tke convulfion
which rent the two continents afunder. Befides, it may¬
be added, that thefe ftraits are, even in the fummer,
often filled with ice } in winter, often frozen. In ei¬
ther cafe mankind might find an eafy palfage ; in the
laft, the' way was extremely ready for quadrupeds to
crofs and flock the continent of America. But where,
from the vafl expanfe of the north-eaftem world, to fix
on the firft tribes who contributed to people the new
continent, now inhabited almoft from end to end, is a
matter that baffles human reafon. The learned may
make bold and ingenious conjectures, but plain good
fenfe cannot always accede to them.
As mankind increafed in numbers, they naturally
^ protruded one another forward. Wars might be ano-
firflTmigra- t^ier cau^e migrations. There appears no reafon
tions into why the Afiatic north might not be an officina vironmi,
as well as the European. The overteeming country,
to the eaft of the Riphaean mountains, muft find it ne-
ceflary to difcharge its inhabitants: the firit great wave
of people was forced forward by the next to it, more
tumid and more powerful than itfelf; fucceffive and
new impulfes continually arriving, fhort reft wras given
to that wrhich fpread over a more eaftern tract ; dif-
turbed again and again, it covered frefh regions; at
length, reaching the fartheft limits of the old w7orld,
found a new one, with ample fpace to occupy unmo-
lefted for ages; till Columbus curled them by a difco-
very, which brought again new fins and new deaths to
both worlds.
“ The inhabitants of the new wTorld (Mr Pennant
nant s opi- obferves) do not confift of the offspring of a fingle na¬
tion ; different peoples, at feveral periods, arrived there 5
and it is impoftible to fay, that any one is now to be
found on the original fpot of its colonization. It is
impoffible, with the lights which we have fo recently
received, to admit that America could receive its in¬
habitants (at leaft the bulk of them) from any other
place than eaftern Alia. A few proofs may be added,
taken from cuftoms or dreffes common to the inhabi¬
tants of both wrorlds ; fome have been long extimft in
the old, others remain in both in full force.
“ The cuftom of fcalping was a barbarifm in ufe
bitants pro- t^ie Scythians, who carried about them at all times
hably firft favage mark of triumph : they cut a circle round
received the neck, and ftripped off the ikin, as they wrould that
from the of an ox. A little image found among the Calmucks,
of Aha ^art a 'I'artar^an deity, mounted on a horfe, and fitting
on a human Ikin, with fcalps pendent from the breaft,
fully illuftrates the cuftom of their Scythian progeni¬
tors, as defcribed by the Greek hiftorian. 'Phis ufage,
as the Europeans know by horrid experience, is conti¬
nued to this day in America. The ferocity of the
Scythians to their prifoners extended to the remotert
part of Alla. The Kamtfchatkans, even at the time
of their difcovery by the Ruffians, put their prifoners
to death by the moft lingering and excruciating inven¬
tions ; a practice in full force to this very day among
the aboriginal Americans. A face of the Scythians
were ftyled Anthropophagi, from their feeding on hu¬
man flelh. The people of Nootka Sound ftill make
a repait on their fellowr-creatures : but what is more
wonderful, the lavage allies of the Britilh army have
been known to throw the mangled limbs of the French
America.
roe
The bulk
of its inha-
TOI
Proofs
from a li-
milarity of
cuftoms,
&c.
i ] A M E
prifoners into the horrible caldron, and devour them
with the fame relilh as thofe of a quadruped. '“—'N
“ The Scythians were faid, for a certain time, an¬
nually to transform themfelves into wolves, and again
to refume the human lhape. The new-difcovcred A-
mericans about Nootka Sound at this time difguife
themfelves in dreffes made of the Ikins of wolves and
other wild beafts, and wear even the heads fitted to
their own. Thefe habits they ufe in the chafe, to
circumvent the animals of the field. But would not
ignorance or fuperftition afcribe to a fupernatural me-
tamorphofis thefe temporary expedients to deceive the
brute creation ?
“ In their marches, the Kamtfchatkans never went Cuftom
abreaft, but. followed one another in the fame track, and drelRs
The fame cuftom is .exactly obferved by the Ameri-comiT1Cin to
cans. t^ie eaftern
“ The Tungufi, the moft numerous nation refident (he Ameri-
in Siberia, prick their faces with fmall punftures, wdth cans,
a needle, in various lhapes 5 then rub into them char¬
coal, fo that the marks become indelible. This cuftom
is ftill obferved in feveral parts of America. The In¬
dians on the back of Hudfon’s bay, to this day, per¬
form the operation exactly in the fame manner, and
pundture the Ikin into various figures 5 as the natives
of New Zealand do at prefent, and as the ancient Bri¬
tons did with the herb glaftum, or woad; and the
Virginians, on the firft difcovery of that country by the
Englifh.
“ The Tungufi ufe canoes made of birch bark,
diftended over ribs of wood, and nicely fewed to¬
gether. The Canadians, and many other Ameri¬
can nations, ufe no other fort of boats. The paddles
of the Tungufi are broad at each end 5 thofe of the ^
people near Cook’s river, and of Oonalafcha, are of
the fame form.
“ In burying of the dead, many of the American'
nations place the corpfe at full length, after preparing
it according to their cuftoms; others place it in a fit¬
ting pofture, and lay by it the moft valuable clothing,
wampum, and other matters. The Tartars did the
fame ; and both people agree in covering the whole'
with earth, fo as to form a tumulus, barrow, or car-
nedd.
“ Some of the American nations hang their dead'
in trees. Certain of the Tungufi obferve a fimilar cu¬
ftom.
“ We can draw fome analogy from drefs : conveni-
ency in that article muft have been confulted on both-
continents, and originally the materials muft have been
the fame, the Ikins of birds and beafts. It is fingular,
that the conic bonnet of the Chinefe fliould be found'
among the people of Nootka. I cannot give into the
notion, that the Chinefe contributed to the population
of the new world ; but we can readily admit, thatr
a (hipwreck might furnifli thofe Americans with a pat¬
tern for that part of the drefs. 10„
In refpecl to the features and form of the human Other re--
body, almoft every tribe found along the weftern coaft fembiance’•
has fome fimilitude to the Tartar nations, and ftill
retain the little eyes, fmall nofes, high cheeks, and
broad faces. They vary in fize, from the lufty Cal¬
mucks to the little Nogaians. The internal Ameri¬
cans, fuch as the Five Indian nations, who are tall of
body,,
A M E f 3
America, body, robuft of make, and of oblong faces, are derlv-
•"—■'v ' ed from a variety among the Tartars themielves. 'Fhe
fine race of Tfchutiki feem to be the flock from which
thofe Americans are derived. The Tfchutfki, again,
from that fine race of Tartars the Kabardinlki, or in¬
habitants of Kabarda.
“ But about P-rince William’s found begins a race
chiefly diilinguiihed by their drefs, their canoes, and
their inftruments of the chafe, from the tribes to the
fouth of them. Here commences the Efquimaux peo¬
ple, or the race known by that name in the high la¬
titudes of the eaftern fide of the continent. They may
be divided into two varieties. At this place they are
of the largeft fize. As they advance northward, they
decreafe in height, till they dwindle into the dwarfifh
tribes which occupy fome of the coafts of the Icy fea,
and the maritime parts of Hudfon’s bay, of Greenland,
and Terra de Labrador. The famous Japanefe map,
places fome iilands feemingly within the flraits of Beh¬
ring, on which is bellowed the title of Ya Sue, or the
Kingdom of the Dwarfs. Does not this in fome man¬
ner authenticate the chart, and give us reafon to fup-
pofe that America was not unknown to the Japanefe }
and that they had (as is mentioned by Kaempfer and
Charlevoix) made voyages of difcovery, and accord¬
ing to the lafl, a finally wintered on the continent ?
That they might have met with the Efquimaux is very
probable : whom, in comparifon of themfelves, they
might juftly dillinguifh by the name of dwarfs. The
reafon of their low ilature is very obvious: thefe
dwell in a molt fevere climate, amidft penury of food ;
the former in one much more favourable, abundant in
provifions ; circumftances that tend to prevent the de¬
generacy of the human frame. At the ifland of Oona-
lafcha, a dialefl of the Efquimaux is in ufe, which was
continued along the v/hole coaft from thence north-
■vyard.”
The continent which flocked America with the hu¬
man race poured in the brute creation through the
  fame paffage. Very few quadrupeds continued in the
by the fame peninfula of Kamfchatka , Mr Pennant enumerates
jroute' only 25 which are inhabitants of land : all the reft -
perfifted in their migration, and fixed their refidence
in the new world. Seventeen of the Kamtfchatkan
quadrupeds are found in America : others are common
only to Siberia or Tartary, having, for unknown
caufes, entirely evacuated Kamtfchatka, and divided
themfelves between America and the parts of Afia
above cited. Multitudes again have fleferted the old
world even to an individual, and fixed their feats at
diftances moft remote from the fpot from which they
took their departure; from Mount Ararat, the refting-
place of the ark, in a central part of the old world,
and excellently adapted for the difperfion of the ani¬
mal creation to all its parts. We need not be ftartled
(fays Mr Pennant) at the vaft journeys many of the
quadrupeds took to arrive at their prefent feats. Might
not numbers of fpecies have found a convenient abode
in the vaft Alps of Afia, inftead of wandering to the
Cordilleras of Chili ? or might not others have been
contented with the bovmdlefs plains of Tartary, in¬
ftead of travelling thoufa,nds of miles to the extenfive
fiats of Pampas ?—To endeavour to elucidate common
difficulties is certainly a trouble worthy of the philo-
104
The brute
creation
migrated
2 ] AM E
fopher and of the divine j not to attempt it would be America,
a criminal indolence, a neglect to
Vindicate the ways of God to man.
But there are multitudes of points beyond the human
ability to explain, and yet are truths undeniable : the
fafts are indifputable, notwithftanding the caufes are
concealed. In fuch cafes, faith mull be called in to
our relief. It would certainly be the height of folly
to deny to that Being who broke open the fountains
of the great deep to effefl the deluge-—and after¬
wards, to compel the difperfion of mankind to peo¬
ple the globe, direfled the confufion of languages—
powers inferior in their nature to thefe. After thefe
wondrous proofs of Omnipotency, it will be abfurd to
deny the poffibility of infufing inftindl into the brute
creation. Deus ejl anitna brutorurn ; “ God himfelf is
the foul of brutesHis pleafure muft have determined
their will, and dire fled feveral fpecies, and even whole
genera, by impulfe irrefiftible, to move by flow pro-
greffion to their deftined regions. But for that, the
lama and the pacos might ftill have inhabited the heights
of Armenia and fome more neighbouring Alps, in¬
ftead of labouring to gain the dillant Peruvian Andes j
the whole genus of armadillos, flow of foot, would
never have quitted the torrid zone of the old world
for that of the new •, and the whole tribe of monkeys
would have gamboled together in the forefts of India,
inftead of dividing their refidence between the ffiades
of Indoftan and the deep forefts of the Brafils. Lions
and tigers might have infefted the hot parts of the
new world, as the firft do the deferts of Africa, and
the laft the provinces of Afia } or the pantherine ani¬
mals of South America might have remained addition-
al fcourges with the favage beafts of thofe ancient con¬
tinents. The old world would have been overftocked
with animals; the new remained an unanimated wafte!
or both have contained an equal portion of every beait
of the earth. Let it not be obje&ed, that animals
bred in a fouthern climate, after the defcent of their
parents from the ark, would be unable to bear the froll
and fnow of the rigorous north, before they reached
South America, the place of their final deftination.
It mnft be confidered, that the migration muft have
been the work of ages j that in the courfe of their
progrefs each generation grew hardened to the climate
it had reached-, and that after their arrival in America,
they would again be gradually accuftomed to “w armei
and warmer climates, in their removal from north to
fouth, as they had been in the reverfe, or from fouth to
north. Part of thejigers ftill inhabit the eternal fnows
of Ararat 5 and mulfiWdqs of the very fame fpecies live,
but with exalted rage, beneath the line, in the burning
foil of Borneo or Sumatra but neither lions nor tigers
ever migrated into the new world. A few of the firft
are found in India and Perfia, but they are found in
numbers only in Africa. The tiger extends as far
north as Weftern Tartary, in lat. 40. 50. but never has
reached Africa.”
In fine, the conjeaures of the learned refpeamg
the vicinity of the old and new worlds, are now, by the
difeoveries of our great navigators, loft in conviction
and in the place of imaginary hypotheses, the real
place of migration is inccntrovertibly pointed out.
A M E
t 33 1
A M E
America. Some (from a paffage in Plato) have extended over the
Atlantic, from the ftraits of Gibraltar to the coaft
of North and South America, an itland equal in fize
to the continents of Afia and Africa j over which had
palled, as over a bridge, from the latter, men and ani¬
mals, woolly-headed negroes, and lions and tigers, none
of which ever exifted in the new world. A mighty
fea arofe, and in one day and night engulfed this
ftupendous traft, and wdth it every being which had
not completed its migration into America. The whole
negro race, and almofl every quadruped, now inhabi¬
tants of Africa, perilhed in this critical day. Five
only are to be found at prefent in America \ and of
thefe only one, the bear, in South America : Not a
fingle cuftom, common to the natives of Africa and
America, evince a common origin. Of the qua¬
drupeds, the bear, flag, wolf, fox* and' weafel, are
the only animals which wTe can pronounce writh cer¬
tainty to be found on each continent. The Hag, fox',
and weafel, have made alfo no farther progrefs in
Africa than the north j but on the fame continent the
wolf is fpread over every part, yet is unknown in
South America, as are the fox and wreafel. In Africa
and South America the bear is very local, being met
with only in the north of the firfl, and on the Andes
in the laft. Some caufe unknowm arrefted its progrefs
in Africa, and impelled the migration of a few into
the Chilian Alps, and induced them to leave unoccu¬
pied the vail trad! from North America to the lofty
105 Cordilleras.
Remains of Allufions have often been made to fome remains, on
ri^Amerr. t^le continent °f America, of a more polifhed and cul-
ca, tivated people, when compared with the tribes which
poflefled it on its firfl: difcovery by Europeans. Mr
Barton, in his Obfervations on fame parts of 'Natural
Hiflory, Part I. has collefted the flattered hints of
Kalm, Carver, and fome others, and has added a plan
of a regular work, which has been diflovered oh the
banks of the Mulkingum, near its junftion wdth the
Ohio. Thefe remains are principally ftone wralls, large
mounds of earth, and a combination of thefl mounds
with the wTalls, fufpeifted to have been fortifications. In
iome places the ditches and the fortrefs are faid to
have been plainly feen : in others, furnrws, as if the
land had been ploughed.
The mounds of earth are of two kinds : they are
artificial tumuli, defigned as repofitories for the dead j
or they are of a greater fize, for the purpofe of defend¬
ing the adjacent country ; and with this view they are
artificially conftrudled, or advantage is taken of the
natural eminences, to raife them into a fortification.
The remains near the banks of the Mufkingum, are
fituated about one mile above the junction of that river
with the Ohio, and 160 miles below Fort Pitt. They
confift of a number of walls and other elevations, of
ditches, &c. altogether occupying a fpace of ground
about 300 perches in length, and from about I <fO to
25 or 20 in breadth. The town, as it has been called,
is a large level, encompafled by walls, nearly in the
form of a fquare, the fides of which are from 96 to 86
perches in length. The A walls are, in general, about
10 feet in height above the level on which they ftand,
and about 20 feet in diameter at the bafe, but at the
top they are much narrower •, they are at prefent
overgrown with vegetables of different kinds, and,
Vol.II. Parti.
among others, with trees of flveral feet diameter. America.
The chafms, or openings in the walls, were probably ' 1 y ^
intended for gateways : they are three in number at
each fide, befides the fmaller openings in the angles.
Within the wTalls there are three elevations, each about
fix feet in height, with regular aflents to them : thefe
elevations confiderably referable fome of the eminences
already mentioned, which have been difcovered near
the river Miflifiippi. This author’s opinion is, That the
Toltecas, or fome other Mexican nation, were the peo¬
ple to whom the mounts and fortifications, wdrich he
has defcribed, owe their exiftence} and that thofe
people were probably the defcendants of the Danes.
The former part of this conjefture is thought proba¬
ble, from the fimilarity of the Mexican mounts and
fortifications defcribed by the Abbe Clavigero, and
other authors, to thofe deflribed by our author ; and
from the tradition of the Mexicans, that they came
from the north-weft 5 for, if we can rely on the tefti-
mony of late travellers, fortifications fimilar to thofe
mentioned by Mr Barton, have been difcovered as far
to the north as Lake Pepin 5 and we find them, as we
approach to the fouth, even as low as the coafts of
Florida. The fecond part of our author’s conjedhire
appears not fo well fupported. 106
It is believed by many, that the ancients had fome ^ie anci-
imperfeft notions of a new world ; and flveral ancient
authors are quoted in confirmation of this. In a book have },&cj
afcribed to the philofopher Ariftotle, we are told that fome im-
the Carthaginians difcovered an iiland far beyond the perfect no¬
pillars of Hercules, large, fertile, and finely watered
with navigable rivers, but uninhabited. This ifland
was diftant a few days failing from the continent; its
beauty induced the difloverers to fettle there ; but the
policy of Carthage diflodged tins colony, and laid ftridl
prohibition on all the fubjedts of the ftate not to at¬
tempt any future eftabliftunent. This account is alfo
confirmed by an hiftorian of no mean credit, who re¬
lates, that the Tyrians would have fettled a colony on
the new diflovered ifland, but were oppofed by the
Carthaginians for flate reafons. The following paffage
has alfo been quoted from Seneca’s Medea, in confirma¬
tion of this notion.
 Venient annis
Sircula fens, quibus oceanus
Vincula rcrum laxet, et ingens
Patent tellus, Typhifque novas
Delegat orbes ; nee ft terns
Ultima Thule. 
Act. III. ver. 375.
Other authors are alfo quoted in fupport of this be¬
lief. But however this may be, nobody ever believed
the exiftence of this continent fo firmly as to go in queft
of it *, at leaft, there are no accounts well fupported
that America received any part of its firft inhabitants I0^
from Europe prior to the 15th century. The Welfh Pretenfions
fondly imagine that our country contributed, in 1170,
to people the new world, by the adventure of Madoc,
fon of Owen Gwynedd, who, on the death of his fa-very of A-
ther, failed there, and colonized part of the country, merica in -
All that is advanced in proof is, a quotation from one I2t^
of our poets, which proves no more than that he hadce“tu1'*
diftinguiftied himfelf by fea and land. It is pretended
that he made two voyages: that failing weft, he left
E Ireland
A M E [ 34 ] A M E
America.
108
Thofe of
the Nor¬
wegians
better
founded.
Ireland fo far to the north, that he came to a land un¬
known, where he faw many ilrange things j that he re¬
turned home, and, making a report of the fruitfulnefs
of the new-difcovered country, prevailed on numbers of
the Wellh of each fex to accompany him on a fecond
voyage, from which he never returned. The favourers
of this opinion afiert, that feveral Welih words, fuch as
gvorando, “ to hearken or liilen the ifle of Crcefo,
or “ welcome Cape Breton, from the name of our
own ifland ; gwynndwr, or “ the white water and
penguin, or “ the bird with a white head j” are to be
found in the American language. But likenefs of
found in a few wTords will not be deemed fufficient to
elfabliili the fa£l; efpecially if the meaning has been
evidently perverted : for example, the whole penguin
tribe have unfortunately not only black heads, but are
not inhabitants of the northernJremifphere; the name
was alfo bellowed on them by the Dutch, a pinguedine,
from their exceffive fatnefs ) but the inventor of this,
thinking to do honour to our country, inconfiderately
caught at a wmrd of European origin, and unheard of
in the new w’orld. It may be added, that the Wellh
were never a naval people j that the age in w7hich Ma-
doc lived wras peculiarly ignorant in navigation j and
the moll which they could have attempted muft have
been a mere coafting voyage.
The Norwegians put in for a {hare of the glory, on
grounds rather better than the Welfh. By their fettle-
ments in Iceland and in Greenland, they had arrived
within fo fmall a diifance of the new world, that there
is at leaft a poffibility of its having been touched at by
a people fo verfed in maritime affairs, and fo adventu¬
rous, as the ancient Nortmans wrere. The proofs are
much more numerous than thofe produced by the Bri-
tilh hiftorians ; for the difcovery is mentioned in feve¬
ral of the Icelandic manufcripts. The period wTas
about tlie year 1002, when it v'as vifited by one Biorn;
and the difcovery purfued to greater elfe£f by Lief, the
fon of Eric, the difcoverer of Greenland. It does not
appear that they reached farther than Labrador j on
which coaft they met with Efquimaux, on whom they
bellowed the name of Skrcclingues, or dwarfifh people,
from their fmall ftature. They were armed with bow^s
and arrows, and had leathern canoes, fuch as they have
at prefent. All this is probable ; nor (hould the tale
of the German, called Turkil, one of the crew, invali¬
date the account. He was one day miffing \ but foon
returned, leaping and finging with all the extravagant
marks of joy a bon vivant could {how, on difcovering
the inebriating fruit of his country, the grape : Tor-
fseus even fays, that he returned in a {late of intoxica¬
tion. To convince his commander, he brought feveral
bunches, who from that circumftance named the coun¬
try Vinland. It is not to be denied that North Ame¬
rica produces the true vine •, but it is found in far lower
latitudes than our adventurers could reach in the time
employed in their voyage, which was comprehended in
a very fmall fpace. There appears no reafon to doubt
of the difcovery, but as the land was never colonized,
nor any advantages made of it, it may be fairly con-
je&ured, that they reached no iarther than the barren
country of Labrador. In fhort, it is from a much later
period that we mull date the real difcovery of Ame¬
rica.
Towards tlje clofe of the 15th century, Venice and
Genoa being rivals in commerce, in wdiich the former America,
had greatly the fuperiority, Chriftopher Columbus, a v——'
native of Genoa, w'hofe knowledge of the true figure
the earth, however attained, w as much fuperior to the yry ^f0-
general notions of the age in which he lived, conceived
a project of failing to the Eaft Indies by directing his Columbus,
courfe weftward. The defign was founded upon a
miftake of the geographers of thofe days, who placed
the eaftern parts of Alia immenfely too far to the eaft-
ward j fo that had they been in the right, the Ihorteft
way would have been to fail dire&ly weftward. He
applied firft to his own countrymen 5 but being reject¬
ed by them, he applied to France, where he was laugh¬
ed at and ridiculed. He next applied to Henry VII.
of England j but meeting with a difappointment there
he made an application to Portugal, where he met with
the fame mortifying reception. Spain wTas his next re-
fource ; where, after eight years attendance, he obtain¬
ed, in 1492, a tleet of three fliips. The largeft, a {hip
of no confiderable burden, was commanded by Colum¬
bus as admiral, wdio gave it the name of Santa Maria,
out of refpeft for the bleffed Virgin, whom he honour¬
ed with lingular devotion. Of the fccond, called the
Pinta, Martin Pinzon was captain, and his brother
Francis pilot. The third, named the Nigna, wTas un¬
der the command of Vincent Yanez Pinzon. Thefe
two were light velfels, hardly fuperior in burden or
force to large boats. This fquadron, if it merits that
name, was victualled for 12 months, and had on board
90 men, moftly failors, together with a few adventurers
who followed the fortune of Columbus, and fome gen¬
tlemen of Ifabella’s court, whom lire appointed to ac¬
company him. Though the expence of the underta¬
king was one of the circumftances which chiefly a-
larmed the court of Spain, and retarded fo long the
negotiation with Columbus, the fum employed in fit¬
ting out this fquadron did not exceed 4OC0I. But as
Columbus w7as deeply impreffed with fentiments of re¬
ligion, he would not fet out upon an expedition fo ar¬
duous, and of which one great objedl wras to extend the
knowledge of the Chriftian faith, without imploring
publicly the guidance and proteftion of Heaven. With
this view7, he, together with all the perfons under his
command, marched in folemn proceflion to the mo-
naftery of Rabida. After confefling their fins, and
obtaining abfolution, they received the holy facrament
from the hands of the guardian, who joined his prayers
to theirs for the fuccefs of an enterprife wdiich he had
fo zealoufly patroniied. iiq
Next morning, being Friday the third day of Au-jjis voyage,
guft, in the year 1492, Columbus fet fail a little be¬
fore funrife, in prefence of a vaft crowd of fpe£lators,
who fent up their fupplications to Heaven for the prof-
perous iffue of the voyage, which they wiftied rather
than expedted. Columbus fleered directly for the Ca¬
nary iilands, and arrived there without any occurrence
that wrould have deferved notice on any other occafion :
but in a voyage of fuch expectation and importance,
every circumftance was the objedt of attention. The
rudder of the Pinta broke loofe the day after {he left
the harbour, and that accident alarmed the Crew, no
lefs fuperftitious than unlkilful, as a certain omen of
the unfortunate deftiny of the expedition. Even in
the fhort run to the Canaries, the {hips wrere found to
fce fo crazjt and iil appointed, as to be very improper
A M E [ 35 J A M E
^rnsricft. for a navigation which was expe&ed to be both long
'‘■“—'V""”' and dangerous. Columbus refitted them, however, to
the bed of his power *, and having iupplied himfelf with
freih provifions, he took his departure from Gomera,
one of the moil w'efterly of the Canary iflands, on the
fixth day of September.
Here the voyage of difcovery may properly be faid
to begin ; for Columbus, holding his courfe due weft,
left immediately the ufual track of navigation, and
ftretched into unfrequented and unknown feas. The
fir ft day, as it was very calm, he made but little way $
but on the fecond, he loft fight of the Canaries; and
many of the faiiors, dejefled already and difmayed,
when they contemplated the boldnefs of the undertak¬
ing, began to beat their breafts, and to ftied tears, as
if they wrere never more to behold land. Columbus
comforted them with affiirances of fuccefs, and the
profpect of vaft wealth, in thofe opulent regions whi¬
ther he was conducing them. He regulated every
thing by his foie authority ; he fuperintended the exe¬
cution of every order j and allowing himfelf only a few
hours for deep, he v'as at all other times upon deck.
As his courfe lay through feas which had not former¬
ly been vifited, the founding line or inftruments for
obfervation, were continually in his hands. After the
example of the Portuguefe difcoverers, he attended to
the motion of tides and currents, watched the flight of
birds, the appearance of fifties, of fea-weeds, and of eve¬
ry thing that floated on the waves, and entered every
occurrence with a minute exaclnefs, in the journal
which he kept. As the length of the voyage could
not fail of alarming faiiors habituated only to fhort ex-
curfions, Columbus endeavoured to conceal from them
the real progrefs which they made. With this view,
though they run 18 leagues on the fecond day after
they left Gomera, he gave out that they had advanced
only 15 : and he uniformly employed the fame artifice
of reckoning ftiort during the whole voyage. By the
14th of September, the fleet was above 200 leagues to
the weft of the Canary ifles, at a greater diftance from
111 land than any Spaniard had been before that time.
Aftonifli- There they were ftruck with an appearance no lefs
ment occa- aftonifhing than new. They obferved that the magnetic
Coned by needle, in their compafles, did not point exactly to the
thVvaria P°*ar ^ar> ^ut varie(l towards the weft ; and as they
'tion of the proceeded this variation increafed. This appearance,
compafs. which is now familiar, though it ftill remains one of the
myfteries of nature, into the caufe of which the faga-
city of man hath not been able to penetrate, filled the
companions of Columbus with terror. They were now
in a boundlefs unknown ocean, far from the ufual courfe
of navigation ; nature itfelf feemed to be altered, and
the only guide which they had left was about to fail
them. Columbus, with no lefs quicknefs than inge¬
nuity, invented a reafon for this appearance, which,
though it did not fatisfy himfelf, feemed fo plaufible
to them, that it difpelled their fears, or filenced their
murmurs.
He ftill continued to fteer due -weft, nearly in the
fame latitude with .the Canary iflands. In this courfe
he came within the fphere of the trade wind, which
blows invariably from eaft to weft between the tropics,
And a few degrees beyond them. He advanced before
this fteady gale with fuch uniform rapidity, that it was
feidom neceiTary to flu ft a fail. When about 460 leagues America,
to the weft of the Canaries, he found the fea fo cover-
ed with weeds, that it relembled a meadow of vaft ex¬
tent j and in fome places they were fo thick as to re¬
tard the motion of the vefiels. This ftrange appear¬
ance occafioned new alarm and difquiet. The faiiors
imagined that they were now arrived at the utmoft
boundary of the navigable ocean 5 that thefe floating
weeds would obftruft their farther progrefs, and con¬
cealed dangerous rocks, or fome large tracft of land,
which had funk, they knewr not how, in that place.
Columbus endeavoured to perfuade them, that what had
alarmed, ought rather to have encouraged them, and
was to be confidered as a fign of approaching land. At
the lame time, a brilk gale arofe, and carried them for¬
ward. Several birds were feen hovering about the Ihip,
and diredled their flight towards the weft. The de-
fponding crew refumed fome degree of fpirit, and be¬
gan to entertain freih hopes.
Upon the firft of 0£lober, they were, according to
the admiral’s reckoning, 770 leagues to the weft of the
Canaries ; but left his men ftrould be intimidated by
the prodigious length of the navigation, he gave out
that they had proceeded only 584 leagues ; and, for¬
tunately for Columbus, neither his own pilot, nor thole
of the other (hips, had Ikill fufficient to correct this
error, and difeover the deceit. They had now been
above three xveeks at fea j they had proceeded far be¬
yond what former navigatox's had attempted or deemed
poftlble : all their prognoftics of difcovery, drawn from
the flight of birds and other circumftances, had proved
fallacious j the appearances of land, with which their
own ci-edulity or the artifice of their commander had
from time to time flattered and amufed them, had been
altogether illufive, and their profpeft of fuccefs feemed
now to be as diftant as ever. Thefe reflections occur¬
red often to men, who had no other objeft or occupa¬
tion, than to reafon and difeourfe concerning the in¬
tention and circumftances of their expedition. They
made impreifion at firft upon the ignorant and timid,
and extending by degrees to fuch as were better in¬
formed or more refolute, the contagion fpread at length
from fhip to fliip. From fecret whifpers or mur-
murings they proceeded to open cabals and public com¬
plaints. They taxed their fovereign with inconfiderate
credulity, in paying fuch regard to the vain promifes
and rafh conjethxres of an indigent foreigner, as to ha¬
zard the lives of fo many of her own fubjeCls, in pro-
fecuting a chimerical fcheme. They affirmed that they
had fully performed their duty, by venturing fo far in
an unknown and hopelefs courfe, and could incur no
blame, for refufing to follow, any longer, a defperate
adventurer to certain deftruCtion. They contended,
that it was neceffary to think of returning to Spain,
while their crazy veffels were ftill in a condition to keep
the fea, but exprefled their fears that the attempt would
prove vain, as the wind which had hitherto been fo
favourable to their courfe, muft render it impofftble to
fail in the oppofite direftion. All agreed that Colum¬
bus fhould be compelled by force to adopt a.meafure
on which their common fafety depended. Some of the
more audacious propofed, as the moft expeditious and
certain method for getting rid at once of his remon-
ftrances, to throw him into the fea ; being perluaded
America.
112
Perilous fi-
tuation of
Columbus.
IX3
His crews
ready to
mutiny.
A M E [ 36
that, upon their return to Spain, the death of an un-
' fuccefsful proje&or would excite little concern, and be
inquired into with no curiofity.
Columbus was fully fenfible of his perilous fituation.
He had obferved, with great uneafinefs, the fatal ope¬
ration of ignorance and of fear in producing difaft'ec-
tion among his crew j and faw that it was now ready
to burft out into open mutiny. He retained, however,
perfect prefence of mind. He affedled to feem igno¬
rant of their machinations. Notwithftanding the agi¬
tation and folicitude of his own mind, he appeared
with a cheerful countenance ; like a man fatisfied with
the progrefs which he had made, and confident of fuc-
cefs. Sometimes he employed all the arts of infinua-
tion to footh his men. Sometimes he endeavoured to
work upon their ambition or avarice, by magnificent
defcriptions of the fame and wealth which they were
about to acquire. On other occafions, he aflumed a
tone of authority, and threatened them with vengeance
from their fovereign, if, by their daftardly behaviour,
they fhould defeat this noble effort to promote the glo¬
ry of God, and to exalt the Spanifh name above that
of every other nation. Even with feditious failors, the
words of a man whom they had been accuftomed to re¬
verence were weighty and perfuafive 5 and not only re-
ftrained them from thofe violent exceffes which they
meditated, but prevailed with them to accompany their
admiral for fome time longer.
As they proceeded, the indications of approaching
land feemed to be more certain, and excited hope in
proportion. The birds began to appear in flocks, mak¬
ing towards the fouth-weft. Columbus, in imitation of
the Portuguefe navigators, who had been guided in
feveral of their difcoveries by the motion of birds, al¬
tered his courfe from due weft towards that quarter
w'hither they pointed their flight. But after holding
on for feveral days in this new direction without any
better fuccefs than formerly, having feen no objeft
during 30 days but the fea and the fky, the hopes of
his companions fubfided fafter than they had rifen ;
their fears revived with additional force *, impatience,
rage, and defpair, appeared in every countenance. All
fenfe of fubordination was loft. The officers, who had
hitherto concurred with Columbus in opinion, and fup-
ported his authority, now took part with the private
men : they affembled tumultuoufiy on the deck, ex-
poftulated with their commander, mingled threats with
their expoftulations, and required him inftantly to tack
about and to return to Europe. Columbus perceived
that it would be of no avail to have recourfe to any of
his former arts, which having been tried fo often had
loft their effedf 5 and that it was impoffible to rekindle
any zeal for the fuccefs of the expedition among men
in whofe breafts fear had extinguiffied every generous
fentiment. He faw that it was no lefs vain to think
of employing either gentle or fevere meafures, to quell
a mutiny £0 general and fo violent. It was neceffary,
on all thefe accounts, to footh paffions which he could
no longer command, and to give way to a torrent too
impetuous to be checked. He promifed folemnly to
his men that he wmuld comply with their requeft, pro¬
vided they would accompany him, and obey his com¬
mands for three days longer ; and if, during that time,
land were not difcovered, he would then abandon the
enterprife, and diredl his courfe towards Spain-
] A M E
Enraged as the failors were, and impatient to turn Airierica*
their faces again towards their native country, this pro-1 v 1
pofition did not appear to them unreafonable. Nor did
Columbus hazard much in confining himfelf to a term
fo fliort. The prefages of difcovering land were now
fo numerous and promifing, that he deemed them in¬
fallible. For fome days the founding line reached the
bottom, and the foil which it brought up indicated
land to be at no great diftance. The flocks of birds
increafed •, and were compofed not only of fea fowl,
but of fuch land birds as could not be fuppofed to fly
far from the ftiore. The crew of the Pinta obferved %
cane floating which feemed to be newly cut, and like-
wife a piece of timber artificially carved. The failors
aboard the Nigna took up the branch of a tree with
red berries perfedlly freffi. The clouds around the
fetting fun aflumed a new appearance ] the air was
more mild and warm ; and, during night, the wind be¬
came unequal and variable. From all thefe fymptoms,
Columbus was fo confident of being near land, that on
the evening of the 11th of Odlober, after public pray¬
ers for fuccefs, he ordered the fails to be furled, and
the {hips to lie by, keeping ftridl watch, left they
ffiould be driven alhore in the night. During this in¬
terval of fufpenfe andexpeftation, no man fliut his eyes,
all kept upon deck, gazing intently towards that quar¬
ter, where they expefted to difcover the land which
had been fo long the objedl of their wilhes. Ir^
About two hours before midnight, Columbus ftand-Their joy¬
ing on the forecaftle, obferved a light at a diftance, ?n deft ry-
and privately pointed it out to Pedro Guttierez, a pagelnS^ie
of the quebn’s wardrobe. Guttierez perceived it; and ' “ ‘
calling to Salcedo comptroller of the fleet, all three
faw it in motion, as if it were carried from place to
place. A little after midnight the joyful found of
Land! land l wTas heard from the Pinta, which kept
always ahead of the other fhips. But having been fo
often deceived by fallacious appearances, every man
was now become flow' of belief; and waited, in all the
anguiffi of uncertainty and impatience, for the return
of day. As foon as morning dawned, all doubts and
fears were difpelled. From every ffiip an ifland was
feen about two leagues to the north, whole flat and
verdant fields, well ftored with wood, and watered with
many rivulets, prefented the afpedl of a delightful
country. The crew of the Pinta inftantly began the
Le Deum, as a hymn of thankfgiving to God } and
were joined by thofe of the other fhips, with tears of
joy and tranfports of congratulation. This office of
gratitude to heaven was followed by an a£l of juftice
to their commander. They threw themfelves at the
feet of Columbus, with feelings of felf-condemnation-
mingled with reverence. They implored him to par¬
don their ignorance, incredulity, and infolence, which
had created him fo much unneceffary difquiet, and had
fo often obftru&ed the profecution of his well-concert¬
ed plan 5 and paffing, in the warmth of their admira¬
tion, from one extreme to another, they now pro¬
nounced the man whom they had fo lately reviled and-,
threatened, to be a perfon infpired by Pleaven with fa-
gacity and fortitude more than human, in order to ac-
compliffi a defign fo far beyond the ideas and concep¬
tion of all former ages..
As foon as the fun arofe, all their boats were man¬
ned and armed. They rowed towards the ifland with
their.
A M E [ 37 J A M E
America, their colours difplayed, with warlike inufic, and other
v>—v——< martial pomp. As they approached the coaft, they
T' ^1 fand ^aw ^ coverec^ with a multitude of people, whom the
in one of novelty of the fpe&acle had drawn together, whofe
the i(lands attitudes and geftures exprefled wonder and aftonilh-
ofthe new ment; at the ftrange objefts which prefented themfelves
world. tQ their view. Columbus was the fir it European who
fet foot in the new world which he had difcovered.
He landed in a rich drefs, and with a naked fword in
his hand. His men followed ; and, kneeling dowrn,
they all kiffed the ground which they had fo long de-
fired to fee. They next erected a crucifix ; and, pro-
ftrating themfelves before it, returned thanks to God
for conducing their voyage to fuch a happy iffue.
The above was one of the Bahama iflands; to which
he gave the name of San Salvador, and took poflfeffion
of it in the name of their Catholic majefties. In this
firft voyage he difcovered feveral other of the Lucayo
or Bahama iflands, with thofe of Cuba and Hifpaniola.
The natives confidered the Spaniards as divinities, and
the difcharge of the artillery as their thunder: they fell
proftrate at the found. The women, howTever, offered
their favours, and courted the embraces of their new
guefts as men. Their hufbands wrere not jealous of
them •, and in the arms of thefe wantons the compa¬
nions of Columbus are faid to have caught that malady
which direfts its poifon to the fprings of life. In a
fecond voyage many new iilands were difcovered. In
a third, he attained the great objefl of his ambition,
The conti- by difcovering the continent of America, near the
ncnt^atter- mouth 0f the river Oroonoko, on the firfl: ^ay of Au-
covered " S11^- I49^. His fuccefs produced a crowd of adventu¬
rers from all nations j but the year before this, the
northern continent had been difcovered by Sebaffian
Cabot in the fervice of Henry VII. of England.
Notwithftanding the many fettlements of the Enro¬
ll peaiis in this continent, great part of America remains
Bivifion of ftill unknown. The northern continent contains the
America. Britiih colonies of Hudfon’s Bay, Canada, Nova Scotia,
New England, New York, New Jerfey, Pennfylva-
nia, Maryland, Virginia, North and South Carolina,
Georgia, Eaft and Weft Florida. It contains alfo the
Spanifh territories of Louifiana, New Mexico, Cali¬
fornia, and Mexico. Befides thefe, there are immenfe
regions to the weft and north, the boundaries of which
have never yet been difcovered. In fuch as are in any
degree known, dwell the Efquimaux, the Algonquins,
the Hurons, the Iroquois, the Cherokees, the Chika-
faws, and many other tribes of Indians. In the fouth-
ern continent lie the Spaniffi provinces of Terra Firma,
Guiana, Peru, Paraguay, and Chili j together with
that of Brafil, belonging to the Portuguefe j and the
country of Surinam, belonging to the Dutch. Vaft
trails, however, in the inland parts, are unknown,
being comprehended under the general name of Ama¬
zonia. A large diltridt alfo, faid to be the refidence
of a gigantic race of men, lies on the eaft fide of the
continent, between the ftraits of Magellan and the
TIg province of Paraguay. See Patagonia.
Pis produc- Tliis vaft country produces moil of the metals, mi-
tions. nerals, plants, fruits, trees, and wood, to be met with
in the other parts of the world, and many of them in
greater quantities and high perfedlion. The gold and
lilver of America have fupplied Europe with fuch im¬
menfe quantities of thofe valuable metals, that they are
become vaftly more common 5 fo that the gold and America^
filver of Europe now bear little proportion to the
high price fet upon them before the difeovery of Ame¬
rica.
It alfo produces diamonds, pearls, emeralds, ame-
thyfts, and other valuable ftones, which, by being
brought into Europe, have contributed likewife to
/lower their value. To thefe, which are chiefly the
produdlion of Spanilh America, may be added a great
number of other commodities, which, though of lefs
price, are of much greater ule 5 and many of them
make the ornament and wealth of the Britiffi empire
in this part of the world. Of thefe are the plentiful
fupplies of cochineal, indigo, anatto, logwood, brazil,
fuftic, pimento, lignum vitae, rice, ginger, cocoa, pr
the chocolate nut, fugar, cotton, tobacco, banillas,
red-wood, the balfams of Tolu, Peru, and Chili, that
valuable article in medicine the Jefuit’s bark, mechoa-
can, faflafras, farfaparilla, caffia, tamarinds, hides, furs,
ambergris, and a great variety of woods, roots, and
plants 5 to wdiich, before the difeovery of America,
we wrere either entire ftrangers, or forced to buy at an
extravagant rate from Afia and Africa, through the
hands of the Venetians and Genoefe, who then engroi-
fed the trade of the eaftern world.
On this continent there grows alfo a variety of ex¬
cellent fruits \ as pine-apples, pomegranates, citrons,
lemons, oranges, malicatons, cherries, pears, apples,
figs, grapes 5 great numbers of culinary, medicinal, and
other herbs, roots, and plants; with many exotic pro-
duftions, wdiich are nouriffied in as great perfe&ion as
in their native foil. ITo
Although the Indians ftill live in the quiet pofleffion’The dfiffer-
of many large tracts, America, fo far as known, is ent poflef-
chiefly claimed, and divided into colonies, by three ^ors .of A-"
European nations, the Spaniards, Englilh, and Por¬
tuguefe. The Spaniards, as they firll difcovered it,
have the largeft and richeft portion, extending from
New Mexico and Louifiana in North America, to the
ftraits of Magellan in the South lea, excepting the
large province of Brafil, which belongs to Portugal,
for though the French and Dutch have lome forts in
Surinam and Guiana, they fcarcely deferve to be con-
fidered as proprietors of any part of the fouthern con¬
tinent.
Next to Spain, the moft confiderable proprietor of
America was Great Britain, wdio derived-her claim to
North America from the firft difeovery of that conti¬
nent by Sebaftian Cabot in the name of Henry VII.
anno 1497, about fix years after the difeovery of South
America by Columbus in the name of the king of
Spain. This country w'as in general called Newfound¬
land; a name which is now appropriated folely to an
ifland upon its coaff. It w^as a long time before w'e
made an attempt to fettle in this country. Sir Walter
Raleigh, an uncommon genius and a brave commander,
firfl; (bowed the way, by planting a colony in the
fouthern part, which he called Virginia, in honour of
his miftrefs Queen Elizabeth.
The French indeed, from this period until the con-
clufion of the wrar before laft,. laid claim to, and ac¬
tually poflefled, Canada and Louifiana; comprehending
all that exteufive inland country reaching from Hud¬
fon’s Bay on the north, to Mexico and the gulf o£
the lame name on the fouth. But in that war,.to
which;
A M E [ 33 ] AM E
Ameri'-R-
120
Vaft ex¬
tent of the
JBrithh pof-
feffions be-
,fore the
late revo¬
lution.
which their perfidy and ambition gave rife, they were
not only driven from Canada and its dependencies, but
obliged to relinquilh all that part of Louiliana lying on
the eaft fide of the Miffiffippi, as related under the Hi-
flory of Britain. And thus our colonies were pre¬
ferred, fecured, and extended fo far, as to render it dif¬
ficult to afeertain the precife bounds of our empire in
North America. To the northward we might have
extended our claims quite to the pole itfelf, nor did
any nation feem inclined to dilpute the property of this
northernmoft country with us. From that extremity
ive had a territory extending fouthward to Cape Flo¬
rida in the gulf of Mexico, N. Lat. 2 5'0. and confe-
quently near 4000 miles long in a diredt line. And
to the weftward our boundaries reached to nations un¬
known even to the Indians of Canada.
Of the revolution that has fince taken place, by
which a great part of thofe territories have been fe-
parated from the Britiih empire, the hiftory follows in
the next article.
121
Rife of the
American
republic.
122
.State and
charafter
of the Bri-
tifh colo¬
nies at the
end of the
war 1763.
America, United States of. Of the rife and efta-
blilhment of this republic, w’hich has given a new face
to the tvefiern w’orld, a fuccindl and impartial narrative
lhall in this article be attempted j in which, however,
we cannot hope entirely to avoid errors, as they are
perhaps unavoidable. The accounts from which the
hiflorian muft derive his information are not yet clear¬
ed from the miftakes of prejudice and the fabrications
of party ; when they difier, their comparative authenti¬
city is wdth difficulty afeertained; and they w^ant
■above all that foftening which they can receive from
time alone.
The beginning of every political eftablifhment is con¬
temptible. Some few banditti taking refuge among
the marffies on the banks of the Tiber, laid the foun¬
dation of the Roman empire. The turbulence of fome
North Americans, and the blunders of fome Britiffi
llatefmen, gave birth to this new republic, which at a
future period, it has been fancied, may perhaps furpafs
even the fplendour of Rome.
The ftate of the Britiffi colonies at the conclufion of
the war in 1763, was fuch as attradled the attention of
all the politicians in Europe. Their flourilhing condi¬
tion at that period wras remarkable and ftriking : their
trade had profpered in the midft of all the difficulties
and diilreffes of a war in which they were fo nearly
and fo immediately concerned. Their population con¬
tinued on the increafe, notwithftanding the ravages and
depredations that had been fo fiercely carried on by the
French, and the native Indians in their alliance. They
abounded with fpirited and aftive individuals of all de¬
nominations. They were flufhed wdth the uncommon
profperity that had attended them in their commercial
affairs and military tranfa<?tions. Hence they were jeady
for all kind of undertakings, and faw no limits to
their hopes and expectations.
As they entertained the higheft opinion of their va¬
lue and importance, and of the immenfe benefit that
Britain derived from its connexion with them, their
notions wrere adequately high in their own favour.
They deemed themfelves, not without reafon, entitled
•to every kindnefs and Indulgence which the mother
country could bellow.
Although their pretenfions did not amount to a per¬
fect equality of advantages and privileges In matters *merk».
of commerce, yet in thofe of government they thought—v'*—
themfelves fully competent to the talk of conducing
their domeftic concerns with little or no interference
from abroad. Though willing to admit the fupremacy
of Great Britain, they viewed it with a fufpicious eye,
and with a marked defire and intent fpeedily to give it
limitations.
Their improvements in all the neceffary and ufeful
arts did honour to their induftry and ingenuity. Though
they did not live in the luxury of Europe, they had all
the folid and fubftantial enjoyments of life, and were
not unacquainted with many of its elegancies and re¬
finements.
A circumllance much to their praife is, that not-
withftanding their peculiar addiction to thofe occupa¬
tions of which lucre is the foie object, they were duly
attentive to cultivate the field of learning •, and they
have ever fince their firlt foundation been particularly
careful to provide for the education of the rifing pro-
geny.
Their vail augmentation of internal trade and exter¬
nal commerce, was not merely owing to their pofition
and facility of communication with other parts; it
arofe alfo from their natural turn and temper, full of
fchemes and projefts *, ever aiming at new difeoveries,
and continually employed in the fearch of means of
improving their condition.
Their condition carried them into every quarter
from whence profit could be derived. There was
fcarcely any port of the American hemifphere to
which they had not extended their navigation. They
were continually exploring new fources of trade, and
w^ere found in every fpot where bufinefs could be tranf-
adled.
To this extenfive and inceffant application to com¬
merce, they added an equal vigilance in the adminiltra-
tion of their affairs at home. Whatever could conduce
to the amelioration of the foil they poffefled, to the pro-
grefs of agriculture, or to the improvement of their
domeftic circumllances, was attended to with fo much
labour and care, that it may be llridlly faid, that Na¬
ture had given them nothing of which they did not
make the moll.
In the midll of this folicitude and toil in matters of
bufinefs, the affairs of government were conduced
with a lleadinefs, prudence, and lenity, feldom expe¬
rienced, and never exceeded, in the bell regulated
countries of Europe.
Such wTas the fituation of the Britiffi colonies in ge¬
neral throughout North America, and of the New
England provinces in particular, wffien the pacifica¬
tion above mentioned opened one of the moll remark¬
able feenes that ever commanded the attention of the
world. 133
The French, who have for many ages been the pro-Intrigues ot'
feffed and natural enemies of Britain, had long viewed, ffie French,
wfith equal envy and apprehenfion, the flourifiling Hate
of thofe colonies ffie had founded in North America.
No doubt at prefent fubfills, that they began immedi¬
ately after the peace of Paris to carry into execution
the feheme they had formed for the feparation of the
Britiffi colonies from the mother country.
Confcious that, whilll a good underftanding lalled
between them, the fuperiority mull henceforth remain
for
A M E
124
Taxes laid
on goods
imported
into the co-
noxious
aifls fram¬
ed}
.125
which ex-
Atfterica. for ever on the fide of Britain, it was only by their dif-
union that France could hope to regain the ftation and
confequence Ihe had formerly pofieiTed in Furope.
The firft Heps Ihe took were to employ her fecret
emiffaries in fpreading dilTatisfaftion among the Britifh
colonilfs ; and the eitefts produced by her machina¬
tions were precifely fuch as they had intended and ex¬
pended. The difpofition of the inhabitants of North
America began gradually to alter from that warmth
of attachment to the mother country which had fo pe¬
culiarly characterized them. They began to view
her rather in the light of a fovereign than that of a pa¬
rent } and to examine, with a fcrupulous nicety, the
nature of thofe ties that rendered them parts of her
empire.
In March 1764, a bill was palled, by which heavy
duties were laid on goods imported by the colonilts
from fuch Weft India illands as did not belong to Great
lonies * and Britain ; at the fame time that thefe duties were to be
other ob- paid into the exchequer in fpecie : and in the fame fef-
fion, another bill was framed to reltrain the currency
of paper money in the colonies themfelves. Thefe aCts
coming fo clofe upon each other, threw the whole con¬
tinent into the utmoft ferment. Vehement remonftran-
ces were made to the miniftry, and every argument
made ufe of that reafon or ingenuity could fugged: j but
Americans.610 n0 PurP°^e* Their reafoning, however, convinced
a great number of people at home ; and thus the Ame¬
rican caufe came to be confidered as the caufe of li¬
berty.
The Americans, finding all argumentation vain, at
lalt united in an agreement to import no more of the
manufactures of Great Britain, but to encourage to
the utmoft of their power every thing of that kind
among themfelves. Thus the Britifh manufacturers alfo
became a party againft miniftry, and did not fail to
exprefs their refentment in the ftrongeft terms •, but
the miniftry were not to be fo eafily daunted, and
therefore proceeded to the laft ftep of their intended
plan, which was to lay on ftamp duties throughout the
continent. Previous to this, indeed, feveral regula¬
tions were paffed in favour of the commerce of the co¬
lonies •, but they had now imbibed fuch unfavourable
fentiments of the Britiih miniftry, that they paid very
little regard to any thing pretended to be done in their
favour } or if theie ads made any favourable imprefiion,
it was quickly obliterated by the news of the ftamp
aft. The reafon given for this aft fo exceedingly ob¬
noxious w'as, that a fum might be raifed fufficient for
the defence of the colonies againft a foreign enemy ;
but this pretence was fo far from giving any fatisfaftion
to the Americans, that it' excited their indignation to
the utmoft degree. They not only afierted that they
tvere abundantly able to defend themfelves againft any
foreign c.i»emy, but denied that the Britifti parliament
had any right to tax them at all.
It wmuld be fuperfluous to enter into any arguments
ufed by the contending parties on this important occa-
fion. It ivas evident that the matter Avas not to be
decided by argument but by force of arms ; and the
Britifii miniftry, too confident of the authority and
poAver of this country, determined to carry on matters
with a high hand, to terrify the colonifts into an im¬
plicit fubjeftion, or, if that Avould not do, to compel
them to it by force. The ftamp aft, after a violent
[ 39 1
A M E
126
The itamp
aft framed.
oppofition to parliament, was pafled, and its reception Amema,
in America wras fuch as might have been expected.'11 *“ '
The news, and the aft itfelf, firft arrived at Tofton, ReCg?JecI
were the bells w^ere muffled and rung a funeral peal. with uni-
The aft was firft haw'ked about the ftreets, with a verfal in-
Death’s head affixed to it, and ftyled the “ Folly of
England, and the Ruin of America j” and afterwardsIn
publicly burnt by the enraged populace : The ftamps
themfelves were feized and deftroyed, unlefs brought
by men of war, or kept in fortified places j thofe who
were to receive the ftamp duties w^ere compelled to re-
fign their offices j and fuch of the Americans as tided
with government on this occafion had their houfes
plundered and burnt.
Though' thefe outrages were committed by the low-
6ft of the multitude, they were firft connived at by
thofe of fuperior rank, and the principles on which
they were founded afterAvards openly patronifed by
them ; and the doftrine became general, and openly
avowed, that Britain had no right whatever to tax the
colonies without their owTn confent.
It was noAv found abfolutely neceffary either fo yield
to the Americans, by repealing the obnoxious ftatutes,
or to enforce them by arms. The ferment had diffufecl
itfelf univerfally throughout the colonies. Virginia firft,
and after that all the reft of the provinces, declared
againft the right of Britain to lay on taxes in America j
and that every attempt to veft others with this power
befides the king, or the governor of the protunce and
his general afiembly, xvas illegal, unconftitutional, and
unjuft. Non-importation agreements were everywhere
entered into } and it was even refolved to prevent the
fale of any more Britifh goods after the prefent year.
American manufaftures, though dearer, as AA'ell as in¬
ferior in quality to the Britifh, Avere univerfally prefer¬
red. An affociation Avas entered into againft eating of
lamb, in order to promote the growth of wool ; and
the ladies with cheerfulnefs agreed to renounce the ufe
of every fpecies of ornament manufaftured in Britain.
Such a general and alarming confederacy determined
the miniftry to repeal fome of the moft obnoxious fta¬
tutes ; and to this they were the more inclined by a
petition from the firft American congrefs, held at Ncav
York in the beginning of Oftober 1765. I2g
The ftamp aft Avas therefore repealed, to the unn'er-Repealed,
fal joy of the Americans, and indeed to the general fa¬
tisfaftion of the Englilh, Avhofe manufaftures had be¬
gun to fuffer very feverely in confequence of the Ame¬
rican affbeiation againft them. The difputes on the
fubjeft without doors, however, were by no means fi-
lenced, but each party continued to argue the cafe as
violently as ever. The celebrated Dr Benjamin Frank¬
lin was on this occafion examined before the Houfe of
Commons j and his opinion was in fubftance as fol¬
lows :
“ That the tax in queftion Was imprafticable and Opinion of
ruinous. The very attempt had fo far alienated the Dr Frank.
affeftion of the colonies, that they behaved in a lefsiin ?n this
friendly manner torvards the natives of England than fubje^* '
before ; confidering the Avhole nation as confpiring
againft their liberty, and the parliament as willing
rather to opprefs than to fupport and aftift them. Ame¬
rica, in faft, did not ftand in any need of Britiffl ma¬
nufaftures, having already begun to conftruft fuch as
might be deemed abfolutely neceffary, and that with
fuch 1
A M E [ 40
America, fucli fuccefs, as left no doubt of their arriving in a fliort
time at perfeftion. The elegancies of drefs had already-
been renounced for manufa61ures of the American kind,
though much inferior ; and the bulk of the people, con-
filling of farmers, were fuch as could in no way be af¬
fected by the want of Britiih commodities, as having
every neceffary within themfelves. Materials of all
kinds were to be had in plenty : the wood was fine ;
flax grew in great abundance, and iron was everywhere
to be met with.”
The Doctor alfo infilled, “ That the Americans had
been greatly mifrepreiented} that they had been tra¬
duced as void of gratitude and affeftion to the parent
date 5 than which nothing could be more contrary to
truth. In the war of 1755 they had at their own ex-
pience, raifed an army of 25,000 men ; and in that of
1739 they aflilled the Britifh expeditions againft South
America with feveral thoufand mew, and had made
many brave exertions again!! the French in North
America. It was faid, that the war of 1755 had been
undertaken in defence of the colonies 5 but the truth
was, that it originated from a contef! about the limits
between Canada and Nova Scotia, and in defence of
the Englilh rights to trade on the Ohio. The Ame¬
ricans, however, would Hill continue to aft with their
ufual fidelity 5 and, were any war to break out in which
they had no concern, would fhow themfelves as ready
1 as ever to aflift the parent Hate to the utmoft of their
power, and would never fail to manifelf their readi-
nefs in contributing to the emergencies of government,
when called to do fo in a regular and conifitutional
manner.”
The miniftry Were confcious, that in repealing this
obnoxious aft, they yielded to the Americans *, and
130 therefore, to fupport, as they thought, the dignity of
Declara- Great Britain, it was judged proper to publifh a decla-
ratory bill, fetting forth the authority of the mother-
fence in country over her colonies, and her power to bind them
America, by laws and llatutes in all cafes whatever. This much
diminilhed the joy wfith which the repeal of the flamp
aft was received in America. It was confidered as a
proper reafon to enforce any claims equally prejudicial
with the flamp aft, which might hereafter be fet up ;
-sipirit-of jealoufy pervaded the whole continent, and
a firong party was formed, watchful on every occafion
to guard againll the fuppofed encroachments of the
Britiih power.
Affembly It -was not long before an occafion offered, in which
of New the Americans manifelled a fpirit of abfolute indepen-
Yorkdifo- jenCy . amj that, inllead of being bound by the Bri-
of parlia- thh legiilature in all cafe:', they would not be control-
jnent. led by it in the mofi: trivial affairs. Tire Rockingham
miniltry had paffed an aft, providing the troops lla-
tioned in different parts of the colonies with fuch ac¬
commodation as were neceffary for them. The affem¬
bly of New York, however, took upon them to alter
the mode of execution prefcribed by the aft of parlia¬
ment, and to fubllitute one of their own. This gave
Very great offence to the new minillry, and rendered
them, though compofed of thofe who had been aftive
againll the ilamp bill, lefs favourable to the colonies
than in all probability they would have etherwife been.
An unlucky circumllance at the fame time occurred,
which threw every thing once more into confufion.
One of the new miniftry, Mr Charles Townlhend, ha-
] A M E
ving declared that he could find a way of taxing the Amerk«.
Americans without giving them offence, was called up- v
on to propofe his plan. This was by impofing a duty jyjr y0*vn-
upon tea, paper, painters colours, and glafs imported fliend’s
into America. Ike undutiful behaviour of the New plan to tax
York affembly, and that of Bofton, which had pro-AmcriCa'
ceeded in a fimilar manner, caufed this bill to meet with
lefs oppofition than otherwife it might have done. As
a punilhment to the refraftory affemblies, the legiilative
power was taken from that of New York, until it
Ihould fully comply with the terms of the aft. That
of Bofton at lall fubmitted with reluftance. The bill
for the new taxes was quickly paffed, and lent to Ame¬
rica in 1768.
A ferment much greater than that occafioned by the Is received
Ilamp aft now took place throughout the continent. d,j;re WIttl
The populace renewed their outrages, and thofe of
perior llation entered into regular combinations againft t;on tj,an
it. Circular letters -were fent from Maffachufets co- even the
lony to all the reft, fetting forth the injuftice and im- ftamp adl.
propriety of the behaviour of the Britiih legiflature.
Meetings were held in all the principal tow-ns, in which
it was propofed to leffen the confumption of foreign
manufaftures, by giving proper encouragement to their
own. Continual difputes enfued betwixt the gover-Quarrel be-
nors and general affemblies of their provinces, which tween the
were much heightened by a letter from Lord Shelburne
to Governor Bamand of Maffachufets Bay, containing fets jjay
complaints of the people he governed. The affembly, and their
exafperated to the higheft degree, charged their gover- governor,
nor with having mifreprefented them to the court of
Britain, required him to produce copies of the letters
he had fent; and, on his refufal, wrote letters to the
Englilh minillry, accufing him of mifreprelentation and
partiality, complaining at the fame time moll grievouf-
ly of the proceedings of parliament, as utterly fubver-
five of the liberties of America, and the rights of Bri¬
tiih fubjefts.
The governor, at a lofs how to defend himfelf, pro¬
rogued the affembly ; and, in his fpeech on the occa¬
fion, gave a loofe to his refentment, accufing the mem¬
bers of ambitious defigns, incompatible with thofe of
dutiful and loyal fubjefts. To counter aft the circular
letter of the province of Maffachufets Bay, Lord Hillf-
borough, fecretary for the American department, fent
another to the governors of the different colonies, re¬
probating the other as full of mifreprefentation, and
tending to excite a rebellion againll the authority of
the parent Hate.
Matters now haftened to a crifis. The governor had
been ordered to proceed with vigour, and by no means
to Ihowr any difpofition to yield to the people as for- j ^
merly. In particular, they were required to refcind He requires
that refolution by which they had written the circular^6 affem-
letter above mentioned j and, in cafe of a refufal, f^dtheir
was told them that they would be diffolved. As thisc;rci,iar
letter had been framed by the refolutions of a former letter;
Houfe, they defired, after a week’s confultation, that
a recefs might be granted to confult with their conlli-
tuents ; but this being refufed, they came to a deter-
minatton, 92 againft 17, to adhere to the refolution which they
which produced the circular letter. At the fame timerefufe-
a letter was fent to Lord Hilllborough, and a meffage
to the governor, in juftification of their proceedings.
In both they expreffed themfelves with fuch freedom
A M E
Accufe
their go¬
vernor,
and peti-
removal.
A tumult
at Bolton.
139
The alfem-
hly diflblv-
ed.
A merle*, ag was by ro means calculated to accord with the fen-
" timents of thofe in power. They infilled that they
had a right to communicate their fentiments to their
fellow-fubjefts upon matters of fuch importance j com¬
plained of the requifitien to refeind the circular letter
as unconflitutional and unjufl ; and particularly infill¬
ed, that they were reprefented as harbouring feditious
deligns, when they were doing nothing but what wTas
lawful and right. At the fame time, they condemned
the late a£ls of parliament as highly oppreflive, and
fubverfive of liberty. The whole was concluded by a
lift of accufations againft their governor, reprefenting
him as unfit to'continue in his flation, and petitioning
tion for his the king for his removal from it.
Thefe proceedings were followed by a violent tumult
at Bolton. A veflel belonging to a capital trader had
been feized in confequence of his having neglected fome
of the new regulations j and being taken under the pro¬
tection of a man of war at that time lying in the har¬
bour, the populace attacked the houfes of the com-
mifhoners of excife, broke their windows, deflroyed
the collector’s boats, and obliged the cuflomhoufe offi¬
cers to take refuge in Cattle William, fituated at the
entrance of the harbour.
The governor now took the laft ftep in his powTer to
put a Hop to-the violent proceedings of this affembly,
by diffolving it entirely j but this was of little moment.
Their behaviour had been highly approved by the pther
colonies, who had written letters to them expreffive of
their approbation. After the diffolution of the alTem-
bly, frequent meetings of the people were held in Bof-
ton, which ended in a remonltrance to the governor,
to the fame purpofe as fome' of the former 5 but con¬
cluding with an extraordinary requelt, that he would
take upon him to order the king’s Ihips out of the
harbour.
While the difpofition of the Boltonians was thus go¬
ing on from bad to worfe, news arrived that the agent
for the colony had not been allowed to deliver their
petition to the king; it having been objeCted, that the
afiembly without the governor was not fufficient autho¬
rity. This did not contribute to allay the ferment j
and it was further augmented by\the news that a num¬
ber of troops had been ordered to repair to Bolton, to
keep the inhabitants in awe.
A dreadful alarm now took place. The people call¬
ed on the governor to convene a general affembly, in
order to remove the fears of the military j who they
faid were to be aflembled to overthrow their liberties,
and force obedience to law's to which they were entire¬
ly averfe. The governor replied that it was no longer
in his power to call an affembly; having, in his laft
inftruCtions from England, been required to wait the
king’s orders, the matter being then under confidera-
tion at home. Being thus refufed, the people took
142 uPon themfelves the formation of an affembly, wffiich
The people they called a Convention. The proceedings and refo-
form an af-lutions of this were conformable to their former be-
femblycall-haviour j but now they went a ftep farther, and, un¬
der pretence of an approaching rupture with France,
ordered the inhabitants to put themfelves in a pofture
of defence againft any Hidden attack of an enemy 5 and
circular letters were direfted to all the towns in the
province, acquainting them with the refolutions that
had been taken in the capital, and exhorting them to
Vol. II. Part I. /
[ 4l ]
A M E
140
The diftur-
bances ftill
increafe.
141
Some
troops or¬
dered to
Boftan.
ed a Con
ventien ;
proceed in the fame manner. The town of Hatfield Amen'cin
alone refufed its concurrence $ but this ferved only tov—"■'v'—-*
expofe them to the cenfure and contempt of the reft.
The convention, however, thought proper to affure
the governor of their pacific intentions, and renewed
their requeft that an affembly might be called \ but
being refufed any audience, and threatened with be¬
ing treated as rebels, theymt laft thought proper to 14,3
diffblve of themfelves, and fent over to Britain a cir- w'|1'ch dA
cumftantial account of their proceedings, with the^
reafon of their having affembled in the manner already t0 vindicate
mentioned. itsowncoa*
The expe£ted troops arrived on the very day on^'ft-
which the convention broke up, and had fome houfes
in the town fitted up for their reception. Their ar¬
rival had a conliderable influence on the people, and
for fome time feemed to put a flop to the difturbances j
but the feeds of difeord bad now taken fuch deep root,
that it was impoffible to quench the flame. The late
outrageous behaviour in Bofton had given the greateft 144
offence in England ; and, notwithftanding all the ef-Eotfoh°u~
forts of oppofition, an addrefs from both houfes of Par*
liament was prefented to the king \ in which the au- (jrefs
dacious behaviour of the colony of Maffachufets Bay kingagainfo
was fet forth in the molt ample manner, and the molt America,
vigorous meafures recommended for reducing them to
obedience. The Americans, however, continued fted-
faft in the ideas they had adopted. Though the troops
had for fome time quieted the difturbances, yet the
calm continued no longer than they appeared refpeft-
able on account of their number 5 but as foon as this
was diminilhed by the departure of a large detach¬
ment, the remainder were treated with contempt, and
it was even refolved to expel them altogether. The
country people took up arms for this purpofe, and were
to have affilted their friends in Bofton ; but before the
plot could be put in execution, an event happened
which put an end to every idea of reconciliation be¬
twixt the contending parties. j
On the 5th of March 1770, a feuffle happened be-Some peo-
tween fome foldiers and a party of the town’s people. P*6
The inhabitants poured in from all quarters to the a[-
fiftance of their fellow-citizens ; a violent tumult en- mo3, at
fued, during which the military fired among the mob, Bofton.
killing and w'ounding feveral of them. The whole
province now rofe in arms, and the foldiers were obli¬
ged to retire to Cattle William to prevent their being
cut in pieces. In other refpe&s, the determinations of
the Americans continued, if poffible, more firm than
ever, until at laft government, determined to act with
vigour, and at the fame time to behave with as much
condefcenfion as poflible, repealed all the duties late- 146
lylaid on, that of tea alone excepted. This was left the du-
on purpofe to maintain the dignity of the crowm oftieS ^at^n
Britain 5 and it was thought that it could not be pro-^f
duftive of any difeontent in America, as being an af-off;
fair of very little mortient, the produce of which w-as
not expefted to exceed i6,oool. The oppofition,
however, were ftrenuous in their endeavours to get this
tax likewife abrogated 5 inliiting, that the Americans
would confider it only as an inlet to others •, and that
the repeal of all the reft, without this, would anfwer
no great purpofe. The event thowed that their -opi- whfoh7is as
nion w'as w'ell founded. The Americans oppofed the violently
tea tax with the lame violence as they had done all the°ppofed as
F reft ; ad the reft.
A M E
[ 42 ]
A M E
148
A {Terribly of
Maffachu-
lets Bay
formally
denies the
Britilh
right of
taxation.
149
Gov. Hut-
ftry difco
vered
America, reft : and at laft, on the news that falaries had been
fettled on the juftices of the fuperior court of Bofton,
the governor was addrefied on the fubjeft j the mea-
fure was condemned in the ftrongeft terms 5 and a
committee, lelerfted out of the ieveral diftrifts of the
colony, appointed to inquire into it.
The new aflembly proceeded in the moft formal man¬
ner to difavow the fupremaey of the Britilh legillature *,
accufed the parliament of Britain of having violated
the natural rights of the Americans in a number of
inftances. Copies of the tranfaftions of this aflembly
were tranfmitted to every town in Maflachufets, ex¬
horting the inhabitants to roufe themfelves, and exert
every nerve in oppofition to the iron hand of oppref-
fion, which was daily tearing the choiceli fruits from
the fair tree of liberty. The difturbances were alfo
chiton’s let-greatly heightened by an accidental difcovery. that Mr
ters to Bn-Hutchifon, governor of Maflachufets Bay, had writ¬
ten feveral confidential letters to people in power in
England, complaining of the behaviour of the pro¬
vince, recommending vigorous meafures again!! them,
and, among other things, aflerting, that “ there mull
be an abridgement of what is called Britilh liberty.”
Letters of this kind had fomehow or other fallen in¬
to the hands of the agent for the colony at London.
They were immediately tranfmitted to Boilon, where
the aflembly was fitting, by whom they were laid be¬
fore the governor, who was thus reduced to a very
mortifying fituation. Lofing every idea of refpeft or
friendflup for him as their governor, they inftantly de-
fpatched a petition to the king, requefting him to re-
The peti- move the governor and deputy-governor from their
tion again!! places} but to this they not only received no favour-
him relufed. anfwer> ]jUt petition itfelf was declared ground-
lefs and fcandalous.
Matters were now ripe for the utmoft extremities
on the part of the Americans ; and they were brought
on in the following manner : Though the colonifts
had entered into a non-importation agreement againft
tea as well as all other commodities from Britain, it
had neverthelefs found its way into America, though
m fmaller quantities than before. This was fenfibly
felt by the Ealt India Company, who had now agreed
to pay a large fum annually to government ; in re-
compenfe for which compliance, and to make up their
lolles in other refpe&s, they were empowered to export
their tea free from any duty payable in Britain j and in
confequence of this permiflion, feveral fhips freighted
with the commodity were fent to North America, and
proper agents appointed for difpofing of it. The A-
mericans now perceiving that the tax was thus likely
to be enforced whether they would or not, determined
to take every poflible method to prevent the tea from
being landed, as well knowing that it would be im-
poflible to hinder the fale ftiould the commodity once
be brought on fhore. For this purpofe the people af-
fembled in great numbers, forcing thofe to wEom the
tea was configned to refign their offices,-and to promile
folemnly never to refume them j and committees were
appointed to examine the accounts of merchants, and
make public tefts, declaring fuch as would not take
them enemies to their country. Nor was this beha¬
viour confined to the colony of Maflachufets Bay;
the sell of the provinces entered into the conteft with
1S°
IS1
Tea de-
ftroyed at
Bolton;
the fame warmth, and manifefted the fame refolution America,
to oppofe the mother country. 1"'v
In the midi! of this confuiion three ffiips laden with
tea arrived at Boilon ; but fo much were the captains
alarmed at the difpolition which feemed to prevail
among the people, that they offered, providing they
could obtain the proper difeharges from the tea con-
fignees, cuftomhoufe, and governor, to return to Bri¬
tain without landing their cargoes. The parties con¬
cerned, however, though they durft not order the tea
to be landed, refufed to grant the difeharges required.
The fliips, therefore, would have been obliged to re¬
main in the harbour; but the people, apprehenfive
that if they remained there the tea would be landed
in fmall quantities, and difpofed of in Ipite of every
endeavour to prevent it, refolved to delfroy it at once.
This refolution was executed with equal fpeed and fe-
crecy. The very evening after the above mentioned*
difeharges had been refufed, a number of people, dref-
fed like Mohawk Indians, boarded the ftrips, and threw
into the lea their whole cargoes, confifting of 342
chells of tea ; after which they retired without making
any further difturbance, or doing any more damage.
No tea was deftr-oyed in other places, though the lame
fpirit was everywhere manifefted. At Philadelphia and refu»
the pilots were enjoined not to conduft the veflels up led admit,
the river ^ and at New York, though the governor ^ ^
caufed fome tea to be landed under the protection of ‘ p
a man of war, he was obliged to deliver it. up to the
cultody of the people, to prevent its being fold.
The deftrudtion of the tea at Bofton, which hap¬
pened in November 1773, was the immediate prelude
to the difafters attending civil difeord. Government
finding themfelves everywhere infulted and delpifed,
refolved to enforce their authority by all poffible
means 5 and as Bofton had been the principal feene of
the riots and outrages, it was determined to punilh that
city in an exemplary manner. Parliament was ac¬
quainted by a meflage from his majefty with the undu-
tiful behaviour of the city of Bofton, as well as of all
the colonies, recommending at the fame time the moft
vigorous and fpirited exertions to reduce them to obe¬
dience. The parliament in its addrels promifed a ready
compliance ; and indeed the Americans, by their out¬
rageous behaviour, had now loft many of their parti- ^
fans. It tvas propofed to lay a fine on the town of Bo- pun;^
lion equal to the price of the tea which had been de- ment of
ftroyed, and to fliut up its port by armed veflels until Bofton re
the refractory fpirit of the inhabitants Ihould be fub-on*
dued } which it w7as thought mull quickly yield, as a j^
total ftop w ould thus be put to their trade, d he bill Arguments
was ftrongly oppofed on the fame grounds that theandpeti-
other had been ; and it was predicted, that inftead
having any tendency to reconcile or fubdue the Ame- *
ricans, it would infallibly exafperate them beyond any
poffibility of reconciliation. The petitions againft it,
prefented by the colony’s agent, pointed out the fame
confequence in the ftrongeft terms, and in the moft po-
fitive manner declared that the Americans never would
fubmit to it 5 but fuch xvas the infatuation attending
every rank and degree of men, that it never was ima¬
gined the Americans would dare to refill the parent
ftate openly, but would in the end fubmit implicitly to*
her commands. In this confidence a third bill was
propofed.
A M E
America.
155 ,
and tor the
impartial
adminiftra-
tion of ju-
ftice.
*S6
Quebec
bill.
T57
Thefe acts
«xafperate
the Ameri¬
cans.
I58
Refent-
ment occa-
lioned by
the port
bill.
T59
Proceed¬
ings of the
general af-
lembly met
at Salem.
propofed for tlie impartial adminillration of juflice on
fuch perl'ons as might be employed in the fuppreflion of
riots and tumults in the province of Maffachufets Bay.
By this aft it was provided, that fliould any perfons
afting in that capacity be indifted for murder, and
not able to obtain a fair trial in the province, they
might be fent by the governor to England, or to fome
other colony, if neceifary, to be tried for the fuppofed
crime.
Thefe three bills having palled fo ealily, the mini-
dry propofed a fourth, relative to the government of
Canada j which, it was laid, had not yet been fettled
on any proper plan. By this bill the extent of that
province was greatly enlarged ; its affairs -were put un¬
der the direftion of a council into which Roman Catho¬
lics were to be admitted j the Roman Catholic clergy,,
were fecured in their polfelhons and the ufual perqui-
lites from thofe of their own profeflion. The coun¬
cil above mentioned were to be appointed by the
crown, to be removable at its pleafure •, and to be
inverted with every legiilative power excepting that of
taxation.
No fooner were thefe laws made known in America,
than they cemented the union of the colonies almoft
beyond any poflibility of diffolving it. The affembly
of Malfachufets Bay had parted a vote againft the
judges accepting falaries from the crown, and put the
quertion, Whether they would accept them as ufual
from the general artembly ? Four anfwered in the affir¬
mative } but Peter Oliver the chief j’ultice refufed.
A petition again!! him, and an accufation, were brought
before the governor ; but the latter refufed the accu¬
fation, and declined to interfere in the matter : but as
they ftill infilled for what they called jurtice againft
Mr Oliver, the governor thought proper to put an end
to the matter by diffolving the affembly.
In this fituation of affairs a new alarm was occa-
fioned by the news of the port bill. This had been
totally unexpefted, and was received with the moft
extravagant expreftions of difpleafure among the popu¬
lace and while thefe continued the new governor,
General Gage, arrived from England. He had been
chofen to this office on account of his being well ac¬
quainted in America, and generally agreeable to the
people *, but human wifdom could not now point out
a method by which the flame could be allayed. The
firft aft of his office as governor was to remove the af¬
fembly to Salem, a town 17 miles diftant, in confe-
quence of the late aft. When this was intimated fo
the affembly, they replied, by requeuing him to ap¬
point a day of public humiliation for deprecating the
wrath of heaven, but met with a refufal. When met
at Salem, they parted a refolution, declaring the necef-
fity of a general congrefs compofed of delegates from
all the provinces, in order to take the affairs of the
colonies at large into conflderation ; and five gentle¬
men, remarkable for their oppofition to the Britifh
meafures, were chofen to reprefent that of Maffachu¬
fets Bay. They then proceeded with all expedition
to draw up a declaration, containing a detail of the
grievances they laboured under, and the neceffity of
exerting themfelves againft lawlefs power ; they fet
imth the difregard fhown to their petitions, and the
aitempts of Great Britain to deftroy their ancient con-
ifitution ; and concluded with exhorting the inhabitants
[ 43 ]
A M E
of the colony to obftruft, by every method in their America,
power, fuch evil defigns, recommending at the famermJ
time a total renunciation of every thing imported from
Great Britain till a redrefs of grievances could be pro¬
cured. 160
Intelligence of this declaration wras carried to the Generofity
governor on the very day that it wfas completed j Onofthepeo-
which he diffolved the affembly. This was followed
by an addrefs from the inhabitants of Salem in favour thofe of
of thofe of Bofton, and concluding with thefe remark-Bolton,
able words : “ By fhutting up the port of Bofton,
fome imagine.that the courfe of trade might be turned
hither, and to our benefit; but nature, in the forma¬
tion of our harbour, forbids our becoming rivals in com¬
merce with that convenient mart 5 and were it other-
wdfe, we muft be dead to every idea of juftice, loft to
all feelings of humanity, could we indulge one thought
to feize on wealth, and raife our fortunes on the ruin
of our fuffering neighbours.”
It had been fondly hoped by the minifterial party'
at home, that the advantages which other towns of
the colony might derive from the annihilation of the
trade of Bofton wmuld make them readily acquiefce in
the meafure of fhutting up that port, and rather re¬
joice in it than otherwifej but the words of the addrefs
above mentione’d feemed to preclude all hope of this
kind and fubfequent tranfaftions foon manifefted it 161
to be totally vain. No fooner did intelligence arrive "^ie caufe
of the remaining bills parted in the feffion of I774!ef
than the caufe of Bofton became the caufe of all the by all the
colonies. The port bill had already occafioned violent reft of the
commotions throughout them all. It had been repro-C0^01“es-
bated in provincial meetings, and refiftance even to the
laft had been recommended againft fuch opprellion.
In Virginia, the firft of June, the day on which the
port of Bofton \vas to be fliut up, w’as held as a day
of humiliation, and a public interceffion in favour of
America was enjoined. The ftyle of the prayer en¬
joined at this time was, that “ God wmuld give the
people one heart and one mind, firmly to oppofe every
invafion of the American rights.” The Virginians,
however, did not content themfelves with afts of‘reli-
gion. They recommended in the ftrongeft manner a
general congrefs of all the colonies, *as fully perfuad-
ed that an attempt to tax any colony in an arbitrary
manner was in reality an attack upon them all, and
muft ultimately end in the ruin of them all. l6.
The provinces of New York and Pennfylvania, how-The Ame-
ever, was lels fanguine than the reft, being fo clofe- r'cans firm
ly connefted in the wray of trade with Great Britain, punted
that the giving it up entirely appeared a matter of the "
in their
oppofition
moft ferious magnitude, and not to be thought of but to Britain,
after every other method had failed. The intelligence
of the remaining bills refpefting Bofton, however,
fpread a freffi alarm throughout the continent, and fix¬
ed thofe who had feemed to be the moft wavering.
The proposal of giving up all commercial intercourfe
with Britain was again propofed ; contributions for the
inhabitants of Bofton were railed in every quarter;
and they every day received addreffes commending them
for the heroic courage with which they fuftained their
calamity.
The Boftonians on their part were not wanting in
their endeavours to promote the general caufe. An
agreement was framed, which, in imitation of former
i 2 times,
America.
163
Solemn
league and
covenant
formed at
Bolton.
164
The gover¬
nor at¬
tempts in
vain to
counteract
it by pro¬
clamation.
i55-
Congrefs
meets at
Philadel¬
phia.
166
Account
of its tran-
fadtions.
A M E [44
times, they called a Solemn League and Covenant.
By this the fubfcribers rnoll religioully bound them-
felves to break oft' all communication with Britain af¬
ter the expiration of the month of Auguft enfuing,
until the obnoxious a£ls were repealed •, at the fame
time they engaged neither to purchafe nor ufe any
goods imported after that time, and to renounce all
connexion with thole who did, or who refufed to Tub-
fcribe to this covenant 5 threatening to publifti the
names of the refractory, which at this time was a pu-
nifhment by no means to be defpifed. Agreements of
a fimilar kind were almoft inftantaneoufly entered into
throughout all America. General Gage indeed at-
• tempted to counteract the covenant by a proclamation,
wherein it was declared an illegal and traiterous combi¬
nation, threatening with the pains of law fuch as fub-
fcribed or countenanced it. But matters were too far
gone for his proclamations to have any efteft. The
Americans retorted the charge of illegality on his owm
proclamation, and iniifted that the law allowed fubjefts
to meet in order to coniider of their grievances, and
afibciate for relief from oppreflion.
Preparations were now made for holding the gene-
neral congrefs fo often propoled. Philadelphia, as be¬
ing the molt centrical and conftderable town, was pitch¬
ed upon for the place of its meeting. The delegates
of whom it was to be compofed were chofen by the
reprefentatives of each province, and were in number
from two to feven for each colony, though no province
had more than one vote. The firft congrefs which
met at Philadelphia, in the beginning of September
1774, confided of 51 delegates. The novelty and im¬
portance of the meeting excited an univerfal attention ;
and their tranfadftions were fuch as could not but tend
to render them refpe&able.
The firft a£l of congrefs was an -approbation of the
conduit of Maffachufets Bay, and an exhortation to
continue in the fame fpirit with which they had begun.
Supplies for the fufferlng inhabitants (whom indeed
the operation of the port bill had reduced to great
diftrefs) were ftrongly recommended ; and it was de¬
clared, that in cafe of attempts to enforce the obnoxi¬
ous aits by arms, all America Ihould join to aflift the
town of Bolton ; and fhould the inhabitants be obliged,
during the courfe of hoftilities, to remove farther up
the country, the loftes they might fuftain Ihould be re¬
paired at the public expence. A
They next addreffed General Gage by letter ^ in
which, having ftated the grievances of the people of
Maffachufets colony, they informed him of the fixed
and unalterable determination of all the other provinces
to fupport their brethern, and to oppofe the Britith
ails of parliament *, that they thenifelves were appoint¬
ed to watch over the liberties of America 5 and entreat¬
ed him to defift from military operations, left fuch ho¬
ftilities might be brought on as would fruftrate all
hopes of reconciliation w ith the parent Hate.
The next ftep was to publilh a declaration of their
rights. Thefe they fummed up in the rights belong¬
ing to Englilhmen j and particularly infilled, that as
Vheir diftance rendered it impoffible for them to be re-
■prefented in the Britilh parliament, their provincial
ajfemblies, with the governor appointed by the king,
conftituted the only legiftative pow’er within each pro¬
vince. They would, however, cc-ufent to fuch of
] A M E
parliament as were evidently calculated merely for the America,
regulation of commerce, and fecuring to the parent —v—
ftate the benefits of the American trade ; but would
never allow that they could impofe any tax on the co¬
lonies, for the purpofe of raifing a revenue, without
their confent. They proceeded to reprobate the in¬
tention of each of the new- a£ls of parliament j and
infilled on all the rights they had enumerated as being
unalienable, and Avhat none could deprive them of.
The Canada acl they particularly pointed out as being
extremely inimical to the colonies, by whole aflillance
it had been conquered ; and they termed it, “ An act
for ellabliftiing the Roman Catholic religion in Cana¬
da, abolilhing the equitable fyftem of Englilh lawTst
and eftablilhing a tyranny there.” They further de¬
clared in favour of a non-importation and non-con-
fumption of Britilh goods until the afts were repealed
by which duties were impofed upon tea, coffee, wine,
fugar, and molaffes, imported into America, as well
as the Bollon port a6l, and the three others paffed in
the preceding felfton of parliament. The new regu¬
lations again!; the importation and confumption of
Britilh commodities wrere then drawn up with great fo-
lemnity; and they concluded with returning the w arm-
eft thanks to thofe members of parliament who had
with fo much zeal, though without any fuccefs, oppof-
ed the obnoxious a£ls of parliament.
Their next proceedings were to frame a petition to
the king, an addrefs to the Britilh nation, and another .
to the colonies ; all of wrhich were fo much in the ufual
ftrain of American language for fome time pall, that
it is needlefs to enter into any particular account of
them. It is fufficient to fay, that they were all drawn
up in a mafterly manner, and ought to have impreffed
the people of this country with a more favourable idea
of the Americans than they could at that time be in¬
duced to entertain.
All this time the difpofition of the people had cor-
refponded with the wmrmell willies of congrefs. The
fir 11 of June had been kept .as a fall, not only through¬
out Virginia wdiere it was firlt propoled, but through
the whole continent. Contributions for the dillreffes
of Bofton had been raifed throughout America, and
people of all ranks feemed to be particularly touched
with them. Even thofe wdio feemed to be moll likely
to derive advantages from them took no opportunity,
as has been already inllanced in the cafe of Salem. 1(j7
The inhabitants of Marblehead alfo {bowed a noble Generofrty
example of magnanimity in the prefent cafe. Though of the inha-
fituated in the neighbourhood of Bofton, and moll
likely to derive benefit from their dillreffes, they did he^d
not attempt to take any advantage, but generoufty of- ft0n.
feied the ufe of their harbour to the Boftonians, as
well as their wharfs and warehoufes, free of all ex¬
pence. In the mean time the Britilh forces at Bollon
were continually increafing in number, which greatly
augmented the general jealoufy and difaffedftion j the Extreme
country were ready to rife at a moment’s warning :
and the experiment was made by giving a falfe alarm °ry p^pi'e'
that the communication between the town and country t0Jthe Eof-
was to be cut off, in order to reduce the former bytonians.
famine to a compliance with the adls of parliament.
On this intelligence the country people affembled
in great numbers, and could not be fatisfied till they
had feat meffengers into the city to inquire into tire
truth
A M E - [ 45 ]
America, truth of the report. Thefe mefiengers were enjoined by proclamation
 v 111 to inform the town’s people, that if they Ihould be
fo pufillanimous as to make a furrender of their li¬
berties, the province would not think itielf bound by
fuch examples •, and that Britain, by breaking their
original charter, had annulled the contratl fubiifting
between them, and left them to add as they thought
proper.
The people in every other refpedt maniferted their
inflexible determination to adhere to the plan they had
fo long followed. The new counfellors and judges
were obliged to refign their offices, in order to preferve
their lives and properties from the fury of the multi¬
tude. In fome places they {hut up the avenues to the
court houfes ; and when required to make way for the
judges, replied, that they knew of none but fuch as
were appointed by the ancient ufage and cuftom of the
province. Everywhere they manifefted the moil ar¬
dent defire of learning the art of war j and every indi¬
vidual who could bear arms, was moft affiduous in pro¬
curing them, and learning their exercife.
Matters &t laft proceeded to fuch a height, that
General Gage thought proper to fortify the neck of
land which joins the town of Bofton to the continent.
This, though undoubtedly a prudent meafure in his
fituation, was exclaimed againft by the Americans in
the moll vehement manner •, but the general, inftead
of giving ear to their remonftrances, deprived them of
all power of afting againft himfelf, by feizing the pro¬
vincial pow'der, ammunition, and military itores, at
Cambridge and Charleftown. This excited fuch indig¬
nation, that it was with the utmoft difficulty the people
could be retlrained from marching to Bofton and at¬
tacking the troops. Even in the town itfelf, the com¬
pany of cadets thatufed to attend him difbanded them-
felves, and returned the ftandard he had as ufual pre-
fented them with on his acceflion to the government.
This was occafioned by his having deprived the cele¬
brated [ohn Hancock, afterwards prefident of the con-
grefs, of his commiflion as colonel of the cadets. A
fimilar inilance happened of a provincial colonel having
accepted a feat in the new council; upon which 24
officers of his regiment refigned their commiffions in
one day.
In the mean time a meeting wras held of the princi¬
pal inhabitants of the towns adjacent to Boftcn. The
purport of this was publicly to renounce all obedience
to the late a£ts of parliament, and to form an engage¬
ment to indemnify fuch as fhould be profecuted on that
account •, the members of the new' council were declar¬
ed violators of the rights of their country 5 all ranks
and degrees -were exhorted to learn the ufe of arms 5
and the receivers of the public revenue were ordered
not to deliver it into the treafury, but retain it in their
own hands till the conftitution fttould be reftored, or a
provincial congrefs difpofe of it otherwife. ^
A remonftrance againft the fortifications on Bofton
Neck was next prepared ; in which, however, they ftiil
pretended their unwillingnefs to proceed to any hoftile
meafures ; afierting only as ufual their firm determina¬
tion not to fubmit to the afts of parliament they had
already fo much complained of. The governor, to
dfilblved b re^ore tranquillity, if poffible, called a general aflem-
procjama- kly but fo many of the council had refigned their
tion. feats,, that he was induced to countermand its fitting
1(59
Gen. Gage
fortifies
Bofton
Neck;
170
and feizes
the milita¬
ry ftores
belonging
to the pro
vince.
i?1.-
Oppolition
to the Bri-
tilli parlia¬
ment ftiil
increafe.
171
A general
affembly
called and
A M E
This meafure, however, wyas deejn- America,
ed illegal j the aflembly met at Salem •, and after wait- v ""l”i
ing a day for the governor, voted themfelves into a
provincial congrefs, of "which Mr Hancock wras choien
prefident. A committee was inftantly appointed, who
waited on the governor with a remonftrance concerning
the fortifications on Bofton Neck ; but nothing of con-
fequence took place, both parties mutually criminating
each other. The winter was now7 coming on, and the
governor, to avoid quartering the folders upon the in- 173
habitants, propofed to ere£l barracks for them •, but the Gen. Gage
feledl men of Bofton compelled the workmen to defift.
Carpenters were fent for to New York, but they were <?uities in
refuied ; and it was with the utmoft difficulty that he accommo-
could procure winter lodgings for his troops. Nor was dating his
the difficulty lefs in procuring clothes } as the mer-trooPs*
chants of New York told him, that “ they would ne¬
ver fupply any article for the benefit of men fent as
enemies to their country.”
This difpofition, known to be almoft univerfalThe Ame-
throughout the continent, "was in the higheft degree ricans
fatisfacftory to congrefs. Every one faw that the en- Pre~
fixing fpring was to be the feafon of commencing ho- for war
ftilities, and the moft indefatigable diligence was ufed
by the colonies to be well provided againft fuch a for¬
midable enemy. A lift of all the fencible men in each
colony was made out, and efpecially of thofe who had
ferved in the former war ; of whom they had the fatif-
faftion to find that two-thirds were ftiil alive and fit
to bear arms. Magazines of arms were collecled, and
money was provided for the payment of troops. The
governors in vain attempted to put a flop to thefe pro¬
ceedings by proclamations ; the fatal period was now
arrived •, and the more the fervants of government at¬
tempted to reprefs the fpirit of the Americans, the
more violent it appeared. 173
In the mean time the inhabitants of Bofton were re-DIftrefs of
duced to great diftrefs. The Britifh troops, now di- t^e
ftinguifhed by the name of the enemy, were abfolutely
in poffeflion of it; the inhabitants were kept as prifon-
ers, and might be made accountable for the conduct of
the whole colonies j and various meafures were con¬
trived to relieve the latter from fuch a difagreeable »
fituation. Sometimes it was thought expedient to
remove the inhabitants altogether -7 but this was im-
pradlicable without the governor’s confent. It was
then propofed to fet fire to the town at once, after va¬
luing the houfes and indemnifying the proprietors j
but this being found equally impracticable, it was re-
folved to wait fome other opportunity, as the garrifon
was not very numerous, and, not being fupplied with
neceffaries by the inhabitants, might foon be obliged
to leave the place. The friends of Britifh government
indeed attempted to do fomething in oppofition to the
general voice of the people •, but after a few ineffectual
meetings and refolutions they were utterly filenced, and
obliged to yield to the fuperior number of their adver-
faries.
Matters had now7 proceeded fo far that every idea of 17^
reconciliation or friendflnp with Britain wyas loft. The Military
Americans, thefefore, without ceremony, began to feize
on the military ftores and ammunition belonging to American.,
government. This firft commenced at Newport in
Rhode Ifland, where the inhabitants carried off 40
pieet's of cannon appointed for the protection of the
place y
A M E [46] AM E
^ Arucru a. ^ place •, and on being alked the reafon of this proceed-
ing, they replied, that the people had feized them lelt
they Ihould be made ufe of againft themfelves. After
thts the affembly met, and refolved that ammunition
and warlike llores Ihould be purchafed with the public
money.
New' Hampfhire followed the example of Rhode
Jiland, and feized a fmall fort for the fake of the pow¬
der and military ftores it contained. In Pennfylvania,
however, a convention was held, which expreifed an
earneit defire of reconciliation with the mother coun¬
try ; though, at the fame time, in the ftrongeft manner
declaring, that they were refolved to take up arms in
defence of their jult rights, and defend to the lait their
oppofition to the late afts of parliament; and the
people wTere exhorted to apply themfelves with the
greateft alliduity to the profecution of fuch manufac¬
tures as were neceffary for their defence and fubfiftence,
luch as fait, faltpetre, gunpow'der, Heel, &c. This
was the univerfal voice of the colonies, New York only
excepted. The affembly of that province, as yet ig¬
norant of the fate of their laft remonftrance, refufed to
concur with the other colonies in their determination
to throw' off the Britifh yoke : their attachment, how¬
ever, was very faint, and by the event it appeared that
a perfeverance in the meafures which the miniltry had
adopted was fufficient to unite them to the reft.
As the difturbances had originated in the province
of Maffachuiets Bay, and there continued all along
with the greateft violence, fo this wras the province
177 where the firft hoftilities w'ere formally commenced.
Maffachu- ln the beginning of February the provincial congrefs
,ets aflem- met at Cambridge : and as no friends to Britain could
mend pre- now admittance to that affembly, the only confi-
parations deration was how to make proper preparations for war.
for war.J Expertnefs in military difeipline was recommended in
the ftrongeft manner, and feveral military inftitutions
enacted •, among which that of the minute-men wras
one of the moft remarkable. Thefe were chofen from
the moft active and expert among the militia 5 and their
bufmefs wras to keep themfelves in conftant readinefs
at the call of their officers *, from which perpetual vigi¬
lance they derived their title.—It was now eafily feen
that a llight occafton would bring on hoftilities, which
could not but be attended with the moft violent and
certain deftrudftion to the vanquiihed party : for both
were fo much exafperated by a long courfe of reproaches
and literary warfare, that they feemed to be filled with
the utmoft inveteracy againft each other.
On the 26th of February, General Gage having been
informed that a number of field-pieces had been brought
to Salem, defpatched a party to feize them. Their
road was obftrufled by a river, over which w’as a draw¬
bridge. This the people had pulled up, and refufed
to let down : upon which the foldiers feized a boat
to ferry them over •, but the people cut out her bottom.
Hoftilities would immediately have commenced, had it
not been for the interpofition of a clergyman, who re-
prefented to the military on the one hand, the folly of
oppofing fuch numbers ; and to the people on the other,
that as the day was far fpent the military could not exe¬
cute their defign, fo that they might without any fear
leave them the quiet poffeftion of the drawbridge.
This was complied with j and the foldiers, after having
x
remained for fome time at the bridge, returned with- America,
out executing their orders. 1 v ■
The next attempt, however, was attended with more
ferious confequences. General Gage, having been in- ai Lexing-
formed that a large quantity of ammunition and mili- ton.
tary ftores had been colle£led at Concord, about 20
miles from Bofton, and where the provincial congrefs
was fitting, fent a detachment, under the command of
Colonel Smith and Major Pitcairn, to deftroy the ftores,
and, as was reported, to feize Meffrs Hancock and
Adams, the leading men of the congrefs. They let
out before daybreak, on the 19th of April, marching
wdth the utmoft lilence, and fecuring every one they
met on the road, that they might not be difeovered.
But notvvithftanding all their care, the continual ring¬
ing of bells and firing of guns as they went along, loon
gave them notice that the country w’as alarmed. About
five in the morning they had reached Lexington,
15 miles from Bofton, where the militia of the place
were exercifing. An officer called out to them to dif-
perfe ; but fome fhots, it is faid, being at that moment
fired from a houfe in the neighbourhood, the military
made a difeharge, which killed and wounded feveral
of the militia. The detachment then proceeded to
Concord, wffiere, having deftroyed the ftores, they were
encountered by the Americans 5 and a fcufflle enfued,
in which feveral fell on both fides. The purpofe of
their expedition being thus accompliffied, it wTas necef¬
fary for the king’s troops to retreat, which they did
through a continual fire keep upon them from Concord
to Lexington. Here their ammunition was totally ex¬
pended ; and they would have been unavoidably cut off,
had not a confiderable reinforcement commanded by
Lord Percy luckily met them. The Americans, how'-
ever, continued their attack wdth great fury ; and the
Britifh would ftill have been in the utmoft danger, had
it not been for tw'O field pieces which Lord Percy had
brought with him. By thefe the impetuofity of the
Americans w7as checked, and the Britiffi made good
their retreat to Bofton with the lofs of 250 killed and
wounded : that pf the Americans was about 6c>.
By this engagement the fpirits of the Americans ^ great
were fo raifed, that they meditated nothing lefs than army af-
the total expulfion of the Britifh troops from Bofton. fembles Ee-
An army of 20,000 men w'as affembled, wffio formed^ore ■®0^oa‘
a line of encampment from Roxbury to Myftic, through
a fpace of about 30 miles j and here they were foon after
joined by a large body of Connefticut troops, under
General Putnam, an old officer of great bravery and
experience. By this formidable force was the town of
Bofton now kept blocked up. General Gage, howr-
ever, had fo ftrongly fortified it, that the enemy,
powerful as they were, durft not make an attack;
while, on the other hand, his force Was by far too in-
fignificant to meet fuch an enemy in the field. But
towards the end of May, a confiderable reinforcement
having arrived, with Generals Howe, Burgoyne, and
Clinton, he wras foon enabled to attempt fomething of
confequence } and this the boafts of the provincials,
that they were befieging thofe who had been fent to
fubdue them, feemed to render neceffary. Some Ikir-
mifhes in the mean time happened in the iflands lying
off Bofton harbour, in which the Americans had the
advantage, and burnt an armed fchooner, which her
people
A M E [
America, people had been obliged to abandon after die was
left aground by the tide. Nothing decifive, however,
took place till the 17th of June. In the neighbour¬
hood of Charleftown, a place on the northern ihore of
the peninfula on which Bofton ftands, is a high ground
called Bunker's Hi//, which overlooks and commands
the whole town of Bofton. In the night of the 16th
the provincial; took poffellion of this place : and work¬
ed wuth fuch indefatigable diligence, that, to the afto-
nifhment of their enemies, they had before daylight
almoft completed a redoubt, with a ftrong intrench-
ment reaching half a mile eaftward, as far as the river
Myftic. After this they wTere obliged to i'uftain a
heavy and inceffant fire from the ihips and floating bat¬
teries with which Charleftown Neck was furrounded,
as well as the cannon that could reach the place from
Bofton; in fpite of which, however, they continued
their work and finiftied it before mid-day. A confi-
derable body of foot was then landed at the foot of
Bunker’s Hill, under the command of Generals How'e
and Pigot ; the former being appointed to attack the
lines, and the latter the redoubt. The Americans,
htowever, having the advantage of the ground, as well
as of their intrenchments, poured down Inch inceffant
volleys as threatened the whole body with deftruclion 5
and General Howre was for a little time left almoft
alone, all his officers being killed or wounded. The
provincials in the mean time had taken pofleflion of
Charleftown, fo that General Pigot wras obliged to
contend wuth them in that place as well as in the re¬
doubt. The confequence wras, that he wTas over¬
matched j his troops were thrown into diforder y and
he wT0uld in all probability have been defeated, had
not General Clinton advanced to his relief r upon wffiich
the attack was renewed w-ith fuch fury, that the pro¬
vincials were driven beyond the neck that leads to
Charleftown. ’ In the heat of the engagement the
Britiffi troops were obliged to fet fire to the town of
Charleftown, which quickly obliged the provincials to
yield after they were deprived of that Ihelter. The lofs
on the Britiffi fide amounted to about xooo, among
whom were 19 officers killed and 70 wounded j that
of the Americans did not exceed 500.
The Britifh troops claimed the victory in this en¬
gagement with juftice, though it muft be allowed that
it was dearly bought 5 and the Americans boafted that
the real advantages were on their fide, as they had fo
much weakened the enemy, that they durft not after¬
wards venture out of their intrenchments. From the
many advantages, however, which the Americans pof-
iefled, it is evident that the greateft difplay of valour
was on the fide of their enemies. 'Idle former were
ftrongly intrenched, and moft of their fortifications
cannon proof’, their foldiers were all chofen, and ex¬
cellent markfmen, to whom mulkets ready loaded were
handed as faft as they were difcharged j and when one
party was wearied, another came to their afliftance, as
was perceived by the fpedftators on the tops of the
houfes at Bofton. Confidering, howre‘ver, that this
w’as the firft time the provincials had been in aftual
fcrvice, it muft be owmed that they behaved with
great Ipirit, and by no means merited the appellation
of towards, with, which they were fo often branded in
Britain.
In other places the fame determined fpirit of refift*
47 ] A M E
ance appeared on the part of the Americans. Lord Anu rku.
North’s conciliatory fcheme was utterly rejected by
the aifemblies of Pennfylvania and New jerfey, and uf- -j.^1 ^m(,
tenvards in every other colony. The commencement nCans be-
of hoftiliyes at Lexington determined the colony of come more
New York, wffiich had hitherto continued to waver, toand mo.re
unite with the reft ; and as the fituation of New York
renders it unable to refift an attack from the fea, it potion.'^
was refolved, before the arrival of a Britiih fleet, to fe-
cure the military ftores, fend off the women and chil¬
dren, and to fet fire to the city if it was ftill found in¬
capable of defence. The exportation of provifions was
everywhere prohibited, particularly to the Britiffi fiih-
ery on the banks of Newfoundland, or to fuch colonies
of America as ffiould adhere to the Britiih intereft.
Congrefs refolved on the eftabliffiment of an army,
and of a large 'paPer currency in order to fupport it.
In the inland northern colonies^ Colonels Eafton and
Ethan Allen, without receiving any orders from con- T g
grefs, or communicating their defign to anybody, with Crown
a party of only 250 men, furprifed the forts of Crown Point and
Point, Ticonderago, and the reft that form a coramu-Tlconde-
nication betwixt the colonies and Canada. On this 0c-
cafion 200 pieces of cannon fell into their hands, be- meric an;,
fides mortars and a large quantity of military ftores,
together with tw’o armed veffels, and materials for the
conftru&ion of others.
After the battle of Bunker’s Hill, the provincials,
erefled fortifications on the heights which commanded-
Charleftown, and ftrengthened the reft in fuch a man¬
ner that there w’as no hope of driving them from
thence; at the fame time that their adlivity and bold-
nefs aftoniffied the Britiffi officers, who had been ac-
cuftomed to entertain too. mean an opinion of their
courage. _ lSy
The troops,, thus fhut up in Bofton, were foon re- Troops ia
duced to diftrefs. Their neceffities obliged them to B0^11 di-
attempt the carrying off the American cattle on the ^ie^e^"
iflands before Bofton, wffiich produced frequent Ikir-
mifhes 5 but the provincials, better acquainted with the
navigation of thefe fliores, landed on the iflands, de-
ftroyed or carried off whatever W’as of any ufe, burned
the lighthoufe at the entrance of the harbour, and.
took prifoners the workmen fent to repair it, as wrell
as a party of marines wffio. guarded them. Thus the
garrifon were reduced to the neceffity of fending out
armed veffels to make prizes indiferiminately of all that
came in their wTay, and of landing in different places
to plunder for fubfiftence as well as they could.
The congrefs in the mean time continued to a<ft: with Articles of
all the vigour which its conftitaents had expefted. union be_
Articles of confederation and perpetual union were colonies16
drawn up and folemnly agreed upon j by which they
bound themfelves and their pofterity for ever. Thefe
were in fubftance as follow :
r. Each colony was to be independent within itfelf,.
and to retain an ablblute fovereignty in all domeftic
affairs.
2. Delegates to be annually elefted to meet in con¬
grefs, at fuch time and place as Ihould be enafted in
the preceding congrefs.
3. d his affembly ffiould have the power of deter¬
mining war or peace, making alliances ; and in ffiort
all that pow'er wffiich fovereigns of ftates ufually claim
as their own.
4. ■ That
Amcrirri,
135
Declara¬
tion on ta¬
lking up
..arms.
A M E [ 48
4. The expenses of war to be paid out of the com-
1 mon treafury, and raifed by a poll tax on males be¬
tween 16 and 60 : the proportions to be determined by
the laws of the colony.
5. An executive council to be appointed to aft in
place of the congrefs during its recefs.
6. No colony to mahe war with the Indians without
confent of congrefs.
•j. The boundaries of all the Indian lands to be fe-
cured and afcertained to them ; and no purchafes of
lands were to be made by individuals, or even by a co¬
lony, wuthout confent of congrefs.
8. iVgents appointed by congrefs fhould refide
among the Indians, to prevent frauds in trading with
them, and to relieve, at the public expence, their
wants and diftreffes.
9. This confederation to laft until there fhould be a
reconciliation with Britain ) or, if that event fhould not
take place, it rvas to be perpetual.
After the action of Bunker’s Hill, however, when
the power of Great Britain appeared lefs formidable in
the eyes of America than before, congrefs proceeded
formally to juftify their proceedings m a declaration
draven up in terms more expreflive, and well calculated
to excite attention.
“ Were it poffible (Taid they) for men who exer-
cife their reafon, to believe that the divine Author of
our exiftence intended a part of the human race to hold
an abfolute property in and unbounded power over
others, marked out by His infinite goodnefs and wif-
■dom as the objefts of a regal domination, never right¬
fully refiftible, however fevere and oppreffive j the in¬
habitants of thefe colonies might at leaft require from
the parliament of Great Britain fome evidence that this
d’ • adful authority over them had been granted to that
body : but a reverence for our Great Creator, princi¬
ples of humanity, and the diftates of common fenfe,
mull convince all thofe who refleft upon the fubjeft,
that government was inftituted to promote the welfare
of mankind, and ought to be adminiftered for the at¬
tainment of that end.
“ The legiflature of Great Britain, however, fti-
mulated by an inordinate paffion for powrer, not only
unjuftifiable, but w’hich they know to be peculiarly re¬
probated by the very conftitution of that kingdom $
and defpairing of faccefs in any mode of conteft wdiere
regard fhould be had to law, truth, or right •, have at
length, deferring thofe, attempted to effeft their cruel
and impolitic purpofe, of enllaving thefe colonies by
violence, and have thereby rendered it neceffary for us
to clofe wdth their laft appeal from reafon to arms.
Yet, however blinded that affembly may be, by their
intemperate rage for unlimited domination, fo to flight
juftice in the opinion of mankind, we efteem ourfelves
bound by obligations to the reft of the world to make
known the juftice ofourcaufe.”
After taking notice of the manner in which their an-
ceftors left Britain, the happinefs attending tke mutual
friendly commerce betrvixt that country and her colo¬
nies, and the remarkable fuccefs of the late w^ar, they
proceed as follows : “ The new miniftry finding the
brave foes of Britain, though frequently defeated, yet
ftill contending, took up the unfortunate idea of grant¬
ing them a hafty peace, and of then fubduing her faith¬
ful friends.
] A M E
“ Thefe devoted colonies were judged to be in fuch Arr>erica,
a ftate as to prefent viftories without bloodflied, and -v—“•
all the eafy emoluments of ftatutable plunder. The
uninterrupted tenour of their peaceable and refpeftful
behaviour from the beginning of their colonization j
their dutiful, zealous, and uieful fervices during the
war, though fo recently and amply acknowledged in
the molt honourable manner by his majefty, by the
late king, and by parliament, could not fave them from
the intended innovations. Parliament -was influenced
to adopt the pernicious projeft ; and afluming a new
power over them, has in the courfe of eleven years gi-
vemfuch decifive fpecimens of the fpirit and confequen-
cer. attending this power, as to leave no doubt of the
effefts of acquiefcence under it.
“ They have undertaken to give and grant our mo¬
ney without our confent, though we have ever exer-
cifed an exclufive right to difpofe of our own proper¬
ty. Statutes have been palled for extending the jurif-
diftion of the courts of admiralty, and vice-admiralty,
beyond their ancient limits j for depriving us of the
accuftomed and ineftimable rights of trial by jury, in
cafes affefting both life and property ; for fulpending
the legiflature of one of our colonies ; for interdifting
all commerce to the capital of another •, and for alter¬
ing fundamentally the form of government eftabliflied
by charter, and fecured by afts of its own legiflature;
and folemnly confirmed by the crown ; for exempting
the murderers of colonifts from legal trial, and in ef¬
feft from punilhment j for erefting in a neighbouring
province, acquired by the joint arms of Great Britain
and America, a defpotifm dangerous to our very exift¬
ence ; and for quartering foldiers upon the colonifts in
time of a profound peace. It has alfo been refolved
in parliament, that colonifts charged with committing
certain offences, fhall be tranfported to England to be
tried.
“ But why fhould we enumerate our injuries in de¬
tail ? By one ftatute it was declared, that parliament
can of right make laws to bind us in all cafes whatever.
What is to defend us againft fo enormous, fo unlimited
a power ? Not a fingle perfon who affumes it is chofen
by us, or is fubjeft to our controul oir influence ; but
on the contrary, they are all of them exempt from the
operation of fuch laws ; and an American revenue, if
not diverted from the oftenfible purpofes from which
it is raifed, would aftually lighten their own burdens
in proportion as it increafes ours.
“ We faw the mifery to which fuch defpotifm would
reduce us. We for ten years inceffantly and ineffeftu-
ally befieged the throne as fupplicants 5 we reafoned,
we remonffrated with parliament in the moft mild and
decent language : but adminiftration, fenfible that we
fhould regard thefe meafures as freemen ought to do,
fent over fleets and armies to enforce them..
“ We have purfued every temperate, every refpeft¬
ful meafure 5 we have even proceeded to break off all
commercial intercourfe with our fellow-iubjefts as our
laft peaceable admonition, that our attachment to no
nation on earth would fupplant our attachment to li¬
berty : this we flattered ourfelves was the ultimate ftep
of the controverfy ; but fubfequent events have ihown
how vain wras this hope of finding moderation in our
enemies!
« The Lords and Commons, in their addrefs in the
month
A M E
[ 49 ] A M E
America.
•s
t86
'Quebec bill
tmagree-
able to
thofe whom
* it was in¬
tended to
pleafe.
montli of February, faid, that a rebellion at that time
adtually exiited in the province of Maflfachufets Bay,
and that thofe concerned in it had been countenanced
and encouraged by unlawful combinations and engage¬
ments entered into by his majelty’s fubjeifls in feveral
of the colonies j and therefore they befought his ma*
jelly that he would take the molt effectual meafures to
enforce due obedience to the laws and authority of the
fupreme legiilature. Soon after the commercial inter-
Courfe of whole colonies with foreign countries was cut
olf by an aft of parliament; by another, feveral of them
were entirely prohibited from the lifheries in the feas
near their coatts, on which they always depended for
their fubfiltence ; and large reinforcements of fhips and
troops were immediately lent over to General Gage.
“ Fruitlefs were all the' entreaties, arguments, and
eloquence of an illuftrious band of the moft diilinguifh-
ed peers and commoners, who nobly and ftrenuoufly
alferted the jullice of our caufe, to Hay, or even to mi¬
tigate, the heedlels fury with which thefe accumulated
outrages -were hurried on. Equally fruitlefs wras the
interference of the city of London, of Briltol, and ma¬
ny other refpeftable towns in our favour.”
After having reproached parliament, General Gage,
and the Britilh government in general, they proceed
thus: “ We are reduced to the alternative of chooling
an unconditional fubmiffion to tyranny or i-eliftance by
force. The latter is our choice. We have counted
the colt of this conteft, and find nothing fo dreadful
as voluntary flavery. Honour, juftice, »nd humanity,
forbid us tamely to furrender that freedom which we
received from our gallant anceltors, and which our in¬
nocent pollerity have a right to receive from us. Our
caufe is jult; our union is perfeft 5 our internal re-
lources are great 5 and, if neceffary, foreign affiilance is
undoubtedly attainable. We fight not for glory or
conqueft } wTe exhibit to mankind the remarkable fpec-
tacle of a people attacked by unprovoked enemies.
They boaft of their privileges and civilization, and yet
proffer no milder conditions than fervitude or death.
In our owm native land, in defence of the freedom that
is our birthright, for the proteftion of our proper¬
ty acquired by the honeft induffry of our forefathers
and our own, againft violence aftually offered, we have
taken up arms ; we (hall lay them down when hoftili-
ties (hall ceafe on the part of our aggreffbrs, and all
danger of their being renewed (hall be removed,—-and
not before.”
Thefe are fome of the moll (friking paffages in the
declaration of congrefs on taking up arms againll
Great Britain, and dated July 6th 1775. Without in¬
quiring whether the principles on wdiich it is founded
are right or wrong, the determined fpirit which it
(hows ought to have convinced us, that the conqueft of
America w^as an event fcarcely ever to be expefted. In
every other refpeft an equal fpirit was (hown ^ and the
rulers of the Britifh nation had the mortification to
fee thofe whom they ftyled rebels and traitors, fucceed
in negotiations in which they themfelves w^ere utterly
foiled. In the palling of the Quebec bill, miniftry had
flattered themfelves that the Canadians would be fo
much attached to them on account of reftoring the
French laws, that they would very readily join in any
attempt againit the colonills, who had reprobated that
bill in luch drone terms; but in this, as in every thine
Vol. II. Part I.
1 liC v^cl- zameric*.
elie indeed, they found themfelves miftaken.   
Uadians having been fubjeft to Britain for a period of'
15 years, and being thus rendered fenfible of the fupe-
rior advantages of Britilh government, received the bill
itfelf with evident marks of difapprobation ; nay, re¬
probated it as tyrannical and oppreflive. A fcheme
had been formed for General Carleton, governor of the
province to raife an army of Canadians wherewith to
aft againll the Americans ; and (o fanguine were the
hopes of adminiftration in this refpeft, that they had
lent 20,000 (land of arms, and a great quantity of mi¬
litary (lores, to Quebec for the purpofe. But the
people, though they did not join the Americans, yet
w'ere found immovable in their purpofe to (land neu¬
ter. Application wras made to the bilhop ; but he de¬
clined to interpofe his influence, as contrary to the
rules of the Popifli clergy : fo that the utmoff efforts
of government in this province were found to anfwer
little or no purpofe. ig
The Britifh adminillration next tried to engage the Miniitry
Indians in their caufe. But though agents were dif-attempt in'
perfed among them with large prefents to the chiefs,vain fo.arrn
they univerfally replied, that they did not underftand116 Indian'1
the nature of the quarrel, nor could they dilfinguilh
whether thofe who dw^elt in America or on the other
fide of the ocean were in fault : but they w^ere furprifed
to fee Englilhmen alk their aflillance againll one ano¬
ther ; and advifed them to be reconciled, and not
think of (bedding the blood of their brethren.—To
the reprefentations of congrefs they paid more re¬
fpeft. Thefe fet forth, that the Englilli on the other
fide of the ocean had taken up arms to enflave not on¬
ly their countrymen in America, but the Indians alfo ;
and if the latter (hould enable them to overcome the
colonills, they themfelves would foon be reduced to a
(late of llavery alio. By arguments of this kind thefe
favages were engaged to remain neuter 5 and thus the
celonifts were freed from a moft dangerous enemy. On
this occafion the congrefs thought proper to hold a
folemn conference.with the different tribes of Indians.
The (peech made by them on the occafion is curious,
but too long to be fully inferted. The following is a
fpecimen of the European mode of addrefling thefe
people.
‘‘Brothers, Sachems, and Warriors ! Sieer^of
“ We, the delegates from the Twelve United Pro-tiie com.
vinces, now fitting in general congrefs at Philadelphia, midioners
fend their talk to you our brothers. from con¬
grefs to
“ Brothers, and Friends now attend ! tl16 Imh-
“ When our fathers croffed the great water, andans’
came over to this land, the king of England gave them
a talk, affuring them that they and their children
(hould be his children 5 and that if they would leave
their native country, and make fettlements, and live
here, and buy and fell, and trade with their brethren
beyond the water, they {hould ftill keep hold of the
fame covenant-chain, and enjoy peace ; and it w as co¬
venanted, that the fields, houfes, goods, and poffef-
fions which our fathers (hould acquire, (hould remain
to them as their own, and be their children’s for ever,
and at their foie difpofal.
“ Brothers and Friends, open a kind ear !
“ We will now tell you of the quarrel betwixt the
G counfellors
A M E
[ 1
A M E
£ mrt-ica.
189
Gen. Wafh
ington ap¬
pointed
command¬
er in chief.
J90
Georgia
accedes to
the confe¬
deracy.
counfellors of King George and tlie inhabitants and
colonies of America.
“ Many of his counfellors have perfuaded him to
break the covenant-chain, and not to fend us any more
good talks. They have prevailed upon him to enter
into a covenant againrt us ; and have torn afunder,
and call behind their backs, the good old covenant
which their anceftors and ours entered into, and took
llrong hold of. They now tell us, they will put their
hands into our pocket without alking, as though it
were their own ; and at their pleafure they will take
from us our charters or written civil conllitution, which
we love as our lives; alfo our plantations, our houfes,
and goods, whenever they pleafe, without afking our
leave. They tell us, that our veffels may go to that
or this ifland in the fea, but to this or that particular
ifland we fhall not trade any more } and, in cafe of our
non-compliance with thefe newT orders, they fhut up
our harbours.
“ Brothers, we live on the fame ground with you;
the fame illand is our common birthplace. . We defire
to fit down under the fame tree of peace with you j
let us water its roots, and cheriih the growth, till the
large leaves and flourifhing branches fhall extend to the
fetting fun, and reach the Ikies. If any thing dif-
agreeable fhould ever fall out betrveen us, the Twelve
United Colonies, and you, the Six Nations, to wTound
our peace, let us immediately feek meafures for heal¬
ing the breach. From the prefent fituation of our af¬
fairs, we judge it expedient to kindle up a fmall fire at
Albany, where we may hear each other’s voice, and
difclofe our minds fully to one another.”
The other remarkable tranfaclions of this congrefs
were the ultimate refufal of the conciliatory propofal
made by Lord North, of which fuch fanguine expec¬
tations had been formed by the Englifh miniftry ; and
appointing a generaliffimo to command their armies,
"which were now very numerous. The perfon chofen
for this purpofe w'as George Wafhington : a man fo
univerfally beloved, that he was raifed to fuch a high
llation by the unanimous voice of congrefs ; and his
fubfequent conduct fhowed him every way worthy of
it. Horace Gates and Charles Lee, two Englifh offi¬
cers of confiderable reputation, wrere alfo chofen ; the
former an adjutant-general, the fee on d a major-general.
Artemus Ward, Philip Schuyler, and Ifrael Putnam,
were like wife nominated major-generals. Seth Pome¬
roy, Richard Montgomery, David Woofter, William
Heath, Jofeph Spencer, John Thomas, John Sullivan,
and Nathaniel Green were chofen brigadier-generals
at the fame time.
Congrefs had now alfo the fatisfaftion to receive de¬
puties from the colony of Georgia, expreffing a defire
to join the confederacy. The reafons they gave for re¬
nouncing their allegiance to Britain were, that the con-
duft of parliament towards the other colonies had been
oppreffive j that though the obnoxious adds had not
been extended to them, they could view this only as
an omiffion, becaufe of the feeming little confequence
of their colony 5 and therefore looked upon it rather
to be a flight than a favour. At the fame time they
framed a petition to the king, fimilar to that fent by
the other colonies, and which met with a fimilar re¬
ception.
The fuccefs which had hitherto attended the Ame¬
ricans in all their meafures, now emboldened them to -America,
think not only of defending themfelves, but likewdfe 01
afting offenfively againft Great Britain. The conquefl
of Canada appeared an ebjedl within their reach, andijc^ ^
one that would be attended with many advantages ; tenipt
and as an invafion of that province was already facili-couqueil
tated by the taking of Crowm Point and Ticonderago,of Canadav
it w as refolved if poffible to penetrate that way into
Canada, and reduce Quebec during the winter, before
the fleets and armies, which they wrere well afiured
would fail thither from Britain, fhould arrive. By or¬
der of congrefs, therefore, 3000 men were put under
the command of Generals Montgomery and Schuyler,
with orders to proceed to Lake Champlain, from
whence they w'ere to be conveyed in flat-bottomed
boats to the mouth of the river Sorel, a branch of the
great river St Law'rence, and on which is fituated a
fort of the fame name wuth the river. On the other
hand, they were oppofed by General Carleton governor
of Canada, a man of great adlivity and experience in
war ; who, with a very few troops, had hitherto been
able to keep in aw^e the difaffefled people of Canada,
notwithftanding all the reprefentations of the colonifts.
Fie had nowr augmented his army by a confiderable
number of Indians, and promifed even in his prefent
fituation to make a very formidable refiftance.
As foon as General Montgomery arrived at Crown
Point, he received information that feveral armed vef¬
fels were ftationed at St John’s, a ftrong fort on the
Sorel, with a view to prevent his croffing the lake j
on wffiich he took poffeffion of an ifland which com¬
mands the mouth of the Sorel, and' by which he could
prevent them from entering the lake. In conjunction
with General Schuyler, he next proceeded to St John’s:
but finding that place too ftrong, he landed on a part
of the country confiderably diftant, and full of wmeds
and fw-amps. From thence, how-ever, they were driven
by a party of Indians whom General Carleton had em¬
ployed.
The provincial army w^as nowr obliged to retreat to
the ifland of w-hich they had at firft taken poffeffion ;
where General Schuyler being taken ill, Montgomery ^
was left to command alone. His firft ftep w as to gain
over the Indians wdiom General Carleton had employed,
and this he in a great meafure accompliffied} after
which, on receiving the full number of troops appoint¬
ed for his expedition, he determined to lay fiege to ^
St John’s. In this he was facilitated by the reduttion chamblee'
of Chamblee, a fmall fort in the neighbourhood, wffiere taken,
he found a large fupply of powder. An attempt was
made by General Carleton to relieve the place y for
w’hich purpofe he with great pains collefted about icoo
Canadians, wffiile Colonel Maclean propofed to raife a
regiment of the Highlanders who had emigrated from
their own country to America.
But w’hile General Carleton wTas on his march with General
thefe new levies, he wTas attacked by a fuperior force Carleton
of provincials, and utterly defeated; which being^e^eate-^’
made knowm to another body of Canadians who had
joined Colonel Maclean, they abandoned him with¬
out ftriking a blow, and he w'as obliged to retreat to
Quebec.-
The defeat of General Carleton was a fufficient re-
compenfe to the Americans for that of Colonel Ethan
Allen, which had happened feme time before. The
fuccefs
A
America, fuccefs which had
ME I s
attended this gentleman againft
194
£t John’s
Crown Point and Ticonderago had emboldened him
to make a limilar attempt on Montreal j but being at¬
tacked by the militia of the place, lupported by a de¬
tachment of regulars, he was entirely defeated and ta¬
ken prifoner.
As the defeat of General Garleton and the defertion
of Maclean’s forces left no room for the garrifon of St
John’s to hope for any relief, they now confented to
lurrender themfelves prifoners of war j but were in other
fort taken, refpects treated with great humanity. They were in
' number 500 regulars and 200 Canadians, among whom
were many of the French nobility $ who had been very
adive in promoting the caufe of Britain among their
countrymen.
General Montgomery next took meafures to prevent
the Britilh (hipping from pafling down the river from
Montreal to Quebec. This he accompli(hed fo effiec-
and^fke- tually, that the whole vrere taken. The town itfelf
\rifo Moat- w'as obliged to furvender at difcretion 5 and it was with
real. t]ie utmo(l difficulty that General Carleton efcaped in
an open boat by the favour of a dark night.
No further obllacle now remained in the way of the
Americans to the capital, except what arofe from the
nature of the country j and thefe indeed were very con-
fidcrable. Nothing, however, could damp the ardour
of the provincials. Notwithllanding it was now the
middle of November, and the depth of winter Was at
. hand, Colonel Arnold formed a defign of penetrating
Col.1 Arnold through woods, morafies, and the moll frightful foli-
penetrates tudes from New England to Canada by a nearer way
into Cana- than that which Montgomery had chofen ;x and this he
accompliffied in fpite of every difficulty, to the aftoniffi-
ment of all who faw or heard of the attempt. This
defperate march, however, cannot be looked upon as
conducive to any good purpofe. A third part of his
men under another colonel had abandoned him by the
way, under pretence of want of provilions j the total
want of artillery rendered his prefence infignificant
before a place Itrongly fortified ; and the fmallnefs of
his army rendered it even doubtful whether he could
have taken the town by furprife. The Canadians ini
deed were amazed at the exploit, and their inclination
to revolt from Britain was fomewhat augmented 5 but
none of them as yet took up arms in behalf of America.
The conilernation into which the town of Quebec was
thrown proved detrimental rather than otherwife to the
expedition ", as it doubled the vigilance and activity of
the inhabitants to prevent any furprife ■, and the ap¬
pearance of common danger united all parties, who, be¬
fore the arrival of Arnold, were contending molt vio¬
lently with one another. He was therefore obliged to
content himfelf with blocking up the avenues to the
town, in order to dillrefs the garrifon for want of pro-
vifions } and even this he was unable to do effectually,
by reafon of the fmall number of his men.
The matter was not much mended by the arrival of
General Montgomery. The force he had with him,
even when united to that of Arnold, w'as too infignifi¬
cant to attempt the reduction of a place fo Itrongly
fortified, efpecially with the affiltance only of a few
mortars and field-pieces. After the liege had conti¬
nued through the month of December, General Mont¬
gomery, confcious that he could accomplilh his end no
other way than by furprile, refolved to make an at-
1 ] A M E
tempt on the laft day of the year 1775. The method America,
he took at this time wras perhaps the bell that human l |”~
wifdom could devife. He advanced by break of day, 197
in the midll of a heavy fall of fnowr, which covered his Attempt
men from the fight of the enemy. Two real attacks qu^c
were made by himfelf and Colonel Arnold, at the fame
time that twro feigned attacks were made on tw7o other
places, thus to dillradff the garrifon, and make them di¬
vide their forces-. One of the real attacks wras made
by the people of New York, and the other by thofe of
New England under Arnold. Their hopes of furpri-
fing the place, however, were defeated by the lignal
for the attack being through fome miftake given too
foon. General Montgomery himfelf had the molt dan¬
gerous place, being obliged to pafs between the river
and fome high rocks on which the Upper Towm Hands;
fo that he was forced to make wffiat halte he could to rpg
clofe with the enemy. His fate, however, was now General
decided. Having forced the firlt barrier, a violent Montgo-
difeharge of mulketry and grape ffiot from the fecond ^Cr^n^the
killed him, his principal officers, and the molt of the Americans
party he commanded ; on which thofe vffio remained defeated,
immediately retreated. Colonel Arnold in the mean
time made a defperate attack on the Low-er Town, and
carried one of the barriers after an obltinate refiltance
for an hour; but in the aftion he himfelf received a
wound, which obliged him to withdraw. The at¬
tack, however, was continued by the officers whom
he had left, and another barrier forced : but the gar¬
rifon, now perceiving that nothing was to be feared
except from that quarter, colle&ed their whole force
againff it; and, after a defperate engagement of three
bours, overpowered the provincials, and obliged them
to furrender.
In this aftion, it mull; be confeffed that the valour
of the provincial troops could not be exceeded. They
bad fought under as great difadvantages as thofe
which attended the Britifh at Bunker’s Hill, and had
behaved equally well. Such a terrible difafter left no
hope remaining of the accomplilhment of their purpofe,
as General Arnold could now fcarce number 800 ef¬
fective men under his command. He did not, how¬
ever, abandon the province, or even remove to a great¬
er diltance than three miles from Quebec ; and here he
ftill found means to annoy the garrifon very confider-
ably by intercepting their provilions. The Canadians,
notwithllanding the bad fuccefs of the American arms,
Hill continued friendly *, and thus he wras enabled to
fuilain the hardlhips of a winter encampment in that 1^()
molt fevere climate. The congrefs, far from palling Arnold
any cenfure on him for his misfortune, created him a created a
brigadier-general. brigadier-
While hoitilities were thus carried on with vigour in Senera^
the north, the flame of contention was gradually ex¬
tending itfelf in the fouth. Lord Dunmore, the go- ^..r20,° -
vernor of V irgima, was involved in diiputes nmilar to Lorcl Dun-
thofe which had taken place in other colonies. Thele more with
had proceeded fo far that the affembly was diffolved j Us Pro_
which in this province wTas attended with a confequence ^nce. ol
unknown to the reft. As Virginia contained a great ^S11113,
number of llaVes, it was neceffary that a militia Ihould
be kept conftantly on foot to keep them in awe. Du¬
ring the diffolution of the affembly the militia laws ex¬
pired 5 and the people, after complaining of the danger
they were in from the negroes, formed a convention,
G 2 which
A M E
[
America, which enacted that each county fhould raife a quota
v for the defence of the province. Dunmore, on this,
removed the powder from Williamfburg ; which crea¬
ted fuch difcontents, that an immediate quarrel would
probably have enfued, had not the merchants of the
town undertaken to obtain fatisfaftion for the injury
fuppoled to be done to the community. This tranquil¬
lity, however, tvas foon interrupted j the people, alarm¬
ed by a report that an armed party were on their way
from the man of war where the powder had been de-
pofited, aflembled in arms, and determined to oppofe
by force any farther removals. %In fome of the confe¬
rences which pahed at this time, the governor let fall
fome unguarded expreflions, fuch as threatening them
with, fetting up the royal ftandard, proclaiming liberty
to the negroes, deftroying the town of Williamihurg,
&c. which were afterwards made public, and exagge¬
rated in fuch a manner as greatly to increafe the public
ferment.
The people now held frequent aflemblies. Some of
them took up arms with a defign to force the governor
to reitore the powder, and to take the public money
into their own poffelTion ; but on their way to Wil¬
liamihurg for this purpofe, they w'ere met by the re¬
ceiver-general, who became fecurity for the payment
of the gunpowder, and the inhabitants promifed to take
care of the magazine and public revenue.
By this infurrection the governor was fo much inti¬
midated, that he fent his family on board a man of
He himfelf, however, iifued a proclamation, in
which he declared the behaviour of the perfon who pro¬
moted the tumult treafonable, accufed the people of
difaffeftion, &c. On their part they wrere by no means
deficient in recriminating ; and fome letters of his to
Britain being about the fame time difcovered, con-
fequences enlued extremely fimilar to thofe which had
been occafioned by thofe of Mr Hutchinfon at Bofton.
In this Hate ot confufion the governor thought it
neceffary to fortify his palace with artillery, and pro¬
cure a party of marines to guard it. Lord North’s
conciliatory propofal arriving alfo about the fame time,
he ufed his utmoft endeavours to caufe the people com¬
ply wfith it. The arguments he ufed were fuch as mull
do him honour ; and had not matters already gone to
fuch a pitch of diftra&ion, it is highly probable that
fome attention wrould have been paid to them. “ The
view (he laid) in which the colonies ought to behold
conciliatory conc*hatory propofal, was no more than an earn eft
201
He fends
his family
aboard aj
man of war. war.
202
Fortifies
his palace.
*03
His argu¬
ments for
L. North’s
pian..
admonition from Great Britain to relieve her wants
that the utmoft condefcendence had been ufed in the
mode of application ; no determinate fum having been
fixed, as it w^as thought moft worthy of Britilh gene-
rofity to take what they thought could be convenient¬
ly fpared, and likewife to leave the mode of raifing it
to themfelves,” &c. But the clamour and diffatisfac-
tion were nowr fo univerfal, that nothing elfe could be
attended to. The governor had called an affembly for
the purpofe of laying this conciliatory propofal before
them ; but it had been little attended to. The affem¬
bly began their feftion by inquiries into the ftate of the
magazine. It had been broken into by fome of the
tqw’nfmen ; for which reafon fpring-guns had been pla¬
ced there by the governor, which difcharged them-
lelves upon the offenders at their entrance : thefe cir-
^umftances, with others of a fimilar kind, raifed fuch a
2 ] A M E
violent uproar, that as foon as the preliminary bufinefs America,
of the feftion w as over, the governor retired on board a *
man of war, informing the aflembly that he durft no 204
longer truft himfelf on (bore. This produced a long ^ie S°"
courfe of deputation, wdiich ended in a pofitive refufal tires^on^”
of the governor to truft himfelf again in Williamihurg, l^oard a
even to give his affent to the bills, which could not be man of
paffed without it, and though the affembly offered to war'
bind themfelves for his perfonal fafety. In his turn
he requefted them to meet him on board the man of
war, where he then wras j but this propofal was reject¬
ed, and all further correipondence containing the leaft
appearance of friendftiip w7as dilcontinued.
Lord Dunmore, thus deprived of his government, Attempts
attempted to reduce by force thofe -whom he could no t0 reduce
longer govern. Some of the moft ftrenuous adhe-the co!or,y
rents to the Britifh caufe, whom their zeal had render-^' (orcx*
ed obnoxious at home, now repaired to him. He was
alfo joined by numbers of black Haves. With thefe
and the afliftance of the Britilh Hupping, he was for
fome time enabled to cany on a kind of predatory war,
fufficient to hurt and exafperate, but not to lubdue.
After fome inconliderable attempts on land, proclaim¬
ing liberty to the Haves, and fetting up the royal ftan¬
dard, he took up his refidence at Norfolk, a maritime
town of fome confequence, where the people were bet¬
ter affeCfed to Britain than in moft other places. A ^
conliderable force, however, was collected againft him; but is en--
and the natural impetuolity of his temper prompting tirely de-
him to aft againft them with more courage than cau- teil,;ed.
tion, he was entirely defeated, and obliged to retire to
his Ihipping, which was now crowded by the number
of thofe who had incurred the refentment of the pro¬
vincials.
207
In the mean time a fcheme of the utmoft magnitude Mr Conol-
and importance was formed by one Mr Conolly, a Penn- b’’8 p’an
fylvanian of an intrepid and afpiring difpolition, and reyU~
attached to the caufe of Britain. The firll itep of this ir"
plan was to enter into a league with the Ohio Indians.
This he communicated to Lord Dunmore, and it re¬
ceived his approbation : Upon which Conolly fet out,
and aftually fucceeded in his defign. On his return
he was defpatched to General Gage, from whom he
received a colonel’s commiflion, and fet out in order to
accomplifir the remainder of his fcheme. The plan in
general wras, that he fiiould return to the Ohio, where,
by the afiiftance of the Britilh and Indians in thele
parts, he wras to penetrate through the back fettle-
ments into Virginia, and join Lord Dunmore at Alex- 2cS
andria. But by an accident very naturally to be ex-He is diO
pefted, he w7as difcovered, taken prifoner, and thrown covered
into a dungeon. an(\ t^ken.
After the retreat of Lord Dunmore from Norfolk,i,nloiier'
that place wras taken poffeflion of by the provincials,
who treated the loyalifts that had remained there wdth
great cruelty ; at the fame time that they greatly di-
ftreffed thofe on board Lord Dunmore’s fleet, by refu-
fmg to fupply them with any neceffaries. Nor was Cruelty of
this all; the vicinity of the Hupping was fo great astheAmeri-
to afford the riflemen an opportunity of aiming at the caRS*
people on board, and exercifing the cruel occupation of
killing them, in which they did not fail every day to
employ themfelves. Thefe proceedings at iaft drew7 a
remonftrance from his lordftiip ; in which he infilled
that the fleet ftiould be furnilhed with neceffaries, and'
that
A M E [
America, that the foldiers lliould defift from the cruel diverfion
<■— 1 above mentioned ; but both thefe requefts being denied,
iio a refolution was taken to fet fire to the town. After
The town giving the inhabitants proper warning, a party landed,
ofNorfo'k undercover of a man of war, and fet fire to that part
deftroye . lay neareft the fliore ; but the flames were ob-
ferved at the fame time to break forth in every other
quarter, and the whole town was reduced to allies.
This univerfal deftru&ion, by which a lofs of more than
300,000!. was incurred, is faid to have been occafion-
ed by order of the congrefs itfelf, that the loyalifts
an might find no refuge there for the future.
The go- In the fouthem colonies of Carolina the governors
vernors of werg expellecl and obliged to take refuge on board of
North Oi men war’ as korc* Dunmore had been j Mr Martin,
rolina exl governor of North Carolina, on a charge of attempting
pelled. to raife the back fettlers, confifting chiefly of Scots
Highlanders, againft the colony. Having fecured them-
felves againft any attempts from thefe enemies, however,
they proceeded to regulate their internal concerns in the
fame manner as the reft of the colonies j and by the end
of the year 1775, Britain beheld the whole of America
united againft her in the molt determined oppolition.
Her valt pofleflions of that trad! of land (fmce known by
the name of the ^Thirteen United States') were now redu¬
ced to the Angle town of Bolton } in which her forces
were befieged by an enemy with whom they were ap¬
parently not able to cope, and by whom they mult of
2iz courfe expedt in a very Ihort time to be expelled. The
Miferable fituation of the inhabitants of Bolton, indeed, was pe-
fituation of cullarly unhappy. After having failed in their at-
tantsof Bo-temPts to leave the town, General Gage had confent-
Itun. ed to allow them to retire with their effefts 5 but af¬
terwards, for what reafon does not well appear, he re-
fufed to fulfil his promife. When he refigned his place
to General Howe in October 1775, the latter, appre-
henlive that they might give intelligence of the fitua¬
tion of the Britilh troops, ftriftly prohibited any per-
fon from leaving the place under pain of military exe¬
cution. Thus matters continued till the month of
March 1776, when the town was evacuated.
Bofton fe- On the 2d .of that month, General Walhington
verely can- opened a battery on the weft fide of the town, from
nonaded by wfience it was bombarded with a heavy fire of cannon
ciak r°Vin' at t^ie ^ame t’me ’ an^ t^ree days after, it w?as attacked
by another battery from the eaftern Ihore. This terri¬
ble attack continued for 14 days without intermiflion ;
when General How^e, finding the place no longer te-
nible, determined if poffible to drive the enemy from
their works. Preparations were therefore made for a
moil vigorous attack on a hill called Dorchefter Neck,
which the Americans had fortified in finch a manner
as would in all probability have rendered the enter-
prife next to defperate. No difficulties, however, were
fufficient to daunt the fpirit of the general; and
every thing wras in readinefs, when a fudden ftorm pre¬
vented this intended exertion of Britilh valour. Next
day, upon a more clofe infpeclion of the works they
were to attack, it was thought advifable to defift from
the enterprife altogether. The fortifications wrere very
ftrong, and extremely well provided with artillery j and
befides other implements of deftruflion, upwards of
too hogfheads of ftones were provided to roll down
upon the enemy as they came up; which, as the afcent
55 1 A M E .
was extremely fteep, muft have done prodigious exe- i America* ^
cution.
Nothing therefore now remained but to think of a ^ 2I^irp
retreat j and even this was attended with the utmoft
difficulty and danger. The Americans, however, knowr-
ing that it wus in the power of the Britifh general to
reduce the town to afhes, which could not have been
repaired in many years, did not think proper to give
the leaft moleftation j and for the fpace of a fortnight
the troops were employed in the evacuation of the
place, from whence they carried along with them 2000
of the inhabitants, rvho durft not ftay on account of
their attachment to the Britilh caufe. From Bofton
they failed to Halifax j but all their vigilance could
not prevent a number of valuable Ihips from falling into
the hands of the enemy. A confiderable quantity of
cannon and ammunition had alfo been left at Bunker’s
Hill and Bofton Neck ; and in the town an immenfe
variety of goods, principally woollen and linen, ol which
the provincials flood very much in need. 'I he eftates
of thofe who fled to Halifax were confifcated ; as
alfo thofe wTho were attached to government, and had
remained in the town. As an attack was expefted as
foon as the Britilh forces ftrould arrive, every method
wTas employed to render the fortifications, already very
ftrong, impregnable. For this purpofe fome foreign 215
engineers were employed, who had before arrived at fortifka-
Bofton •, and fo eager were people of all ranks to ac* ^enathen-
compliftr this bufinefs, that every able-bodied man in c'^ 0
the place, without diftinftion of rank, fet apart two
days in the week, to complete it the fooner. 2I(j
The Americans, exafperated to the utmoft by the Congrefs
proceedings of parliament, new formally renounced ali declares^the
connexion with Britain, and declared themlelves inde- Amerjca
pendent. This celebrated declaration was publiftied on in(iepen-
the 4th of July 1776. Previous to this a circular let-dent,
ter had been fent through each colony, dating the
reafons for it ; and fuch was the animofity nowr every¬
where prevailing againft Great Britain, that it met
with univerfal approbation, except in the province of
Maryland alone. It was not long, however, before the
people of that colony, finding themfelves left in a very
dangerous minority, thought proper to accede to the
meafures of the reft. The manifefto itfelf was much
in the ufual ftyle, ftating a long lift of grievances, for
which redrefs had been often applied in vain ; and for
thefe reafons they determined on a final feparation ; to
hold the people of Britain as the reft of mankind,
“ enemies in war, in peace friends.”
After thus publicly throwing off all allegiance and
hope of reconciliation, the colonifts foon found that an
exertion of all their ftrength was required in order to
fupport their pretenlions. Their arms, indeed, had
not, during this ieafon, been attended with fuccefs, in
Canada. Reinforcements had been promifed to Colonel
Arnold, who ftill continued the blockade of Quebec $
but they did not arrive in time to fecond his opera- 2T.r
tions. Being fenfible, however, that he mnft either The liege
defift from the enterprife, or finilh it fuccefsfully, he Quebec
recommenced in form *, attempting to burn the fliip-conti-
ping, and even to ftorm the town itfelf. They weremie
unfuccefsful, however, by reafon of the fmallnefs of
their number, though they fucceeded fo- far as to burn
a number of houfes in the luburbs 5 and the garrifon
were
America.
A M E [ 54 ] AM
were obliged to pull down the remainder, in order to Ton, engaged in this enterprife.
prevent the fire from fpreading.
As the provincials, though unable to reduce the
kept the garrifon in continual alarms, and in a
axS
■ Canadians
defeated
by the pro¬
vincials ;
119
220
Humanity
of the Bri-
tifh gene-
■ral*
town
very difagreeable fituation, fome of the nobility col-
lefted themfelves into a body under the command of
one Mr Beaujeu, in order to relieve their capital j but
they were met on their march by the provincials, and
fo entirely defeated, that they were never afterwards
able to attempt any thing. The Americans, however,
had but little reafon to plume themfelves on this fuc-
cefs. Their want of artillery at lalt convinced them,
that it was impracticable in their fituation to reduce a
place fo ftrongly fortified : the fmallpox at the fame
“time made its appearance in their camp, and carried
off great numbers; intimidating the .reff to fuch a
degree, that they deferted in crowds. To add to
their misfortunes, the Britifir reinforcements unex¬
pectedly appeared, and the fffips made their w^ay
through the ice with fuch celerity, that the one part
who are in of their army was feparated from the other ; and Ge-
dcreated" nera^ Carletou fallying out as foon as the reinforcement
by General was.landed, obliged them to fly with the utmoff preci-
Carleton. pitation, leaving behind them all their cannon and mi¬
litary itores ; at the fame time that their flupping was
entirely captured by veffels fent up the river for that
purpofe. On this occafion the provincials fled with
fuch precipitation that they could not be overtaken ;
fo that none fell into the hands of the Britifh except¬
ing the fick and wounded. General Carleton now gave
a fignal inftance of his humanity: Being well apprifed
that many of the provincials had not been able to ac¬
company the reft in their retreat, and that they were
concealed in woods, &c. in a very deplorable fituation,
he generoufly iffued a proclamation, ordering proper
perfons to feek them out, and give them relief at the
public expence; at the fame time, left, through fear of
being made prifoners, they ihould refufe thefe offers of
humanity, he promifed, that, as foon as their fituation
enabled them, they ihould be at liberty to depart to
their refpedive homes.
The Britiih general, now freed from any danger of
the provin- an attack, was foon enabled to aCl offenfively againft
'* the provincials, by the arrival of the forces deftined for
that purpofe from Britain. By thefe he wras put at
the head of x 2,000 regular troops, among whom were
thofe of Brunfwick. With this force he inftantly fet
out to the Three Rivers, where he expeCted that Ar¬
nold wmuld have made a ftand ; but he had fled to So-
rel, a place 150 miles diftant from Quebec, where he
was at laft met by the reinforcements ordered by con-
grefs. Here, though the preceding events wxre by no
means calculated to infpire much military ardour, a
very daring enterprife w'as undertaken ; and this wxs,
to furprife the Britiih troops polled here under Gene¬
rals Frafer and Nefbit; of wThom the former command¬
ed thofe on land, the latter fuch as were on board of
tranfports and wxre but a little way diftant. The en¬
terprife was undoubtedly very hazardous, both on ac¬
count of the ftrength of the parties againft whom they
were to aft, and as the main body of the Britiih forces
was advanced within 50 miles of the place ; befides
that a number of armed veffels and tranfports with
troops lay between them and the Three Rivers. Two
ihpufand chofen men, however, under General Thom-
-221
He purfues
Their fuccefs was Amt vie*.
by no means anfwerable to their fpirit and valour. ‘ v—
Though they paffed the (hipping without being obfer- 22a
ved, General Frafer had notice of their landing; and 5lenen!1
thus being prepared to receive them, they were' foon defeated"
thrown into diforder, at. the fame time that General and taken
Nefbit, having landed his forces, prepared to attack pnfoner by
them in the rear. On this occafion fome field pieces Genera^
did prodigious execution, and a retreat was found to be Fr:iler'
unavoidable. General Neibit, however, had got be-
twxen them and their boats ; fo that they were obliged
to take a circuit through a deep fwamp, while they
were hotly purfued by both parties at the fame time,
who marched for fome miles on each fide of the fwamp,
till at laft the miferable provincials were Iheltered from
further danger by a wood at the end of the fwamp.
Their general, however, was taken, with 200 of his
men.
By this difafter the provincials loft all hopes of ac-Tj,e22^
complilhing any thing in Canada. They demolifhed vineials°*
their works, and carried off their artillery with the ut- purfued
mold expedition. They wxre purfued, howxver, by l,y General
General Burgoyne; againft whom it was expefted that Bur£°>'ne»
they would have collefted all their force, and made a
refolute Hand. But they wxre now too much difpirit-
ed by misfortune, to make any further exertions of va¬
lour. On the 18th of June the Britiih general arrived
at Fort St John’s, which he. found abandoned and
burnt. Chamblee had ftiared the fame fate, as well as
all the veffels that wxre not capable of being dragged
up againft the current of the river. It was thought that
they would have made fome refiftance at Nut liland,
the entrance to Lake Champlain; but this allb they bnt ^
had abandoned, and retreated acrofs the lake to Crowm to Crow*
Point, -whither they could not be immediately follow- Point,
ed. Thus was the province of Canada entirely eva¬
cuated by the Americans ; whole lofs in their retreat
from Quebec was not calculated at lefs than 1000 mar,
of whom 400 fell at once into the hands of the enemy
at a place called the Cedars, about 50 miles above Mon¬
treal. General Sullivan, however, wTo condufted this
retreat after the affair of General Thomfon, was ac¬
knowledged to have had great merit in what he did,
and received the thanks of congrefs accordingly.
This bad fuccefs in the north, however, was fome-
whaCcompenfated by what happened in the fouthern
colonies.—We have formerly taken notice that Mr
Martin, governor of North Carolina, had been obliged ^alonu
to leave his province and take refuge on board a manNonh Ca~
of war. Notwithftanding this, he did not defpair of r°bna in_
reducing it again to obedience. For this purpofe he °*
applied to the Regulators, a daring fet of banditti, who
lived in a kind of independent ftate ; and though con-
fidered by government as rebels, yet had never been
molefted, on account of their numbers and known flsill
in the ufe of fire-arms. To the chiefs of thefe people
commiflions were fent, in order to raife fome regi¬
ments; and Colonel Macdonald, a brave and enterprif-
ing officer, was appointed to command them. In the
month of February he erefted the king’s ftandard, if¬
fued proclamations, &c. and collefted fome forces, ex¬
pecting to be foon joined by a body of regular troops,
who wxre know-n to be flapped from Britain to aft
againft the fouthern colonies. The Americans, fenfible
of their danger, defpatched immediately what forces
they
.*5
An iniur-
A M E [ SS
America, they had to a£\ againft the royalifts, at the <ame time
*—"v that they diligently exerted themfelves to fupport thefe
with fuitable reinforcements. Their prefent force
was commanded by a General Moore, whofe numbers
were inferior to Macdonald •, for which reafon the lat¬
ter fummoned him to join the king’s ftandard under
pain of being treated as a rebel. But Moore, being
well provided with cannon, and confcious that nothing
could be attempted againft him, returned the compli¬
ment, by acquainting Colonel Macdonald, that if he
and his party would lay down their arms, and fubfcribe
an oath of fidelity to congrefs, they (hould be treated
as friendsj but if they perfifted in an undertaking for
which it was evident they had not fudicient flrength,
they could not but expeft the fevereft treatment. In
a few days General Moore found himfelf at the head
of 8000 men, by reafon of the continual fupplies which
daily arrived from all parts. The royal party amount¬
ed only to 2000, and they were deftitute of artillery,
which prevented them from attacking the enemy while
they had the advantage of numbers. They were now
therefore obliged to have recourfe to a defperate exer¬
tion of perfonal valour ; by dint of which they effedled
a retreat for 80 miles to Moor’s Creek, within 16
miles of Wilmington. Could they have gained this
place, they expended to have been joined by Governor
Martin and General Clinton, who had lately arrived
with a confiderable detachment. But Moore with
his army purfued them fo clofe, that they were obliged
to attempt the paffage of the creek itfelf, though a
confiderable body of the enemy, under the command
of Colonel Cofwell, with fortifications well planted
with cannon, was polled on the other fide. On at¬
tempting the creek, however*, it was found not to be
fordable. They w^ere obliged therefore to crofs over
a wooden bridge which the provincials had not time
to deltroy entirely. They had, however, by pulling
up part of the planks, and greafing the remainder in
order to render them llippery, made the paffage fo dif¬
ficult, that the royalilts could not attempt it. In this
fituation they were, on the 27th of February, attacked
by Moore, with his fuperior army, and totally defeated
with the lofs of their general and moll of their leaders,
as wrell as the bell and bravelt of their men.
Thus was the power of the provincials ellablilhed in
North Carolina. Nor were they lefs fuccefsful in the
province of Virginia •, where Lord Dunmore, having
long continued an ufelefs predatory war, was at lalt
driven from every creek and road in the province. The
people he had on board were dillreffed to the higheft
degree by confinement in fmall veffels. The heat of
the feafon, and the numbers crowded together, pro¬
duced a pcllilential fever, which made great havoek,
efpecially among the blacks. At lall, finding them¬
felves in the utmoll hazard of perilhing by famine as
well as by difeafe, they fet fire to the leall valuable of
their veffels, referving only about 50 for themfelves,
in which they bade a final adieu to Virginia, forae fail¬
ing to Florida, fome to Bermuda, and the reft to the
Weft Indies.
.In South Carolina the provincials had a more for¬
midable enemy to deal with. A fquadron, whofe ob-
Ch1 .a£a‘n^je& was the redudlion of Charleftown, had been fitted
1“1 e ~ out in December 1775 j but by reafon of unfavourable
weather did not reach Cape Fear in North Carolina
21.6
The roy-
aliits en¬
tirely de¬
feated.
227
T.ord Dun-
more final¬
ly driven
out of Vir¬
ginia.
228
Britilli ar¬
mament
--harlef
town.
A M E
till the month of May 1776: and here it met with America,^
further obftacles till the end of the month. Thus the * ’ ~
Americans, always noted for their alertnefs in railing
fortifications, had time to ftrengthen thofe of Charlel-
town in fuch a manner as rendered it extremely diffi¬
cult to be attacked. The Britiffi fquadron confifted
of two 50 gun (hips, four of 30 guns, two of 20, an
armed fchooner and bomb-ketch 5 all under the com¬
mand of Sir Peter Parker. The land forces were"
commanded by Lord Cornwallis, with Generals Clin¬
ton and Vaughan. As they had yet no intelligence o£
the evacuation of Bofton, General Howe defpatched a
veffel to Cape Fear with fome inftruftions j but it was
too late j and in the beginning of June the fquadron
anchored off Charleftown bar. Here they met with
fome difficulty in croffing, being obliged to take out
the guns from the two large ffiips, which were, not-
withftanding, feveral times in danger of ftickingTaft,
The next obftacle was a ftrong fort on Sullivan’s Ifland,
fix miles eaft from Charleftown j which, though not
completely finilhed, was very ftrong. However, the
Britifli generals refolved without hefitation to attack
it •, but though an attack was eafy from the fea, it was
very difficult to obtain a co-operation of the land
forces. This was attempted by landing them on
Long Ifland, adjacent to Sullivan’s Ifland on the eaft,
from which it is feparated by a very narrow creek, faid
not to be above two feet deep at low water. Oppofite
to this ford the provincials had ported a ftrong body of
troops, with cannon and intrenchments •, while Gene¬
ral Lee was ported on the main land, with a- bridge of
boats ^betwixt that and Sullivan’s Ifland, fo that he
could at pleafure fend reinforcements to the troops in
the fort on Sullivan’s Ifland.
On the part of the Britiflt, fa many delays occurred,
that it was the 28th of June before matters were in
readinefs for an attack j and by this time the provin¬
cials had abundantly provided for their reception. On
the morning of that day the bomb-ketch began to
throw {hells into Fort Sullivan, and about mid-day the
two 50 gun {hips, and 30 gun frigates came up and
began a fevere fire. Three other frigates were ordered
to take their ftation between Charleftown and the fort,
in order to enfilade the batteries, and cut off the com¬
munication with the main land ; but through the ig¬
norance of the pilots they all ftuck faft; and though
two of them were difentangled, they were found to be
totally unfit for fervice : the third was burnt that flie
might not fall into the hands of the enemy1. 22(?
The attack was therefore confined to the five armed The fleet
{hips and bomb-ketch, between whom and the fort a make a fu-
dreadful fire enfued. The Briftol fuffered excefiively. at"
The fprings on her cable being {hot away, {he was for
fome time entirely expofed to the enemy’s fire. As
the enemy poured in great quantities of red-hot balls, 230
flie was twice in flames. The captain (Mr Morris), Bravery
after receiving five wounds, was obliged to go below
deck in order to have his arm amputated. After un¬
dergoing this operation he returned to his place, where
he received another wound, but Hill refufed to quit
his ftation : at laft he received a red-hot ball in his
belly, which inftantly put an end to his life. Of all
the officers and feamen who flood on the quarter-deck
of this veffel, not one efcaped without a wound ex¬
cepting Sir Peter Parker alone 5 whofe intrepidity and
prefence
*
A M E [s
America.
331
The Bri-
tiili repulf-
ed.
prefence of mind on this occafion was very remarkable.
The engagement lahed till darknefs put an end to it.
Little damage was' done by the Britilh, as the works
of the enemy lay fo low that many of the fhot flew
over 5 and the fortifications, being compofed of palm-
trees mixed with earth, were extremely well calculated
to refill the impreffion of cannon. During the height
of the attack, the provincial batteries remained for
fome time filent, fo that it was concluded that they
had been abandoned } but this was found to proceed
only from want of powder •, for as foon as a fupply of
this necelTary article was obtained, the firing wms re*
fumed as brilk as before. During the v/hole of this
defperate engagement it was found impoffible for the
land forces to give the lead; affidance to the fleet. The
enemy’s works were found to be much ftronger than
they had been imagined, and the depth of water ef¬
fectually prevented them from making any attempt.
In this unfuccefsful attack the killed and wounded on
the part of the Britilh amounted to about 200. The
Brifiol and Experiment were fo much damaged, that
it was thought they could not have been got over the
barf however, this was at lad accomplilhed by a very
great exertion of naval Ikill, to the furprife of the pro¬
vincials, who had expecded to make them both prizes.
On the American dde the lof* was judged to have been
very confiderable, as mod of their guns were difmount-
ed, and reinforcements had poured into the fort during
the whole time of the acjhon.
Americans This year alfo, the Americans, having fo frequently
form a made trial of their valour by land, became delirous of
navy. trying it by fea alfo, and of forming a navy that might
in fome meafure be able to proteft their trade, and do
effential hurt to the enemy. In the beginning of
March Commodore Hopkins was defpatched with five
frigates to the Bahama idands, where he made himfelf
mader of the ordnance and military dores ; but the
gunpowder, which had been the principal objetl, was
removed. On his return he captured feveral veffels j
but was foiled in his attempt on the Glafgow frigate,
which found means to efcape notwithdanding the ef¬
forts of his whole fquadron.
The time, however, was now come when the forti¬
tude and patience of the Americans were to undergo a
ievere trial. Hitherto they had been on.the whole fuc-
cefsful in their operations ; but now they were doomed
to experience misfortune, mifery, and difgrace j the
enemy overrunning their country, and their own ar¬
mies not able to face them in the field. 'I he province
of New York, as being the mod central colony, and
mod accedible by fea, was pitched upon for the objeft
Armament of the main attack. The force fent againd it confided
fent againft Qf 5 {lfipS of the line, 30 frigates, befides other armed
New York. ve{pe]S} ancj a vaft number of tranfports. The fleet
was commanded by Lord Howe, and the land forces
by his brother General Howe, who was now at Hali¬
fax. The latter, however, a confiderable time before
his brother arrived, had fet fail from Halifax, and
lay before New York, but without attempting to
commence hodilities until he diould be joined by his
brother. The Americans had, according to cudom,
fortified New York, and the adjacent ifiands, in an
General extraordinary manner. However, General Howe was
Howe lands differed to land his troops on Staten Ifland, vhere he
on Staten ^vas foon joined by a number of the inhabitants. A-
Ifland. t t
6 ] A M £
bout the middle of July, Lord Howe arrived with the Ametk-u
grand armament j and being one of the commiflioners
appointed to receive the fubmiflion of the colonids, he
publilhed a circular letter to this purpofe to the feveral
governors who had lately been expelled from their pro¬
vinces, defiring them to make the extent of his com-
miflion, and the powers he was inveded with by par¬
liament, as public as podible. Here, however, con-
grefs faved him trouble, by ordering his letter and
declaration to be publidied in all the newfpapers, that
every one, as they faid, might fee the infidioufnefs of
the Britifh minidry, and that they had nothing to trud
to befides the exertion of their own valour.
Lord Howe*next fent a letter to General Wafhing- Generlil
ton ) but as it was direfted “ To George Wafhington, Wafliing-
Lfq;” the General refilled to accept of it, as not be- ton relics
ing directed in the dyle fuitable to his dation. To £ronl Lord
obviate this objection, Adjutant-general Paterfon was Howe,
fent with another letter, direcled “ To George Wafh-
ington, &c. &c. Seed’ But though a very polite re¬
ception was given the bearer, General Wadiington ut¬
terly7 refufed the letter ; nor could any explanation of
the adjutant induce him to accept of it. The only
intereding part of the converfation was that relating to
the powers of the commidioners, of which Lord Howe
was one. The adjutant told him, that thefe powers
were very extenfive j that the commiffioners were de-
tefmined to exert themfelves to the utmod, in order to
bring about a reconciliation ; and that he hoped the
general would confider this vidt as a flep towards it.
General Wafhington replied, That it did not appear
that thefe powers confided in any thing elfe than grant¬
ing pardons j and as America had committed no of¬
fence, die alked no forgivenefs, and was only defending
her unquedionable rights. ,
The decifion of every thing being now, by confent Hoflditie-
of both parties, left to the fword, no time was lod, commence,
but hodilities commenced as foon as the Britidi troops
could be colledfed. This, however, vtas not done be¬
fore the month of Augud ; when they landed without
any oppofition on Long Ifland, oppofite to the diore
of Staten Ifland. General Putnam, with a large body situation
of troops, lay encamped and drongly fortified on a of the Bri-
peninfula on the oppofite fhore, with a range of hills ^ ™|?an
between the armies, the principal pafs of which was .irmies
near a place called F/at-buJh. Here the centre of the
Britifli army, confiding of Heflians, took pod ; the
left wing, under General Grant, lying near the diore ;
and the right, confiding of the greater part of the
Britifh forces, lay under Lord Percy, Cornwallis, and
General Clinton. Putnam had ordered the pafies to
be fecured by large detachments, which was executed
as to thofe at hand ; but one of the utmod importance,
that lay at a didance, was entirely negle&ed. This
gave an opportunity to a large body of troops under
Lord Percy and Clinton to pafs the mountains and
attack the Americans in the rear, while they were en¬
gaged with the Heffians in front. Through this piece
of negligence their defeat became inevitable. 1 hofe
who were engaged with the Hedians fird perceived
their midake, and began a retreat towards their
camp ; but the paffage was intercepted by the Britifh
troops, who drove them back into the woods. Here
they were met by the Hedians; and thus were they for
many hours flaughtered between the tW'O parties, no
way
A M E [ 57
Ameiica. way of efcape remaining but by breaking through the
1‘- -v ' Britilh troops, and thus regaining their camp. In this
attempt many periflied •, and the right wung, engaged
‘The ,\me- with General Grant, diared the fame fate. The victory
(rkans de- was complete ; and the Americans left on this fatal
'feated with day ^Auguft 27th) between 300a and 4000 men, of
jrreat whom 2000 were killed in the battle or purfuit. A-
' “ ' mong thefe a regiment, conftfting of young gentlemen
of fortune and family in Maryland, was almort entirely
cut in pieces, and of the furvivors not one efcaped
without a wound.
The ardour of the Britilh troops was now fo great,
that they could fcarcely be reftrained from attacking the
lines of the provincials ; but for this there w^as now no
occafton, as it was certain they could not be defended.
Of the Britifh only 61 were killed in this engagement,
and 257 w'ounded. Eleven hundred of the enemy,
among whom were three generals, were taken pri-
239 foners.
do'rC thtii-11" none the American commanders thought it
camp in the Proper to rilk another attack, it wTas refolved to aban-
night. don their camp as foon as poiTible. Accordingly on
the night of the 29th of Auguft, the whole of the con¬
tinental troops were ferried over with the utmoft fecre-
cy and filence j fo that in the morning the Britifti had
nothing to do but take poffeffion of the camp and artil-
240 lery which had been abandoned.
Lord Howe This viftory, though complete, was very far from
aA being fo decifive as the conquerors imagined. Lord
comuefs ° Howe, fuppofing that it would be fufficient to intimi¬
date the congrefs into fome terms, fent General Sulli¬
van, who had been taken prifoner in the late action, to
congrefs, with a meffage, importing, that though he
could not confidently treat wnth them as a legal affem-
bly, yet he would be very glad to confer with any of
the members in their private capacity j fetting forth
at the tame time the nature and extent of his powers
as commiflioner. But the congrefs were not as yet
fufticiently humbled to derogate in the leaft from the
dignity of character they had affumed. They replied,
That the congrefs of the free and independent dates of
America could not confifte'ntly fend any of its Inem-
241 bers in another capacity than that which they had pub-
and is wait-lic.ly afiumed $ but as they w'ere extremely defirous of
ed on by a reftoring peace to their country upon equitable condi¬
tions, they wmuld appoint a committee of their body
to wait upon him, and learn what propofals he had to
make.
This produced a nevv conference. The committee
appointed by congrefs wTas compofed of Dr Franklin,
Mr Adams, and Mr Rutledge. They were very po¬
litely received by his lordlhip j but the conference
proved as fruitlefs as before independency had been de¬
clared, and the final anfwer of the deputies was, That
they were extremely willing to enter into any treaty
with Great Britain that might conduce to the good of
both nations, but that they would not treat in any
The confer-other charadler than that of independent ftates. This
ence tenni- pofitive declaration inftantly put an end to all hopes of
ww.Vitf*' ^conciliation j and it was refolved to profecute the wTar
with the utmoft vigour. Lord Howe, after publifhing
a manifefto, in which he declared the refufal of con¬
grefs, and that he himfelf was willing to confer with all
well-diipofed perlons about the means of reftoring pu¬
blic tranquillity, fet about the moft proper methods for
Vox.. II. Part I.
commit¬
tee.
fectually.
] A M E
reducing the city of New York. Here the provincial America,
troops wrere polled, and from a great number of bat-' v
teries kept continually annoying the Britilh Ihipping.
The Eaft River lay between them, of about 1 200 yards
in breadth, which the Britilh troops vrere extremely
defirous of palling. At laft the Ihips having, after an
inceffant cannonade of feveral days, filenced the moft
troublefome batteries, a body of troops was fent up
the river to a bay, about three miles diftant, where the
fortifications were lefs ftrong than in other places.
Here having driven off the provincials by the cannon
of the fleet, they marched direflly towards the city 3
but the enemy, finding that they Ihould now be attack-
ed on all fides, abandoned the city, and retired to the New York
north of the illand, where their principal force was aban(Rnecl
collected. In their paffage thither they Ikirmiftied^’Y^P10"
with the Britilh, but carefully avoided a general en¬
gagement ; and it -was obferved that they did not be¬
have with that ardour and impetuous valour which had
hitherto marked their charafter. 244
The Britifh and provincial armies were not nowT$ituation_
above two miles diftant from each other. The former
lay encamped from Ihore to Ihore for an extent of two ^merican
miles, being the breadth of the illand, which, though armies.
15 miles long, exceeds not two in any part in breadth.
The provincials, who lay direftly oppofite, hadftrength-
ened their camp vcith many fortifications ; at the lame
time, being mailers of all the pafles and defiles be¬
twixt the two camps, they were enabled to defend
themfelves againft an army much more numerous than
their own : and they had alfo ftrongly fortified a pal’s
called King's Bridge, whence they could fecure a paf¬
fage to the Continent in cafe of any misfortune. Here
General Walhington, in order to inure the provincials
to adlual fervice, and at the fame time to annoy the
enemy as much as poffible, employed his troops in con¬
tinual Ikirmilhes 5 by which it was obferved that they
foon recovered their fpirits, and behaved with their
ufual boldnefs.
As the fituation of the two armies wTas now7 highly
inconvenient for the Britilh generals, it wras refolved
to make fuch movemexrts as might oblige General
Walhington to relinquilh his llrong fituation. The
pofleflion of New York had been lefs beneficial than
was expelled. It had been concerted among the pro¬
vincials, that the city Ihould be burnt at the time of
evacuation \ but as they were forced to depart with
precipitation, they were prevented from putting the
fcheme in execution. In a few days, hovrever, it was Few York
attempted by fome w7ho had been left behind for that Ft on fire
purpofe. Taking advantage of a high wind and dry t!iCj Pr<y~
wTeather, the town was fet on fire in feveral places at
once, by means of combuftibles properly placed for
that purpofe ; and notwithftanding the moft allive ex¬
ertions of the foldiery and failors, a fourth part of the.
city was confumed.
On this occafion the Britillr were irritated to the
higheft degree •, and many perfons, faid to be incen¬
diaries, were without mercy thrown into the flames.
It wTas determined to force the provincial army to a
greater diftance, that they might have it lefs in their
powrer, by any emiffaries, to engage others in a fimilar
attempt. For this purpofe, General Howe having left
Lord Percy with fufficient force to garrifon New York,
lie embarked his army in flat-bottomed boats, by w hich
H they
America.
246
General
WalMng'-
ton ©bliged
to move
farther
from New
York.
247
Is defeat¬
ed at the
White
Plains.
248
The Jer-
feys entire¬
ly overrun
by the Eri-
tifh troops.
249
Hhode
Ifland tak-
250
The Bntifh
convey
velfels up
the lake
Champlain.
A M E [58
they were conveyed through the dangerous paffage
called He// Gate, and landed near the town of Weft
Chefter, lying on the continent towards Connefticut.
Here, having received a fupply of men and provifions,
they moved to New Rochelle, fituated on the found
which feparates Long Ifland from the continent. Af¬
ter this, receiving ftiil frefh reinforcements, they made
iuch movements as threatened to diftrefs the provin¬
cials very much, by cutting off their convoys of provi¬
fions from Connecticut, and thus force them to an en¬
gagement. This, however, General Walhington de¬
termined at all events to avoid. He therefore extend¬
ed his forces into a long line oppoftte to the way in
which the enemy marched, keeping the Bruna, a river
of conliderable magnitude, between the two armies,
with the North River on his rear. Here again the
provincials continued for fome time to annoy and fkir-
mifh with the royal army, until at laft, by fome other
manoeuvres, the Britifh general found means to attack
them advantageoufly at a place called the White P/alns,
and drove them from fome of their polls. The victory
on this occafion was much lefs complete than the for¬
mer $ however it obliged the provincials once more to
ihift their ground, and to retreat farther up the country.
General Howe purfued for fome time j but at laft find¬
ing all his endeavours vain to bring the Americans to
a pitched battle, he determined to give over fuch an
ufelefs chafe, and employ himfelf in reducing the forts
which the provincials ftill retained in the neighbour¬
hood of New York. In this he met wdth the moft
complete fuccefs. The Americans, on the approach
of the king’s forces, retreated from King’s Bridge into
Fort Walhington ; and this, as well as Fort Lee, which
lay in the neighbourhood, wras quickly reduced, though
the garrifon made their efcape. Thus the jerfeyS
were laid entirely open to the incurfions of the Britilh
troops •, and fo fully wrere thefe provinces taken poffef-
fion of by the royal army, that its wdnter quarters ex¬
tended from New Brunfwick to the river Delaware.
Had any number of boats been at hand, it is probable
that Philadelphia wmuld now have fallen into their
hands. All thefe, however, had been carefully re¬
moved by the Americans. In lieu of this enterprife,
Sir Henry Clinton undertook an expedition to Rhode
Ifland, and became mafter of it without lofing a man.
His expedition was alfo attended with this further ad¬
vantage, that the American fleet under Commodore
Hopkins was obliged to fail as far as poflible up the
river Providence, and thus remained entirely ufelefs.
The fame ill fuccefs continued to attend the Ameri¬
cans in other parts. After their expulfion from Ca¬
nada, they had croffed the lake Champlain, and taken
up their quarters at Crown Point, as we have already
mentioned. Here they remained for fome time in
fafety, as the Britilh had no veffels on the lake, and
confequently General Burgoyne could not purfue them.
To remedy this deficiency, there was no poffible me¬
thod, but either to conftrudf veffels on the fpot, or
take to pieces fome veffels already conftnnfted, and
drag them up the river into the lake. This, however,
was effefted in no longer a fpace than three months}
and the Britilh general, after incredible toil and diffi¬
culty, faw himfelf in poileffion of a great number of
veffels, by which means he was enabled to purfue his
enemies, and invade them in his tyra. The labou*
] A M E
undergone at this time by the fea and land forces muft Amerk-*.
indeed have been prodigious ; fince there were con-1
veyed over land, and dragged up the rapids of St Law¬
rence, no fewer than 30 large ,long boats, 400 bat-
teaux, befides a vaft number of flat-bottomed boats,
and a gondola of 30 tons. The Intent of the expedi¬
tion was to pulh forward before winter to Albany,
where the army would take up its winter quarters, and
next fpring effeft a junction wdth that under General
Howe, when it w as not doubted that the united force
and Ikill of thefe two commanders vTould fpeedily put
a termination to the wrar.
By reafon of the difficulties with which the equip¬
ment of this fleet had been attended, it w as the begin¬
ning of October before the expedition could be under¬
taken. It wras now, however, by every judge allowed
to be completely able to anfwer the purpofe for which
it w'as intended. It confifted of one large veffel with
three mails, carrying 18 twelve pounders ; two fchoon-
ers, the one carrying 14, the other 12 fix pounders ^
a large flat-bottomed radeau with 6 twenty-four and <5
twTelve pounders ; and a gondola with 8 nine pounders*
Befides thefe were 20 veffels of a fmaller lize, called
gun-boats, carrying each a piece of brafs ordnance from
9 to 24 pounders, or howitzers. Several long-boats
were fitted out in the fame manner ; and befides all
thefe, there was a vaft number of boats and tenders,
of various fizes, to be ufed as tranfports for the troops
and baggage. It was manned by a number of fele£l
feamen, and the guns were to be ferved by a detach¬
ment from the corps of artillery ; the officers and fol-
diers appointed for this expedition were alfo chofen out
of the w hole army. 2^r
To oppofe this formidable armament the AmericansDeftroy the
had only a very inconfiderable force, commanded bynavaHorce
General Arnold ; who, after engaging part of the -^ri"°[^2ispr0"
tilh fleet for a wffiole day, took advantage of the dark- ’
nefs of the night to fet fail without being perceived,
and next morning was out of fight 1 but he was fo hot¬
ly purfued by the Britilh, that on the fecond day af¬
ter he wTas overtaken, and forced to a fecond engage¬
ment. In this he behaved with great gallantry ; but
his force being very inferior to that of the enemy, he
wras obliged to run his Ihips alhore and fet them on fire.
A few only efcaped to Lake George ; and the garrifon
of Crown Point having deftroyed or carried off every
thing of value, retired to Ticonderago. Thither Ge¬
neral Carleton intended to have purfued them ; but
the difficulties he had to encounter appeared fo many
and fo great, that it was thought proper to march back
into Canada, and defift from any further operations
till next fpring. 2^z
Thus the affairs of the Americans feemed everywhere The Ame-
going to wreck : even thofe who had been moft fan-ricans al-
guine in their caufe began to waver. The time,
for wffiich the foldiers had enlifted themfelves was now^^
expired ; and the bad fuccefs of the preceding cam¬
paign had been fo very difcouraging, that no perfon
wTas willing to engage himfelf during the continuance
of a war, of which the event feemed to be fo doubtful.
In confequence of this, therefore, General Wafliington
found his army daily decreafing in ftrength ; fo that
from 30,000, of whom it confifted wffien General Howe
landed on Staten Ifland, fcarce a tenth part could now
be muftered. To affift the chief commander as much
as
A M E [59
./vwrie^ *5 poffible, General Lee had collected a body of forces
in the north ; .bnt on his way fouthward, having im¬
prudently taking up his lodging at fome diftance from
his troops, information was given to Colonel Harcourt,
^4t.^ who happened at that time to be in the neighbourhood,
General and Lee was made prifoner. The lofs of this general
Lee taken was much regretted, the more efpecially as he was of
pritoner. fUperior quality to any prifoner in the poileflion of the
colonilts, and could not therefore be exchanged. Six
field officers were offered in exchange for him, and re-
fufed ; and the congrefs was highly irritated as its be¬
ing reported that he was to be treated as a deferter,
having been a half-pay officer in tbe Britiffi fervice at
the commencement of the war. In confequence of this
they iffued a proclamation, threatening to retaliate on
the prifoners in their poffeffion whatever punithment
fiiould be inffifted on any of thofe taken by the Britiffi,
and efpecially that their condudl ffiould be regulated
by the treatment of General Lee.
Continental 1° mean time they proceeded with the moft in¬
army for defatigable diligence to recruit their army, and bound
I777> their foldiers to ferve for a term of three years, or du¬
ring the continuance of the war. The army defigned
for the enfuing campaign was to confift of 88 batta¬
lions ; of which each province was to contribute its
quota; and 20 dollars were offered as a bounty to
each foldier, befides an allotment of lands at the end
of the war. In this allotment it was ftipulated, that
each foldier ffiould have 100 acres ; an enfign 150 ; a
lieutenant 200 ; a captain 300 ; a major 400 ; a lieu¬
tenant-colonel 450 ; and a colonel 500. No lands
were promifed to thofe who inlilled only for three years.
All officers or foldiers difabled through wounds receiv¬
ed in the fervice were to enjoy half-pay during life.
To defray the expence, congrefs borrowed five mil¬
lions of dollars at five per cent. ; for payment of which
the United States became furety. At the fame time,
in order to animate the people to vigc rous exertions, a
declaration was publiffied, in which they fet forth the
neceffrty there was for taking proper methods to enfure
fuccefs in their caufe : they endeavoured to palliate as
much as poffible the misfortunes which had already
happened; and reprefented the true caufe of the pre¬
sent diftrefs to be the ffiort term of inliftment.
This declaration, together with the imminent dan¬
ger of Philadelphia, determined the Americans to exert
themfelves to the utmoft in order to reinforce General
Waffiington’s army. They foon received farther en¬
couragement, however, by an exploit of that general
again!! the Heffians. As the royal army extended in
riifterent cantonments for a great way, General Waffi-
ington, perceiving the imminent danger to which Phi¬
ladelphia was expofed, refolved to make fome attempt
on thofe divifions of the enemy which lay neareft that
city, 1 hefe happened to be the Heffians, who lay in
three divifions, the laft only 20 miles diftant from Phi¬
ladelphia. On the 25th of December, having colleft-
ed as confiderable a force as he could, he fet out with
an intent to furprife that body of the enemy who lay
at Trenton. His army was divided into three bodies ;
one of which he ordered to crofs the Delaware at Tren¬
ton Ferry, a little below the town j the fecond at a
good diftance below, at a place called Bordentown,
where the fecond divifion of Heffians was placed 5 while
himfelt with the third, dire&ing his courfe to a fer-
] AMI?
ry fome miles above Trenton, intended to have paffed America,
it at midnight, and attack the Heffians at break of V
day. But by reafon of various impediments, it was
eight in the morning before he could reach the place of
his deftination. The enemy, however, did not perceive
his approach till they were fuddenly attacked. Colo¬
nel Ralle, who commanded them, did all that could
be expected from a brave and experienced officer; but
every thing was in fuch confufion, that no eft'orts of
valour or Ikill could now retrieve matters. The colo¬
nel himfelf was mortally wounded, his troops were en¬
tirely broken, their artillery feized, and about 1000
taken prifoners.
This aftion, though feemingly of no very decifive
nature, was fufficient at that time to turn the fortune
of war in favour of America. It tended greatly to lef-
fen the fear which the provincials had of the Heffians,
at the fame time that it equally abated the confidence
which the Britilh had till now put in them. Rein¬
forcements came into General Waffiington’s army from
all quarters ; fo that he was foon in a condition to
leave Philadelphia, and take up his quarters at Tren-
ton. Emboldened by his fuccefs, he determined to Another at.
make an attempt on a divifion of the Britiffi forces fta- tempt on
tioned at Maidenhead, a town fituated halfway be-
tween Trenton and Princetown. This confided of three ments^1'
regiments under the command of Colonel Mawhood,
an officer of great merit. The troops were furprifed
on their march ; but though they were feparately fur-but they
rounded and attacked by a force fo vaftly fuperior, ma5ce g°ot*
they charged the enemy fo refolutely with their bayo- re~
nets, that they effe&ed a retreat. Thefe attempts of
the Americans, however, with the hoftile difpofition
of the people, ffiowed the impofllbility of maintaining
ports fo far advanced in the enemy’s country ; fo that
it was refolved to retreat towards Brunfwick, in order
to prevent it, with the troops and magazines it contain¬
ed, from falling into the hands of the provincials.
General Wafhington loft no opportunity of recovering
what had been loft ; and by dividing his army into
fmall parties, which could be reunited on a few hours
warning, he in a manner entirely covered the country
with it, and repoffeffed himfelf of all the important
places.
Thus ended the campaign of 1776, with fcarce any
real advantage, other than the acquifition of the city
of New York, and of a few fortreffes in its neighbour¬
hood ; where the troops were conftrained to ad: with
as much circumfpedion as if they had been befieged
by a vidorious army, inftead of being themfelves the
conouerors.
1 he army at New York began in 1777 excrcife Excurfiom
a kind of predatory war, by fending out parties to de-of the Bri“
ftroy magazines, make incurfions, and take or deftroy jf1 ^ k
fuch forts as lay on the banks of rivers, to which their 't >V
great command of (hipping gave them accefs. In this
they were generally fuccefsful: the provincial maga¬
zines at Peek s Elill. a place about 30 miles diftant
zmes at Peek’s Hill, a place _ _   __ _
from New York, were deftroyed, the town of Duh-
bury in Connedicut burnt, and that of Ridgefield in
the fame province was taken poffeffion of. In returning
from the laft expedition, however, the Britifti were
greatly haraffed by the enemy under Generals Arnold,
W oofter, and Sullivan ; but they made good their re¬
treat in fpite of all oppofition, with the lofs of only 170
H 2 killed
A
America, killed and wounded
* v'-"—'was much greater j General Wooller was killed, and
Arnold in the moll:, imminent danger. On the other
hand, the Americans deftroyed the ilores at Sagg har¬
bour, in Long Maud, and made prifoners of all who
defended the place.
As this method of making war, however, could au-
fwer but little purpofe, and favoured more of the bar¬
barous incurlions of favages than of a war carried on by
a civilized people, it was refolved to make an attempt
on Philadelphia. At firft it was thought that this
could be done through the Jerfeys y but General Walh-
ington had received fuch large reinforcements, and
polled himfelf fo ifrongly, that it was found to be im-
praflicable. Many llratagems were ufed to draw him
from this ftrong lituation, but without fuccefs j fo that
it was found neceflary to make the attempt on Phila-
2-8 delphia by fea. While the preparations neceflary for
General this expedition were going forward, the Americans
Prefect ta- founcl means to make amends for the capture of Gene-
259
The fleet
fails for
Philadel¬
phia.
foner”'1" ra^ -^,ee ^at Gener£fl Prefect, who was feizedin
his quarters with his aid-de-camp, in much the fame
manner as General Lee had been. This was exceed¬
ingly mortifying to the general himfelf, as he had not
long ago fet a price upon General Arnold himfelf, by
offering a fum of money to any one that apprehended
him ; which the latter anfvvered by fetting a lower
price upon General Prefect.
The month of July was far advanced before the pre¬
parations for the expedition againit Philadelphia were
completed ; and it was the 23d before the fleet was
able to fail from Sandy Hook. The force employed
in this expedition confilted of 36 battalions of Britilh
and Heflians, a regiment of light horfe, and a body of
loyaliils railed at New York. The remainder of thefe,
with 17 battalions, and another body of light hoife,
was ftationed at New York under Sir Henry Clinton.
Seven battalions were ftationed at Rhode Ifland. Af¬
ter a week’s failing they arrived at the mouth of the
Delaware} but there received certain intelligence, that
the navigation of the river was fo effecfually obilruH-
ed, that no poflibility of forcing a paffage remained.
Upon this it was refolved to proceed farther fouthward
to Chefapeak bay in Maryland, from whence the di-
ftance to Philadelphia was not very great, and where
the provincial army would find lefs advantage from the
nature of the country than in the Jerfeys.
The navigation from Delaware to Chefapeak took
up the beft part of the month of Auguft, and that up
The"army the bay itfelf was extremely difficult and tedious. At
lands at the laft, having failed up the river Elk as far as was prac-
headof the ticable, the troops were landed without oppofttion, and
fet forward on their intended expedition. On the
news of their arrival in Chefapeak, General Wafhing-
ton left the Jerfeys, and haftened to the relief of Phi¬
ladelphia j and in the beginning of September met the
royal artny at Brandy-wine Creek about mid-day, be¬
tween the head of the Elk and Philadelphia. Here
he adhered to his former method of fkirmifhing and
harafting the royal army on its march 5 but as this
proved infufticient to flop its progrefs, he retired to
that fide of the creek next to Philadelphia with an in¬
tent to difpute the paffage. This brought on a general
engagement on the 1 ith of September, in wdiich the
Americans were worfted through the fuperior difeipline
z6o
161
The Ame¬
ricans de¬
feated.
ME [6°] AME
On the American fide the lofs of the Britilh troops } and it was only through the ap- America.
proach of night that they were faved from being en- "'v-'
tirely deftroyed. On this occafion the provincials loft
about 1000 in killed and wounded, befides 400 taken
prifoners.
The lofs of this battle proved alfo the lofs of Phi¬
ladelphia. General Wafhington retired towards Lan-
cafter, an inland town at a confiderable diftance from
Philadelphia. Here, however, the Britifh general took
fuch meafures as mult have forced the provincials to a
fecond engagement •, but a violent rain, wdiich lafted
a day and a night, prevented his defign. General
Wafhington, though he could not prevent the lofs of
Philadelphia, ftill adhered to his original plan of dif-
trefling the royal party, by laying ambufhes and cut¬
ting off detached parties : but in this he w7as lefs fuc- An Ameri-
cefsful than formerly } and one of his own detachments, candetach-
which lay in ambufh in a wmod, were themfelves fur- ment fur-
prifed and entirely defeated, with the lofs of 300 kill-Pr^e<f an<^
ed and wmunded, befides a great number taken, and all c,e/cjlte<*
their arms and baggage. _ _ flaughter.
General Howe now7 perceving that the Americans 263
would not venture another battle even for the fake of^enera^
their capital, took peaceable poffeflion of it on the
26th of September. His firft care was then to cut phifad'd” °
off, by means of ftrong batteries, the communication phia.
between the upper and lower parts of the river : wLich
was executed notwithftanding the oppofition of fome
American armed veffels 5 one of which, carrying 36
guns, was taken. His next talk was to open a com¬
munication with it by fea j and this wTas a work of no
fmall difficulty. A vaft number of batteries and forts
had been ereffed, and immenfe machines formed like
cbevaux dc fri%e, from whence they took their name,
funk in the river to prevent its navigation. As the
fleet was fent round to the mouth of the river in
order to co-operate with the army, this work, howr-
ever difficult, was accomplifhed j nor did the provin¬
cials give much oppofition, as w7ell knowing that all
places of this kind were now untenable. General
Wafhington, however, took the advantage of the royal Royal ar-
army being divided to attack the camp of the princi- my attack-
pal clivifion of it that lay at German-town in the neigh-ec^ at Ger~
bourhood of Philadelphia. In this he met W'ith very man'tov'n’
little fuccefs 5 for though he reached the place of defti-
nation by three o’clock in the morning, the patrols
had time to call the troops to arms. The Americans,
notwithftanding, made a very refolute attack 5 but they
were received wnth fuch bravery, that they wrere com- ^
pelled to abandon the attempt, and retreat in great Tjie
diforder ; with the advantage, how'ever, of carrying ricans de-
off their cannon, though purfued for a confiderable w7ay, feated.
after having 300 killed, 600 wrounded, and upwards
of 400 taken prifoners, among whom w7ere 54 officers^
On the Britiih lide, the lofs amounted to 430 w7ounded
and prifoners, and ,70 killed •, but among the laft were
General Agnew7 and Colonel Bird, with fome other ex¬
cellent officers.
There ftill remained two ftrong forts on the Dela¬
ware to be reduced. Thefe were Mud Uland and Red
Bank. The various obftrudlions which the Ameri¬
cans had thrown in the way rendered it neceffary to
bring up the Augufta, a fhip of the line, and the
Merlin frigate, to the attack of Mud Ifland 5 but du¬
ring the heat of aftion both were grounded. Upor*
this
America.
266
The Bri-
tifh fliips
of war
burnt.
267
All the
forts near
Philadel¬
phia redu¬
ced.
2(58
Expedition
projected
againft
New Eng¬
land.
269
General
Burgoyne
ioined by
the In¬
dians.
A M E [6
tills tlie Americans fent down four fire-flilps, and
directed the whole fire from their galleys againlt them.
The former were rendered ineffectual by the courage
and fkill of the Britilh feamen ; but during the en¬
gagement both the Augufta and Merlin took fire and
were burnt to allies, and the other Ihips obliged to
withdraw. The enemy, encouraged by this unluccefs-
ful attempt, proceeded to throw new obftrutions in
the way •, but the Britilh general having found means
to convey a number of cannon and to ere£t batteries
within gunfhot of the fort by land, and bringing up
three Ihips of the line which mounted heavy cannon,
the garrifon, after making a vigorous defence for one
day, perceiving that preparations were making for a
general affault on the next, abandoned the place in the
night. Thofe who defended Red Bank followed their
example, and abandoned it on the approach of Lord
Cornwallis. A great number of the American flapping
now finding themfelves entirely deftitute of any pro-
teftion, failed up the river in the night time. Seven¬
teen however remained, whofe retreat was intercepted
by a frigate and fome armed veffels ; on which the
Americans ran them afhore and burnt them, to pre¬
vent their falling into the enemy’s hands.
Thus the campaign of 1777 in Pennfylvania con¬
cluded fuccefsfully on the part of the Britiih. In the
north, however, matters wore a different afpect. The
expedition in that quarter had been projected by the
Britilh miniftry as the moll effectual method that could
be taken to crulh the colonies at once. The four pro¬
vinces of New England had originally begun the con¬
federacy againft Britain, and were Hill confidered as
the molt aftiv^in the continuation of it; and it was
thought, that any imprelfion made upon them, would
contribute in an effeftual manner to the reduftion of
all the reft. For this purpofe, an army of 4000 cho-
fen Britilh troops and 3000 Germans was put under
the command of General Burgoyne ; General Carleton
was directed to ufe his intereft with the Indians to per-
fuade them to join in this expedition 5 and the province
of Quebec was to furnifti large parties to join in the
fame. The officers who commanded under General
Burgoyne were General Philips of the artillery, Gene¬
rals Frafer, Powell, and Hamilton, with the German
officers Generals Reidefel and Speecht. The foldiers,
as has already been obferved, were all excellently dif-
ciplined, and had been kept in their winter-quarters
with all imaginable care, in order to prepare them for
the expedition on which they were going. To aid the
principal expedition, another was projected on the Mo¬
hawk river under Colonel St Leger, who wras to be
allifted by Sir John johnfon, fon to the famous Sir
William Johnfon, wTho had fo greatly diftinguilhed
himfelf in the wrar of 1755.
On the 21 ft of June 1777, the army encamped on
the weftern fide of the lake Champlain ; where being
joined by a confiderable body of Indians, General Bur¬
goyne made a fpeech, in which he exhorted thofe new
allies to lay afide their ferocious and barbarous manner
of making war •, to kill only fuch as oppofed them
in arms 5 and to fpare prifoners, with fuch w’omen and
children as ftiould fall into their hands. After ilfuing
a proclamation, in wffiich the force of Britain and that
w’hich he commanded was fet forth in very oftentatious
terms, the campaign opened with the fiege of Ticon-
i ] A M E
derago. The place was very ftrong, and garrifoned America,
by 6000 men under General Sinclair •, neverthelefs, the 1
wrorks were fo extenfive, that even this number was xiconde-
fcarce fufficient to defend them properly. They had rago be-
therefore omitted to fortify a rugged eminence called fieged and
Sugar Hill, the top of wffiich overlooked and effe&ual- tal‘tn'
ly commanded the whole works \ vainly imagining that
the difficulty of the afcent wmuld be fufficient to pre¬
vent the enemy from taking poffeffion of it. On the
approach of the firft divifion of the army, the provin¬
cials abandoned and fet fire to their outwmrks 5 and fo
expeditious were the Britilh troops, that by the 5th
of July every poll was fecured which was judged ne-
ceflary for invefting it completely. A road was foon
after made to the very fummit of that eminence wffiich
the Americans had w-ith fuch confidence fuppofed could
not be afcended ; and fo much were they nowr dilheart-
ened, that they inftantly abandoned the fort entirely,
taking the road to Skeneffiorough, a place to the fouth
of Lake George ; while their baggage, with what ar¬
tillery and military ftores they could carry off, were
fent to the fame place by wrater. But the Britilh ge¬
nerals were determined not to let them pafs fo teafily. 2yt
Both were purfued, and both overtaken. Their armed Americans
veffels confifted only of five galleys •, two of wffiich were defeated by-
taken, and three blown up •, on which they fet fire to'an^ anc^
their boats and fortifications at Skenelhorough. On
this occafion the provincials loft 200 boats, 130 pieces
of cannon, with all their provifions and baggage.
Their land forces under Colonel Francis made a brave
defence againft General Frafer i- and being greatly fu-
perior in number, had almoft overpowered him, wffien
General Reidefel with a large body of Germans came
to his affiftance. The enemy were now' overpowered
in their turn ; and their commander being killed, they
fled on all fides wTith great precipitation. In this ac¬
tion 200 Americans were killed, as many taken pri¬
foners, and above 600 wounded, many of whom pe-
riihed in the woods for want of affiftance.
During the engagement General Sinclair wras at
Caftleton, about fix miles from the place ; but inftead
of going fonvard to Forte Anne, the next place of
ftrength, he repaired to the w7oods which lie between
that fortrefs and New England. General Burgoyne,
however, detached Colonel Flill with the ninth regi¬
ment, in order to intercept fuch as ftrould'attempt to 2y2
retreat towmrds Fort Anne. On his way he met with They are
a body of the enemy, faid to be fix times as numerous again de-
as his own ; but after an engagement of three hours, ^bandon*1^
they wrere obliged to retire with great lofs^ After fo port ^nne,
many difafters, defpairing of being able to make any
Hand at Fort Anne, they fet fire to it,, and retired to
Fort Edward. In all thefe engagements the lofs of
killed and wounded in the royal army did not exceed
200 men. 273
General Burgoyne wms now obliged to fufpend his General
operations for fome time, and wait at Skenelborough inakes^lhs ;
for the arrival of his tents, provifions, &c. but employ-way toport
ed this interval in making roads through the country Edward
about St Anne, and in clearing a pafiage for his troops with great
to proceed againft the enemy. This was attended <^®culty' •
with incredible toil; but all obftacles were furmounted
wdth equal patience and refolution by the army. In
fliort, after undergoing the utmoft difficulty that could
be undergone, and making every exertion that man;
could;
n
.America,
274
Americans
retire to
Saratoga.
275
Fort Stan-
wix be-
fieged.
176
A detach¬
ment of A-
mericans
fut in
pieces.
277
The In¬
dians de-
fert, and
force the
colonel to
raife the
ilege.
278
fleneral
Burgoyne
diftrefl'ed
for want
of provi-
fions.
A M E [
t could make, he arrived with his army before Fort Ed¬
ward about the end of July. Here General Schuyler
had been for fome time endeavouring to recruit the
fhattered American forces, and had been joined by
General Sinclair with the remains of his army ; the
garrifon of Fort George alio, fituated on the lake of
that name, had evacuated the place and retired to Fort
Edward.
But on the approach of the royal army, they re¬
tired from thence alfo, and formed their head-quar¬
ters at Saratoga. Notwithrtanding the great fuccefles
of the Britifh general, they thowed not the leal! dif-
pofition to fubxnit, but feemed only to confider how
they might make the moil effedlual refiftance. For
this purpofe, the militia was everywhere raifed and
draughted to join the army at Saratoga; and'fuch
numbers of volunteers were daily added, that they foon
began to recover from the terror into which they had
been thrown. That they might have a commander
whofe abilities could be relied on, General Arnold was
appointed, who repaired to Saratoga with a coniider-
able train of artillery ; but receiving intelligence that
Colonel St Leger was proceeding with great rapidity
in his expedition on the Mohawk river, he removed to
Still-ivater, a place about half way between Saratoga
and the jundlion of the Mohawk and Hudfon’s river.
The colonel, in the mean time, had advanced as far as
Fort Stanwix ; the fiege of which he preffed with great
vigour. On the 6th of Auguft, underftanding that a
fupply of provifions, efcorted by 800 or 900 men, was
on the way to the fort, he defpatched Sir John Johnfon
with a ftrong detachment to intercept it. This he did
fo effedlually, that, befides intercepting the provifions,
400 of its guard were flain, 200 taken, and the reft
efcaped with great difficulty. The garrifon, however,
were not to be intimidated by this difafter, nor by the
threats or reprefentations of the colonel; on the con¬
trary, they made feveral fuccefsful fallies under Colo¬
nel Willet, the fecond in command ; and this gentle¬
man, in company with another, even ventured out of
the fort, and, eluding the vigilance of the enemy, paf-
fed through them in order to haften the march of Ge¬
neral Arnold to their afiiftance.
Thus the affairs of Colonel St Leger feemed to be
in no very favourable fituation, notwithftanding his late
fuccefs, and they were foon totally ruined by the defer-
tion of the Indians. They had been alarmed by the
report of General Arnold’s advancing with 2000 men
to the relief of the fort ; and while the colonel was at¬
tempting to give them encouragement, another report
was fpread, that General Burgoyne had been defeated
with great fiaughter, and was now flying before the
provincials. On this he was obliged to do as they
thought proper; and the retreat could not be effected
without the lofs of the tents and fome of the artillery
and military flores.
General Burgoyne, in the mean time, notwithftand¬
ing all the difficulties he had already fuftained, found
that he muft Hill encounter more. The roads he had
made with fo much labour and pains were deftroyed
either by the wetnefs of the feafon or by the enemy ;
fo that the provifions he brought from Fort George
could not arrive at his camp without the moft prodi¬
gious toil. On hearing of the fiege of Fort Stanwix
bj Colonel St Leger, he determined to move forward,
Z
62 ] AM. E
in hopes of enelofing the enemy betwixt his own prmv America,
and that of St Leger, or of obtaining the command of
all the country between Fort Stanwix and Albany ; or
at any rate, a jumftion with Colonel St Leger would be
effefted, which could not but be attended with the
moft happy confequences. The only difficulty was the
want of provifions ; and this it was propofed to reme¬
dy by reducing the provincial magazines at Benning¬
ton. bor this purpofe, Colonel Baum, a German of- „ *79
ficer of great bravery, was chofen, with a body of 500attemp^on
men. The place was about twenty tniles from Hud-the provin-
fon’s river; and to lupport Colonel Baum’s party, thec*a*maga-
whole army marched up the river’s bank, and encamp *ines at
ed almoft oppofite to Saratoga, with the river betwixt f0ennrang'‘
it and that place. An advanced party was polled at
Batten Kill, between the camp and Bennington, in or¬
der to fupport Colonel Baum. In their way the Bri-
tiffi feized a large fupply of cattle and provifions, which
were immediately fent to the camp ; but the badnels
of the roads retarded their march fo much, that intel¬
ligence of their defign was fent to Bennington. Un¬
derftanding now that the American force was greatly
fuperior to his own, the colonel acquainted the general,
who immediately defpatched Colonel Breyman with
a party to his affiftance ; but through the fame caufes
that had retarded the march of Colonel Baum this af¬
fiftance could not arrive in time. General Starke, in
the mean time, who commanded at Bennington, de¬
termined to attack the two parties feparately ; and for
this purpofe advanced againft Colonel Baum, whom CoW^
he furrounded on all fides and attacked with the ut-Ba°mut-
moft violence. The troops defended themfelves with terJy de¬
great valour, but were to a man either killed or taken.feated a!1£*
Colonel Breyman, after a defperate engagement, had^rnpn“
the good luck to effect a retreat through the darknefs
of the night, which otherwife he could not have done, Colonel
as his men had expended all their ammunition, being
40 rounds to each. defeated*
General Burgoyne, thus difappointed in his attempt
on Bennington, applied himfelf with indefatigable dili¬
gence to procure provifions from Fort George j and
having at length amaffed a fufficient quantity to laft
for a month, he threw a bridge of boats over the river
Hudfon, which he croffed about the middle of Septem¬
ber, encamping on the hills and plains near Saratoga.
As foon as he approached the provincial army, at this
time encamped at Stillwater under General Gates, he
determined to make an attack ; for which purpofe he 383
put himfelf at the head of the central divifion of his The Ame-
army, having General Frafer and Colonel Breyman on rica:ns at-
the right, with Generals Reidefel and Philips on the^V*16
left. In this pofition he advanced towards the enemy ar~
on the 19th of September. But tlie Americans did
not now wait to be attacked : on the contrary, they
attacked the central divifion with the utmoft violence ;
and it was not until General Philips with the artillery
came up that they could be repulfed. On this occa-'and are
fion, though the Britith troops loft only 330 in killed with g,reat
and wTounded, and the enemy no fewer than 1500, the (il®cau^y
former w’ere very much alarmed at the obftinate refo-rep“ e
lution Ihown by the Americans. This did not, how¬
ever, prevent them from advancing towards the enemy,
and polling themfelves the next day within cannon- s8
ftiot of their lines. But their allies the Indians began The IndL-
to defert in great numbers; and at the fame rime the *ns defert.
general
A M E
general was in the higheft degree mortified by having
no intelligence of any aflillance from Sir Henry Clin¬
ton, as had been flipulated. He now received a letter
from him, by which he was informed that Sir Henry
intended to make a diverfion on the North River in
his favour. This afforded but little comfort : how-
ever, he returned an anfwer by feveral trufty perfons
goyne’s an- whom he defpatched different ways, dating his prefent
iwer. 1 n i .
America.
285
A letter
from Sir
Henry
Clinton,
with Gene
ral Bur
[ 63 ]
A M E
2S6
Expedi¬
tion of the
provincials
againft
Ticonde-
razo.
diftreffed fituation, and mentioning that the proviflons
and other neceffaries he had would only enable him to
hold out till the x 2th of Odlober.
In the mean time the Americans, in order to cut
off the retreat of the Britifh army in the moft effeftual
manner, undertook an expedition againft Ticonderago j
but were obliged to abandon the enterprife after hav¬
ing furprifed all the outpofts, and taking a great num¬
ber of boats with fome armed velfels, and a number of
prifoners. The army under General Burgoyne, how¬
ever, continued to labour under the greateit diftreffes ;
fo that in the beginning of O&ober he had been obli¬
ged to diminifh the foldiers allowance. On the 7th of
that month he determined to move towards the enemv.
For this purpofe he fent a body of 1500 men to re-
lg7 connoitre their left wing; intending, if poftible, to
They make break through it in order to effeft a retreat. The de-
adefperate tachment, however, had not proceeded far when a
attack on dreadful attack was made upon the left wing of the
Britifh army, which was with great difficulty preferved ,,   r ___ ^ ailu 11UC
from being entirely broken by a reinforcement brought . fhot of the enemy, befides a difcharge from their artil-
up by General Frafer, who was killed- in the attack, lery, which was almoft inceffant. In this ftate of ex-
After the troops had with the moft defperate efforts treme diftrefs and danger, the army continued with the
regained their camp, it was moft furioufly affaulted by " ’ -
the royal
army;
288
kill Gene¬
ral Frafer,
289
and defeat
the Ger¬
mans with
great
daughter.
290
The royal
army in
danger of
being fur-
roimded.
291
Attempt a
retreat
without
fuccef*.
recall the guard, and the workmen being of courfe lefi America,
expefed could not proceed. ■
In the mean time, the boats which conveyed provi-
fions down Hudfon’s river were expofed to the conti¬
nual fire of the American markfmen, who took many
of them; fo that it became necelfary to convey the
provifions over land. In this extreme danger it was
jrefolved to march by night to Fort Edward, forcing
the paffages at the fords either above or below the
place 5 and in order to effect this the more eafily, it
was refolved that the foldiers fhould carry their provi¬
fions on their backs, leaving behind their baggage and
every other incumbrance. But before this could be
executed, intelligence was received that the enemy had
raifed ftrong intrenchments oppofite to thefe fords,
well provided with cannon, and that they had likewife
taken poffeffion of the riling ground between Fort
George and Fort Edward, which in like manner was
provided with cannon.
All this time the American army was increafing by Diftrefied
the continual arrival of militia and volunteers from all fituation of
parts. Their parties extended all along the oppofite t^ic roya*
bank of Hudfon’s river, and fome had even paffed itannjj
in order to obferve the leaft movement of the Britifh
army. 1 he whole force under General Gates was
computed at 16,000 men, while the army under Gene¬
ral Burgoyne fcarce amounted to 6coo j and every
part of the camp was reached by the grape and rifle
General Arnold ; who, notwithftanding all oppofition,
would have forced the intrenchments, had he not re¬
ceived a dangerous wound, which obliged him to re¬
tire. Thus the attack failed on the left, but on the
right the camp of the German referve was forced,
Colonel Breyman killed, and his countrymen defeated
with great daughter, and the lofs of all their artillery
and baggage.
This was by far the heavieft lofs the Britifh army
had fuftained fince the aftion at Bunker’s Hill. The
lift of killed and wounded amounted to near 1 200, ex-
clufive of the Germans j but the greateft misfortune
was, that the enemy had now an opening on the right
and rear of the Britifh forces, fo that the army was
threatened with entire deftrudlion. This obliged Ge¬
neral Burgoyne once more to ftiift his pofition, that
the enemy might alfo be obliged to alter theirs. This
was accomplxfhed on the night of the 7th, without any
lofs, and all the next day he continued to offer the
enemy battle ; but they were now too well affured ©f
obtaining a complete viftory, by cutting off all fupplies
from the Britifh, to rifk a pitched battle. Wherefore
they advanced on the right fide, in order to enclofe him
entirely ; which obliged the general to dire6l a retreat
towards Saratoga. But the enemy had now ftationed
a great force on the ford at Hudfon’s river, fo that
the only pofflbility of retreat was by fecuring a paffage
to Lake George j and to effect this, a body of work¬
men was detached, with a ftrong guard, tb repair the
roads and bridges that led to Fort Edward. As foon
as they were gone, however, the enemy feemed to
prepare for an attack } which rendered it neceffary to
greateft conftancy and perfeverance till the evening of
the 13th of October, when an inventory of provifions’
being taken, it was found that no more remained than
what was fufficient to ferve for three days ; and a conn- It is oblige^,
cil of war being called, it was unanimoufly determinedt0 capitu-
that there was no method now remaining but to treat *ate*
with the enemy. In confequence of this, a negotia¬
tion was opened next day, which fpeedily terminated
in the capitulation of the whole Britifh army 5 the
principal article of which was, that the troops were to
have a free paffage to Britain, on condition of not
ferving againft America during the war. On this oc-
cafion, General Gates ordered his army to keep within
their camp while the Britifh foldiers went to a place
appointed for them to lay down their arms, that the
latter might not have the additional mortification of
being made fpeflacles of fo melancholy an event. The
number of thofe who fiirrendered at Saratoga amount-
e.d t0 575°> according to the American accounts 5 the
lift of lick and wounded left in the camp when the
army retreated to Saratoga, to 528; and the number
of thofe loft by other accidents fince the taking of Ti¬
conderago, to near 3000. Thirty-five brafs field-pieces,
7000 ftand of arms, clothing for an equal number of
foldiers, with the tents, military cheft, &c. conftituted
the booty on this occafion.
Sir Henry Clinton, in the mean time, had failed upSucceftfuF
the North river, and deftroyed the two forts called expedition
Montgomery and Clinton, with Fort Conftitution, and of s’r Hen"
another place called Continental Village, where were ry clinton*
barracks for 2000 men. Seventy large cannon were
carried away, befides a number of fmaller artillery, and
a great quantity of' ftores and ammunition 3 a large
booim
A M E [ 64 ] A M E
America, bnom and chain reaching acrofs the river from Fort
Montgomery to a point of land called St Anthony’s
Nofe, and which coft not lefs than 70,000!. fterling,
were partly deftroyed and partly carried awray, as wras
alfo another boom of little lefs value at Fort Conftitu-
tion. The lofs of the Brithh army was but fmall in
number, though fome officers of great merit were killed
in the different attacks.
Another attack was made by Sir James Wallace with
fome frigates, and a body of land forces under Gene¬
ral Vaughan. The place which now fuffered was na¬
med Efopus : the fortifications w’ere deftroyed, and the
town itfelf was reduced to allies, as that called Conti-
295
Great de¬
jection on
account of
Burgoyne’s
capture.
ipS
Treaty be¬
tween
France and
America.
297
Debates
occafioned
by thej
treaty.
nental Village had been before-
But thefe fucceffes, of whatever importance they
might be, were now difregarded by both parties.
They ferved only to irritate the Americans, fluffed
with their fuccefs •, and they w^ere utterly infufficient to
raife the fpirits of the Britilh, who were nowr thrown
into the utmoft difmay.
On the 16th of March 1778, Lord North intimated
to the houfe of commons, that a paper had been laid
before the king by the French ambaffador, intimating
the conclufion of an alliance between the court of
France and the United States of America. The pre¬
liminaries of this treaty, had been concluded in the end
of the year 1777, and a copy of them fent to congrefs,
in order to counteract any propofals that might be
made in the mean time by the Britiffi miniftry. On
the 6th of February 1778, the articles were formally
ligned, to the great fatisfaclion of the French nation.
They wrere in fubftance as follows :
1. If Great Britain ffiould, in confequence of this
treaty, proceed to hoftilities againft France, the two
nations Ihould mutually affift one another.
2. The main end of the treaty was in an effectual
manner to maintain the independency of America.
3. Should thofe places of North America ftill fub-
iecl to Britain be reduced by the colonies, they thould
be confederated with them, or fubjecfted to their jurif-
dicftion.
4. Should any of the Weft India iflands be reduced
by France, they ffiould be deemed its property.
r. No formal treaty with Great Britain Ihould be
concluded either by France or America without the
confent of each other •, and it was mutually engaged
that they ftrould not lay down their arms till the in¬
dependence of the States had been formally acknow¬
ledged.
6. The contracting parties mutually agreed to Invite
thofe powers that had received injuries from Great
Britain to join the common caufe.
7. 'Fhe United States guaranteed to France all the
poffeffions in the Weft Indies wffiich Are ffiould con¬
quer •, and France in her turn guaranteed the abfolute
independency of the States, and their fupreme autho-
ritv over every country they poffeffed, or might acquire
during the war.
The mortification of fuch a treaty as this could not
but be looked upon as a declaration of w7ar. On its
being announced to the houfe, every one agreed in an
addrefs to his majefty, promifing to Hand by him to
the utmoft in the prefent emergency j but it was warm¬
ly contended by the members in oppofition, that the
prefent miniftry ought to be removed on account of
x
their numberlefs blunders and mifcarriages in every in- Amcrira.
ftance. Many were of opinion, that the only way to
extricate the nation from its trouble w7&s to acknow7-
ledge the independency of America at once } and thus
we might ftill do with a good grace what muft inevi¬
tably be done at laft, after expending much more blood
and treafure than had yet been laviihed in this unhap¬
py conteft. The minifterial party, however, entertain¬
ed different ideas. Inftigated by zeal for the national
honour, it w'as determined at once to refent the arro- Ameiicans
gance of France, and profecute hoftilities againft Ame-fcnd agents
rica with more vigour than ever, ftrould the terms now1:0 {^®sr-
offered them be rejected. eiU couu ‘
The Americans, in the mean time, affiduoufly em¬
ployed their agents at the courts of Spain, Vienna,
Pruilia, and Tufcany, in order, if poflible, to conclude
alliances with them, or at leaft to procure an acknowv
ledgment of their independency. As it had been re¬
ported that Britain intended to apply for affiftance to
Ruffia, the American commiffioners were enjoined to
ufe their utmoft influence with the German princes to
prevent fuch auxiliaries from marching through their
territories, and to endeavour to procure the recall of the
German troops already fent to America. To France
they offered a ceffion of fuch Weft India iflands as
Ihould be taken by the united ftrength of France and
America ; and ffiould Britain by their joint endeavours
be difpoffeffed of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and
Nova Scotia, thele territories ffiould be divided betwixt
the two nations, and Great Britain be totally excluded
from the fifliery. The propofals to the Spanilh court
were, that in cafe they ftrould think proper to efpoufe
their quarrel, the American ftates ftrould affift in re¬
ducing Penfacola under the dominion of Spain, provid¬
ed their fubje&s were allowed the free navigation of
the river Miffiffippi, and the ufe^of the harbour of Pen¬
facola } and they further offered, that if agreeable to
Spain, they would declare war againft Portugal, ftrould
that power expel the American ffiips from its ports. 259
In the mean time, the troops under General Bur- General
goyne were preparing to embark for Britain according Burgoyne’s
to the convention at Saratoga 5 but to their utter ^mA^ned in*
prife, congrefs pofitively refufed to allow7 them to em- America,
bark, under pretence that fome finifter defigns were
harboured on the part of Britain, and that they only
w7anted an opportunity to join the other troops at Phi¬
ladelphia or New York. ^oo
The feafon for afticm was now approaching’, and con- Predatory
grefs was indefatigable in its preparations for a new cam-war earned
paign, which it w7as confidently faid would be the laft.
Among other methods taken for this purpofe, it was re- tr00pSi
commended to all the young gentlemen of the colonies
to form themfelves into bodies of cavalry to ferve at their
own expence during the war. General Waffiington at
the fame time, in order to remove all encumbrances
from his army, lightened the baggage as much as pof-
lible, by fubftituting facks and portmanteaus in place
of chefts and boxes, and ufing packhorfes inftead of ^Q1
w7agg°ns. On the other hand, the Britifti army, ex-Coneiliato-
pefting to be fpeedily reinforced by 20,000 men, thought ry bill re-
of nothing but concluding the war according to their
wiffies before the end of the campaign. It was with ^aar_ ‘
the utmoft concern as well as indignation, therefore, my>
that they received the news of Lord North’s concilia- .
tory bill. It w7as univerfally looked upon as a national
difgrace 5
the colo
Hilts.
[ ^
Afnenca. difgrace •, and fome even tore the cockades from their
-v ‘ hats, and trampled them under -dieir feet as a token
Defpdhd by °f t^e^r indignation. By the colonies it was re-
’ ■ ' ceived with indifference. The Britifh commiffion-
ers endeavoured to make it as public as pofhble •, and
the congrefs, as formerly, ordered it to be printed
in all the newfpapers. On this occafion Governor
Tryon enclofed feveral copies of the bill to General
Wafhington in a letter, entreating that he would allow
them to be circulated } to which that general returned
for anlvver a copy of a newfpaper in which the bill
was printed, with the refolutions of congrefs upon it.
1 hefe were, That whoever prefumed to make a fe-
parate agreement with Britain fliould be deemed a
public enemy •, that the United States could not with
any propriety keep correfpondence with the commif-
fioners until their independence was acknowledged, and
the Britilh fleets and armies removed from America.
. At the fame time, the colonies w'ere warned not to fuf-
fer themfelves to be deceived into fecurity by any offers
that might be made : but to ufe their utmoft endea¬
vours to fend their quotas with all diligence into the
field. The individuals with whom the commiflioners
converfed on the fubjeiit of the conciliatory bill, gene¬
rally returned for anfwer, that the day of reconcilia¬
tion was pafl; and that the haughtinefs of Britain had
extinguifired all filial regard in the breafts of the Ame¬
ricans.
About this time alfo Mr Silas Deane arrived from
France with two copies of the treaty of commerce
and alliance to be figned by congrefs. Advices of the
moft agreeable nature were alfo received from various
parts, reprefenting in the moft favourable light the
'difpofitions of the European powers j all of whom, it
"ft 1 f “ f WaS w^ied 1:0 fee the independence of America
uPon the moft firm and permanent balls. Con-
miflioners. ^ering the fituation of matters with the colonifts at
this time, therefore, it is no wonder that the commif-
fioners found themfelves unable to accomplifh the bu-
finefs on which they came. 'T heir propofals were ut¬
terly rejected, themfelves treated as fpies, and all in-
tercourfe with them interdicted.
But before any final arffwer could be obtained from
congrefs, Sir Henry Clinton had taken the refolution
of evacuating Philadelphia. Accordingly, on the i cth
of June, after having made all. neceffary preparations,
the army marched out of the city, and crofted the De¬
laware before noon with all its baggage and other en¬
cumbrances. General Wafnington, apprifed of this
defign, had defpatched expreffes into the Jerfeys with
orders to colled! all the force that could be affembled
in order to obftrudt the march of the enemy. Af¬
ter various movements on both fides, Sir" Henry
Clinton, with the royal army, arrived on the 27th
ot June at a place called Freehold } where, judging
that the enemy would attack him, he encamped in a
very ftrong fituation. Here General Wafhington de¬
termined to make an attack as foon as the army had
again begun its march. The night was fpent in mak¬
ing the neceflary preparations, and General Lee with
his divifion was ordered to be ready by daybreak.
But Sir Henry Clinton, juftly apprehending that the
chief objedt of the enemy was the baggage,, commit-
ed it to the care of General Knyphaufen, whom he
ordered to let out early in the morning, while he
Vol. II. Part I.
.103
304
Philadel¬
phia eva¬
cuated.
J n iVi ^
followed with the reft of the army. The attack America,
was accordingly made; but the Britifh general had '   *
taken fuch care to arrange his troops properly, and
fo effedtually fupported his forces when engaged with
the Americans, that the latter not only made no im-
preflion, but were with difticulty preferved from a
total defeat by the advance of General Wafhington
with the whole army. The Britifh troops effedted
their retreat with the lofs of 300 men, of whom
many died through mere fatigue, without any wmund.
In this adtion General Lee wras charged by General
Wafhington with difobedience and mifeondudt in re¬
treating before the Britifh army. He was tried by
a court martial, and fentenced to a temporary fufpen-
fion from his command. After they had arrived at
Sandy Hook, a bridge of boats was by Lord Howe’s
directions thrown from thence over the channel which
feparated the ifland from the main land, and the troops
wTere conveyed aboard the fleet \ after w’hich they
failed to New York. After fending fome light de¬
tachments to w'atch the enemy’s motions, General
Wafhington marched towards the North River, where
a great force had been colledted to join him, and where
it w-as now expedted that fome very capital operations
would take place.
In the mean time, France had fet about her prepa¬
rations for the afliftance of the Americans. On the
14th of April Count d’Eftaing had failed from Tou¬
lon with a ftrong fquadron of fhips of the line and
frigates, and arrived on the coaft of Virginia in the 505
beginning of July, while the Britilh fleet was employed French
in conveying the forces from Sandy Hook to New ;ft-
York. It confifted of one fhip of 90 guns, one of T65111
80, fix of 74, and four of 64, befides feveral large mulLa*
frigates ; and, exclufive of its complement of failors,
had 6000 marines and foldiers on Hoard. T’o op-
pofe this the Britifh had only fix fhips of 64 guns,
three of 50, and two of 40, with fome frigates and
Hoops. Notwithftanding this inferiority, however,
the Britifh admiral pofted himfelf fo advantageoufly,
and fhowed fuch fuperioc fkill, that D’Eftaing did not
think proper to attack him. He therefore remained
at anchor four miles off Sandy Hook till the 22a of'
July, without effecting any thing more than the cap¬
ture of fome veffels, which, through ignorance of his
arrival, fell into his hands. -0(j
The next attempt of the French admiral was, in Attempts
conjunction with the Americans, on Rhode Ifland. ItRIl°de
wras propofed that D’Eftaing, with the 6000 troops }le F'land with-
had with him, fhould make a defeent on the fouthern'11 u'te‘' ’
part of the ifland, while a body of the Americans
fhould take pofteffion of the north j at the fame time
the French fquadron was to enter the harbour of New¬
port, and take and deftroy all the Britifh fhipping.
On the 8th of Auguft the French admiral entered
the harbour as was propofed, but found himfelf unable
to do any material damage. Lord Howe, however,
inftantly fet fail for Rhode Ifland ; and D’Eftaing, con¬
fiding in his luperiority, immediately came out of the
harbour to attack him. A violent ftqrm parted the
two fleets, and did fo much damage that they were
rendered totally unfit for adtion. The French, how¬
ever, fuffered moft j and feveral of the flnps being
afterwards attacked fingly by the Britifh, very nar¬
rowly efcaped being taken. On the 20th of Auguft
I he
America.
307
The coafts
of America
invaded by
the Britifh
fleet.
3c8 .
Expedition
againit
Georgia.
"A M E [ 65
lie returned to Newport in a very fliattered condition $
and, not thinking himfelf fafe there, failed two days
after for Bofton. General Sullivan had landed in the
mean time on the northern part of Rhode Bland with
10,000 men. On the 17th of Auguft they began
their operations by erefling batteries, and making
their approaches to the Britiih lines. But General
Pigot, who commanded in Newport, had taken fuch
effedtual care to fccure himfelf on the land fide, that
without the afiiitance of a marine force it was. altoge¬
ther impoffible to attack him with any probability of
fuccefs. The conduct of D’Eftaing, therefore, who
had abandoned them when mailer of the harbour, gave
the greatell difguft to the people of New England, and
Sullivan began to think of a retreat. On perceiving
his intentions, the garrifon fallied out upon him with
fo much vigour, that it was not without difficulty that
he effedled his retreat. He had not been long gone when
Sir Henry Clinton arrived with a body of 4000 men ;
which, had it arrived fooner, would have enabled the
Britifh commander to have gained a decifive advantage
over him, as well as to have deflroyed tiie town or
Providence, which, by its vicinity to Rhode Bland,
and the enterprifes which were continually projected
and carried on in that place, kept the inhabitants of
Rhode Bland in continual alarms.
The fir ft Britifh expedition was to Buzzard’s Bay,
on the coaft of New England and neighbourhood of
Rhode Bland. Here they deftroyed a great num¬
ber of privateers and merchantmen, magazines, with
florehoufes, &c. •, whence proceeding to a fertile and
populous ifland called Martha’s Vineyard, they car¬
ried off 10,000 fheep and 300 black cattle. Ano¬
ther expedition took place up the North River, under
Lord Cornwallis and General Knyphaufen 5 the prin¬
cipal event of which was the deftruflion of a regiment
of American cavalry, known by the name of Wafh-
ington’s Light Horfe. A third expedition was direct¬
ed to Little Egg Harbour in New Jerfey, a place noted
for privateers, the deftruCtiou oi which was its princi¬
pal intention. It was condufted by Captains- Fergu-
fon and Collins, and ended in the deftruftion of the
enemy’s veffels, as well as of the place itfelf. At the
fame time part of another body of American troops,
called Pulafki’s Legion, was furprifed, and a great
number of them put to the fword.
The Americans had in the beginning of the year
projeftcd the conquefl of Weft Florida ; and one Cap¬
tain Willing, with a party of refolute men, had made
a fuccefsful incurfion into the country. This awaken¬
ed the attention of the Britifh to the fouthern colo¬
nies, and an expedition againft them was refolyed on.
Georgia was the place of deftination } and the more
effectually to enfure fuccefs, Colonel Campbell, with
a fufficient force, under convoy of fome fhips of war,
commanded by Commodore Hyde Parker, embarked
at New York, wiiile General Prevoft, who commanded
in Eaft Florida, was direCted to fet out with all the
force he could fpare. The armament from Newr York
arrived off the coaft of Georgia in the month of De¬
cember ; and though the enemy were very ftrongly
pofted in an advantageous fituation on the fhore, the
Britifh troops made good their landing, and advanced
towards Savannah the capital of the province. That
very day they defeated the forces of the provmcials,
]
A M E
which oppofed them *, and took poffeffion of the town | America,
wuth fuch celerity, that the Americans had not time ^v J
to execute a refolution they had taken of fetting it on fake^of-
In ten days the whole province of Georgia was fefflon of
fire.     x u  
reduced, Sunbury alone excepted *, and this was alio Georgia,
brought under fubjeClion by General Prevoft in his
march nortlrward. Every proper method was taken to
fecure the tranquillity of the country j and rewards
W’ere offered for apprehending committee and affembly
men, or fuch as they judged molt inimical to the Bri¬
tifh interefts. On the arrival of General Prevoft, the
command of the troops naturally devolved on him as
the lenior officer j and the conqueft of Carolina was
next projefted. 3to .
In this attempt there was no fmall probability °f^”||na 1H"
fuccefs. The country contained a great number of
friends to government, who now eagerly embraced the
opportunity of declaring themfelves •, many of the in¬
habitants of Georgia had joined the royal ftandard j
and there wras not in the province any confiderable body
of provincial forces capable of oppofing the efforts of
regular and well-difciplined troops. On the firft news
of General Prevoft’s approach, the loyalifts afft-m-
bled in a body, imagining themfelves able to ftand
their ground until their allies ftiould arrive j hut in this
they were difappointed. The Americans attacked
and defeated them with the lofs of half their number.
The remainder retreated into Georgia 5 and after un¬
dergoing many difficulties, at laft effefled a junction
with the Britifh forces.
In the mean time, General Lincoln, with a con¬
fiderable body of American troops, had encamped
within 20 miles of the town of Savannah;, and another
ftrong party had polled themfelves at a place called
Briar's Creek, farther up the river of the fame name.
Thus the extent of the Britiffi government w as likely
to be circumfcribed wuthin very narrow bounds. Ge¬
neral Prevoft therefore determined to diflodge the
party at Briar’s Creek: and the latter, trufting to their
rtrong fituation, and being remifs in their guard, inf-
fered themfelves to be furprifed on the 3°th ct March Americans
I779 i when they were utterly routed rvith the lois oldefeated.
400 killed and taken, befides a great number drowned
in the river or thefwTamps. The whole artillery, ftores,
baggage, and almoft all the arms, of this unfortunate
party were taken, fo that they could no moie make
any ftand ; and thus the province of Georgia was once
more freed from the enemy, and a communication
opened with thofe places in Carolina wffiere the royalifts
chiefly reftded.
The victory at Briar’s Creek proved of confiderable
fervice to the Britifh caufe. Great numbers of the
loyalifts joined his army, and confiderably increafed its
force. Hence he was enabled to ftretch his ports fur¬
ther up the river, and to guard all the principal paffes :
fo that General Lincoln was reduced to a flate of in-
a£lion j and at laft moved off towards Augufta, in or¬
der to prote£l the provincial affembly, which was obli¬
ged to fit in that place, the capital being now in the
hands of the Britiffi.
Lincoln had no fooner quitted his port, than it was
judged a proper time by the Britifh general to put in
execution the grand fcheme which had been meditated
againft Carolioa. Many difficulties indeed lay in his
wav. The river Savannah was fo fwelled by the excef-
' five
A M E
t 67 ]
A M E
G'liarlef-
tovvn.
313 .
General
Lincoln ad
vances to
its relief.
America, five rains of the feafons, that it feemed irapaffable ; the
 1 oppohte fhore, for a great way, was fo full of fwamps
and marines, that no army could march over it without
the greateft diiFiculty ; and, to render the paffage ftill
more difficult, General Moultrie was left with a conli-
derable body of troops in order to oppofe the enemy’s
3ri. . attempts. But in fpite of etery oppofition, the con-
^■00 ^ ftancy an(^ perfeverance of the Britilh forces at lalt
vai'ice'1 to prevailed. General Moultrie was defeated, and obli¬
ged to retire towards Charleftown 5 and the vidlorious
army, after having waded through the marlhes for
fome time, at laid arrived in an open country, through
which they purfued their march with great rapidity to¬
wards the capital 5 while General Lincoln remained
in a Hate of fecurity at Augufta, vainly imagining that
the obflacles he had left in the way could not be fur-
mounted.
Certain intelligence of the danger to which Charlef¬
town was expofed at laid aroufed the American ge¬
neral from his lethargy. A chofen body of infantry,
mounted on horfeback for the greater expedition, was
Befpatched before him j wdiile Lincoln himfelf followT-
ed with all the forces he could colledd. General Moul¬
trie too, wdth the troops he had brought from Sa¬
vannah, and fome others he had colledded fince his re¬
treat from thence, had taken poffeffion of all the ave¬
nues leading to Charleldown, and prepared for a vigor¬
ous defence. But all oppofition proved inffectual.
The Americans were defeated in every encounter ; and,
retreating continually, allowed the Britilh army to come
within cannon-fhot of Charleldown on the 12th of May.
The town was now fummoned to furrender, and the
inhabitants would gladly have agreed to obferve a neu¬
trality during the reld of the war, and would have en¬
gaged alio for the reft of the province. But thefe terms
not being accepted, they made preparations for a vi¬
gorous defence. It was not, however, in the power
of the Britilh commander at this time to make an at¬
tack with any profpedd of fuccefs. His artillery was
tempt on it not 0f fufficient weight j there wrere no fhips to fup-
a Jan une ’ port his attack by land 5 and General Lincoln advan¬
cing rapidly with a fuperior army, threatened to en-
clofe him between his own force and the town j fo that
fhould he fail in his firft attempt, certain deftruddion
would be the confequence. For thefe reafons he with¬
drew his forces from before the town, and took poflef-
fion of two illands called St James's and St John's, ly¬
ing to the fouthward 5 where having waited fome time,
his force was augmented by the arrival of two frigates.
With thefe he determined to make himfelf mafter of
Port Royal, another iiland poffeffed of an excellent
harbour and many other natural advantages, from its
iituation alio commanding all the fea coal! from Charlef¬
town to Savannah river. The American general,
however, did not allow this to he accomplilhed with¬
out oppolition. Perceiving that his opponent had occu¬
pied an advantageous poft on St John’s illand prepara-
315 tory to his enterprife againld Port Royal, he attempted,
The Ame- on the 20th of June, to dillodge him from it ; but af¬
ter an obftinate attack, the provincials were, as ufual,
obliged to retire with confiderablelofs. On this occafion
the luccefs of the Britilh arms was in a great meafure
owing to an armed float; which galled the right flank
of the enemy fo effedlually, that they could diredd their
efforts only againld the ftrongeft part of the lines, which
America.
3H
The at-
ricans de
feated.
315
D’Eltaing’s
proved impregnable to their attacks. This diiappoint-
ment was inftantly followed by the lofs of Port Royal,
which General Prevoft took poffeffion of, and put his
troops into proper Rations, waiting for the arrival of
fuch reinforcements as were neceffary for the intended
attack on Charleftown.
In the mean time Count d’Eftaing, who, as we
have already obferved, bad put into B oft on harbour to'Ln
refit, had ufed his utmoft efforts to ingratiate himfelf
with the inhabitants of that city. Zealous alfo in the
caufe of his mailer, he had publithed a proclamation
to be difperled through Canada, inviting the people to
return to their original friendlhip with France, and
declaring that all who renounced their allegiance to
Great Britain fhould certainly find a protefdor in the
king of France. All his endeavours, however, proved
infufficient at this time to produce any revolution, or
even to form a party of any confequence among the
Canadians. 317
As foon as the French admiral had refitted his fleet, D’Eftaing
he took the opportunity, while that of Admiral Byron
had been {battered by a ftorm, of failing to the Weft^c,
Indies. During his operations there, the Americans
having reprefented his condudd as totally unferviceabls
to them, he received orders from Europe to affiift the
colonies with all poflible fpeed. ^ig
In compliance with thefe orders, he diredded his D’Eftaing’s
courfe towards Georgia, with a defign to recover thatexP^’^Qn
province out of the hands of the enemy, and to put it, |Aor ^
as well as South Carolina, in fuch a pofture of defence ^
as would effeddually fecure them from- any future at¬
tack. This feemed to be an ealy matter, from the
little force with which he knew he Ihould be oppof-
ed ; and the next objedl in contemplation was no iels
than the deftruddion of the Britilh fleet and army at
New York, and their total expullion from the conti¬
nent of America. Full of thele hopes, the French
commander arrived off the coald of Georgia with a fleet
of 22 fail of the line and 10 large frigates. His ar¬
rival was fo little expedded, that feveral veffels laden
with provifions and military idores fell into his hands ;
the Experiment alfo, a veffel of 50 guns, commanded
by Sir James Wallace, was taken after a flout refiil-
ance. On the continent, the Britifh troops were di¬
vided. General Prevoft, with an inconfiderable part,
remained at Savannah ; but the main force was under
Colonel Maitland at Port Royal. On the firft appear¬
ance of the French fleet, an exprefs was defpatched to
Colonel Maitland : but it was intercepted by the ene¬
my j fo that before he could fet out in order to join
the commander in chief, the Americans had fecured
mold of the paffes by land, while the French fleet effec¬
tually blocked up the paffage by fea. But, by taking
advantage of creeks and .rivulets, and marching over
land, he arrived juft in time to rejieve Savannah. 319
D’Eftaing, after making a gafeonade of what had
happened at St Vincents and Grenada, had allowed °),
General Prevoft 24 hours to deliberate whether he command-1
fhould capitulate or not. This time the general em-er.
ployed in making the beft preparations he could for a
defence •, and during this time it was that Colonel
Maitland arrived. D’Eftaing’s fummons was now re-
je£ded 5 and as on this occafion the fuperiority of the
enemy was by no means fo much out of proportion as
it had been at Grenada, there was every probability of
I 2 fuccefs
America.
320
Cruelty of
the French
and Ameri¬
can gene¬
rals.
321
They are
utterly de¬
feated.
322
Succefsful
expeditions
againft the
northern
American
provinces.
A M E f 68 ] A M E
fuccefs on tlie part of the Britifh. The garrifon now
confifted of 3000 men, all of approved valour and ex¬
perience, while the united force of the French and A-
mericans did not amount to 10,000. The event wras an-
fwerable to the expectations of the Britilh general.
Having the advantage of a ftrong fortification and ex¬
cellent engineers, the fire of the allies made fo little
impreffion, that iTEftaing refolved to bombard the
town, and a battery of nine mortars was ereCted for the
purpofe. This produced a requeft from General Pre¬
volt, that the women and children might be allowed
to retire to a place of fafety. But the allied command¬
ers had the inhumanity to refufe compliance 5 and they
refolved to give a general affault. This w7as accord¬
ingly attempted on the 9th of October : but the af-
failants were everywhere repulfed with luch flaughter,
that 1200 wrere killed and w'ounded 5 among the for¬
mer wras Count Pulalki, and among the latter was
H'Eltaing hirafelf.
This difalter entirely overthrew the fanguine hopes
of the Americans and French j mutual reproaches and
animofities took place in the molt violent degree ; and
after waiting eight days longer, both parties prepared
for a retreat ; the French to their {hipping, and the
Americans into Carolina.
While the allies were thus unfuccefsfully employ¬
ed in the fouthern colonies, their antagonifts w’ere
no lefs affiduous in dilireffing them in the northern
parts. Sir George Collier was lent with a fleet, car¬
rying on board General Matthews, with a body of
land forces, into the province of Virginia. Their firft
attempt ^Vas on the town of Portfmouth 5 where, though
the enemy had deftroyed fome fliips of great value,
the Britiih troops arrived in time to fave a great num¬
ber of others. On this occafion about 1 20 veflels of
different fizes w7ere burnt, and 20 carried off 5 and an
immenfe quantity of provifions defigned for the ufe of
General Waftiington’s army was either deffroyed or
carried off, together with a great variety of naval and
military {lores. The fleet and army returned with little
or no lofs to New York.
The fuccefs with which this expedition was attend¬
ed, foon gave encouragement to attempt another. . The
Americans had for fome time been employed in the
erection of two rtrong forts on the river 5 the one at
Verplanks Neck on the eaft, and the other at Stoney
Point on the welt fide. Thefe wdren completed would
have been of the utmoff fervice to the Americans, as
commanding the principal pafs, called the King's Ferry,
between the northern and fouthern colonies. At pre-
fent, however, they were not in a condition to make
any effedtual defence ; and it was therefore determined
to attack them before the works fhould be completed.
The force employed on this occafion was divided into
two bodies ; one of which direfled its courfe againft
Verplanks, and the other againft Stoney Point. The
former was commanded by General Vaughan, the latter
by General Pattifon, while the {hipping was under the
direction of Sir George Collier. General Vaughan
met with no refiftance, the enemy abandoning their
works, and fetting fire to every thing combuftible that
they could not carry off. At Stoney Point, however,
a vigorous defence wTas made, though the garrifon was
at laft obliged to capitulate upon honourable condi¬
tions. To feeure the poffeffion of this laft, which was
the more important of the two, General Clinton remov¬
ed from his former fituation, and encamped in fuch a
manner that Waftrington could not give any afiiftance.
The Americans, however, revenged themfeives by di-
ftrefling, with their numerous privateers, the trade to
New York.
This occafioned a third expedition to Connedlicut,
where thefe privateers were chiefly built and harbour¬
ed. The command was given to Governor Tyron, and
to General Garth, an officer of known valour and expe¬
rience. Under convoy of a confiderable number of
armed veffels they landed at Newhaven, where they de-
molifhed the batteries that had been erefted to oppofe
them, and deftroyed the {hipping and naval {lores ; but
they fpared the town itfelf, as the inhabitants had ab-
ftained from firing out of their houfes upon the troops.
From NewEaven they marched to Fairfield, where they
proceeded as before, reducing the town alfo to allies.
NorwTalk was next attacked, wdiich in like manner was
reduced to aihes ; as wras alfo Greenfield, a fmall fea-
port in the neighbourhood.
Thefe fucceffes proved very alarming as w’ell as de^
trimental to the Americans •, fo that General Walhing-
ton determined at all events to drive the enemy from
Stoney Point. For this purpofe he fent General Wayne
wdth a detachment of chofen men, directing them to
attempt the recovery of it by lurprife. On this occa¬
fion the Americans Ihowed a fpirit and refolution ex¬
ceeding any thing they had performed during the courfe
of the war. Though after the capture of it by the
Britilh the fortifications of this place had been com plet-
ed, and were very ftrong, they attacked the enemy
with bayonets, after palling through a heavy fire of
mulketry and grape {hot j and in ipite of all oppofi-
tion, obliged the furviving part of the garrifon, amount¬
ing to 500 men, to furrender themlelves prifoners oi
America.
war.
Though the Americans did not at. prefent attempt
to retain poffeffion of Stoney Point, the iuccefs they
had met with in the enterprife emboldened them to
make a fimilar attempt on Paulus Hook a fortified
poll on the Jerfey fide oppofite to New York •, but in
this they were not attended with equal fuccefs, being
obliged to retire wdth precipitation after they had made
themfeives mailers of one or two polls. 323
Another expedition of greater importance w7as now Unfuccefs-
projedled on the part of the Americans. 'Ibis was cxj?^~
againft a poll on the river Penobfcot, on the borders of ^gricar^s
Nova Scotia, of which the Britifh had lately taken pof- agamlt Pe-
feffion, and where they had begun to credit a fort wEich nobfeot.
threatened to be a very great inconvenience to the colo-
nifts. The armament deftined againft it was fo foon got
in readinefs, that Colonel Maclean, the commanding offi¬
cer at Penobfcot, found himfelf obliged to drop the exe¬
cution of part of his fcheme 5 and inftead of a regular
fort, to content himfelf with putting the works already
conftrucled in as good a pofture of defence as pofiible.
The Americans could not effedft a landing without a
great deal of difficulty, and bringing the guns of their
largeft veffels to bear upon the Ihore. As foon as this
was done, however, they eredled feveral batteries, and
kept up a brifk fire for the fpace of a fortnight ; after
which they propofed to give a general affault : but be¬
fore this could be effected, they perceived Sir George
Collier with a Britifti fleet failing up the river to at¬
tack
deracy a-
gainft Bri
tain.
A M E [ 69
America, tack them. On this they inftantly embarked their ar-
tillery and military ftores, failing up the river as far as
poffible in order to avoid him. They were fo clofely
purfued, however, that not a fmgle veffel could efcape 5
fo that the whole fleet, confiding of 19 armed veffels
and 24 tranfports was deftroyed ; molt of them indeed
being blown up by themfelves. The foldiers and fail-
ors were obliged to wander through immenfe deferts,
where they fuffered much for want of provifions ; and
to add to their calamities, a quarrel broke out between
the foldiers and feamen concerning the caufe of their
difafler, which ended in a violent fray, wherein a great
number were killed.
Thus the arms of America and France being almoft
everywhere unfuccefsful, the independency of the for¬
mer feemed yet to be in danger notwithllanding the
3Z4 affiftance of fo powerful an ally, when further encou-
Spain joins ragement was given by the acceflion of Spain to the
tlie confe- confederacy againft Britain in the month of June 1779.
The firft eflfeft of this appeared in an invafion of Weft
Florida by the Spaniards in September 1779. As the
country was in no ftate of defence, the enemy eafi-ly
made themfelves matters of the whole almoft without
oppofition. Their next enterprife was againft the
Bay of Honduras, where the Britilh logwood cutters
were fettled. Thefe finding themfelves too weak to
refill, applied to the governor of Jamaica for relief j
who fent them a fupply of men, ammunition, and mi¬
litary ftores, under Captain Dalrymple. Before the
arrival of this detachment, the principal fettlement in
thofe parts, called <SV George's Key, had been taken by
the Spaniards and retaken by the Britilh. In his wTay
Captain Dalrymple fell in with a fquadron from Ad¬
miral Parker in fearch of fome regifter lliips richly la¬
den ; but which retreating into the harbour of Omoa,
were too ftrongly protected by the fort to be attacked
Fort Omoa with fafety. A projedl was then formed, in conjunc-
taken hy tion with the people of Honduras, to reduce this fort,
tne Britilh; rj'}le Jefign was to furprife it 5 but the Spaniards hav¬
ing difcovered them, they were obliged to fight.
Viftory quickly declared for the Britilh ; but the for¬
tifications were fo ftrong, that the artillery they had
brought along with them were found too light to make
any impreflion. It was then determined to try the
luccefs of an efcalade j and this was executed with fo
much fpirit, that the Spaniards flood aftonilhed with¬
out making any refiftance, and, in fpite of all the ef¬
forts of their officers, threw down their arms and fur-
rendered. The fpoil was immenfe, being valued at
three millions of dollars. The ’Spaniards chiefly la¬
mented the lofs of 250 quintals of quickfilver ; a com¬
modity indifpenfably necefiary in the working of their
gold and filver mines, fo that they offered to ranfom
it at any price; but this was refufed, as -well as the
ranfom of the fort, though the governor offered
300,000 dollars for it. A fmall garrifon was left for
316 the defence of the place : but it was quickly attacked
but they by a fuperior force, and obliged to evacuate it, though
are obliged not without deftroying every thing that could be of
it. L Cule t0 t^e enemy 5 fpiking the guns, and even locking
the gates of the fort and carrying off the keys. All
this was done in fight of the befiegers ; after which the
garrifon embarked without the lofs of a man.
As no operations of any confequence took place this
year in the province of New York, the ccngrefs made
3^5
A M E
ufe of the opportunity to defpatch General Sullivan America,
with a confiderable force, in order to take vengeance 1 ^
on the Indians for their ravages and depredations : leans
and the objedt of the expedition was, not merely thetakeven-
redudlion of them, but if poffible their utter extirpation, geance on
Of this the Indians were apprifed ; and collecting all A6 Indians,
their ftrength, refolved to come to a decifive engage¬
ment. Accordingly they took a ftrong poll in the
moft woody and mountainous part of the country
eredling a breaftwork in the front of large logs of
wood extending half a mile in length, while their right
flank was covered by a river, and the left by a hill of
difficult accefs. This advantageous pofition they had
taken by the advice of the refugees whb were among
them, and of whom 200 or 300 were prefent in the
battle.
Thus polled, the Indians waited the approach of
the American army 3 but the latter having brought
lome artillery along with them, played it againft the
breaftwork of the enemy with fuch fuccefs, that in
two hours it was almoft deftroyed 5 and at the fame
time a party having reached the top of the hill, they
became apprehenlive of being furrounded, on which
they inftantly fled with precipitation, leaving a great-
number of killed and wounded behind them. The A~
mericans after this battle met with no further refiftance
of any confequence. They were fuffered to proceed
without interruption, and to execute in the moft
ample manner the vengeance they had projedled. On
entering the country of the Indians, it appeared that
they had been acquainted with agriculture and the arts
of peace far beyond what had been fuppofed. F^om
General Sullivan’s account it was learned, that the In¬
dian houfes wrere large, convenient, and even elegant j
their grounds wrere excellently cultivated, and their gar¬
dens abounded in fruit trees and vegetables of all kinds
fit for food. The wffiole of this fine country was now
by the American general converted into a defert.
Forty towms and fettlements, befides fcattered habita¬
tions, were demolilhed 3 the fields of corn, the orchards,
the plantations, were utterly laid walle 3 all the fruit
trees were cut dowm 3 and fo great had been the in-
duftry of the Indians, that in one orchard 1500 of thefe
wTere deftroyed. The quantity of corn wafted on this
occafion was fuppofed to amount to 160,000 bufhels.
In Ihort fuch was the defolation, that on the Ame¬
rican army’s leaving the country, not a houfe, not a
field of corn, nor a fruit tree, was left upon the ground,
nor was an Indian to be feen throughout the wffiole
traff.
We muft now7 take a view of the tranfadlions in the
fouthern colonies 3 to which the wrar Was, in the year
1780, fo effedlually transferred, that the operations
there became at laft decifive. The fuccefs of General
Prevott in advancing to the very capital of South Ca¬
rolina has been already related, together wfith the ob-
ftacles which prevented him from becoming mailer of it .323
at that time. Towards the end of the year 1779, howr- ExppdiriGn
ever, Sir Henry Clinton fet fail from New York with ^ 'cijptoa"
a confiderable body of troops, intended for the attack laainft ^
of Charleftown, South Carolina, in a fleet of ffiips of Charlef-
w7ar and tranfports under the command of Vice Ad-town*
miral Arbuthnot. They had a very tedious voyage 3
the weather wTas uncommonly bad 3 feveral of the tranf-
pcits were loft, as were alfo the greater part of the
horfes ■
A M E [
America, horfes which they carried with them, intended for ca-
'1 ^ valry or other public ufes ; and an ordnance fhip like-
wdfe foundered at fea. Having arrived at Savannah,
where they endeavoured to repair the damages fu-
ftained on their voyage, they proceeded from thence
on the 10th of February i^So to North Edifto,
the place of debarkation which had been previouily
appointed. They had a favourable and fpeedy paffage
thither : and though it required time to have the bar
explored and the channel marked, the tranfports all
entered the harbour the next day j and the army took
poffeffion of John’s iiland without oppolition. Prepa¬
rations were then made for palling the fquadron over
Charleftown bar, where the high water fpring tides
were only 19 feet deep : but no opportunity ofiered
of going into the harbour till the 20th of March,
when it was’ efteited without any accident, though
the American galleys continually attempted to prevent.
the Englifh boats from founding the channel. The
Britilh troops had previouily removed from John’s to
James’s iiland and on the 29th of the fame month
they eftedted their landing at Charleltown Neck. On
the ill of April they broke ground within 800 yards
of the American works $ and by the 8th the beliegers
guns were mounted in battery.
As i’oon as the army began to eredt their batteries
againll the town, Admiral Arbuthnot embraced the
firlt favourable opportunity of palling Sullivan’s iiland,
upon which there was a itrong fort of batteries, the
chief defence of the harbour. He weighed on the
9th, with the Roebuck, Richmond, and Romulus,
Blonde, Virginia, Raleigh, and Sandwich armed Ihip,
the Renown bringing up the rear; and, palling through
a fevere lire, anchored in about two hours under James’s
iliand, with the lofs of 27 feamen killed and wounded.
The Richmond’s fore-top mall was Ihot away, and the
Ihips in general fullained damage in their malls and
rigging, though not materially in their hulls. But
the Acetus tranfpcrt, having on board fome naval
llores, grounded within gunlhot of Sullivan’s iliand,
and received fo much damage that Ihe was obliged to
be abandoned and burnt.
The town On the I oth, Sir Henry Clinton and Admiral Ar-
defended buthnot fummoned the town to furrender to his ma-
by Lincoln. je^yis arms . Major-general Lincoln, who com¬
manded in Charleftown, returned them an anfwer, de¬
claring it to be his intention to defend the place. The
batteries wTere now opened againft the towm ; and from
their effeft the fire of the American advanced w-orks
confiderably abated. It appears that the number of
troops under the command of Lincoln wTas by far too
few for defending works of fuch extent as thofe of
Charleftown ; and that many of thefe were men little
accuftomed to military fervice, and very ill provided
with clothes and other necefiaries. Lincoln had been
for fome time expecting reinforcements and fupplies
from Virginia and other places ; but they came in very
llowly. Earl Cormvallis, and Lieutenant-colonel Tarle-
„„0 ton under him, were alfo extremely adlive in inter-
Several re- cepting fuch reinforcements and fupplies as wjere fent
inforce- to the American general. They totally defeated a
ments in- confiderable body of cavalry and militia which was
liis rg^;ef proceeding to the relief of the town ; and alfo made
intercept- themfelves mailers of fome polls wdrich gave them in
ed. a great degree the command of the country, by
70 ] A M E
which means great fupplies of provilxons fell into their America,
hands. —1
Such was the ftate of things, and Fort Sullivan had
alfo been taken by the king’s troops, wdien on the
18th of May General Clinton again fummoned the
town to furrender ; an offer being made, as bad been
done before, that if they furrendered, the lives and
property of the inhabitants ftrould be preferved to them.
Articles of capitulation wjere then propofed by Gene¬
ral Lincoln ; but the terms were not agreed to by Ge¬
neral Clinton. At length, however, the town being
clofely invefted on all fides, and the preparations to
ftorm it in every part being in great forwardnefs, and
the ftrips ready to move to the affault, General Lin¬
coln, who had been applied to for that purpofe by the
inhabitants, furrendered it on fuch articles of capitu- The^place
lation as General Clinton had before agreed to. This furrenders.
W’as on the 4th of May, which was one month and
two days after the towm had been firft fummoned to
furrender.
A large quantity of ordnance, arms, and ammuni¬
tion, was found in Charleftown ; and, according to
Sir Henry Clinton’s account, the number of prifoners
taken in Chvrleftowm amounted to 5618 men, exclu-
five of near a thouland failors in arms ; but accord¬
ing to General Lincoln’s account, tranfmitted to the
congrefs, the whole number of continental troops ta¬
ken priloners amounted to no more than 2487. The
remainder, therefore, included in General Clinton’s
account, mull have confifted of militia and inhabitants
of the town. Several American frigates were alfo
taken or deftroyed in the harbour of Charleftown.
The lofs of Charleftowm evidently excited a confi¬
derable alarm in America : and their popular waiters,
particularly the author of the celebrated performance
entitled Common Senfe, in fome other pieces made ufe
of it as a powerful argument to lead them to more vi¬
gorous exertions againft Great Britain, that they might
the more effedlually and certainly fecure their inde¬
pendence.
While Sir Henry Clinton wras employed in his voy- Apprehen-
age to Charleftowm, and in the fiege of that place, fions at
the garrifon at New York feem not to have been whol-New York,
ly free from apprehenfions for their owrn fafety. An
intenfe froft, accompanied ivith great falls fnowq
began about the middle of December 1779, and Unit
up the navigation of the port of New York from the
fea, within a few days after the departure of Admiral
Arbuthnot and General Clinton. The feverity of the
wreather increafed to fo great a degree, that towards
the middle of January all communications with New
York by water were entirely cut off, and as many new
ones opened by the ice. The inhabitants could fcarce-
ly be laid to be in an infular flate. Horfes with heavy
carriages could go over the ice into the Jerfeys from
one iiland to another. The paffage in the North Ri¬
ver, even in the wideft part from New York to Paulus
Hook, which was 2000 yards, was about the 19th of
January pradlicable for the heavieft cannon : an event
which had been unknowm in the memory of man.
Provifions w'ere foon after tranfported upon fledges,
and a detachment of cavalry marched upon the ice
from New^ York to Staten Ifland, which was a diftance
of 11 miles.
The city of New York being thus circumftanced
was
America.
333
Forward-
refs of the
inhabitants
to be enrol¬
led for its
defence.
334
The pro¬
vincials at¬
tack Staten
Wand ;
335 .
but are in¬
duced to
make a
precipitate
retreat.
336
Proclama¬
tions by
General
Clinton.
A M E [7
was confidered as much expofed to the attacks from
the continental troops : and it was ilrongly report¬
ed that General Wafhington was meditating a great
ftroke upon New York with his -whole force, by
different attacks. Some time before this, Major-
general Pattifon, commandant at New York, having
received an addrefs from many of the inhabitants, offer¬
ing to put themfelves in military array, he thought
the prefent a favourable opportunity of proving the fin-
cerity of their profeflions. Accordingly he iffued a
proclamation, calling upon all the male inhabitants
from 16 to 60 to take up arms. The requifition was
fo readily complied with, that in a few days 40
companies from the fix wards of the city were enrol¬
led, olhcered, and under arms, to the number of 2600,
many fubftantial citizens ferving in the ranks of each
company. Other volunteer companies wrere formed ;
and the city was put into a very ftrong pofture of de¬
fence.
No attack, however, wTas made upon New York,
whatever defign might originally have been meditated;
but an attempt wras made upon Staten iiland, where
there were about 1800 men, under the command of
Brigadier-general Sterling, who were well intrenched.
General Walhington, whofe army was hutted at Mor-
rirtowm, fent a detachment of 2700 nien, with fix
pieces of cannon, two mortars, and fome horfes, com¬
manded by Lord Sterling, wdio arrived at Staten
ifland early in the morning of the 15th January. The
advanced polls of the Britilh troops retired upon the
approach of the Americans, who formed the line,
and made fome movements in the courfe of the day ;
but they withdrew in the night, after having burnt
one houfe, pillaged fome others, and carried off wdth
them about 200 head of cattle. Immediately on the
arrival of the Americans on Staten ifland, Lieutenant-
general Knyphaufen had embarked 600 men to at¬
tempt a paffage, and to fupport General Sterling:
but the floating ice compelled them to return. It is,
however, imagined, that the appearance of thefe
tranfports, with the Britilh troops on board, W'hich
the Americans could fee towards the clofe of the day,
induced the latter to make fo precipitate a retreat.
After Charleltown had furrendered to the kingTs
troops, General Clinton iffued tw;o proclamations, and
alfo circulated a hand bill amongll the inhabitants of
South Carolina, in order to induce them to return to
their allegiance, and to be ready to join the king’s
troops. It wTas laid, that the helping hand of every
man w^as wanted to re-eftablifli peace and good go¬
vernment : and that as the commander in chief wilhed
not to draw the king’s friends into danger, wfliile any
doubt could remain of their fuccefs ; fo now that this
was certain, he trufted that one and all would heartily
join, and by a general concurrence give effe£l to fuch
neceffary meafures for that purpofe as from time to
time might be pointed out. Thofe wTho had families
were to form a militia to remain at home, and occa-
iionally to affemble in their own diftrifts, when re¬
quired, under officers of their owm choofing, for the
maintenance of peace and good order. Thofe who
had no families, and wffio could conveniently be fpared
for a time, it was prefumed, would cheerfully affift his
majelly’s troops in driving their oppreffors, afting un¬
der the authority of congrefs, and all the miferies of
] A M E
wTar, far from that colony. For this purpofe it was'America,
faid to be neceffary that the young men Ihould be ready /
to affemble wffien required, and to ferve with the king’s
troops for any fix months of the enfuing twelve that
might be found requifite, under proper regulations.
They might choofe officers to each company to com¬
mand them } and were to be allowed, wflten on ferviee,
pay, ammunition, and provifions, in the fame manner
as the king’s troops. When they joined .the army,
each man was to be fumiffied with a certificate, decla¬
ring that he was only engaged to ferve as a militiaman
for the time fpecified ; that he w7as not to be marched
beyond North Carolina and Georgia j and that, when
the time wras out, he was freed from all claims what
ever of military fervice, excepting the common and
ufual militia duty where he lived. He would then,,
it -was faid, have paid his debt to his country, and be
entitled to enjoy undifturbed that peace, liberty, and
property, at home, which he had contributed to fe-
cure. The proclamations and publications of General
Clinton appear to have produced fome efleft in South
Carolina j though they probably operated chiefly upon
thofe who were before not much inclined to tile caufe
of American independence. Two hundred and ten of
the inhabitants of Charleftown figned an addrefs to
General Clinton and Admiral Arbuthnot, foliciting to
be readmitted to the charafler and condition of Bri-
tiih fubjefts, the inhabitants of that city having been
hitherto confidered a: prifoners on parole ; declaring
their difapprobation of the dodlrine of American in¬
dependence ; and expreffing their regret, that after the
repeal of thofe ftatutes which gave rife to the troubles
in America, the overtures made by his majefty’s com-
miffioners had not been regarded by the congrefs. Sir
Henry Clinton, in one of the proclamations iffued at
this time, declared, that if any perfons Ihould thence¬
forward appear in arms in order to prevent the efta-
bliihment of his majefty’s government in that country,
or ffiould, under any pretence or authority whatfoever,
attempt to compel any other perfon or perfons to do fo,
or who ffiould hinder or intimidate the king’s faithful
and loyal fubjecls from joining his forces or otherwife
performing thofe duties their allegiance required, fuch
perfons Ihould be treated wdth the utmoft feverity, and
their eftates be immediately feized in order to be con-
fifcated.
Mean time the ravages of war did not prevent the
Americans from paying fome attention to the arts of
peace. On the 4th of May an aft paffed by the coun¬
cil and houfe of reprefentatives of Maffachufets Bay
for incorporating and eftablifliing a fociety for the cul¬
tivation and promotion of the arts and fciences.
Some doubts having arifen in the congrefs, towards pT0^]i
the clofe of the preceding year, about the propriety inp-s of
of their affembling in the city of Philadelphia, it was congrefs.
now refolved that they ihould continue to meet there :
and a committee of three members was appointed, to
report a proper place where buildings might be pro¬
vided for the reception of the congrefs, together with
an eftimate of the expence of providing fuch build¬
ings and the neceffary offices for the feveral boards.
It was alfo refolved by the congrefs, that a monument
ihould be erefted to the memory of their late general
Richard Montgomery, who fell at Quebec, in tefti-
mony of hisfignal and hnportant fervicesto the United
States
A M E
America.
[ 7
33s .
Difficulties
States of America, with an infcription expreffive of
his amiable charadler and heroic achievements $ and
that the. continental treafurers Ihould be directed to
advance a fum not exceeding 300I. to Dr Franklin
to defray the expence 5 that gentleman being defired
to caufe the monument to be executed at Paris, or in
fome other part of France. It was likewife refolved
by the congrefs, that a court fhould be eftablilhed
for the trial of all appeals from the court of admiralty
of the United Srates of America, in cafes of capture ;
to confift of three judges, appointed and commiflioned
by congrefs, and who were to take an oath of office •,
and that the trials in this court fhould be determined
by the ufage of nations.
The difficulties of the Congrefs and of the people of
arjfing tiom America had been greatly increafed by the deprecia-
ciation of t^on thd1" paper currency. At the time when the
their paper colonies engaged in a wrar with Great Britain, they
currency, had no regular civil governments eftablilhed among
them of fufticient energy to enforce the colledftion of
taxes, or to provide funds for the redemption of fuch
bills of credit as their neceflities obliged them to iflue.
In confequence of this ftate of things, their bills in-
creafed in quantity far beyond the fum neceffary for the
purpofe of a circulating medium : and as they wanted
at the fame time fpeciffc funds to reft on for their re¬
demption, they faw their paper currency daily fink in
value. The depreciation continued, by a kind of gra¬
dual progreffion, from the year to 1780 : fo that,
at the latter period, the continental dollars v,rere palled,
by common confent, in moft parts of America, at the
rate of at leaft fttjths below their nominal value. The
impoffibility of keeping up the credit of the currency
to any fixed ftandard, occafioned great and almoft in-
furmountable embarralfments in alcertaining the value
of property, or carrying on trade with any fufticient
certainty. Thofe who fold, and thofe who bought,
were left without a rule whereon to form a judgment
of their profit or their lofs ; and every fpecies of com¬
merce or exchange, whether foreign or domeftic, was
expofed to numberlefs and increafing difficultiesk The
confequences of the depreciation of the paper currency
were alfo felt with peculiar feverity by fuch of the A-
mericans as w^ere engaged in their military fervices, and
greatly augmented their other hardfhips. The requifi-
tions made by the congrefs to the feveral colonies for
fupplies, were alfo far from being always regularly
complied with : and their troops were not unfrequent-
ly in want of the moft common neceffaries ; which na¬
turally occafioned complaints and difcontent among
them. Some of thefe difficulties, relulting from their
circumftances and fituation, perhaps no wifdom could
have prevented : but they feem to have arifen in part
from the congrefs not being fufficiently acquainted with
the principles of finance, and from a defeat of fyftem in
the departments of their government. The caufe of the
Americans appears alfo to have fuffered fomewhat by
their depending too much on temporary inliftments.
But the congrefs endeavoured, towards the clofe of the
year 1780, to put their army upon a more permanent
footing, and to give all the fatisfacftion to their offi¬
cers and foldiers which their circumftances would per¬
mit. They appointed a committee for arranging their
finances, and made fome new regulations refpefting
2 ] A M E
their wTar-office and treafury-board, and other public AirtericS*
departments. ' v '
Notwithftanding the difadvantages under which they An^1^r
laboured, the Americans feemed to entertain no doubtsfary 0f^_
but that they fhould be able to maintain their indepen-merican in-
dency. The 4th of July was celebrated this year at
Philadelphia with fome pomp, as the anniverfary °f A-^
phi a.
merican independence. A commencement for confer¬
ring degrees in the arts was held the fame day, in the
hall of the univerfity there ; at which the prefident and
members of the congrefs attended, and other perfons
in public offices. The Chevalier de la Lucerne, mi-
nifter plenipotentiary from the French king to the
United States, was alfo prefent on the occafion. A
charge was publicly addreffed by the provoft of the
univerfity to the ftudents } in which he faid, that he
could not but congratulate them “ on that aufpicious
day, which, amidft the confufions and delolations of
war, beheld learning beginning to revive } and ani¬
mated them with the pleafing profpect of feeing the
facred lamp of fcience burning with a ftill brighter
flame, and fcattering its invigorating rays over the un¬
explored deferts of that extenfive continent 5 until the
whole wTorld fhould be involved in the united blaze of
knowledge, liberty, and religion. When he ftretched
his views forward (he faid), and furveyed the rifing
glories of America, the enriching confequences of their
determined ftruggle for liberty, the extenfive fields of
intellectual improvement and ufeful invention, in fcience
and arts, in agriculture and commerce, in religion and
government, through wThich the unfettered mind would
range, with increafing delight, in queft of the undif-
covered treafure which yet lay concealed in the animal,
vegetable, and mineral kingdoms of that new world j
or in the other fertile fources of knowledge with which
it abounded. His heart fwelled with the pleafing pro-
fpeft, that the fons of that inftitution would diftinguifh
themfelves, in the different walks of life, by their li¬
terary contributions to the embellifhment and increafe
of human happinefs.”
On the 10th of July, M. Ternay, with a fleet con-A. large
filling of feven flrips of the line, befides frigates, and ^0CU oi
a large body of French troops, commanded by the
count de Rochambeau, arrived at Rhode Ifland ; and Rhode
the following day 600O men were landed there. A Ifland.
committee from the general affembly of Rhode Ifland
was appointed to congratulate the French general uptm
his arrival: whereupon he returned an anfwer, in which
he informed them, that the king his mailer had fent
him to the afliftance of his good and faithful allies
the United States of America. At prefent, he faid,
he only brought over the vanguard of a much greater
force deftined for their aid and the king had ordered
him to aflure them, that his whole power fhould be ex¬
erted for their fupport. He added, that the French
troops were under the ftrifleft difeipline ; and, a£ling
under the orders of General Wafhington, would live
with the Americans as their brethren.
A fcheme was foon after formed, of making a com¬
bined attack with Englifh fhips and troops, under the
command of Sir Henry Clinton and Admiral Arbuth-
not, againft the French fleet and troops at Rhode
Ifland. Accordingly a confiderable part of the troops
at New York was embarked for that purpofe. Ge¬
neral
America.
341
Tlnfucccf'-
ful expedi¬
tion in the
Jerfeys.
34*
Victory ob¬
tained by
Lord Corn¬
wallis over
General
Gates.
A M E [
neral Waflungtoiy having received information of this,
paffed the North River, by a very rapid movement,
and with an army increafed to 12,000 men, proceed¬
ed with celerity towards King’s Bridge, in order to at¬
tack Newr York; but learning that the Britifh ge¬
neral had changed his intentions, and difembarked
his troops on the 3ill of the month, General Walh-
ington recrofled the river, and returned to his former
llation. Sir Henry Clinton and the admiral had
agreed to relinquilh their defign of attacking the
French and Americans at Rhode llland as imprafticable
for the prefent.
An unfuccefsful attempt was alfo made about this
time in the Jerfeys by General Knyphaufen, with
7000 Britilh troops under his command, to furprife
the advanced polls of General Wafhington’s army'.
They proceeded very rapidly towards Springfield,
meeting little oppolition till they came to the bridge
there, which was very gallantly defended by 170 of
the continental troops, for I 5 minutes, againll the Bri¬
tilh army : but they w’ere at length obliged to give up
fo unequal a conjelt, with the lofs of 37 men. After
fecuring this pafs, the Britilh troops marched into the
place, and fet fire to moll of the houfes. They alfo
committed fome other depredations in the Jerfeys 5 but
gained no laurels there, being obliged to return about
the beginning of July without effe&ing any thing ma¬
terial.
But in South Carolina the royal arms were attended
with more fuccefs. Earl Cornwallis, wiio commanded
the Britilh troops there, obtained a very fignal vidlory
over General Gates on the 16th of Augull. The ac¬
tion began at break of day, in a fituation very advan¬
tageous for the Britilh troops, but very unfavourable
-to the Americans. The latter were much more nu¬
merous ; but the ground on which both armies Hood
was narrowed by fwamps on the right and left, fo that
the Americans could not properly avail themfelves of
their fuperior numbers. There feems to have been
fome want of generallhip in Gates, in fuffering himfelf
to be furprifed in fo difadvantageous a pofition : but
this circumllance was partly the effedt of accident; for
both armies fet out with a defign of attacking each
other precifely at the fame time, at ten the preceding
evening, and met together before daylight at the
place where the adlion happened. The attack wras
made by the Britiih troops with great vigour, and in a
few minutes the adlion was general along the wrhole
line. It was at this time a dead calm, with a little
hazinefs in the air, which preventing the fmoke from
riling, occalioned fo thick a darknefs, that it was dif¬
ficult to fee the effedl of a very heavy and well-fupport-
ed fire on both lides. The Britilh troops either kept
up a conftant fire, or made ufe of bayonets, as oppor¬
tunities offered ; and, after an obllinate refiltance du¬
ring three quarters of an hour, threw the Americans
into total confufion, and forced them to give way in all
quarters. The continental troops appear to have be¬
haved wHl; but the militia were f0!m broken, and left
the former to oppofe the whole force of the Britilh
troops. General Gates did all in his pow'er to rally
the militia, but without effedl : the continentals re¬
treated in fome order ; but the rout of the militia w as
io great, that the Britilh cavalry are faid to have con¬
tinued the puifuit of them to the dillance of 22 miles
Vol. II. Part I.
73 ] A M E
from the place where the adlion happened. The lofs America,
of the Americans was very confiderable : about 1000
prifoners were taken, and more are faid to have been
killed and wounded, but the number is not very accu¬
rately afeertained. Seven pieces of brafs cannon, a
number of colours, and all the ammunition waggons of
the Americans, were alfo taken. Of the-Britilh troops,
the killed and wounded amounted to 213. Among
the prifoners taken was Major-general Baron de Kalb,
a Pruffian officer in the American fervice, who was
mortally wounded, having exhibited great gallantry in
the courfe of the action, and received 11 wounds. The
Britilh troops by whom this great victory was achieved
did not much exceed 2000, while the American army
is faid to have amounted to 6o©o; of which, however,
the greatell part was militia. ^
Lieutenant-colonel Tarleton, wffio had greatly di- Aftivity of
ftinguilhed himfelf in this a6lion, wras detached the Lieut. Col.
followdng day, with fome cavalry and -light infantry, Tar^et0n*
amounting to about 350 men, to attack a corps of
Americans under General Sumpter. He executed this
fervice with great adlivity and military addrefs. He
procured good information of Sumpter’s movements ;
and by forced and concealed marches came up with and
furprifed him on the middle of the day on the 18th,
near the Catawba fords. He totally dellroyed or dif-
perfed his detachment, which confilled of 700 men,
killing 150 on the fpot, and taking two pieces of brafs
cannon, 300 prifoners, and 44 waggons.
Not long after jhefe events, means were found to Geiieral
detach Major-general Arnold, who had engaged fo ar-Arnold de,
dently in the caufe of America, and who had exhibited forts the.
fo much bravery in the fupport of it, from the intereffs iervicer')!
of the congrefs. Major Andre, adjutant-general to conSrc‘
the Britiffi army, was a principal agent in this tranf-
adtion ; or, if the overture of joining the king’s troops
came firll from Arnold, tlris gentleman was the perfon
employed to concert the affair with him. More mull
have been originally comprehended in the fcheme than
the mere defertion ^oi the American caufe by Arnold ;
but whatever defigns had been formed for promoting
the views of the Britilh government, they were fru-
llrated by the apprehending of Major Andie. He
was taken in dilguife, after having affumed a falfe
name, on the 23d of September, by three American
foldiers ; to whom he offered confiderable rewards if
they would have fuffered him to efcape, but without
effeft. Several papers written by Arnold were found
upon him; and when Arnold had learned that Major
Andre was feized, he found means to get on board
a barge, and to efcape to one of the king’s ffiips. Unhlppy
General Waffiington referred the cafe of Major Andre fate qf Ma¬
to the examination and decifion of a board of general jor Andr^
officers, confifting of Major-general Greene, Major-
general Lord Sterling, Major-general the Marquis de
la Fayette, Major-general the Baron de Steuben, two
other major-generals, and eight brigadier-generals.
Major Andre was examined before them, and the par¬
ticulars of his cafe inquired into ; and they reported to
the American commander in chief, that Mr Andre
came on Ihore from the Vulture Hoop of war in the
night, on an interview with General Arnold, in a pri-
. vate and fecret manner; that he changed his drefs
within the American lines ; and, under a feigned name
and in a difguifed habit,, paffed the American works at
K Stoney
A M E
[ 74 ]
A M E
America. Stoney and Verplank’s Points, on tke evening of the
22(j 0£ September j that he was taken on the morning
of the 23d at Tarry-town, he being then on his way for
New York •, and that, when taken, he had in his pof-
feffion feveral papers which contained intelligence for
the enemy. They therefore determined, that he ought
to be conlidered as a fpy from the enemy ; and that,
agreeable to the law and ufage of nations, he ought
to fuffer death. Sir Henry Clinton, Lieutenant-ge¬
neral Robertfon, and the late American general Ar¬
nold, all wrote prefling letters to General Wafhington
on the occaflon, in order to prevent the decifion of the
board of general officers from being put in force : But
their applications were inelreftual. Major Andre was
hanged at Tappan, in the province of New York, on
the 2d of Oftober. He met his fate with great firm-
nefs ; but appeared fomewhat hurt that he was not al-
.46 lowed a more military death, for which he had foli-
His amiable cited. He was a gentleman of very amiable quali-
character. ^Jes^ ]la(j a tafle for literature and the fine arts, and
poffelied many accompliffiments. His death, there¬
fore, was regretted even by his enemies j and the fe-
verity of the determination concerning him was much
exclaimed againll in Great Britain. It was, hoivever,
generally acknowledged by impartial perfons, that
there was nothing in the execution of this unfortunate
gentleman but what was perfedtly confonant to the
rules of wrar.
Arnold wTas made a brigadier-general in the king’s
fervice, and publiffied an addrefs to the inhabitants of
America, dated from New.York, Oftober 7. in which
347 he endeavoured to juflify his defertion of their caufe.
Motives af-He faid, that wffien he firft engaged in it, he con-
ilgned by ceivecj rights of his country to be in danger, and
his conduit ^uty anc* ^onour called him to her defence. A
redrefs of grievances -was his only aim and objeft ; and
therefore he acquiefced unwillingly in the declaration
of independence, becaufe he thought it precipitate.
But what now induced him to defert their caufe was
the difguft he had conceived at the French alliance,
and at the refufal of congrefs to comply with the laft
terms offered by Great Britain, which he thought
equal to all their expeftations and to all their wifhes.
The Americans, howrever, accounted for the con-
duft of Arnold in a different manner. They alleged,
that he had fo involved himfelf in debts and difficulties
by his extravagant manner of living in America, that
he had rendered it very inconvenient for him to con¬
tinue there : that after the evacuation of Philadelphia
by the Britiffi troops, Arnold being invefted with the
command in that city, had made the houfe of Mr
Penn, which was the beft in the city, his head quar¬
ters. This he had furniffied in an elegant and expen-
five manner, and lived in a ftyle far beyond his income.
It wras manifeft, they faid, that he could at firfl: have
feafons al- no great averfion to the French alliance, becaufe that
leged by the ■wdien M. G erard, minifter plenipotentiary from the
court of France, arrived at Philadelphia in July
General Arnold early and earneftly folicited that mi¬
nifter, with his wffiole fuite, to take apartments and
bed and board at his houfe, until a proper houfe could
be provided by the order of the congrefs. This ofter
M. Gerard accepted, and continued with him fome
wrecks. The French minifter refided upwards of J4
tfionths in Philadelphia j during -which time General
348
Different
Americans.
Arnold kept up the moft friendly and intimate ac- America,
qujfintance with him, and there was a continued inter- v—"v-—'
change of dinners, balls, routes, and concerts: fo that
M. Gerard murt have believed, that in General Arnold
he had found and left one of the warm eft friends the
court of France had in America. He -was alfo one of
the firft in congratulating the Chevalier la Luzerne,
the fecond French minifter. About this time com¬
plaints and accufations were exhibited againft him by
the government of Philadelphia for divers mal-practi¬
ces •, among which charges were, the appropriation of
goods and merchandife to his own ufe, which he had
feized as Britifh property in Philadelphia in July 1778.
It was determined by a court-martial, that his con¬
duct w’as highly reprehenfible 5 but he was indulgently
treated, and was therefore only reprimanded by the
commander in chief General Wafhington. It was in
thefe circumftances, the Americans iaid, bankrupted
in reputation and fortune, loaded with debts, and
having a growing and expenfive family, that General
Arnold firft turned his thoughts towards joining the
royal arms. 41 * _ 349
After the defeat of General Gates by Earl Corn-Adions in.'
w-allis, that nobleman exerted himfelf to the utmoll in South Ca-
extending the progrefs of the Britiffi arms, and wdth r°bna-
confiderable effeft. But one enterprife, which was
condufted by Major Fergufon, proved unfuccefsful.
That officer had taken abundant pains to difeipline fome
of the Tory militia, as they were termed 5 and with
a party of thefe and fome Britiih troops, amounting
in the wffiole to about 1400 men, made incurfions in¬
to the country. But on the 7th of Oftober he was
attacked by a fuperior body of Americans at a place
called King’s Mountain, and totally defeated. One
hundred and fifty were killed in the aftion, and 810
made prifoners, of wffiom 150 were wounded. Fifteen
hundred Hands of arms alfo fell into the hands of the
Amerians, whole lofs w^as inconfiderable. But the
following month Lieutenant-colonel Tarleton, who
continued to exert his ufual aftivity and bravery, with
a party of 170, chiefly cavalry, attacked and defeated
General Sumpter, who is faid to have had 1000 men,
at a place called Black Stocks. Sumpter was wmund-
ed, and about 120 of the Americans killed, wmunded,
or taken. Of the Britifti troops about 50 were killed
and wmunded. . ,-0
On the 3d of September, the Mercury, a congrefs Cap^re of-
packet, w^as taken by theVeftal, Captain Keppel, near Mr Lau-
Newfoundland. On board this packet was Mr Lau-renf*
rens, late prefident of the congrefs, who was bound on
an embaffy to Holland. He had throrvn his papers
overboard, but great part of them were recovered with¬
out hawing received much damtge. He was brought
to London, and examined before the privy council ;
in confequence of which he was committed clofe prrfo-
ner to the Tower on the 6th of Oftober, on a charge
of high treafon. His papers were delivered to the
miniftry, and contributed to facilitate a rupture with
Holland, as among them w’as found the {ketch of .a
treaty of amity and commerce between the republic
of Holland and the United States of America. _
At the beginning of the year 1781, an affair hap¬
pened in America, from which expeftations w-ere form¬
ed by Sir Henry Clinton, that fome confiderable ad¬
vantage might be derived to the royal caufe. 'I he
long
A M E
America, long continuance of the war, and the difficulties un-
v...—v ■ -1 the congrefs laboured, had prevented their
DifccmtentstrooPs ^rom Propcrly fupplied with neceflaries
amon^the an<i conveniences. In confequence of this, on the ill
American of January, the (American troops that were hutted at
troops. Morris Town, and who formed what was called the
Pennfylvania line, turned out, being in number about
I300, and declared, that they would ferve no longer,
unlefs their grievances were redreffed, as they had not
received their pay, or been furnilhed with the neceffary
clothing or provifions. It is laid that they wTere
fomewhat inflamed with liquor, in confequence of rum
having been diftributed to them more liberally than
ufual, New-year’s-day, being conlidered as a kind of
felliyal. A riot enfued, in which an officer was killed,
and four wounded ; five or fix of the infurgents wTere
alfo wounded. They then colle£led the artillery, llores,
provifions, and waggons, and marched out of the camp.
352 They paffed by the quarters of General Wayne, who
Revolt of ^ fent a meflfage to them, requelling them to defilt, or
vania iuie ^he confequences w'ould prove fatal. They refufed, and
proceeded on their march till the evening, wffien they
took poll on an advantageous piece of ground, and
defied officers from among themfelves. On the fe-
cond, they marched to Middlebrook, and on the third
to Princetown, where they fixed their quarters. On
that day a flag of truce was fent to them from the offi¬
cers of the American camp, with a meffage, defiring
to know what were their intentions. Some of them
anfwered, that they had already ferved longer than the
time for winch they were inlilled, and would ferve no
longer 5 and others, that they would not return, unlefs
their grievances were redrelfed. But at the fame time
they repeatedly, and in the llrongell terms, denied
being influenced by the lealt difaffeflion to the Ame¬
rican caufe, or having any intentions of deferting to
the enemy.
Intelligence ot this tranfaclion ums foon conveyed to
New York. A large body of Britilh troops were im¬
mediately ordered to hold themfelves in readinefs to
^53 move on the ihortell notice, it being hoped that the
Ineffectual American revolters might be induced to join the royal
induce'11 army. Meflengers were alfo fent to them from Gene-
them to ral Clinton, acquainting them that they ffiould direftly
join the be taken under the protection of the Britiffi govern-
royal army. ment • that they fliould have a free pardon for all for¬
mer offences \ and that the pay due to them from the
congrefs Ihould be faithfully paid them, without any
expectation of military fervice, unlefs it ffiould be vo¬
luntary, upon condition of their laying down their
arms and returning to their allegiance. It wTas alfo
recommended to them to move beyond the South ri¬
ver \ and they were allured, that a body of Britifli
troops fliould be rea'dy to protect them whenever they
defired it. Thefe propofitions were rejected wfith dif-
dain •, and they even delivered up two of Sir Henry
Clinton’s meflengers to the congrefs. Jofeph Reed,
Efq. prefident of the Hate of Pennfylvania, afterwards
repaired to them at Princetown, and an accommoda¬
tion took place: fuch of them as had ferved out their
full terms wrere permitted to return to their own homes,'
and others again joined the American army, upon re¬
ceiving fatisfaftory affurances that their grievances
ihould be redrefled.
Lord Cornwallis now began to make very vigorous
[ 75 1
354
Exertions
of Lord
Cornwallis
in North
Carolina.
A M E
exertions, in order to penetrate into North Carolina. America.
On the nth of January his lordlhip’s army was in " ~v
motion, and advancing towards that province \ but
was fomewhat delayed by an attempt made by the A-
mericans, under General Morgan, to make themfelves
mailers of the valuable dillricl of Ninety-flx. In or¬
der to prevent this, Lord Cornwallis detached Lieute¬
nant-colonel Tarleton, wTith 300 cavalry, 30,0 light in¬
fantry, the 7th regiment, the firfl: battalion of the 7ill
regiment, and tw'o three-pounders, to oppofe the pro-
grefs of Morgan, not doubting but that he would be
able to perform this fervice effedlually. The Britilh
troops Came up with the Americans under General
Morgan on the 17th of January. The Americans
were drawn up in an open wood, and having been
lately joined by fome militia, w7ere more numerous
than the Britiffi troops under Lieutenant-colonel Tarle¬
ton ; but the latter w7ere fo much better difeiplined,
that they had the utmolt confidence of obtaining a
fpeedy vidlory. The attack wras begun by the firllline
of infantry, confilting of the 7th regiment and a corps
of light infantry, with a troop of Cavalry placed on
each flank. The firll battalion of the 7 ill and the re¬
mainder of the cavalry formed the referve. The A-
merican line foon gave wTay, and their militia quitted
the field j upon which the royal troops, fuppofing the
'viclory already gained, engaged with ardour in the
purfuit, and were thereby thrown into fome diforder.
General Morgan’s corps, who were fuppofed to have
been routed, then immediately faced about, and threw
in a heavy fire upon the king’s troops, wffiich occafion-
ed the utmoll confufion amongll them 5 and they were ^
at length totally defeated by the Americans. Four Defeat of
hundred of the Britiffi infantry were either killed, Colonel
wounded, or taken prifoners : the lofs of the cavalry
wras much lefs confiderable 5 but the two three-pound¬
ers fell into the hands of the Americans, together with
the colours of the 7th regiment } and all the detach¬
ment of royal artillery were either killed or wounded
in defence of their colours. Lieutenant-colonel Tarle¬
ton, howrever, made another effort : having affembled
about 50 of his cavalry, with which he charged and
repulfed Colonel Waihington’s horfe, retook his bag-Operations
gage, and killed the Americans who were appointed in confe-
to guard it. He then retreated to Hamilton’s ford,^uence
near the mouth of Bullock’s creek, carrying with him
part of his baggage, and deftroying the remainder.
This defeat of the troops under Tarleton was a fe-
vere llroke to Lord Conwallis, as the lofs of his light
infantry wras a great difadvantage to him. The day
after that event, he employed in colledling the remains
of Tarleton’s cprps, and in endeavouring to form a
jundflion with General Leflie, wffio had been ordered to
march towards him with a body of Britiih troops from
Wyneffiorough. Confiderable exertions were then
made by part of the army, without baggage, to retake
the prifoners in the hands of the Americans, and to
intercept General Morgan’s corps on its retreat to the
Catawba. But that American officer, after his defeat
of Tarleton, had made forced marches up into the
country, and croffed the Catawffia the evening before a
great rain, which fwelled the river to" fuch a degree,
as to prevent the royal army from croffing for feveral
days; during wffiich time the Britiffi prifoners were
got over the Yadkin j wffience they proceeded to Dan
K 2 River,
.Tarleton.
35^
’ that event.
America.
557
Lord Corn¬
wallis
marches
through
North Ca¬
rolina.
A M E [ ]
River, which they alfo paffed, and on the 14th of Fe- Cape Fear river,
35s
Large
quantities
of Ameri¬
can ftores
deftroyed
by Arnold.
bruary had reached Court-houfe in the province of
Virginia.
Lord Cornwallis employed a halt of two days in
colledting feme flour, and in deflroying fuperfluous
baggage and all his waggons, excepting thofe laden
with hofpital ftores, fait, and ammunition, and four re-
ferved empty in readinefs for fick or wounded. Being
thus freed from all linneceflary encumbrances, he
marched through North Carolina with great rapidity,
and penetrated to the remoteft extremities of that pro¬
vince on the banks of the Dan. His progrefs was
fometimes impeded by parties of the militia, and feme
fkirmilhes enfued, but he met with no very confider-
able oppofition. On the firft of February, the king’s
troops crofted the Catawba at M4Cowan’s Ford, where
General Davidfon, with a party of American militia,
was polled in order to oppofe their palfage •, but he
tailing by the firft difeharge, the royal troops made
good their landing, and the militia retreated. When
Lord Cornwallis arrived at HilHborough, he eredled
the king’s ftandard, and invited, by proclamation, all
loyal fubjects to repair to it, and to Hand forth and
take an aftive part in aflifting his lordfhip to reftore
order and government. Fie had been taught to be¬
lieve that the king’s friends were numerous in that part
of the country : but the event did not confirm the
truth of the reprefentations that had been given. The
royalifts were but few in number, and feme of them
too timid to join the king’s ftandard. There were,
indeed, about 200 who were proceeding to Hilllbo-
rough, under Colonel Pyle, in order to avow their at¬
tachment to the royal caufie 5 but they were met acci¬
dentally, and furrounded by a detachment from the A-
merican army, by whom a number of them are laid to
have been killed when they were begging for quarter,
without making the leaft refiftance. Meanwhile Ge¬
neral Greene was marching with great expedition with
the troops under his command, in order to form a junc¬
tion with other corps of American troops, that he might
thereby be enabled to put feme eflfedlual ftop to the
progrefs of Lord Cornwallis.
In other places fome confiderable advantages were
obtained by the royal arms. On the 4th of January,
fome {hips of war, with a number of tranfports, on
board which was a large body of troops under the com¬
mand of Brigadier-general Arnold, arrived atWeftover,
about 140 miles from the capes of Virginia, where the
troops immediately landed and marched to Richmond;
which they reached without oppofition, the militia that
was collefted having retreated on their approach.
Lieutenant-colonel Simcoe marched from hence with
a detachment of the Britifh troops to Weftham, where
they deftroyed one of the fineft founderies for cannon
in America, and a large quantity of ftores and cannon.
General Arnold, on his arrival at Richmond, found
there large quantities of fait, rum, fail-cloth, tobacco,
and other merchandife; and that part of thefe commo¬
dities which was public property he deftroyed. The
Britifh troops afterwards attacked and difperfed fome
fmall parties of the Americans, took fome ftores arid a
few pieces of cannon, and on the 20th of the fame
month marched into Portfmouth. On the 25th Cap¬
tain Barclay, with feveral fhips of war, and a body of
troops under th£ command of Major Craig, arrived in
A M E
The troops landed about nine miles America-
from Wilmington, and on the 28th entered that town.—v—
It w7as underftood that their having pofieffion of that
town, and being mafters of Cape Fear river, would be
productive of very beneficial effefts to Lord Corn¬
wallis’s army.
General Greene having effeCled a junClion about the
10th of March with a continental regiment of what
wrere called eighteen months men, and two large bodies DfiFerwit
of militia belonging to Virginia and North Carolina,tkirmifhe*
formed a refolution to attack the Britifh troops under
the command of Lord Cornwallis. The American
army marched from the High Rock Ford on the 1 2th
of the month, and on the 14th arrived at Guildford.
Lord Cornwallis, from the information he had received
of the motions of the American general, concluded
what were his defigns. As they approached more
nearly to each other, a fewr Ikirmifties erTued between
fome advanced parties, in which the king’s troops had
the advantage. On the morning of the 15th, Lord
Cornwallis marched with his troops at daybreak in
order to meet the Americans, or to attack them in their
encampment. About four miles from Guildford, the
advanced guard of the Britifli army, commanded by
Lieutenant-colonel Tarleton, fell in with a corps of
the Americans, confifting of Lieutenant-colonel Lee’s
legion, fome Black Mountain men and Virginian mili¬
tia, with whom he had a fevere fkirmifti, but whom he
at length obliged to retreat.
The greater part of the country in which the aftion
happened is a wildernefs, with a few cleared fields in-
terfperfed. The American army, which wras iuperior
to the poyal in point of numbers, was polled on a rif-
ing ground about a mile and a half from Guildford ^
court-houfe. It was drawn up in three lines : the front Battle at
line was compofed of the North Carolinian militia, un- Guildford1,
der the command of the generals Butler and Eaton ;
the fecond line of Virginian militia, commanded by
the generals Stephens and Laivfon, forming tw;o bri¬
gades 5 the third line, confifting of two brigades, one
of Virginia and one -of Maryland continental troops,
commanded by General Huger and Colonel Williams.
Lieutenant-colonel Wafhington, with the dragoons of
the firft and third regiments, a detachment of light in¬
fantry compofed of continental troops, and a regiment
of riflemen under Colonel Lynch, formed a corps of
obfervation for the fecurity of their right flank. Lieu¬
tenant-colonel Lee, with his legion, a detachment of
light infantry, and a corps of riflemen under Colonel
Campbell, formed a corps of obfervation for the fecu¬
rity of their left flank. The attack of the American
army was direfted to be made by Lord Cornwallis in
the following order : On the right, the regiment of
Bole and the 71ft regiment, led by Major-general
Leflie, and fupported by the firft battalion of guards p
on the left, the 23d and 33d regiments, led by Lieu¬
tenant-colonel Webfter, and fupported by the grena¬
diers and fecond battalion of guards commanded by
Brigadier-general O'Hara •, the Yagers and light in¬
fantry of the guards remained in a wood on the left of
the guns, and the cavalry in the road, ready to aft as
circumftances might require.
About half an hour after one in the afternoon, the
aftion commenced by a cannonade, which lafted about
twenty minutes j when the Britifh troops advanced in
three
America.
—v 
361
Tiie Ame¬
ricans de¬
feated.
562
H ard (hips
endured by
tV Briti/h
troops.
A M E [ 77 ] AM E
tliree columns and attacked t’ne Nortli Carolinian bri¬
gades with great vigour, and foon obliged part of
thefe troops, who behaved very ill, to quit the field ;
but the Virginian militia gave them a warm reception,
and kept up a heavy fire for a long time, till being
beaten back, the aftion became general almoft every¬
where. The American corps under the lieutenant-
colonels Walhington and Lee were alfo warmly en¬
gaged, and did confiderable execution. Lieutenant-
colonel Tarleton had direftions to keep his cavalry
Compaft, and not to charge without pofitive orders,
excepting to proteft any of the corps from the moft
evident danger of being defeated. The exceflive thick-
ftefs of the woods rendered the Britifh bayonets of little
ufe, and enabled the broken corps of Americans to
make frequent Hands with an irregular fire. The fe-
cond battalion of the guards firlt gained the clear
ground near Guildford court-houfe, and found a corps
of continental infantry, fuperior in number, formed in
an open field on the left of the road. Defirous of fig-
nalizing themfelves, they immediately attacked and
foon defeated them, taking twro fix-pounders : but as
they purfued the Americans into the wrood wdth too
much ardour, they were thrown into confufion by a
heavy fire, and inftantly charged and driven back into
the field by Lieutenant-colonel Wafliington’s dragoons,
with the lofs of the fix-pounders they had taken. But
the American cavalry were afterwards repulfed, and
the two fix-pounders again fell into the hands of the
Britiih troops. The fpirited exertions of Brigadier-
general O’Hara and of Lieutenant-colonel Tarleton,
greatly contributed to bring the aftion to a termina¬
tion. 7'he Britiih troops having at length broken the
fecond Maryland regiment, and turned the left flank
of the Americans, got into the rear of the Virginian
brigade, and appeared to be gaining their right, which
Tvould have encircled the whole of the continental
troops, when General Greene thought it prudent to or¬
der a retreat. Many of the American militia difper-
fed in the wToods but the continental troops retreated
in good order to the Reedy Fork river, and croffed at
the ford about three miles from the field of aftion, and
there halted. When they had collefted their ftrag-
glers, they retreated to the iron works, ic miles di-
flant from Guildford, where they encamped. They
loll their artillery and two wurggons laden with ammu¬
nition. It was a hard-fought adlion, and lafted an
hour and a half. Of the Britiih troops, the lofs, as
ftated by Lord Cornwallis, was 532 killed, wounded,
and miffing. General Greene, in his account of the
aclion tranfmitted to the congrefs, ftated the lofs of
the continental troops to amount to 329 killed, wound¬
ed, and miffing-, but he made no eftimate of the lofs
of the militia. Lieutenant-colonel Stuart was killed
in the action ; and Lieutenant-colonel Webfter, and
the captains Schutz, Maynard, and Goodriche, died of
the wounds that they received in it. Brigadier-gene¬
ral O’Hara, Brigadier-general Howrard, and Lieute¬
nant-colonel Tarleton, w-ere alfo wounded. Of the
Americans, the principal officer killed was Major An-
derfon of the Maryland line, and the generals Stephens
and Huger were wounded.
7 he Britiih troops underwent great hardfhips in the
courfe of this campaign ; and in a letter of Lord Corn¬
wallis’s to Lord George Germain, dated March 17th,
he obferved, that “ the foldiers had been trvo days America,.,
without bread.” His lordlhip quitted Guildford three
days after the battle which was fought in that place ;
and on the 7th of April arrived in the neighbourhood
of Wilmington. Soon after, General Greene, not-
withftanding his late defeat, endeavoured to make fome
vigorous attempts againft the king’s forces in South
Carolina. Lord Rawdon had been appointed to de¬
fend the poft of Camden, with about 800 Britiih and
provincials j and on the 19th of April General Greene
appeared before that place with a large body of conti¬
nentals and militia. He found it, howrever, impeffible
to attempt to ftorm the town wfith any profpeft of
fuccefs j and therefore endeavoured to take fuch a po-
fition as fhould induce the Britiih troops to Tally from
their works. He ported the Americans about a mile
from the towrn, on an eminence which was covered
with woods, and Hanked on the left by an impaffable General
fwamp. But on the morning of the 2 ^th, Lord Raw- Greene at-
don marched out of Camden, and with great gallan-hi
try attacked General Greene in his camp. The Ame- x.oki'r-v!-^
ricans made a vigorous refiftance, but were at laft com- don, and
pelled to give way \ and the purfuit is faid to have defeated,,
been continued three miles. For fome time after the
adlion commenced, General Gates entertained great
hopes of defeating the Britilh troops; in which, as
the Americans were fuperior in point of numbers, he
would probably have fucceeded, had not fome capital
military errors been committed by one or two of the
officers who ferved under him. On the American fide
Colonel Walhington had behaved extremely well in
this a6Hon, having made upwards of 200 of the Eng-
lilh prifoners, with ten or twelve officers, before he
perceived that the Americans were abandoning the
field of battle. The lofs of the Englilh was about one
hundred killed and wounded. Upwards of 100 of the
Americans were taken prifoners 5 and, according to
the account publiffied by General Greene, they had
126 killed and wounded. After this aftion, Greene
retreated to Rugeley’s mills, 12 miles from Camden, in-
order to collect his troops and wait for reinforcements.
Notwithftanding the advantage which Lord Raw¬
don had obtained over General Greene at Camden,
that nobleman foon after found it neceffary to quit that
poft ; and the Americans made themfelves mailers of
feveral other polls that were occupied by' the king’s
troops, and the garrifons of which were obliged to fur-
render themfelves prifoners of war. 7’hefe troops were.
afterwards exchanged under a cartel which took place
between Lord Cornwallis and General Greene for the
releafe of all prifoners of war, in the fouthern diltridl. Afterward-
After thefe events, General Greene laid clofe liege to lays fie-re to
Ninety-fix, which was confidered as the moft com-Ninety-fix;
manding and important of all the polls in the back lmt 1STePul-
countryj and on the 19th of June he attempted to led‘
ftorm the garrifon,, but was repulfed by the gallantry
of the Britiffi troops, with the lofs, as it is faid, of 75
killed and 150 wounded. General Greene then railed
the fiege, and retired with his army behind the Saluda,
to a ftrong fituation within 16 miles of Ninety-fix.
On the 18th of April a large body of Britiffi troops,
under the command of Major-general Philips and Bri¬
gadier-general Arnold, embarked at Portfmouth in
Virginia, in order to proceed on an expedition for the
purpole of deltroying iome of the American, ftores. A
party-
«f Ameri-
can itore
A M E [ -
America, party of light infantry were fent ten or twelve miles up
—-y—j Chickahomany ; where they deitroyed feveral arm¬
ed jihips, fundry warehoufes, and the American ftate
365 fhip yards. At Peterfburgh, the Engliih deftroyed
Deftmction ^000 hogfheads of tobacco, one Ihip, and a number of
fmall veffels on the Hocks and in the river. At Chef-
terfield court-houfe, they burnt a range of barracks for
2000 men and 300 barrels of flour. At a place called
OJborn1si they made themfelves mafters of feveral vef¬
fels loaded with cordage and flour, and deftroyed about
2000 hogfheads of tobacco, aiid fundry veiTels were
funk and burnt. At Warwick, they burnt a maga¬
zine of 500^30-615 of flour, fome fine mills belonging
to Colonel Carey, a large range of public rope-walks
and ftorehoufes, tan and bark houfes full of hides and
bark, and great quantities of tobacco. A like de-
ftructhm of ftores and goods was made in other parts
of Virginia.
From the account already given of fome of the prin¬
cipal military operations of the prefent year in Ame¬
rica, it appears, that though coiifiderable advantages
had been gained by the royal troops, yet no event
had taken place from which it could rationally be ex¬
pected that the final termination of the war would be
favourable to Great Britain. It was alfo a difadvanta-
mifunder- geous circumftance, that there was a mifunderftanding
between Admiral Arbuthnot and Sir Henry Clinton,
Friorti ad- anc^ a mutual difapprobation of each other’s conduCt,
miral and This was manifelt from their defpatches to government,
and efpecially from thofe of General Clinton, whofe
expreflions refpefting the conduCt of the admiral were
by no rineans equivocal.
On the 16th of March 1781, a partial aftion hap¬
pened off the capes of Virginia, betw-een the fleet un¬
der Admiral Arbuthnot, confifting of leven flaps of
the line and one fifty-gun fhip, and a French fquadron,
the capes of confifting of the fame number of fhips of the line and
Virginia, one forty-gun ihip. Some of the ihips in both fleets
received confiderable damage in the aClion, and the
lofs of the Engliih w-as 30 killed and 73 wounded ;
but no {hip wras taken on either fide. The Britifti fleet
had, however, confiderably the advantage j as the
v French were obliged to retire, and were fuppofed to
be prevented by this aclion from carrying troops up
the Chefapeak, in order to attack General Arnold and
impede the progrefs of Lord Cornwallis. But it was
an unfortunate circumftance, that fome time before this
engagement, the Romulus, a ftiip of 44 guns, was cap¬
tured by the French off the capes of Virginia.
Lord Cornwallis, after his viClory over General
Greene at Guildford, proceeded, as we have feen, to
Wilmington, where he arrived on the 7th of April.
But before he reached that place, he publifhed a pro¬
clamation, calling upon all loyal fubjefts toftand forth
Lord Corn- am] take an aflive part in reftoring good order and
Wallis. government •, and declaring to all perfons who had en¬
gaged in the prefent rebellion againft his majefty’s au¬
thority, but who were now convinced of their error,
and defirous of returning to their duty and allegiance,
that if they would furrender themfelves with their arms
and ammunition at head-quarters, or to the officer
commanding in the diftrift contiguous to their refpec-
tive places of refidence, on or before the 20th of that
month, they would be permitted to return to their
homes upon giving a military parole 3 they would be
’ i*6
Unlucky
general.
367
Action be¬
tween the
Britifh and
French
-fleets off
363
Proclama¬
tion by
8 ] A M E
protefled in their perfons and properties from all forts America,
of violence from the Britilh troops ; and would be re- L—~v—
ftored as foon as poflible to all the privileges of legal
and conftitutional government. But It does not ap¬
pear that any confiderable number of the Americans
wTere allured by thefe promifes to give any evidences of
their attachment to the royal caufe.
On the 20th of May, his lordlhip arrived at Peterf¬
burgh in Virginia, where he joined a body of Britifti
troops that had been under the command of Major-
general Philips} but the command of which, in con-
lequence of the death of that officer, had devolved up¬
on Brigadier-general Arnold. Before this junftion he
had encountered confiderable inconveniences from the
difficulty of procuring provifions and forage 3 fo that
in a letter to Sir Henry Clinton, he informed him, that
his cavalry -wanted every thing, and his infantry every
thing but fhoes. He added, that he had experienced
the diftreffes of marching hundreds of miles in a coun¬
try chiefly hoflile, without one active or ufeful friend,
without intelligence, and without communication with
any part of the country. ' ^
On the 26th of June, about fix miles from Williamf-Different
burgh, Lieutenant-colonel Simcoe, and 350 of thea<^‘ons‘
queen’s rangers, with 80 mounted yagers, were at¬
tacked by a much fuperior body of the Americans 5
but whom they repulfed with great gallantry and with
equal fuccefs, making four officers and twenty private
men prifoners. The lofs of the Americans in this ac¬
tion is faid to have been upwards of 120, and that of
the Britifh troops not more than 40.
On the 6th of July an adftion happened near the
Green Springs in Virginia, between a reconnoitring
party of the Americans under General Wayne, amount¬
ing to about 800, and a large part of the Britifh army
under Lord Cornwallis 3 in which the Americans had
127 killed and wounded, and the lofs of the royal
troops is fuppofed to have been confiderably greater.
It was an action in which no fmall degree of military
{kill and courage was exhibited by the Americans. In
a variety of {kirmifties, the marquis La Fayette very
much diftinguilhed himfelf, and difplayed the utmoft
ardour in the American caufe. 370
In South Carolina, an aflion happened on the 9th General
of September near the Eata Springs, between a large Gr«r‘e c’JJT
body of Britilh troops under the command of Lieute-
nant-colonel Stuart and a much fuperior body of A-
mericans, faid to amount to more than 4000, under
the command of General Greene. It was an obftinate
engagement, and laftednear two hours 3 but the Ame¬
ricans were defeated, and two of their fix-pounders fell
into the hands of the Englifh. The lofs, however, of
the royal troops was very confiderable 3 amounting to
more than 400 killed and wounded, and upwards of
200 miffing. 371
In the courfe of the fame month, General Arnold Fxrerlit'on
w-as fent on an expedition againft Ne\v London, in againft n
Connefticut, where he deftroyed a great part of the on*
{hipping, and an immenfe quantity of naval ftores, Eu¬
ropean manufactures, and Eaft and Weft India com¬
modities. The town itfelf was alfo burnt, which Is
faid to have been unavoidable, on account of the explo-
fions of great quantities of gunpowder which happened
to be in the ftorehoufes that were fet on fire. A fort,
of which it was thought neceffary to gain poffeftion in
this
A M E [ 79 ]
y America, tills expedition, was not taken without confiderable tember, with
.37^
Critical
lofs. This was Fort Grifwold } which was defended by
the Americans with great gallantry, and the affault
was made by the Englifh with equal bravery. The
Britilh troops entered the works with fixed bayonets,
and were oppofed with great vigour by the garrifon
with long fpears. After a moft obftinate delence of
near forty minutes, the affailants gained poffeflion of the
fort, in which 85 Americans were found dead, and 60
wounded, moft of them mortally. Of the Britilh troops
Major Montgomery was killed by a fpear in entering
the American works; and 592 men were alfo killed
and wmunded in this expedition.
Notwithftanding the fignal advantages that Lord
fituation of Cornwallis had obtained over the Americans, his fitua-
wallLCOrn”' ^0n Virginia began by degrees to be very critical;
and the rather becaufe he did not receive thofe rein¬
forcements and fupplies from Sir Henry Clinton, jaf
which he had formed expectations, and which he con¬
ceived to be neceffary to the fuccefs of his operations.
Indeed, the commander in chief was prevented from
fending thofe reinforcements to Lord Cornwallis which
he otherwife might have done, by his fears refpetiing
New York, againft which he entertained great appre-
henfions that General Wafhington intended to make a
very formidable attack. In fad, that able American
general appears to have taken much pains, and to have
employed great finefie, in order to lead Sir Henry
. Clinton to entertain this imagination. Letters, ex-
preffive of this intention, fell into the hands of Sir
Henry, which were manifeftly written with a defign
that they Ihould be intercepted, and only with a view
to amufe and deceive the Britilh general. The projeCt
was fuccefsful 5 and by a variety of judicious military
manoeuvres, in which he completely out-generalled the
Britilh commander, he increafed his apprehenlions
about New York, and prevented him from fending
proper afliftance to Lord Cornwallis. Having for a
conliderable time kept Sir Henry Clinton in perpetual
alarm in New York, though with an army much in¬
ferior to the garrifon of that city, General Walhington
fuddenly quitted his camp at White Plains, crofted the
Delaware, and marched towards Virginia, apparently
with a defign to attack Lord Cornwallis. Sir Henry
Clinton then received information, that the count de
Graffe, with a large French lleet, was expefled every
^ moment in the Chel’apeak, in order to co-operate with
Ineffectual General Walhington. He immediately’ endeavoured,
a“eij1Pts_t0 both by land and water, to communicate this informa¬
tion to Lord Cornwallis ; and alfo fent him affurances
that he would either reinforce him by every poffible
means in his power, or make the beft diverfion he could
in his favour. In the mean time, Lord Cornwallis had
taken poffeftion of the polls of York Town and Glou-
celter in Virginia, where he fortified himfelf in the beft
manner he was able.
On the 28th of Augull, Sir Samuel Hood, with a
fquadrop from the Weft Indies, joined the fquadron
under the command of Admiral Graves before New
York. It was then neceffary, on account of the fitua¬
tion of Lord Cornwallis, that they fhould immediately
proceed to the Chefapeak $ but fome time appears to
have been needlefsly loft, though Admiral Hood was
extremely anxious that no delay might be made. They
arrived, however, in the Chefapeak, on the 5th of Sep-
A M E
19 Ihips of the line j where they found
America.
afford him
affiitance,
the count de Graffe, who had anchored in that bay on
the 30th of Auguft, with 24 Ihips of the line. The
French admiral had previoufly landed a large body of
troops, which had been brought from Rhode ifland,
and who immediately marched to join the American -74
army under General Walhington. The Britilh and Acflion be-
French fleets came to an a£lion on the fame day intw.efnt^e
which the former arrived in the Chefapeak. On board ^'et^a
the Britilh fleet 90 wTere killed and 246 wmunded ;fleets0ffthe.
fome of the Ihips were greatly damaged in the engage-Chefapeak.
ment, and the Terrible, a 74 gun Ihip, was fo much
lhattered, that it was afterwards found neceffary to fet
fire to it. That this aftion had not been favourable to
the Englilh, was manifeft from the event: the fleets
continued in fight of each other for five days fucceflive-
ly, and fometimes were very near 5 but at length the
French fleet all anchored wdthin the Cape, fo as to block
up the paffage. Admiral Graves, who was the com¬
mander in chief, then called a council of war, in which
it was refolved that the fleet Ihould proceed to New
York, that the ihips might be there put into the beft
ftate for the fervice : and thus were the French left
mailers of the navigation of the Chefapeak.
Before the new s of this adlion had reached New
York, a council of war was held there, in which it was
refolved, that 5000 men Ihould be embarked on board
the king’s Ihips, in order to proceed to the afliftance
of Lord Cornwallis. But when it was known that the
French were abfolute mailers of the navigation of the
Chefapeak, it was thought inexpedient to fend off that
reinforcement immediately. In another council of war,,
it w7as refolved, that as Lord Cornwallis had provifions
to laft him till the end of Odlober, it was advifable to
wTait for more favourable accounts from Admiral
Graves, or for the arrival of Admiral Digby, who wfas
expefted with three flaps of the line. It was not then
known at New York, that Admiral Graves had deter¬
mined to return wnth the whole fleet to that port. .7-
In the mean time, the moft effe£lual meafures were Danger off
adopted by General Walhington for furrounding the Loit!Corn~
Britifli army under Lord Cornwallis. A large body
of French troops, under the command of Lieutenant-
general the count de Rochambeau, with a very con-
liderable train of artillery, aflifted in the enterprife.
The Americans amounted to near 8000' continentals
and 5000 militia. General Walhington wTas invefted
with the authority of commander in chief of thefe com¬
bined forces of America and France. On the 29th of
September, the inveftment of York Town was com¬
plete, and the Britilh army quite blocked up. The day
following, Sir Henry Clinton wrote a letter to Lord
Cornwallis, containing affurances that he would do
every thing in his powder to relieve him, and fome in¬
formation concerning the fteps that w ould be taken for
that purpofe. A duplicate of this letter was fent to
his lordlhip by Major Cochran on the 3d of Odftober.
That gentleman, who w^as a very gallant officer, went
in a veffel to the capes, and made his way to Lord
Cornwallis, through the whole French fleet, in an open
boat. He got to York Town on the 10th of the
month 5 and foon after his arrival had his head carried
off by a cannon ball.
After the return of Admiral Graves to Newr York,
a council of war WTas held, confifting of flag and gene-
rail.
America.
S?6
der.
A M E [8
ral officers ^ in which it was refolved, that a large body
of troops fhould be embarked on board the king’s {hips
as foon as they were refitted, and that the exer¬
tions of both fleet and army fliould be made in order
Late arrival to form a junffion with Lord Cornwallis. Sir Henry
Hinton"1 ^ Clinton himielf embarked orl board the fleet, with up¬
wards of 7000 troops, on the t8th; they arrived oil
Cape Charles, at the entrance of the Chefapeak, on
the 24th, where they received intelligence that Lord
Cornwallis had been obliged to capitulate five days
3^ before.
Lord Corn- It was on the 19th of Odfober that Lord Cornwal-
wailis’s ar- furrendered himfelf and his whole army, by capitu-
toVirreiT ^at^on» pril'oncrs to the combined armies of America
and France, under the command of General Wafliing-
ton. He made a defence fuitable to the charaSer he
had before acquired for courage and military t {kill j
but was compelled to fubmit to untoward circumftan-
ces and fuperior numbers. It was agreed by the arti¬
cles of capitulation, that the Britifh troops were to
be prifoners to the United States of America, and
the feamen to the French king, to whofe officers alfo
the Britiffi veffels found at York Town and Gloucefter
were to be delivered up. The Britifh prifoners amount¬
ed to more than 6000 j but many of them, at the time
of furrender, were incapable of duty. A confiderable
number of cannon, and a large quantity of military
ftores, fell into the hands of the Americans on this
occafion.
As no rational expectation now temained of a fubju-
gation of the colonies, the military operations that fuc-
ceeded in America were of little confequence. Some
inconfiderable aftions and Ikirmifhes did indeed take
place after that event ; in which the refugees chiefly
diftinguiflied themfelves, and difcovered an inveterate
animofity againif the Americans. On the 5th of May
1782, Sir Guy Carleton arrived at New York, being
0 1
a general treaty.
A M E
37s
Sir Guy
Carleton
arrives at
New York, appointed to the command of the Britifti troops in A-
with merica in the room of Sir Henry Clinton. Two days
powers to after his arrival, he wrote a letter to General Waflflng-
treat ot ton^ aCqUa}nting him, that Admiral Digby was joined
with himfelf in a commiflion to treat of peace with
the people of America j tranfmitting to him, at the
fame time, fome papers tending to manifelf the pacific
difpofition of the government and people of Britain
towards thofe of America. He alfo defired a paffport
for Mr Morgan, who was appointed to tranfmit a
fimilar letter of compliment to the congrefs. General
Waffiington declined figning any paflport till he had
taken the opinion of congreis upon that meafure ; and
by them he was directed to refufe any paffport for fuch
a purpofe. However, another letter was lent to Gene¬
ral Wafliingtcn, dated the 2d of Auguft, and figned by
Sir Guy Carleton and Rear-admiral Digby, in which
they informed him, that they were acquainted by au¬
thority that negotiations for a general peace had alrea¬
dy commenced at Paris 5 that Mr Grenville was inveft-
ed with full powers to treat with all the parties at war j
and was then at Paris in the execution of his commif-
fion. They farther informed him, that his majefty,
in order to remove all obftacles to that peace which he
fo ardently wiflied to rellore, had commanded his mi-
niflers to diredl Mr Grenville, that the independency
T>f the thirteen provinces fliould be propofed by him, in
the firft inftance, initead of making it the condition of
But fome jealoufies were entertain- ArueiLa
ed by the Americans, that it was the defign of the -v-—''
Briliih court either to difunite them, or to bring them '
to treat of a peace feparately from their ally the king 0f congrefs
of France : they therefore refolved, that any man, or in confe-
body of men, who ihould prefume to make any fepa- quence
rate or partial convention or agreement with the king ^ltrc0l'‘
of Great Britain, or with any commiffioner or com-
miffioners under the crown of Great Britain, ought to
be confidered and treated as open and avoutd enemies
of the United States of America j and alfo that thofe
ftates could not with propriety hold any conference or
treaty with any commiflioners on the part of Great
Britain, unlefs they fliould, as a preliminary thereto,
either withdraw their fleets and armies, or elfe, in po-
fitive or exprefs terms, acknowledge the independence
of the faid {fates. They likewife refolved, that any
propofitions which might be made by the court of
Great Britain, in any manner tending to violate the
treaty fubfifting betw een them and the king of France,
ought to be treated with every mark of indignity and
contempt. 380
In the month of June, the tow n of Savannah, and Different
the whole province of Georgia, were evacuated by the P^ces eva-
king’s troops j as was alfo Charleftown, South Ca-^ king's
rolina, about the clofe of the year. In the mean time, troops,
the negotiations for peace being continued, provifional
articles of peace were figned at Paris on the 30th of
November by the commiffioner of his Britannic Ma-
jelty and the American commiflioners, in which his „8r
majefty acknowdedged the united colonies of New Indepen-
Hampfliire, Maffachufets Bay, Rhode Ifland and Pro-dency of
vidence Plantations, Connefticut, New York, NewA^e“c*
Jerfey, Pennfylvania, Delaware, Maryland, ^ irginia5
North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, to be
“free, fovereign, and independent {fates.” They had
conftituted themfelves fuch on the 4th of July 1776 j
they had been acknowledged fuch by the French king
on the 30th of January 1778, w’hen he concluded with
them a treaty ’of amity and commerce 5 Holland had
acknowledged them as fuch April 19th 1782 j Swe¬
den acknowdedged them as fuch February 5th 1783 \
Denmark the 25th February, Spain in March, and
Ruffia in July, the fame year. 382
According to the report of the committee appoint- Lofs of
ed for that purpofe, the Foreign Debt of the United
States incurred by the war, amounted to 7>885,o85 w‘ar#
dollars, and the Domejlic Debt to 34,115,290, total
at 4s. 6d. each, equal to 9,450,084 fterling, the inte-
reft of wdiich at 6 per cent, is 567,005!. But the coft to
Great Britain is moderately computed at 115,654,914!.
and the additional annual burden by it 4,557,575k
fince January 1775. As to the lofs of men during
the unhappy w ar, the States of America, according
to authentic eftimates, loft by the fword and in prifon
near 80,000 men ; and by the Britilh returns at New
York, the number of foldiers killed in the fervice
amounted to 43,633. 385
Such wjas the end of the conteft between Great Bri- General
tain and America : A conteft in which the latter at- confequen-
tained to an independent rank among the nations, that
may be produdfive of more important confequences
than can yet be forefeen •, and in which the former,
happily for herfelf, w?as forced to relinquifh a fove-
reignty that ferved only to reprefs her own internal
induftry
America
3S4
Conftitu-
tion of the
American
flates.
38S
immediate
eonfequen-
ces of the
revolution
to America
A M E [8
Induflry, and retard her profperity. She has, in the
event, only fuffered a diminution of unwieldy empire,
which has been more than compenfated by an increafe
of population, commerce, revenues, and wealth.
As to the general conftitution of the American
States :—By the adds of confederation and perpetual
union, each of the colonies contradled a reciprocal
treaty of alliance and friendfhip for their common de¬
fence, for the maintenance of their liberties, ahd for
their general and mutual advantage ; obliging them-
felves to aflift each other againft all violence that might
threaten all, or any one of them, and to repel in com¬
mon all the attacks that might be levelled agairdt all,
or any one of them, on account of religion, fovereign-
ty, commerce, or under any other pretext whatfoever.
Each of the colonies referved to themfelves alone the
excluhve right of regulating their internal government,
and of framing laws in all matters not included in the
articles of contederation.—But for the more conveni¬
ent management of the general intereft of the United
States, it was determined, that delegates fhould be an¬
nually appointed in fuch manner as the legillature of
each Hate fhould diredl, to meet in congrefs on the
firft Monday of November of every year, with a powrer
referved to each date to recall its delegates, or any of
them, at any time within the year, and to fend others
in their dead for the remainder of the year. No date
is to be reprefented in congrefs by lefs than two, nor
more than feven members 5 and no perfon is capable of
being a delegate for more than three years, in any
term of fix years; nor is any perfon, being a delegate,
capable of holding any office under the United States,
for which he, or any other for his benefit, ffiall re¬
ceive any falary, fees, or emolument of any kind. In
determining quedions in the United States, in congrefs
affembled, each date is to have one vote. Every date
is to abide by the determinations of the United States
in congrefs affembled, on all quedions which are fub-
mitted to them by the confederation. The articles of
confederation are to be inviolably obferved by every
date, and the union is to be perpetual; nor is any al¬
teration, at any time hereafter, to be made in any
of them, unlefs fuch alteration be agreed to in a con¬
grefs of the United States, and be afterwards confirm¬
ed by the legiflature of every date.
In the mean time, the return of peace was very far
from immediately producing in the United States, all
that tranquillity and profperity, which the eager fup-
porters of the revolution had promifed to themfelves
and their country. The public finances were in fuch
a date of entire derangement, as rendered it utterly
impoflible to make payment of the arrears due to the
army. Accordingly the whole officers and foldiers that
compofed this body, which at the end of a long wTar,
is always fo formidable and dangerous to a free date,
were extremely difeontented. Attempts wxre made, by
anonymous publications, to indame their minds, which
were already fufliciently agitated, and to induce them
to unite in redreffing their own grievances, while they
had dill arms in their hands. During the time that
matters were in this date, had the commander in chief
of the army been a lefs virtuous man, it is not impofli¬
ble, that the freedom of America might have been
overturned, and thefe colonies might have exchanged
the mild government of Britain, for a military ufurpa-
Vol. II. Part I.
1 ] A M E
tion. It immediately appeared, however, that General America,
Wadnngton was greatly fuperior to the temptations of
vulgar ambition. He fummoned a meeting of the ge¬
neral and field officers, with a deputation of an odicer
from each company, and a proper reprefentation from
the daflf of the army. Previous to the meeting, he
fent for each officer, and enlarged in private on the fa¬
tal confequences to their country, and on the lofs of
reputation to the wffiole army, wffiich would refult from
intemperate refolutions. When the day arrived on
which they had been fummoned to affemble, the 15th
of March 1783, he addrefled them in a fpeech, well
calculated to produce calmnefs and moderation. Pie
promifed to exert in their favour his whole influence,
requefting them to rely on the public faith wffiich had
been pledged to them, and he conjured them “ as they
valued their honour, as they refpefted the rights of hu¬
manity, and as they regarded the military and nation¬
al charadler of America; to exprefs their utrnofl de-
teftation of the men, wffio w*ere attempting to open the
flood-gates of civil difeord, and to deluge their rifing
empire wffiffi blood.” Having fpoken thus, he retired.
No reply was made to his fpeech, and while the aflem-
bly hefitated, the friends of tranquillity feized the hap¬
py moment, and propofed a refolution, which wras car¬
ried without oppofition, that no circumftances of diftrefs
or danger fhould induce the American army to fully
their reputation by fedition, or to diftruft the juflice
of their country. 3g£
After all, how'ever, the government was only able Difmilfion
to give to the army four months pay, in place of thearmy,
arrears of feveral years. Notwithfianding'this great
deficiency, the foldiers fuffered themfelves, with tolera¬
ble quietnefs, to be dilbanded towards the fall of the
year, care having been previoully taken to get quit
of great numbers of the men individually, by granting
leave of abfence to all that applied for it; in confe-
quence of which, this dangerous body of veteran troops
wTas loon fcattered and loft in the immenfe extent of the
American -territory. The commander in chief pro¬
ceeded to Annapolis, then the feat of congrefs, and
on the 23d of December, refigned his commiffion to
the prefident at a public audience. He immediately
retired as a private perfon, to his farm of Mount Ver¬
non, on the banks of the Potowmack in Virginia. ^
But here the troubles of the country feemed only to EmbarrafT-
commence. During the early periods of the revolu- merits of
tion, amidll the dangers of the war, and while the pub-1'*16 Amer*'
lie zeal for independence remained ardent, the defe£lsCt'nS'
of the form of government were not felt. From the
mere flrength which the public opinion conferred, the
congrefs was able to levy armies, to raife extenfive
loans, and to conduct the wmr with vigour ; but w hen
immediate danger was removed, and the felfilffi paffions
had leifure to operate, its powers were foon found alto¬
gether inadequate to provide for the public welfare. Ar¬
ticles of confederation had indeed been entered into,
with a view to confer more extenfive powers upon con¬
grefs, but ftill its authority was extremely defeftive. By
thefe articles, it w'as entitled to require from the differ¬
ent Hates, the fums neceffary for the war, and the pub¬
lic expences of the union : But as it had no power to
legifiate over individuals, but only over the Hates as
political bodies, and poffeffed no means of coercion
overmuch Hates as ihould negleft to make good the
L payments
A M E [ 82 ] A M E
America.^ payments with which they were affeffed, the revenue
v of the union was ill paid, and all its exertions were
enfeebled. The congrels had no power of making ge¬
neral commercial regulations to bind the whole itates,
nor could it even interfere to prevent their waging war
againlt each other if they thought fit. Hence, from
the mutual jealoufies of thirteen feparate legiilatures,
the molt difcordant regulations arofe.
As foon as the war was at an end, Great Britain
naturally treated the American Hates as a foreign na¬
tion, and prohibited, under pain of confifcation, any of
their commodities to be conveyed to the Britifh Weft
India iflands, unlefs in Britilh built veflels, navigated
by Britiih mariners. Thus the Americans were
excluded from that branch of commerce in which
they had formerly obtained moft of the ready money
or fpecie that came into their country. With a view
to induce Great Britain to relax the feverity of this and
other regulations, injurious to their commerce, fome
of the American ftates impofed heavy taxes upon goods
of Britilh manufa&ure. Other ftates took advan¬
tage of this circumftance, to invite the Britifh mer¬
chants to frequent their ports exclufively, and not only
received all Britifh commodities free from any duty,
but they fuffered their people to engage in a fmuggling
traffic, for the tranfportation of thefe commodities in¬
to the ftates in which they had been heavily taxed.
Thus the fame commodities which were feverely taxed
in Philadelphia, were imported without difficulty or ex¬
pence into the Jerfeys, on the oppofite fide of the De¬
laware, and were daily conveyed by illicit traders acrofs
the river. Hence arofe a fpirit of commercial jealoufy,
and a warfare between the different legiflatures, which
filled the whole country with a degree of diffenfion,
little ftrort of hoftility.
The Americans were at the fame time in a great
meafure excluded from the trade to the Mediterranean.
They could no longer navigate that fea with fafety, a
privilege which as Britifh fubjedfs they had always en¬
joyed. As the congrefs poffeffed no funds, -wherewith
to enter into a comprornife with the piratical ftates of
Barbary, to wdiom all Europe pays tribute, the Ame¬
rican veffels were conftantly expofed to danger. Being
unable to defend themfelves from the corfairs, they
were obliged either to relinquifh the beneficial trade
which they had formerly poffeffed in that quarter, or
to enfure it at a ruinous premium.
Independent of thefe partial evils, the general ba¬
lance of trade fpeedily became extremely unfavourable
to the United States. The debts due from the mer¬
chants to Great Britain, the payment of wTich had
been prohibited by congrefs during the -war, were now
impatiently demanded. The American merchants -were
almoft univerfally fued, and the remnant of their effefts
feized by the agents of Britifh houfeS. To relieve
their own diftrefs, they proceeded againft the retailers,
yvho had been unable to pay them during the war, and
to whom peace had not yet reftored profperity. In this
way the old traders were almoft univerfally ruined, and
compelled to abandon all commercial concerns. At
the fame tirae, however, as the ravages of armies and
the want of a free communication between Europe and
America duiing the war, had multiplied the wants of
the latter, an inundation of European manufadlures,
was one of the firft effects that followed the eftablifh-
ment of peace. Thefe wTere purchafed by the Ameri- America,
cans far beyond their means of payment, and thus almoft k—v~—^
every perfon connected with commerce was brought
to ruin, and a great part of the people were involv¬
ed in their diftrefs.
All thefe evils were aggravated by the w'ant of an
efficient government. Congrefs had incurred debts,
and iffued paper money for payment of the intereft of
thefe debts, or of the current public expences ; but as
it poffeffed no efficient revenue, its paper was foon de¬
preciated, and became an objeft of fpeculation. Dif-
honeft men paid their debts with it, and thus defraud¬
ed their creditors, and the morality of the people wras
feverely wounded. The fcveral ftates had themfelves
alfo contra&ed debts for the war. Some ftates willing
to fund their debts, impofed taxes for the purpofe, wTich
were fo far beyond the means of the inhabitants, that
they could not be levied without extreme rigour. The
extremities to which government proceeded in thefe
cafes, occafioned general difeontents, and even produ¬
ced an infurreftion in the ftate of Maffachufets,—From
all thefe caufes, an embarraffed commerce, a depreciat¬
ed paper money, which inundated all America, the ina¬
bility of the law's to enforce payment of the taxes, a
fpirit of jealoufy between the different ftates, and the
inadequacy of congrefs to apply a remedy to thefe com¬
plicated evils, fomething little fliort of anarchy wTas pro¬
duced in the United States. _g3
In the midft of thefe calamities, a propofition wTas Propofal of
made in iy8y, in the houfe of delegates in Virginia, toa newcon-
appoint commiffioners to meet fuch commiflu*riers asltitution*
other ftates might appoint, to form a fyftem of com¬
mercial regulations for the United States. According¬
ly, feveral ftates appointed commiffioners, who, in 1786,
affembled at Annapolis. But, as the ftates were not
all reprefented, and the comniiffioners thought their
own powers too limited to authorize them to propofe a
proper remedy for the evils that preffed upon their coun¬
try, they agreed to recommend a general convention,
to be held at Philadelphia the following year, with Convention
pourer to frame a general plan of government for the of Phihdel-
United States. In confequence of this recommenda-U1*1*
tion, in May 1787 delegates from all the ftates, except
Rhode Ifland, affembled at Philadelphia, and chofe
General Wafhington for tbeir preftdent. They fat
four months, and deliberated in private. Their debates
have never been publilfied ; but they are known to
have been extremely animated. The public opinion
w-as, at that period, by no means fixed with regard to
the kind of government that ought to be adopted. At
the commencement of the war, a confiderable party dif-
liked the violent meafures of their countrymen. At
different periods about 30,000 men had been in the
fervice of Great Britain. This implied that a large
body of royalifts exifted in America. Even of thofe
wlio difliked the lupremacy of Britain, and wllhed to
eftablifh American independence, many were by no
means prepared to relilh the w'hole principles of a re¬
publican government. When the queftion, therefore,
came to be agitated concerning the beit political con-
ftitution for the United States, a variety of opinions
were broached. Thefe, however, in a great meafure
refolved themfelves into two fyftems : one party, at
that time called federalijls, wiftied to eftabliih a con-
ftitutiou as purely republican as pofiible j and the other
party,
America.
390
Speech of
Franklin.
A M E
party, then called antifederalifls, wHlied to give the new
government a monarchical charafter and tendency. It
is even faid that fome were not wanting who eagerly
defired to copy clofely the model of the Britiih confti-
tution. This was not wonderful. Under the principles
of that conftitution Britain had become a great nation,
and America had profpered. It was the moll free form
of government at that time known. The vices which
had crept into it v»ere evidently independent of its ra¬
dical llrufture, and might ealily be avoided in a new
country. By adopting this tried and well-known form
of government, it was faid that the hazard of new ex¬
periments would be avoided, and the ftates might at
puce place themfelves in a fecure train of profperity.
But the feelings of the people at the time w'ere, upon
the whole, hollile to thefe reafonings. Their fufferings,
in confequence of Britifh hollility, were too recent to
permit them to regard with complacency, in fpecula-
tion, a fyftem which in praftice they had taught them-
lelves to diflike. Their pride would not fuffer them to
become the fervile imitators of another nation ; and the
.public fentiments wrere fo generally republican, as to
lead them to diflike all kinds of permanent or hereditary
ranks and- privileges. Hence, when in the early fittings
of the convention of Philadelphia a plan wTas prefented,
which propoled the eftablifhment of a prefident for life,
and fenators for life, and exprefled a defire to render
thefe offices hereditary, and to fubjeft the laws of the
refpeftive dates to the review of the general govern¬
ment, it met with no adequate fupport; and a committee
was appointed to prepare a plan of a new conftitution
for the United States.
In addition to the divifions that exifted among the
members of this convention, from their tendency to re¬
publican or to monarchical principles, they wrere alfo di¬
vided in confequence of the different interefls of their
conitituents. The votes were given by dates, and when
the delegates of a date differed in opinion, the majority
wras reckoned the vote of the date. The greater dates,
after a confiderable conted, carried the point, that in the
new houfe of reprefentatives, the reprefentation fhould
Hand upon the bafis of the population of each date,
though they were under the neceffity of conceding to
the leffer dates, that each date Oiould be equally repre-
fented in the new' fenate. Virginia and the fouthern
dates, with the aid of the antifederalids, in oppodtion to
the federalid or republican party, obtained the drange
privilege, in a nation of freemen, of numbering three
fifths of their ilaves as a part of their population in all
queflions about the number of their reprefentatives. In
other quedions, however, the delegates of the great
dates frequently voted with the federalid party, though,
upon the whole, the more zealous republicans were
greatly difguded by many articles of the newT conditu-
tion. Of thele the celebrated Dr Franklin was one.
He had the integrity and the moderation, how’ever, on
this occafion, to prefer the peace of his country to his pri¬
vate political opinions ; and when the plan wras com¬
pleted, he propofed that it diould be figned by all the
members of the convention, that from their apparent
unanimity, it might have the better chance of being
accepted by the different dates. “ In the long career
I have already run” (faid that eminent datefman and
jffiilofopher), “ I have more than once been compelled
to abandon opinions I had openly maintained, and
A M E
which I thought well founded from the deep confidera- America,
tion I had given them. As I grow older I am more ^
and more difpofed to quedion my owm judgment, and
to pay refpeft to that of others. There are fome men,
as well as fome religious fe£ts, who imagine that reafon
is entirely on their fide 5 and that their opponents plunge
deeper into error in proportion as they depart from
their opinions. Struck with thefe examples, which are
but too common, I accept of this conditution with all
its faults, even fuppofing I am not midaken in my
opinion of its faults; for I am perfuaded that a general
government is neceffary to our fafety, and that no form
of government that is w'ell adminidered is incapable of
producing the happinefs of the people ; and I think
there is reafon to believe that this conditution wrill be
well adminidered for a number of years, and that it
will not end, as too many other governments have done,
in defpotifm, unlefs the American people fhall reach
that degree of corruption in wffiich, at once incapable
of being direfted by a free conftitution, and unwmrthy
of its bledings, defpotifm becomes neceffary to their ex-
idence. I therefore give my vote for this conditution,
both becaufe, in the prefent circumdances of this na¬
tion, I cannot hope to fee one more perfect, and becaufe
I am not fure this is not as perfeft as any it can have.
I make a facrifice of the opinion I have expreffed of its
defefts to the public happinefs. I have never uttered my
obje&ions out of this houfe •, here they had their birth,
and here I wilh them to be for-ever buried, if every
one of us who have oppofed the conditution, when wre
return to our condituents, were to unfold the motives
of our oppodtion, and endeavour to gain partifans to
our dde, perhaps we might prevent the unanimous
adoption of the conditution ; but, by this, we diould
only lofe the advantage which the appearance of unani¬
mity will give us with foreign nations, and indeed with
our own people. The general good opinion of a na¬
tion refpedling its government is as neceffary as the
wifdom and integrity of its adminidration, to the hap¬
pinefs of its people. I trud, therefore, both for our
own fafety as members of the community, and for the
fake of our poderity, that we diall be of one mind, in
recommending this conditution wherever our influence
reaches 5 and that afterwards our whole thoughts will
be bent to its happy adminidration. I cannot forbear
to form the widi that fuch of us as dill entertain ob-
jeftions to this conditution will follow my example, and
doubt a little of their infallibility , and fign this con-
ditutional aft, that no quedion may be left of our
unanimity.” The authority and example of Franklin
prevailed, and the following conditution was unani-
moufly tranfmitted by the convention to the different "
dates for their acceptance.
“ We, the people of the United States, in order toConftitu-
form a more perfeft union, edablidi judice, infure do*d°n.
medic tranquillity, provide for the common defence,
promote the general welfare, and feenre the bleffing of
liberty to ourfelves, and our poderity do ordain and
edablidi this conditution for the United.States of A-
merica. . ^
Article I.
“ SeBionl. AUTfegidative powers herein granted
{hall be veiled in a congrefs of the United States, which
diall confid of a fenate and houfe of reprefentatives.
L 2 “ SeB.
[ 83 1
A M E [
America.^ “ SeFl. 2. The houfe of reprefentatives (hall be
^ compofed of members chofen every fecond year by the
people of the feveral flates ; and the eleftors in each
ftate fhall have the qualifications requilite for eleftors
of the moll numerous branch of the ftate legiftature.
“ No perfon lliall be a reprefentative who (hall not
have attained to the age of 25 years, and been feven
years a citizen of the United States j and who ftiall
not, when elefted, be an inhabitant of the ftate in
which he fhall be chofen.
“ Reprefentatives, and diredl taxes, fhall be appor¬
tioned among the feveral ftates which may be includ¬
ed within this union, according to their refpeftive
numbers, which fhall be determined by adding to the
whole number of free perfons, including thofe bound
to fervice for a term of years, and excluding Indians
not taxed, three-fifths of all other perfons. The aclual
enumeration fhall be made within three years after the
firrt meeting of the congrefs of the United States, and
within every fubfequent term of ten years, in fuch man¬
ner as they fhall by law diredt. The number of re¬
prefentatives ftiall not exceed one for every 30,000 :
but each ftate fhall have at leaft one reprefentative :
and until fuch enumeration fhall be made, the ftate of
New Hampfhire fhall be entitled to choofe three, Maf-
fachufets eight, Rhode Ifland and Providence Planta¬
tions one, Connecticut five^ New York fix, NewT Jer-
fey four, Pennfylvania eight, Delaware one, Mary¬
land fix, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South
Carolina five, and Georgia three.
“ When vacancies happen in the reprefentation
from any ftate, the executive authority thereof fhall
iffue wrrits of eledHon to fill fuch vacancies.
“ The houfe of reprefentatives fhall choofe their
fpeaker and other officers j and ftiall have the foie
power of impeachment.
“ SeB. 3. The fenate of the United States fhall
be compofed of two fenators from each ftate, chofen
by the legillature thereof, for fix years j and each fe-
nator fhall have one vote.
“ Immediately after they fhall be afiembled, in oon-
fequence of the firft eledlion, they fhall be divided, as
' equally as may be, into three claftes. The feats of the
fenators of the firft clafs fhall be vacated at the ex¬
piration of the fecond year ; of the fecond clafs, at the
expiration of the fourth year j and the third clafs, at
the expiration of the fixth year 5 fo that one-third may
be chofen every fecond year : and if vacancies happen
by refignation or otherwife, during the recefs of the
legiftature of any ftate, the executive thereof may
make temporary appointments until the next meeting
of the legiftature, which fhall then fill fuch vacancies.
“ No perfon fhall be a fenator who fhall not have
attained to the age of 30 years, and been nine years a
citizen of the United States, and who fhall not, when
eledled, be an inhabitant of that ftate for which he
fhall be chofen.
“ The vice-prefident of the United States fhall be
prefident of the fenate, but fhall have no vote, unlefs
they be equally divided.
“ The fenate fhall choofe their other officers, and
alfo a prefident pro tempore in the abfence of the vice-
prefident, or when he fhall exercife the office of pre-
fident of the United States.
“ The fenat$ fhall have the foie power to try all
84 ] A M E
impeachments: VThen fitting for that purpofe they America.
ftiall be on oath or affirmation. WTen the prefident  
of the United States is tried, the chief juftice fhall
prefide : and no perfon fhall be convicted without the
concurrence of two-thirds of the members prefent.
“ Judgment in cafes of impeachment fhall not ex¬
tend further than to removal from office, and difqua-
lification to hold and enjoy any office of honour, truft,
or profit under the United States $ but the party con-
vi£ted fhall neverthelefs be liable and fubjeft to in¬
dictment, trial, judgment, and punifhment according
to lawr.
“ SeB. 4. The times, places, and manners of hold¬
ing elections for fenators and reprefentatives fliall be
prefcribed in each ftate by the legiftature thereof j but
the congrefs may at any time, by lawq make or alter
fuch regulations, except as to the placing or choofing-
fenators.
“ The congrefs fhall affemble at leaft once in every
year : and fuch meeting fhall be on the firft Monday
in December, unlefs they fhall by law appoint a dif¬
ferent day.
“ SeB. 5. Each houfe fhall be the judge of the
elections, returns, and qualifications of its owrn mem¬
bers ; and a majority of each ftiall conftitute a quorum
to do bufinefs ; but a fmall number may adjourn from
day to day, and may be authorized to compel the at¬
tendance of abfent members, in fuch manner, and under
fuch penalties, as each houfe may provide.
“ Each houfe may determine the rules of its pro¬
ceedings, punifti its members for diforderly behaviour,
and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a mem¬
ber.
“ Each houfe fhall keep a journal of its proceedings,
and from time to time publifli the fame, excepting fuch
parts as may in their judgment require fecrecy ; and
the yeas and nays of the members of either houfe on
any queftion ftiall, at the defire of one-fifth of thofe
prefent, be entered on the journal.
“ Neither houfe during the feffion of congrefs fhall,
without the confent of the other, adjourn for more than
three days, nor to any other_ place than that in w hich
the twTo houfes ftiall be fitting.
“ SeB. 6. The fenators and reprefentatives fhall re¬
ceive a compenfation for their fervices, to be afcertained
bylaw, and paid out of the treafury of the United
States. They fhall in all cafes, except treafon, felony,
and breach of peace, be privileged from arreft during
their attendance at the feffion of their refpeftive houfes,
and in going to and returning from the fame 5 and
for any fpeech or debate in either houfe, they fhall not-
be queftioned in any other place.
“ No fenator or reprefentative fhall, during the time,
for which he wTas elefted, be appointed to any civil
office under the authority of the United States, which
lhall have been created, or the emoluments whereof
fhall have been increafed during fuch time : and no
perfon holding any office under the United States
fhall be a member of either houfe during his continu¬
ance in office.
“ SeB. 7. All bills for raifing revenue fhall origi¬
nate in the houfe of reprefentatives ; but the fenate may
propofe or concur wdth amendments as on other bills.
“ Every bill which fhall have paffed the houfe of
reprefeptativeg and the fenate, fliall, before it becomes
A M E [ 85 ] A M E
a law, be prefented to the prefident of the United
States ; if he approve, he (hall fign it, but if not, he
{hall return it with his objedtions to that houfe in which
it {hall have originated, w7ho fhall enter the objedtions
at large on their journal, and proceed to re-confider it.
If after fuch re-confideration two-thirds of that office
lhall agree to pafs the bill, it ffiall be fent, together
with the objedtions, to the other houfe, by wffiich it
lhall likewife be re-confidered 5 and if approved by
two-thirds of that houfe, it ffiall become a law. But
in all fuch cafes the votes of both houfes ffiall be de¬
termined by yeas and nays j and the names of the
perfons voting for and againft the bill ffiall be entered
on the journal of each houfe refpedtively. If any bill
ffiall not be returned by the prefident within ten days
(Sundays excepted) after it ffiall have been prefented
to him, the fame ffiall be a law, in like manner as if
he had ligned it, unlefs the congrefs, by their adjourn¬
ment, prevent its return j in which cafe it ffiall not be
a law.
“ Every order, refolution, or vote, to which the
concurrence of the fenate and houfe of reprefentatives
may be neceffary, (except on a queftion of adjourn¬
ment), ffiall be prefented to the prefident of the U-
nited States} and before the fame ffiall take effedl,
ffiall be approved by him, or, being difapproved by
him, ffiall be re-paffed by two-thirds of the fenate and
houfe of reprefentatives ; according to the rules and
limitations prefcribed in the cafe of a bill.
“ Se£i. 8. The congrefs {hall have power
“ To lay and colled taxes, duties, imports, and ex-
cifes, to pay the debts and provide for the common
defence and general welfare of the United States j but
all duties, imports, and excifes {hall be uniform through¬
out the United States.
“To borrow money on the credit of the United
States :
“ To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and
among the feveral ftates, and with the Indian tribes :
“ To eftabliffi an uniform rule of naturalization,
and uniform laws on the fubjed of bankruptcies
throughout the United States :
“ To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and
of foreign coin, and fix the ftandard of weights and
meafures :
“ To provide for the puniffiment of counterfeiting
the fecurities and current coin of the United States:
“ To eftabliffi port offices and port roads :
“To promote the progrefs of fcience and ufefui
arts, by fecuring, for limited times, to authors and in¬
ventors, the exclufive right to their refpedive writings
and difcoveries :
“ To- conftitute tribunals inferior to the fupreme
courts :
“To define and punifti piracies and felonies com¬
mitted on the high feas, and offences againft the law
of nations:
“ To declare war, grant letters of marque and re*
prifal, and make rules concerning captures on land
and wTater :
“To raife and fupport armies j but no appropria¬
tion of money to that ufe ffiall be for a longer term
than two years :
“ lo provide and.maintain a navy :
“ To make rules for the government and regulation America,
of the land and naval forces : t——
“ I o provide for the calling forth the militia to
execute the laws of the union, iupprefs infurreftions,
and repel invafions :
“ To provide for organizing, arming, and difciplin-
ing the militia ; and for governing fuch part of them
as may be employed in the fervice of the United
States; referving to the ftates, refpe&ively, the ap¬
pointment of the officers, and the authority of training
the militia according to the dilcipline prefcribed by
congrefs :
“ To exercife exclufive legiftation in all cafes wffiat-
foever over fuch diftrift (not exceeding ten miles fquare)
as may, by ceffion of particular ftates and the accept¬
ance of congrefs become the feat of government of the
United States, and to exercife like authority over all
places purchaied by the confent of the legiftature of
the ftate in which the fame ffiall be, for the erection
of forts, magazines, arfenals, dockyards and other need¬
ful buildings :—and
I o make all law's w'hich ffiall be neceffary and
proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers,
and all other powers verted by this conftltution in the
government of the United States, or in any depart¬
ment or office thereof.
“ Se£i. 9. The migration or importation of fuch per¬
fons as any of the ftates now exifting {hall think proper to
admit, ffiall not be prohibited by the congrel^ prior to
the year 1808 } but a tax or duty may be impofed on.
fuch importation not exceeding ten dollars for each
perfon.
“ The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus ffiall not
be fufpended, unlefs when in cafes of rebellion or in-
vafion the public fafety may require it.
“ No bill of attainder, or ex pojl faSlo law, ffiall be
paffed. ' '
“ No capitation, or other direft tax, ffiall be laid*. i
unlefs in proportion to the cenfus or enumeration here¬
in before direfted to be taken..
“ No tax or duty ftiall be laid on articles exported
from any ftate :—No preference ffiall be given by any •
regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one
ftate over thofe of another; nor {hall veffels bound to
or from one ftate be obliged to enter, clear, or pay du¬
ties in another.
“ No money ffiall be drawn from the treafury but
in confequence of appropriations made by law ; and a
regular ftatement and account of the receipts and ex¬
penditures of all public money ffiall be publiffied from
time to time.
“ N® title of nobility ftiall be granted by the United'
States ; and no perfon holding any office of profit or
truft under them, ffiall, without the confent of the con-
grefs, accept of any prefent, emolument, office or title
of any tcmd whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign
ftate. 6
“ Sects i*o. No ftate ftiall enter into any treaty, al¬
liance, or confederation ; grant letters of marque and
reprifal 5 coin money 5 emit bills of credit; make any
thing but gold and filver coin, a tender in payment of
debts; pafs any bill of attainder, ex poji faSlo law, or
law impairing the obligation of contra&s, or grant any
title .of nobility.
“ No.
A M E [ 86 ] A M E
America. il No flate fhall, without the confent of the congrefs,
ll" " v~" lay any irapofts or duties on imports or exports, except
what may be abfolutely neceffary for executing its in-
fpeftion laws ; and the net produce of all duties and
impofts laid by any date on imports or exports fhall be
for the ufe of the treafury of the United States ; and
all fuch laws fhall be fubjetl to the revifion and con-
troul of the congrefs. No flate fhall, without the con¬
fent of congrefs, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops
or ihips of war in time of peace, enter into any agree¬
ment or compaft with another ffate or with a foreign
power, or engage in war unlefs actually invaded, or in
fuch imminent danger as will not admit of delay.
Article II.
“ SeB. i. The executive power fhall be veiled in
a prefident of the United States of America. He fhall
hold his office during the term of four years, and to¬
gether with the vice-prefident, chofen for the fame
term, be elected as follows :
“ Each date drall appoint, in fuch manner as the le-
giilature thereof may direct, a number of electors equal
to the whole number of fenators and reprefentatives to
which the dates may be entitled in the cowgrefs ; but
no fenator, or reprefentative, or perfon holding an odice
of trud or profit under the United States fhall be ap¬
pointed an elector.
“ The eledtors fhall meet in their refpedtive dates,
and vote by ballot, for two perfons, of whom one at
lead fhall not be an inhabitant of the fame date with
themfelves. And they fhall make a lid of all the per¬
fons voted for, and of the number of votes for each ;
which lid they fhall fign, and certify, and tranfmit,
fealed, to the feat of the government of the United
States, diredled to the prefident of the fenate. The
prefident of the fenate fhall, in the prefence of the fe¬
nate and houfe of reprefentatives, open all the certifi¬
cates, and all the votes fhall then be counted. The
perfon having the greated number of votes, drall be
the prefident, if fuch number be a majority of the
whole number of electors appointed j and if there be
more than one who have fuch majority, and have an
equal number of votes, then the houfe of reprefenta¬
tives fhall immediately choofe by ballot one of them
for prefident j and if no perfon have a majority, then,
from the five highed on the lid, the faid houfe fhall,
in like manner, choofe the prefident. But in choofing
the prefident, the votes fhall be taken by dates, the re-
prefentatioHS from each date having one vote ; a quo¬
rum for this purpofe fhall confid of a member or mem¬
bers from two-thirds of the dates, and a majority of
all the dates fhall be necedary to a choice. In every
cafe after the choice of the prefident, the perfon having
the greated number of votes of the ele&ors diall be
the vice-prefident. But if there diould remain two or
more who have equal votes, the fenate fhall choofe
from them by ballot the vice-prefident.
“ The congrefs may determine the time of choofing
the ele&ors, and the day on which they fhall give
their votes ; which day fhall be the fame throughout
the United States.
“ No perfon except a natural-born citizen, or a
citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption
of this conditution, diall be eligible to the office of pre-
l
fident; neither fhall any perfon be eligible to that Amer'ca.
office who ihall not have attained to the age of 35 —v—
years, and been 14 years a refident within the United
States.
“ In cafe of the removal of the prefident from office,
or of his death, refignation, or inability to difcharge
the powers and duties of the (aid office, the fame fhall
devolve on the vice-prefident, and the congrefs mav
by law provide for the cafe of removal, death, refigna¬
tion, or inability both of the prefident and vice-prefi¬
dent, declaring what officer diall then act as prefident j
and fuch officer (hall a£l accordingly until the difabili-
ty be removed or a prefident fhall be elefted.
“ The prefident fhall, at dated times, receive for his
fervices a compenfation which diall neither be increa-
fed nor diminiihed during the period for which he
diall have been elefted, and he ihall not receive with¬
in that period any other emolument from the United
States, or any of them.
“ Before he enter on the execution of his office he
fhall take the following oath or affirmation.
“ I do folemnly fwear (or affirm) that I will faith¬
fully execute the office of prefident of the United
States, and will, to the bed of my ability, preferve,
proteft, and defend the conditution of the United
States.
“ Se3. 2. The prefident diall be commander in
chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of
the militia of the feveral dates when called into the
actual fervice of the United States ; he may require
the opinion is writing of the principal odicer in eacli
of the executive departments, upon any fubjedl relating
to the duties of their refpective offices 5 and he dial!
have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences
againd the United States, except in cafes of impeach¬
ment.
“ He fhall have power, by and with the advice and
confent of the fenate, to make treaties, provided two-
thirds of the fenators prefent concur 5 and he diall no¬
minate, and by and with the advice and confent of
the fenate, fhall appoint ambaffadors, other public mi-
niders, and confuls, judges of the fupreme court, and
all other officers of the United States, whofe appoint¬
ments are not herein otherwife provided for, and which
Ihall be edablidied by law. But the congrefs may by
law ved the appointment of fuch inferior officers as they
think proper, in the prefident alone, in the courts of
law, or in the heads of departments.
“ The prefident diall have power to fill up all va¬
cancies that may happen during the recefs of the fenate,
by granting commiffions, which diall expire at the end
of their next feffion.
“ SeB. 3. He diall from time to time give to the
congrefs information of the date of the union, and re¬
commend to their confideration fuch meafures as he
diall judge neceffary and expedient •, he may, on ex¬
traordinary occafions, convene both houfes, or either of
them ; and in cafe of difagreement between them with
refpedl to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn
them to fuch time as he diall think proper: he fhall
receive ambaffadors, and other public miniders •, he
diall take care that the laws be faithfully executed,
and diall commiffion all the officers of the United State.
“ SeB. 4. The prefident, vice-prefident, and all ci¬
vil
1
A M E [ ^7 ] A M E
America vil officers of the United States fliall be removed from
“■"■v—office on impeachment for a conviftion of treafon,
bribery, or other high crimes and mifdemeanours.
Article III.
“ Se£i. x. The judicial power of the United States
fliall be veiled in one fupreme court, and in fuch in¬
ferior courts as the congrefs may from time to time or¬
dain and eitablifh. The judges both of the fupreme
and inferior courts fhall hold their offices during good
behaviour, and fhall at Hated times receive for their
fervices, a compenfation which fhall not be diminifhed
during their continuance in office.
“ Seft. z. The judicial power fhall extend to all
cafes in law and equity arifmg under this conflitution,
the laws of the United States, and treaties made or
which fhall be made under their authority ; to all cafes
affedting ambaffadors, other public minifters and con-
fuls; to all cafes of admiralty and maritime jurifdidlion j
to controverfies to which the United States ffiall be
party j to controverfies between two or more Hates,
between a Hate and citizens of another Hate; be¬
tween citizens of different Hates, between citizens
of the fame Hate, claiming lands under grants of dif¬
ferent Hates, and between a Hate or the citizens there¬
of, and foreign Hates, citizens or fubjedls.
In all cafes affedling ambaffadors, other public
miniflers and confuls, and thofe in which a Hate ffiall
be party, the fupreme court ffiall have original jurif-
diclion. In all the other cafes before mentioned the
fupreme court ffiall have appellate jurifdidtion both as to
law and fadl, rvith fuch exceptions and under fuch re¬
gulations as the congrefs ffiall make.
“ The trial of all crimes, except in cafes of impeach¬
ment, ffiall be by jury *, and fuch trial ffiall be held in
the Hate where the laid crime ffiall have been commit¬
ted ; but when not committed within any Hate, the
trial ffiall be at fuch place or places as the congrefs
may by law have diredled.
“ Se£i. 3. Treafon againlt the United States ffiall
confilt only in levying war againfl them, or in adher¬
ing to their enemies giving them aid and comfort. No
perfon ffiall be convided of treafon, unlefs on the tefli-
mony of two witneffes to the fame overt aft, or on con-
feffion in open court.
_ “ The congrefs ffiall have power to declare the pu-
nifhraent of treafon, but no attainder of treafon ffiall
tvork corruption of blood or forfeiture, except during
the life of tire perfon attainted.
Article IV.
“ &v7. 1. Full faith and credit ffiall be given in each
Hate to the public afts, records, and judicial proceed¬
ings of every other Hate, and the congrefs may by ge¬
neral laws prefcribe the manner in which fuch afts, re¬
cords, and proceedings ffiall be proved, and the effeft
thereof.
“ Seft. 2. The citizens of each Hate ffiall be entitled
to all the privileges and immunities of citizens in the
feveral Hates.
“ A perfon charged in any Hate with treafon, felo¬
ny, or other crime, who ffiall flee from juflice, and be
found in another Hate, ffiall, on demand of the execu¬
tive authority of the Hate from which he fled, be deli¬
vered up, to be removed to the Hate having jurifdiftion
of the crime.
“ No perfon held to fervice or labour in one Hate,
under the laws thereof, efcaping into another, ffiall, in
confequence of any law or regulation therein, be dif-
charged from fuch fervice or labour, but ffiall be de¬
livered up on claim of the party to -whom fuch fervice
or labour may be due.
“ Sett. 3. New Hates may be admitted by the con¬
grefs into this union: but no new Hate ffiall be formed
or erefted within the jurifdiftion of any other Hate j
nor any Hate be formed by the junftion of two or
more Hates or parts of Hates, without the confent of
the legiflatures of the Hates concerned as well as of
the congrefs.
“ The congrefs ffiall have power to difpofe of and
make all needful rules and regulations refpefting the
territory or other property belonging to the United
States j and nothing in this conflitution ffiall be con-
Hrued as to prejudice any claims of the United States,
or of any particular Hate.
“ Sett. 4. The United States ffiall guarantee to every
Hate in this union a republican form of governmenr,
and ffiall proteft each of them againfl invaiion, and
on application of the legiflature or of the executive,
(when the legiflature cannot be convened) againfl do-
meflic violence.
Article V.
“ The congrefs, whenever two-thirds of both houfes
fliall deem it neceffary, ffiall propofe amendments to
this conflitution, or, on the application of the legifla¬
tures of two-thirds of the feveral Hates, fliall call a
convention for propofing amendments, which, in ei¬
ther cafe, fliall be valid to all intents and purpofes as,
part of this conflitution, when ratified by the legifla¬
tures of three-fourths of the feveral Hates, or by con¬
ventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the
other mode of ratification may be propofed by the
congrefs 5 provided that no amendment which may be
made prior to the year 1808, ffiall in any manner af-
feft the firfl and fourth claufes in the ninth feftion of
the firfl article ; and that no Hate, without its confent,
fliall be deprived of its equal fuffrage in the fenate.
Article VI.
“ All debts contrafted .and engagements entered
into, before the adoption of this conflitution, fliall be
as valid againfl the United States under this conflitu-
tion as under the confederation.
“ This conflitution and the laws of the United
States ffiall be made in purfuance thereof5 and all'
treaties made, or which fliall be made, under the au¬
thority of the United States, fliall be the fupreme law
of the land y and the judges in every Hate ffiall be
bound thereby, any thing in the conflitution or laws of
any Hate to the contrary notwithftanding.
“ The fenators and reprefentatives before mentioned,
and the members of the feveral Hate legiflatures, and
all executive and judicial officers, both of the United
States and of the feveral Hates, ffiall be bound by oath
or affirmation to fupport this conflitution ; but no reli¬
gious tell ffiall ever be required as a qualification to
any office or public trull.under the United States.
Article
America.
A M E
Article VII.
“ The ratification of the convention of nine ftates
{hall be fufficient for the eftablifhment of this conftitu-
tion between the ftates fo ratifying the fame.
“ Done in convention, by the unanimous confent of
the ftates prefent, the 17th day of September, in the
year of our Lord 1787, and of the independence of
the United States of America the 12th. In witnefs
Whereof, we have hereunto fubfcribed our names :
George Wafhington, prejtdent and deputy of Virginia.
Qep
MaJfachufetSy
of Netv Hampjhires John Langdon
Nicholas Gilman
Nathanel Gorham
Rufus King
Connecticut, William Samuel Johnfon
Roger Sherman
New ITorh, Alexander Hamilton
New 'Jerfey, William Livingfton
David Brearly
William Paterfon
Jonathan Dayton
Fennfyhania, , Benjamin Franklin
Thomas Miflin
Robert Morris
George Clymer
Thomas Fitz-fimons
Jared Ingerfoll
James Wilfoh
Goaverneur Morris
Delaware, George Read
Gunning Bedford, junior
Richard Baffett
Jacob Broom
Maryland, James Mac Henry
Daniel St Thomas Jenifer
Daniel Carroll
Virginia, John Blair
James Maddifon, junior
North Carolina, William Blount
Richard Dobbfpaight
Hugh Williamfon
South Carolina, John Rutledge
Charles Cotefworth Pinckney
Charles Pinckney
Pierce Butler
Georgia, William Few
Abraham Baldwin.
Attefed, William Jackson, fecretary.
88 ] A M E
affembled, fhould fix a day on which eledftors Ihoultl America,
be appointed by the ftates which ftiall have ratified the *
lame, and a day on which the electors fhould affemble
to vote for the prefident, and the time and place for
commencing proceedings under this conftitution. That
after fuch publication the eleftors ftiould be appointed
and the fenators and reprefentatives eJefted. That the
eleftors Ihould meet on the day fixed for the eledlion
of the prefident, and Ihould tranfmit their votes certi¬
fied, figned, fealed, and directed, as the conftitution re¬
quires, to the i'ecretary of the United States in congrefs
affembled j that the fenators and reprefentatives Ihould
convene at the time and place afflgned j that the fena¬
tors ftiould appoint a prefident of the fenate for the foie
purpofe of receiving, opening, and counting the votes
for prefident; and that after he ftiall be chofen, the
congrefs, together with the prefident Ihould proceed
without delay to execute this conftitution. ^
The ten following articles were afterwards in 1789, Addition's
propofed by congrefs to be added to the conftitution j to the con-
and having received the ratification required by article ^ltutfon‘
fifth of the above conftitution, they are to be regarded
as forming a part of it.
Article I.
a Congrefs fliall make no law refpefting an efta-
blifliment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercife
thereof j or abridging the freedom of fpeech, or of the
prefs, or the right of people peaceably to affemble,
and to petition the government for aredrefs of grievan¬
ces.
Article II.
“ A well regulated militia being neceflary to the fe-
curity of a free ftate, the right of the people to keep
and bear arms ftiall not be infringed.
Article III.
“ No foldier fliall in time of peace be quartered in any
houfe, without the confent of the owner, nor in time of
war, but in a manner to be preferibed by law.
Article IV.
“ The right of the people to be fecure in their per-
fons, houfes, papers, and effedls, againft unreafonable
fearches and feizures, {hall not be violated : and no
warrants ftiall iffue but upon probable caufe, fupport-
ed by oath or affirmations ; and particularly deferib-
ing the place to be fearched, and the perfon or things
to be feized.
To the conftitution the following refolutions were
added :
“ That the preceding conftitution be laid before
the United States in congrefs affembled, and that it is
the opinion of this convention, that it ftiould afterwards
be fubmitted to a convention of delegates, chofen in
each ftate by the people thereof, under the recommen¬
dation of its legiftature for their affent and ratification j
and that each convention affenting to, and ratifying
the fame, fliould give notice thereof to the United
States in congrefs affembled.
“ Refolved, that it is the opinion of this convention,
that as foon as the conventions of nine ftates ftiall have
ratified this conftitution, the United States in congrefs
Article V.
“ No perfon fliall be held to anfwer for a capital, or
otherwife infamous crime, unlefs on a prefentment
or indi&ment of a grand jury, excepting in cafes arif-
ing in the land or naval forces, or in the militia when
in adlual fervice in time of war of public danger 5 nor
{hall be tried twice for the fame offence; nor ftiail be
compelled in any criminal cafe to be a witnefs againft
himfelf 5 nor be deprived of life, liberty or property,
without due procefs of law ; nor fliall private property
be taken for public ufe, without juft compenfation.
Article VI.
“ In all criminal profecutions, the accufed party
{hall
America.
393.
Oppofition
to the con-
ftitution.
A M E [ 89 ] A M E
(hall enjoy tlie right to a fpeedy and public trial by an
impartial jury of the hate and did riel wherein the
crime (hall have been committed, which diilridl (hall
have been previoufly afeertained by law } and to be in¬
formed of the nature and caufe of the accufation, to
be confronted with the witneffes againft him j to have
compulfory procefs for obtaining witneffes in his fa¬
vour } and to have the afliftance of counfel for his de¬
fence.
Article VII.
“ In fuits at common law, where the value in con-
troverfy {hall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial
by jury {hall be preferved ; and no fa£t tried by a jury
fhall be otherwife re-examined in any court of the (J-
nited States, than according to the rules of the com¬
mon law.
Article VIII.
“ Exceffive bail {hall not be required, nor exceffive
fines impofed, nor cruel and unufual punilhments in-
Aidted.
Article IX.
The enumeration in the conftitutipn of certain
rights, {hall not be conftrued to deny or difparage
others retained by the people.
Article X.
“ The powers not delegated to the United States
by the conftitution, nor prohibited by it to the Hates,
are referved to the Hates refpeclively or to the peo¬
ple.”
The reference of the conftitution to the feveral ftates
to be adopted or rejedled by them, in conventions
affembled for that fpecial purpofe, occafioned the
moft violent debates. Pamphlets poured from the
prefs, and the newfpapers were daily filled with dif-
cuflions of the merits and defedls of the propofed plan
of government. Three ftates, Delaware, New Jerfey,
and Georgia, accepted the conftitution unanimoufly ;
but in the other ftates the parties wTere more nearly ba¬
lanced. The conventions convoked by the ftate legifla-
tures, went into an analyfis of the conftitution in de¬
tail. This took place more efpecially In Pennfylva-
nia, New York, Maffachufets, and Virginia ; and
every part of it was made the fubjeft of feparate votes.
The objeflions ftated againft the conftitution were
chiefly the following : That the convention was only
entitled to revife the articles of the original confede¬
ration, and had exceeded its powers in framing a new
conftitution, more efpecially, as it had declared the
acceptance of this conrtitution by nine ftates fufficient
to make it law : That the conftitution ought to have
been preceded by a declaration of rights to fecure to
the feveral ftates their particular conftitution. It was
alleged, that the propofed fenate wrould poffefs excef¬
five powers and privileges, by being authorized to
make amendments in money bills, by its concurring America,
with the prefident in the nomination to places, while —
its members were eligible to every appointment, and
by its having the foie trial of impeachments entrufted
to it. The prerogative given to the prefident to pardon
criminals convhfted of high treafon, was reprefented as
dangerous to public liberty, and his power of confer¬
ring appointments upon the members of both houfes of
legiftature was accounted a lource of corruption. It
was faid, that the jurifdidlion given to the federal courts
would prove vexatious, by drawing individuals from di-
ftant ftates to attend to fuits inftituted before them. The
powers given to congrefs to impofe all kinds of taxes,
to regulate the eledticn of its members, to maintain a
{landing army in time of peace, Were alleged to be
exorbitant. It was faid, that the moft important of
all privileges, the trial by jury, and the liberty of the
prefs, were not fecured : And laftly, It was afferted,
that the funflion of prefident being made capable of
indefinite continuance in the fame hands, might give
an ambitious and artful man an influence dangerous to
the congrefs, to individuals, and to the conftitution it-
felf.
Some of thefe objeflions do not appear very forci¬
ble, and others of them have been obviated by the ar¬
ticles afterwards added to the conftitution, which have
been already noticed ; but it is faid, that at the period
in queftion they poffeffed confiderable influence, and
that a very great majority of the people of the United
States was averfe to the conftitution. So fenfible,
however, were all parties of the extreme defedlivenefs
of the exifting government, and of the ablolute necef-
fity of putting an end to the anarchy in which the
Country w-as plunged, that a majority in the different
ftates wras prevailed upon to give their votes for its ac¬
ceptance. In Conneclicut, Maryland, and Pennfyl-
vania, a minority voted againft it, but it paffed wuth-
out any amendment. In Pennfylvania, wdiere the op-
pofition wras ftrong, the minority withdrew and pro-
tefted againft the conftitution. South Carolina, Vir¬
ginia, New York, and Maffachufets, accepted the
conftitution by a very fmall majority, but propofed fe¬
veral amendments. Newr York was on the eve of re¬
jecting the conftitution, when intelligence arrived, that
it w7as already accepted by nine of the ftates ; and this
circumilance produced an acceptance there alfo. The
convention of New Hamplhire feparated without com¬
ing to a refolution •, and having afterwards affembled,
gave its affent, with fome propofals for amendment.
North Carolina not only propofed amendments, but
made them the condition of its acceptance. Some time
afterw'ards, however, it accepted the conftitution with¬
out referve. Rhode Ifland, inftead of calling a con¬
vention, referred the conftitution to the affemblies of
the towns, by a majority of which it wras rejefted j
but a 'Convention for the purpofe being afterwards
called, it accepted the conftitution. The following
table indicates the periods and the manner in which
the conftitution was accepted.
Vol. II. Part I.
M
States*
America.
A M E [ 9° ] A M E
States.
Period of accepting
the Conftitution.
Manner of palling it.
Delaware
Pennfylvania
New Jerfey
Georgia
Connedlicut
Mafl'achufets
Maryland
Ssuth Carolina
New Hampfhire
Virginia
New York
North Carolina
Rhode liland
Dec. 31. 1787.
  13.  
  19.  
Jan. 2. 1788.
  9.  
Feb. 6.  
April 28.  
May 23.  
June 21.  
  15.  
July 26.  
Nov. 27. 1789.
May 29. 1790.
Unanimoully
For 46 Againft 23 Maj.
Unanimoully
-Ditto
For 128 Againft
 187  
 63  
 M9  
  3°
 J93
40 Maj.
168  
73
46
79
25
75
23
88
*9
51
76
11
10
5
118
394
Executive Of the public officers appointed under the-conftitu-
theTmeri- t^on t,tie United States, thofe of prefident and vice¬
can govern-Pre^dent are the moft confpicuous and important. In
ment. March J792> the following law was enabled by con-
395 grefs for regulating the mode of their eleftion.
and*vice- ^ Section I. The cafe of the election of prefident or
prefident vice-prefident of the United States before the ufual pe-
how elect- riod of election, which cafe is herein after provided
e4h for, being accepted, the eleftors for choofmg the pre¬
fident and vice-prefident (hall be named within 34
days immediately preceding the firrt Wednefday of
December I792> and thenceforth within 34 days im¬
mediately preceding the firft Wednefday of December,
in the fourth year after the laft eleftion. The faid
eledlors fhall be equal in number to that of the fena-
tors and reprefentatives in congrefs, of which the feve-
ral ftates thall have a right to compofe their deputation
at the time when the prefident and vice-prefident to be
chofen {hall enter into office : provided that, if the
new apportioning of reprefentatives in virtue of the
new enumeration of the inhabitants, {hall not take
place before the period for choofing the ele&ors, then
the number of eleftors {hall be proportioned to the
number of fenators and reprefentatives of the prefent
congrefs.
“ Sec?. 2. The electors {hall aflemble and vote on
the firft Wednefday of December in each ftate, at fuch
place as ftiall be named by the legiilature of the ftate ;
and fhall draw up and fign three certificates of their
refpedlive votes, and {hall fold up and feal the fame
ieparately, and ftiall indorfe upon the cover of each
packet a declaration, that it contains a lift of the votes
of the ftate for the prefident and vice-prefident j^and
every elector, or majority of ele6tors, fhall appoint by
ballot the perfon to whom they will entruft one of the
laid certificates, to be by him conveyed to the prefi¬
dent of the fenate, at the place of refidence of the
government, before the firft Wednefday of the January
following; and ftialladdrefs another of the laid certifi¬
cates, by the poll, to the prefident of the fenate at the
place of refidence of the government ; and {hall tranf-
mit the third of the faid certificates to the judge of
the diftrift in which their affembly ftiall be held.
“ Sett. 3. The executive power, in each ftate, ftiall
caufe to be drawn up, and properly certified, three lifts
of the names of the eledlors of the ftate, and fhall tranf-
mit the fame to the ele&ors hefpre the firft Wednef¬
day of December ; and the eleddors ftiall add one of
the faid lifts to each of the before-mentioned lifts of
their votes.
“ Sefl. 4. In the cafe of a lift of the votes of a ftate
not arriving at the place of refidence of the govern¬
ment in January, the fecretary of ftate ftiall defpatch
an exprefs to the judge of the dlftrict of fuch ftate in
whofe hands the third certificate lhall have been depo-
fited, who fhall tranfmit it by the fame mefienger to
the place of refidence of the government.
“ Sefi. 5. The congrefs ftiall commence its fittings
on the fecond Wednefday of February 1793; and
thenceforth on the fecond Wednefday of the February
following each affembly of elefrors; and the certifi¬
cates, or as many of them as {hall have arrived, fliall
be opened, the votes counted, and names of the perfons
elefted to fill the offices of prefident and vice-prefident
declared and proclaimed, according to the forms of
the cohftitution.
“ Set?. 6. In the cafe of the prefident of the fenate
not being prefent at the place of refidence of the go*
vernment on the arrival of perfons charged with the
lifts of the votes of the eleclors, fuch perfon ftiall de¬
liver the lifts to the fecretary of ftate, who lhall care¬
fully preferve them, and remit them as foon as pol-
fible to the prefident of the fenate.
“ Seff. 7. The perfons appointed by the eleclors to
convey the lifts to the prefident oi the fenate, {hall re¬
ceive, at the time of delivering the faid lifts, xyd. per
mile, for the diftance, by the high road, from the place
of eleftion to the refidence of the government.
“ Seff. 8. If any perfon being appointed to convey
the votes of the eleclors to the prefident of the fenate,
and having accepted that truft, ftiall neglefl to dil-
charge the fame, he ftiall incur a penalty of 1000 dol¬
lars.
“ Seff. 9. In the cafe of the removal, death, refig-
nation, or incapacity to fill his office of the prefident
or vice-prefident, the provifional prefident of the le-
nate, or, where no fuch officer has been appointed, the
fpeaker of the houfe of reprefentatives, (hall fulfil the
duties
Amer'ra,
A M E [ 9
'Vnivriea, duties of prefident of the United States, or vice-prefi-
dent, until the prefident or vice-prefident lhall relume
his fun£fions, or a new election lliall take place.
l' \e£f. io. When the offices of prehdent and vice-
prefident lhall become vacant at the fame time, the fe-
cretary of Hate fhall give notice of the fame to the exe¬
cutive power of each Hate ; and lhall publiffi the faid
notice, in one gazette at leailof eachilate, in which it Ihall
be declared, that the electors for the prefident of the
United States lhall be appointed or chofen in the feve-
ral Hates within the 34 days immediately preceding
the firll Wednclday of the month of December follow-
provided a fpace of two months flrall intervene be¬
tween the date of fuch notice, and the firfl Wednefday
of the December following •, but when the faid fpace of
time lhall not fo intervene, or if the term for which
the late prelident and vice-prefident were defied does
not expire on the third day of March following, then
the fecretary of Hate fhall declare in fuch notice that
the ele&ors are to be appointed, or chofen, within the
34 days immediately preceding the firlf Wednefday
of December in the following year ; and the eledors
fhall be appointed accordingly, and ihall proceed as is
provided in this ad.
“ SeSf. 11. The only evidence that fhall be required
of the refufal to accept the office of prefident or vice-
prefident, or refignation of either of faid offices, (hall be
a declaration in writing to that cited, figned by the
perfon refufmg to accept or refigning fuch office, which
fhall be tranfmitted to, and depofited in the office of the
fecretary of Hate.
Seft. 12. 'I’he term for which the prefident and vice-
prefident lhall be chofen lhall be four years : commen-
eing, in all cales, oh the 4th of March following the
day of the eledion.
By this law, as well as by the conHitution, the power
of declaring the manner of nominating the eledors who
are to chafe the prefident and vice-prefident, ivas left
tothelegillatures of the feveral Hates; the refult of which
was that a uniform mode was not adopted. In fome
of the Hates the people were left to nominate the elec¬
tors in the fame manner as they voted for other repre-
fentatives. In other Hates, that power was confined to
t he legillatures themfelves. The following is a Hate-
meat of the different modes which have been eilablilh-
ed in all the Hates including the three new Hates of
Vermont, Kentucky, and Teneffee.
States in which the electors
far the prejident and vice-
prefident of the United
States are named by the
people.
Maffachufets
Pennfylvania
Virginia
Teneffee
Kentucky
South Carolina
Ccorcia
States in which the electors
for the prefident and vice-
prefident of the United
States are named by the
legijlature.
Vermont
New Hampfhire
Connedicut
Rhode Ifland
New York
Delaware
New ferfey
Maryland
North Carolina
, t1,e executive government of the United States
tttere are three departments, the department of Hate,
1 ] A M E
the department of finances, and that of wafr: a fecre¬
tary is at the head of each of thefe, who ads under the
authority of the prefident. The fecretary of Hate is
keeper of the feals of the union. It belongs to his of¬
fice to counterfign the laws, and to promulgate them.
He has the cultody of all public papers, but his principal
employment is to tranfad affairs with foreign powers.
At the head of the finances is a fecretarv of the
treafury. This part of the public bufinefs was attend¬
ed with many difficulties at the period when the confti-
tution was formed, and for fome years thereafter. The
new congrefs, at the clofe of its firff feffion, in Septem¬
ber 1789, ordered the fecretary of the treafury of the
union, Mr Hamilton, to prepare a plan for the refio-
ration of public credit. This duty was performed in
January 1790, and after long debates, the congrefs, on
the 4th of Auguff of that year, palled the plan into a
law. By this law, the debt due to foreign nations, as
well-as to tile creditors at home, was funded, together
with a long arrear of intereff, and even intereH upon
intereH. The debt due to foreign nations amounted
to 11,908,188 dollars, and the domeflic debt to
40j905j4^5 dollars, making together 52,813,673 dol¬
lars.^ The prefident of the United States was au¬
thorized to borrow 12,000,000 of dollars to pay
the foreign debt. Another loan was made to extin-
guiffi the domeflic debt, and in payment of this
loan certificates of intereH . due, (one of the kinds of
public paper then current) were received and funded
at three per cent. The capital of the debt, including
the refl of the paper money then in circulation, was
funded at 6 per cent. intereH, with a provifion that for
a third of the debt thus funded no intereH ihould be
paid till the year x 800. This part of the debt there¬
fore received the name of deferred f och. The defer¬
red Hock was appointed to be redeemed in the propor¬
tion of eight per cent, per annum. For the refl of the
debt two other funds were created, one of three per
cent, and one of fix per cent.—By this law the whole
debts due by the feveral Hates to the union, and for
which the credit of congrefs flood pledged to the pub¬
lic creditors, were adopted as the debt of the union.
But as the debts due by the feveral Hates were very
unequal, this part of the plan met with much oppofi-
tion. It is underflood, however, to have been at Lafl
carried, in confequence of a kind of compromife be¬
tween the northern and fouthern Hates. The northern
Hates, including New V ork, were the piincipal debtors.
Maffachufets alone owed 6,000,000 of dollars. The
northern Hates therefore were deeply interefled, that
the public debt fliould be adopted by the whole union.
I he fouthern Hates, on the contrary, were all, with the
exception of South Carolina, creditors of the union.
But it was their favourite proje£f to draw the feat
of the federal government nearer to them. Virgi¬
nia was more eager in the profecution of this object
than the reil, and \ irginia was the principal public
creditor. Accordingly, the deputies of the northern
Hates made a compromife with the fouthem Hates
agreeing to vote that the feat of the federal govern¬
ment Ihould be placed on the river Potowmack, on
condition of the others voting for the confolidatmn of
the debts. 1 he Hate of Pennfylvania, though among
the debtors, oppofed this plan; but its oppofition was
got over by an agreement, that the feat of the federal
AI2 government
America.’
39^
Secretary
of ftate.
397
Treafury,
A M E
[ 92 ] A M E
America, government fliould continue at Philadelphia for ten
" " v_ years. Thus the plan for confolidating the debts pai-
fed, arid at the fame time a law was enabled, authoriz¬
ing the general government to accept, from the Hate
or Hates to which it might belong, of a territory for
the permanent feat of its refidence, not exceeding ten
miles fquare at the confluence of the Potowmack and
the Eaflern Branch j authorizing, at th4 fame time, the
prefident of the United States to appoint commif-
fioners to furvey the territory, and to prepare, againfl
the firfl Monday of December 1800, the buildings ne-
ceflary for transferring the congrefs and whole offices
of the federal government thither. In honour of the
prefident of the union, -who had fo long been the com¬
mander in chief of the armies of the Hates, the new
city was ordained to be called Wafliington.
The congrefs afterwards erefted an office for the re¬
duction of national debt : but a regular fyitem of tax¬
ation being now eflablilhed in the United States,, it is
probable that the government, finding itfelf rather
Hrengthened than weakened by the exiHence of a pub¬
lic debt, or what is called the funding fyltem, has not
been very anxious to accomplifh the payment of that
debt, and accordingly it has rather increafed than di-
minifhed. The debt of the United States, which in
1790 amounted to 72,613,254 dollars, amounted in
398 1796 to 78,697,4x0 dollars.
National part 0f the general fylfem of finance, propofed
bank* by Mr Hamilton, confided of the eHablifhment of a
national bank, in imitation of the bank of England,
which was accordingly incorporated in 1791, with a
capital of 10,000,000 of dollars. Of thefe 2,000,000
were fubfcribed by the United States, but are not to
be made good at the period impofed on other fub-
fcribers. The remaining 8,000,000 were furnifhed by
individuals; one-fourth in fpecie, and the red in cer¬
tificates of public debt: fo that, in this way, paper cur¬
rency to the amount of 6,000,000 of dollars at once
difappeared. This bank is authorized, by its charter,
to efiablifh afiidant or branch banks, in fuch parts of
the United States as it may deem expedient ; and ac¬
cordingly, befides the principal bank at Philadelphia,
it foon edabliflied four branches, at New York, Bodon,
Baltimore, and Charledown. Its dividends are eight
per cent, and its (hares have rifen from a fourth to a fifth
y,9 above the original value.
Army. Befides the ordinary militia, the United States have
a fmall permanent military eftablifiiment regulated by
law. It is compofed of a body of artillery and engi¬
neers, two companies of light dragoons, and four re¬
giments of infantry. The corps of artillery and en¬
gineers, conlifis of 764 men divided into four batta¬
lions, and each battalion into four companies: a cap¬
tain, two lieutenants, and two cadets, are allowed to each
company. Each battalion has a major 5 and the whole
corps is commanded by an adjutant-general, who has a
lieutenant-colonel under him. Each company of dra¬
goons confifis 01 a captain, two lieutenants, and a cor¬
net •, 52 privates, and Ii ferjeants, corporals, fadlers,
farriers, and trumpeters. The Haff of each regiment
of infantry confifis of a lieutenant-colonel, two ma¬
jors, an adjutant, a paymafier, quartermafier, furgeon,
anfi two afliftant furgeons. Each company confifis of
a captain, lieutenant, and an enfign } with 62 ferjeants,
corporals^ foldiers, and muficiaus. This little army,
therefore, confifls of 2774 foldiers, ferjeants, muficians, America,
dragoons, and artillery men. The Haff of the whole con- v ‘
Hits of a brigadier-general, a major of brigade, and an
infpeftor, a judge advocate, a quartermafier, and a pay-
maffer general. Their pay would in Europe be ac¬
counted exorbitant. The privates receive four dollars a-
day. In addition to this, each individual of every rank
receives w hat is called a ration, confifting of a pound of
beef, and a pound of bread, with a fmall quantity of
diffilled fpirits, and fait, vinegar, foap, and candles.
A captain of infantry receives 40 dollars a-day, and
three rations, and the other officers in proportion.
The navy is alfo a branch of the war department;
but as yet it confiffs only of a few veffels, though there
is no doubt that, in a cafe of neceffity, the United
States would foon render themfelves formidable as a
maritime power. They poffefs in profufion all the ma¬
terials neceffary for drip-building. They have abun¬
dance of naval architects, and great numbers of expe¬
rienced feamen, in proportion to their population. ^GO
For the adminifiration of juffice, an attorney gene- Law otfi-
ral of the United States is by lawT attached to the ex-cers-
ecutive government. His functions are, to profecute,
in the fupreme court of the Hates, all fuits in which the
government of the union is interefied, and to aflifi the
prefident with his opinion on queflions of law. He is
permitted, as in Great Britain, to purfue his profeffion
in the affairs of individuals. In the United States,
juffice is adminiflered by difirift courts, circuit courts,
and a fupreme court. Thefe poffefs exclufive jurisdic¬
tion, in all faits that affeCt the intereffs of the union.
The courts of diffriH are held four times a year in
each Hate, by a judge appointed by the federal govern¬
ment, and refiding in the Hate. They have jurifdic-
tion in crimes within the diffrift and the adjoining fea,
where the penalty does not exceed 100 dollars, or a (light
corporal puniftunent. They judge alfo in civil queffions,
in which the union or foreigners are intereffed to the
amount of 100 dollars, and unlefs in admiralty cafes,
the queflion is tried by a jury.
The circuit courts are held by a judge of the fu¬
preme court, twfice a year in each Hate, along with
the judges of the diffridl. They have an exclufive
cognizance of all crimes againff the union, and they
are courts of appeal from the diffridt courts. They
have cognizance, along wfith the courts of the different
Hates, of all civil caufes, not exceeding 500 dollars in
value, or where a foreigner is party, or the difpute is
between citizens of different Hates.
The fupreme court of the union confiffs of a chief
juffice, and five judges. It fits twice a year at the feat
of government. It is a court of appeal from the circuit
courts, and the tribunals of the feveral Hates. It.has
exclufive jurifdidlion in all civil caufes, where one of
the Hates is a party, unlefs the adverfe party be a citizen
of the fame Hate, and over all fuits againfl foreign am-
baffadors or envoys, and their domeffics, according to
the law of nations. It may alfo try, but not exclu-
fively, caufes in which an ambaffador, coniul, or other
foreign miniffer, is interefled as profecutor.
On account of the diflance of the Hates of Kentuc¬
ky and Teneffee, and the province of Maine, their
courts of diffrift exercife the'jurifdiCHon of courts of
circuit, except in cafes of appeal, which are carried
before the fupreme federal court. Juries ferving in the*
federal
A M E [ 93 ] A M E
America, federal courts, are chofen according to the forms ob-
 v 1 ferved in the rtates where thefe courts happen to be
held.
Crimes or offences of which the federal tribunals
take cognizance, are treafons, rebellions, refufals to pay
impofts enjoined by the union, fmuggling, frauds by
officers of the revenue in matters of revenue, and in
fhort every offence commited againft laws paffed by the
congrefs. In addition to thefe, the federal courts take
cognizance of all offences committed within what is
accounted not the territory of any particular ftate,
but of the union at large, fuch as, the open feas, or
forts or arfenals belonging to the union, and alfo the
precin&s of the federal city of Wafhington, which is
confidered as the common property of the American
nation.
In civil matters, both in the courts of the union, and
of the particular ftates, the common lawr of England
is confidered as the law of America, where no fpecial
enaftments exiit to the contrary. The adminiftration of
juftice, however, is underftood to be no lefs embarraf-
fed by intricacies and delays in North America, than
it is under fome of the oldeft governments of Europe.
A reform in this refpedt will not readily be expe&ed,
when it is confldered, that more than one half of the
legiflature of the union, as well as of the legiflatures
^0I of the different ftates, i$ always compofed of lawyers.
The mint. In April 1792, the congrefs ordered the eftablifti-
ment for the United States, of a public mint, by a law,
which regulates the divifton, the value, and the ftan-
dard of their money. The divifton and value of thefe
monies, are as follows.
Gold Coin.
The Eagle, value ten dollars.
The Half-Eagle, value five dollars.
The -l^uarter-Eaglc, value two dollars and a half.
Silver Coin.
The Hollar, value a hundred cents.
The Half-Dollar, value fifty cents.
The -ftiarter-Dollar, value twenty-five cents.
The Tenth of a Dollar, value twelve cents and a half.
The Half Tenth, value fix cents and a quarter.
Copper Coin.
The Cent, value the hundredth part of a dollar.
The Half-Cent, value the two hundredth part of a dol¬
lar.
The weight of thefe is as follows. The eagle ought
to contain 247-t grains of pure gold, or 270 grains of
ftandard gold, which is thus regulated; 11 parts of pure
gold in 12 f of alloy, of which one half ought to be
of filver.
The half-eagle ought to contain 1 2^ grains of pure
gold, or 135 grains of alloy gold.
The quarter-eagle ought to contain 61 grains of pure
gold, or 674 grains of alloy gold.
The dollar ought to contain 3714 grains of pure fil¬
ver, or 416 grains of alloy filver.
The ftandard of filver is 1485 parts of pure filver,
and 179 parts of alloy which is of pure copper.
The half-dollar ought to contain i82-f- grains of pure
filver, or 280 grains of ftandard filver.
A quarter-dollar ought to contain grains of America,
pure filver, or 104 grains of ftandard filver. " "~~v
The tenth of a dollar ought to contain 374- grains of
pure filver, or 52 grains of ftandard filver.
The half-tenth ought to contain 18^ grains of pure
filver, or 26 grains of ftandard filver.
The cent ought to contain 11 pennyweights of cop¬
per.
The half-cent ought to contain five and a half.
The gold and filver coins ought, according to law,
to bear on one fide an emblematical figure of liberty,
and upon the other, the eagle of the United States, with
the words “ United States.”
The copper coins, inftead of the American eagle,
bear an infcription denominating their value.
The proportional value between gold and filver, when
coined, to the coin of the United States, is determined
by comparing one pound of the one to fifteen of the
other 5 that is to fay, one pound of coined gold -is
equal to fifteen pounds of coined filver.
All the counties of the United States are required
to make ufe of thefe coins.
The Spanifti dollar is the only piece of foreign coin
which is current in the United States as money : all
others, which had received a valuation by the law, are
only received by weight fince 1795. It does not ap¬
pear, however, that the Uuited States have hitherto
made much ufe of their mint, at leaft for the coinage
of the more valuable metals.
4*3
The convulfions of nations and the calamities andHiftory
the crimes of mankind, always form the moft intereft- contimiccb
ing fubjeft ®f hiftory 5 and happy is that people con¬
cerning whom the hiftorian finds little to relate. From
the period of the acceptance of their conftitution, the
American ftates have, in a great degree, enjoyed that
fortunate fituation. On the 13th of September 1788,
the old congrefs having received the ratification of the
conftitution from eleven ftates, declared it to be in
force, and appointed the firft Wednefday of the fol¬
lowing January for choofing the electors, who were to
affemble on the firft Wednefday in February following
to eleft the prefident and vice-prefident. The new
congrefs was alfo appointed to meet on the firft Wed- ,
nefday of March following at New York. Accordingly-wraftjingt0in
on the firft Wednefday of February 1789, George prefident.
Waftfington, who had been the commander in chief of
the armies of the United States and prefident of the
convention of Philadelphia that framed the conft'i-
tution, was elefted prefident, and John Adams, who
had feconded Mr Jefferfon in propofing the original de¬
claration of American independence, was at the fame
time elefted vice-prefident. The popularity of the
prefident was defervedly very great j and, as all parties
concurred in fupporting the new conftitution, much 404-
unanimity prevailed in the public councils. By de- Political
grees, however, it appeared, that two parties continu-^a^onS|* •
ed to exift, poffefling the fame radical principles as
formerly. The party moft attached to the princi¬
ples that leaned towards monarchy, or rather towards
ariftocracy, concurred fteadily in giving fupport to the
newr authorities in all their exertions as foon as they
were conftituted, adopting for themfelves the appella¬
tion of federalifts, w hich had by that time become
popular. On the other hand, the more ftritft and zeal*
ous-
A M E
America.
4°5
ous republicans, who had originally been called fedc~
rnlt/Is, and who had only oppoled the eonllitution, be-
caufe, in their opinion, it did not fufficiently incorpo¬
rate the whole Hates into one nation, now began to
receive the appellation of antifederalijh; becaufe,
Irom their temper and charafter, they frequently op-
pofed the meafures of the new federal government.
In this way the names of the parties were changed,
while their principles remained the fame. It is not
believed, however, that in the United States there ex-
ills any party that wilhes to diflblve the confederation ;
the word antifederalilf being only ufed to exprefs the
democratic or moll zealous republican party, whereas
the appellation of federalill is applied to thofe of 3
more ariftocratical character and tendency, who array
themlelves moll lleadily on the fide of eltablilhed au¬
thority, in oppofition to every kind of innovation. In
the earliell period of the conftitution, the only extraor¬
dinary eftort that we find to have been made by either
Titles pro- of thefe parties, conlifted of a propofal made in the fe-
polcd. nate 0f congiefSj in which the ariftocratical party, now
called fedcrali/ls, were very numerous, to give the ti¬
tles of illtiftrious highnefs to the prefident of the United
States, of right honourable to the members of the fenate,
and honourable to the members of the houle of repre-
fentatives •, but this projedl was abandoned by the fe¬
nate itfelf, as the public opinion was found to be averfe
to it, and as the houfe of reprefentatives was dilpofed
to impofe a negative upon it. When the fyftem of
finance* of which we have already taken notice, and
which ftill exifts, was propofed, it was vehemently
combated by the oppofition or the antifederalift party,
on account of the tendency, which, in their opinion,
it mull have to introduce a funding fyftem, and by
means of it an extravagant and expenfivc government,
in confequence of the facility with w'hich that fyilem
enables minifters to negotiate loans, and thereby ra¬
ther to increafe than diminifti their own power bv the
dependance upon government wdiich thefe loans pro¬
duce. The fame reafons which induced the antifede¬
ralift party to oppofe the new fyftem of finance, or the
introdudlion of a funding fyftem, recommended it to
the fupport of the federalifts, who, by means of it, ex¬
pelled to increafe the ftrength and influence of govern¬
ment. This laft motive probably derived greater
weight from the perfonal interells and prejudices of
the individuals who ufually joined the federalift or
ariftocratical party.
It is to be obferved, that, in North America as in
Europe, the political opinions of men are, in a great
meafure, formed by their fituations. At the fame time,
local fituation produces in America an efted precifely
the reverfe of what it does among the Europeans. In
Europe the proprietors of land conftitute the ariftocra-
cy of the country in which they live, and are the pil¬
lars of the government •, wTereas the inhabitants of
towns, from being crowded into a narrow fpace, and
from their want of perfonal dilxin&ion, have a tenden¬
cy to aflume a more levelling and turbulent character.
But, in America, unlefs when land is bought in large
quantities to be fpeedily difpofed of as an objed of
commercial fpeculation, it is ufually held in property
by the cultivators of it, who labour upon their own
farms, and conftitute a body of yeomanry in eafy cir-
cumlfances, but not pofTeffed of great wealth. Hence,
I
[ 94 ]
A M E
406
Tharadler
of the par¬
ties.
in all political queftions they are led to adopt equaliz- Vmerica.
ing notions, and a jealoufy of the conduct of thole en- 
trufted with power. In the towms, on the contrary, a
great diverfity of rank exifts. By means of an ex-
tenlive commerce large fortunes are made, the owners
ot which lit e in a ftile of great Iplendour, and along
with the members of the learned profeftlons conilitute
the ariftocracy of America. The commercial men be¬
ing alfo intimately conneded with Great Britain, are
naturally led to appiove of the inftitutions that exift in
it, and to favour her cauie in every quarrel with Eu¬
ropean nations.
It was not till the fecond period of the French revo¬
lution, or the tall of monarchy in that country, that
the American parties became in any great degree ex-
afperated againft each other. That extraordinary
event, by which Europe was convulfed from its centre
to its extremities, and by which all its nations were
roufed to arms, carried agitation and difeord even be¬
yond the ftiores of the Atlantic. The people of the
American Hates belonging to the race of Europe, and
having fo recently been an objed of lively intereft and
of hoflility between dift'erent Hates, could not fail te
have their minds occupied by the new events and fpe-
culations which at that time engaged the attention of
all ranks of men. The French had been the allies of
America. Their troops had fought for the indepen¬
dence of that country, and Fayette and other names
that were diftinguiflied in the early periods of the
French revolution, were well known, and enjoyed Antltede-
much perfonal popularity among the Americans. It lifts fond
is not wonderful, therefore, that the antifederalill par-ofthe
ty in America regarded with favour the early progrefs I'°'
of the French revolution, efpecially as they confid'erednions. 0l '~
the French foldiers as now engaged on the fide of
principles which they had learned in the fchool of A-
merica. They contemplated with exultation the pro¬
grefs of republicanifm in France, and fancied they be¬
held in it a confirmation of their own fentiments, and
the means of preventing their own government from
acquiring an ariflocratical or a monarchical tendency.
When the governing party in France dilhonoured
themfelves and human nature by the excefs of their
barbarity and of their crimes under Robefpierre, theanti-
federalifls in America being men of a better characler,
could not fail to regard the condinH of the European
revolutionifts with much horror. Still, however, they
flattered themfelves that the diforders of France were
only temporary ; and they vainly hoped that the fpirit
of freedom would in that country foon be rendered con¬
fident with the exiHence of public order. ^0g
On the other hand, the federaliil party in America, The fede-
whofe objefts were to Hrengthen the government ofra*‘^s at-
the union, to increafe the inHuence of the executive
power, and to carry the conftitution as far as peffible
towards ariftocracy and monarchy, naturally ccnfider-
ed the example and influence of the Englifh govern¬
ment as a barrier agair.H the fyftem of French repub¬
licanifm. As many of the members of this party were
ftrongly bound to Great Britain by the ties of com¬
mercial intereH, they foon became extremely eager to
detach the United States from France, and to ccnne£I
them with Britain. This party derived a great accef-
fion of ftrength from the crimes, which nobody pre¬
tended to juftify, of the rulers of the French republic.
They
America.
A M E [ 9S ]
They derived ftill greater ftrength from tiie dilorgani- they did not fear.
v " -' zing fyftem with regard to foreign nations which the
French adopted, and which they extended even to the
republican Hates of America. Their ambaffador, M.
Genet, and their confuls at different ports, inftituted
political clubs in the towns and villages, and attempted
to introduce everywhere the Jacobin prafHce of affi¬
liation or fraternization. The ambaffador alio attempt¬
ing to force the United States into a war with Great
Britain, quarrelled openly with the prefident, and at¬
tempted, by the publication of' official notes addreffed
to him, to excite di[contents, and to introduce a di-
ffimftion between the government and the people of the
country. He was recalled by the French govern¬
ment, but not till his conduft had excited the difap-
probation of all parties in America. It would appear,
however, that for a time the American government
was diipofed to regard the French republic with fa¬
vour. Payment was readily made to the republic of
the debt incurred by the United States to the late
French monarch ; and as France fuffered great diftrefs
from a fcaicity of provifions, the money was laid out
in the purchafe of grain and dour, which was conveyed
from America to France in a fleet of 160 Hups. It
was in defence of this fleet that the French fought the
naval engagement with Lord Howe on the iff of June
1794, in which their ffiips of war were defeated*, but
they were fuccefsful in conveying the tranfports loaded
with grain into Breft harbour. But the American go¬
vernment foon found itlelf much embarraffed with re¬
gard to the part which it ought to aid towards the
contending powers of Europe. George Walhington
was ftill at the head of affairs, having been re-elecled
4159 prefident in December 1792, though not altogether
Conduff of unanimoufly, as in the former inftance. This prudent
dcat,ieil" ■^ate<im'ar> ^aw that the iutereft of his rifing country re¬
quired that {he Ihould remain difengaged from the de-
ftruclive quarrels of the European nations. The reft-
lefs fpirit of the French, however, on the one hand,
and the eagernefs of Great Britain to force an univer-
fal combination againff them on the other, rendered
the prefervation of neutrality no eafy talk. He faw a
confederacy of all Europe formed againft France ; and
he could fcarcely avoid fuppofmg that it mutt be fuc¬
cefsful againit an anarchy ftained with crimes and
blood, a failed by choice troops, and having nothing to
oppole this force but new fokkers and inexperienced
generals, fupported by a treafury fuvnifhed only with a
paper currency, which muff fpeedily be difcredited.
At the fame tune, the American commerce was great¬
ly haraffed by Great Britain, whofe fliips, with a view
to diitrefs France, feized all vefiels going thither with
provilions, which formed the chief article of American
export. I he debates which occurred in the houfe of
reprefentatives in congrefs in confequence of this ftate
of affairs were extremely violent *, and the people with¬
out doors were greatly agitated throughout the whole
extent of the United States. The general wiih was,
to preferve peace and neutrality 5 but the complaints
againft Britain were very loud, efpecially as the ex-
tenfive traders who were molt attached to the Britifh
interefts were the chiel fufftrers by the interruption of
commerce. The antifederahfts on this occafion be¬
came ftill more attached to France, the contagion of
V.hofe anarchy among a virtuous people they declared
A M E
If fatisfaefcron could not be obtain- America;
ed from Britain, they propofed a fequeftration of Bri- —y—
tilh property in America, an interruption of all com¬
merce with Britain •, and they imagined, that by arm¬
ing American privateers, prohibiting the conveyance
of provilions to the Britifh iilands, and feizing on Ca¬
nada, they poffeffed more certain means of injuring
Britain, if fhe was refolved upon war, than any fire had
with which to make reprifals upon the ftates. The fe-
deralitls, on the other hand, were eager to avoid all
connexion with France, and propofed the mildeft mea-
fures 01 remonftrance and negotiation with regard to
England, deprecating the idea of entering into a con-
teft with her 5 and the prefident appears at length to
have adopted the refolution of going fully into the
meafures of this laft party. He difmiffed Thomas Jef-
ferfon from the office of iecretary of Itate, he being of
that party that had always avowed an attachment to
pure republicanifm, and that was at prefent moll ho-
ftile to Great Britain. He at the lame time refolved
to fend Mr Jay to England for the purpofe of nego¬
tiating with the Britifh government. This laft: gentle¬
man being known to be decidedly attached to the fe~
deralilt party, indicated to the public in very clear
terms the meafures which the government had refolved
to adopt. # _ .410
About this time fome internal diforders broke out in Rebellion
one part of America, and, as political factions render at Htiburg.
every event fubfervient to their mutual hatred, the fe-
deralifts accufed their adverfaries, though evidentlv
without reafon, of being the contrivers and authors of
the difturbance, the hiftory of which was this :—A~
mong the different objects of taxation which prefented
themfelves to congrefs during the feffion of 1790, none
had appeared more proper than the diftilleries through¬
out the United States. As a revenue from this fource
could only be collected by an excife, this form was
adopted : The duty was light, and the objeft unex¬
ceptionable. But at all times this form of collefting a
revenue has been unacceptable to the people in gene¬
ral. By fixing the duty not on the raw material, but
on the manufactured commodity, the capital of the
trader is lefs deeply involved, and the price is common¬
ly rendered lefs burdenfome to the confumer; but
from the right which, under this form of taxation, it is
neceffary to confer upon the revenue officers, of enter¬
ing into private buildings, and of interfering with the
operations there going on, it has always been fubmitted
to with reluftance at its firft introduction. This tax,
however, was peaceably fubmitted to throughout the
whole American continent, excepting in one quarter,
that is to fay, in the four weftern counties of Pennfyl-
vania beyond the Alleghany mountains, near the junc¬
tion of the three great rivers Alleghany, Yohogany,
and Monongahela, whofe confluence at Fort Pit forms
the river Ohio. This diflriCf had been fettled for a
corffiderabie time, and is tolerably populous. The in¬
habitants at f rit refilled to pay the tax, but they were
not altogether unanimous in this refpeeft ; and govern¬
ment for fome time avoided to prefs the matter by pro-
fecutions, in the hopes that by degrees the authority of
■law would be eftablifhed without trouble or alarm.
Petitions in the mean time were tranfmitted to con¬
grefs againft the tax, and fome modifications of it had.
taken place ; fo that the government at Laft endeavour¬
ed
A M E [ 96
America; ed generally to put it in force. The marfhal was or-
dered to proceed by legal procels againfl all rioters
and delinquent diltillers who ihould be found to refill
or evade the tax j but no fooner tvas he underltood
to be engaged in this duty than the vengeance of arm¬
ed men was aimed at his perfon, and the perfon and
property of the infpeftor of the revenue* They fired
on the marlhal, arrefted him, and detained him feme
time as a prifoner. The houfe and papers of the in-
fpedtor of the revenue were burnt ; and both thefe offi¬
cers were obliged to fly to Philadelphia. In a few
days thereafter, in the month of Auguft 1794, a gene¬
ral meeting wns held at Pitlburgh, confifting of fix or
feven thoufand men in arms. A llrong remonllrance
was drawn up, to be prefented to congrefs. Commit¬
tees were appointed to correfpond with the counties of
Walhington, Fayette, and Alleghany 5 and a refolution
was entered into, againfl: having any intercourfe or
dealings with any man who Ihould accept of any office
for the colleftion of the duty*
The American government on this emergency afled
with much prudence. Commiffioners were defpatched
to confer with the leaders of the oppofition in the dif-
affefted counties, but the conference was unfortunately
without effeft. A committee of 60 perfons was defi¬
ed to confer with the commiffioners, but of thefe only
a fmall number voted in favour of the conciliatory pro-
polition. The others threatened, that if the tax was not
repealed, the people of the weltern counties, would fe-
parate from the American union, and place themfelves
under the proteflion of Great Britain. The condufl
of the populace was Hill more outrageous. They fur-
rounded the houfe where the commiffioners refided,
broke the windows, and grofsly infulted them •, fo that
they wrere under the neceffity of departing without ef-
fefling an accommodation.
Nothing now remained but to repeat the tax, or to
reduce the refraftory counties by force. The former
was neither judged prudent nor fafe •, and as a trifling
force might have been ineffeftual, and therefore ex¬
tremely pernicious, by encouraging and extending the
jnfurreftion, the militia of all the adjacent Hates were
embodied, and different detachments, amounting in all
to 1 ^,000 men, were ordered to rendezvous at Carlifle,
the principal town of Cumberland county. Governor
Mifflin, formerly general, marched thither in the mid¬
dle of September, at the head of 6000 volunteers, who,
for the honour of their country, engaged on this occa-
fion to fupport the laws of the federal government. In
the beginning of Oclober, the prefident joined the ar¬
my at Carlille, of which Governor Lee of Virginia
was commander in chief j and Governor Mifflin was
fecond in command. From Carlille the army pro¬
ceeded immediately, amounting in all to 15,000 men
in two divifions •, and the refult was, that the infur-
gents, after a variety of confultations by reprefentative
committees, came to a refolution to difband, and fub-
mit to the lawr ; and their leaders difappeared. On
the 2 <;th of Oclober, a confiderable meeting was held
at Pitlburg, of the inhabitants of the weflern counties,
in which they entered into a folemn engagement to
fupport order and obedience to the laws of the repub¬
lic by every means in their power. A fmall force
was, however, Hationed in the counties in which the
diHurbance had taken place* A confiderable number
] A M E
of the infurgents who had been made priioners tvere America,
tried, and convidled of high treafon ; but they were all v '
afterwards pardoned. Thus did this rebellion, which
at one time exhibited a formidable afpefl, terminate
without blocdfhed, and almoff without violence or da¬
mage to the public. ^IT
During the fame hammer, a part of the w eftern ter-War with
ritory of the United States was ravaged by a defperate^he Indi-
incurfion of the Indians. To repel this attack, Major ans'
General Wayne was defpatched with a moderate iorce
early in the fummer, and about the middle of Auguff
he penetrated to the Miami river, where the Britifh
had lately re-occupied a fort within the territory which,
according to the treaty of 1783, undoubtedly belong¬
ed to the American Hates. Along with the Indian
general, Wayne found a number of Canadian fettlers
encamped without the fort; and he afferted in his cor-
refpondenee, that Colonel M‘Hee, the Britifh Indian
agent, was the principal inlligator of the war between
the lavages and the United States. The favages, with
a few white auxiliaries, amounted to 2000 men, while
General Wayne had only 900 but he refolved not to
retreat, and, after a lafl overture for peace, which was
rejefled, he advanced to the attack on the 20th of Au-
guft. His advanced guard was at firH thrown into dif-
order by a fevere fire from the Indians, but the fecond
line was immediately brought forward, while the firH
line was directed to roufe the Indians from their co¬
verts by the bayonet; while the cavalry were directed
to turn their flank* The effect of the charge of the
infantry, however, wras, that the favages were routed
and immediately difperfed, the battle terminating un¬
der the guns of the Britiffi garrifon, commanded by
Major Campbell. This laff gentleman and General
Wayne now reciprocally accufed each other as guilty
of hoflility in time of peace. The one complained
that a fort was occupied within the American territo¬
ry 5 and the other, that fo near an approach w'as made
to a garrifon poffeffed by the troops of his Britannic
majelly. It tvas agreed, however, that the point Ihould
be left to be difeuffed by the ambaffadors of their dif¬
ferent nations; and General Wayne retired. Thefe
occurrences excited ffrong apprehenfions in the Ame¬
rican government that the Britiffi miniffry fenoufly me¬
ditated hoililities againll the United States.
Thefe apprehenfions, how'ever, were foon done away Jay’s trea
by the treaty which Mr Jay concluded with Great ty*
Britain in the end of the year 1794. By this treaty
the Britiffi government agreed to indemnify the Ame¬
rican merchants for the illegal feizure of their flips and
property that had taken place during the war; the
forts within the American territory which had been
occupied by the Britiffi, and which had never been eva¬
cuated, were agreed to be given up, and the boundary
line to be clearly afeertained. On the other hand, the
American government confented, that hrench proper¬
ty on board American veffels might be lawfully leized,
and that no privateers belonging to a nation at w ar
with either party fflould be allowed to bring their
prizes into the ports of the other, unlefs forced by flrefs
of weather 5 and at all events, that they Ihould not be
allow’ed to fell their prizes there. Various articles fa¬
vourable to the American commerce were at the fame
time flipulated in the treaty.
When this treaty was laid before the legiflature of
the
4T3
Difputes
with
France.
A M E [ 97
ArneHca. the United States, it occafioned the tnoft violent de-
kateg< fenate, however, approved of it, which
was all that was neceffary, according to the conftitu-
tion, to render it binding. The houfe of reprefenta-
tives at firft refufed to concur in the arrangements ne-
ceflary for carrying it into cffeft, though they at
lait agreed to depart from their oppofition, from the
dread of involving their country in a war with
England, and from the great refpe£t which the coun¬
try at large entertained for the judgment of the pre-
fident.
In the mean time, this treaty, along with other
events, had nearly involved the United States in what
was undoubtedly at that time lefs formidable 5 a wrar
with France. The French had repeatedly made re-
monftrances to the American government againfl the
•conduft of the Britiih, in feizing American veffels,
even In their own rivers and bays, wThen they found
cither French perfons or French property, without any
refiftance being made on the part of the American
ftates. When the above treaty, authorizing iuch fei-
xures, in a manner fo hoftile to the interefts of France,
and even to the fpirit of neutrality which it was the
interelf of the American government to obferve, came
•to be publicly known, the French at firft entertained
hopes that it would net be fancfioned by the American
legiilature. Their ' indignation was greatly roufed
when they underftood that a legalized preference w’as
Shown to the Englilh intereft, by allowing them to
feize French property in American veffels} while
France flood engaged by treaty, not to feize Ameri¬
can property in Englifh veflels, or in the veffels of any
other nation with which France might happen to be
at war. Still, however, the French government re¬
garded lefs the treaty itfelf, than the fpirit from which
it rofe, of a greater attachment to Great Britain than
to France. Their indignation in this refpeft v/as in-
-creafed, by an intercepted letter from the prefident of
the United States addreffed to Mr Morris, who had
lately been the American ambaffador in France, and
who wras then the private agent of the American go¬
vernment in London. This letter, dated at Philadel¬
phia, December 2. 1795, wras a detailed arifwer to
various letters of Mr Morris. The prefident com¬
plained highly of the haughty conduft of the Eng-
-liffi adminiilration, and of the arbitrary meafures
which they were continuing to purfue with refpedf to
American navigation. He requefted Mr Morris to
reprefent to the minifter not only the injuftice, but the
impolicy of this condud ; particularly at a moment
when it was fo much the intereft of England to conci¬
liate the minds of the inhabitants of the United States
to the acceptance of the treaty. He detailed the ef¬
forts he had made, and the difficulties he had encoun¬
tered to overcome the wayward dii’pofxtion of his coun¬
trymen towards French politics, the abettors of which
were the chief opponents of the treaty in queftion ;
which, however, he laid, had the approbation and
fan&ion of the greater and more refpeftable part of the
community. His only objed, he obferved, was peace,
which he was moft anxious to preferve •, and if Ame¬
rica was happy enough to keep herfelf out of European
quarrels, Ihe might, from the increafe of her trade,
vie in 20 years with the moft formidable powers of
Europe.
Vol. II. Part I.
] A M E
This 'letter, Caved from the wreck of the Boll on Amevio.
packet, which had foundered on the coaft of France,
was conffdered as deciiive evidence of the difpolitions
of the American government towards the French re¬
public. Their ambaflador, M. Adet, was therefore
direded to make ftrong reprefentations againft the pri¬
vileges granted to Great Britain, of feizing French
property in American veflels. The anfwer given by
the American government, ftated in juftification of
their condud, that a fpecial treaty made with France
in 1778, formally expreffed, that neutral veflels ihould
neutralize the cargo •, whereas the treaty lately con¬
cluded between the United States and England, con¬
tained no fimilar regulation. The American govern¬
ment therefore afl’erted, that it aded in perfed con¬
formity to both treaties, and though it was lawful for
the Englifh to feize French property on board Ameri¬
can veffels, the French, without a breach of their
treaty with America, could not be permitted to make
reprifals in iimilar circumftances on the Englifh. This
mode of reafoning, which was undoubtedly confiftent
with the letter of the treaties, if not with political ho-
nefty, did not fatisfy the French diredory ; and, ac¬
cordingly, they entered into a formal refolution to fiu
fpend the execution of their treaty with America, and
declared, that they would treat all neutral veffels in
the fame manner, as they ffiould fuffer the Engliffi to
treat them. The only effed of this threatening, was
to augment the maritime power of Great Britain j
merchants belonging to neutral ftates being thereby
induced on all occafions to entruft'their goods to the
Britiih flag, as the only pow-er capable of affording
them full protedion. Still, however, by the manage¬
ment of the x\merican ambaffador Mr Monroe, who
was known to belong to the antifederalift party, the
French diredory was preferred in tolerable temper
with the Americans *, but upon his being recalled, and
Mr Pinckney, a man of the oppoiite fadion, appoint¬
ed his fucccfibr, they manifefted their indignation, by
refufing to receive him, or even to fuffer him to refide
as a private citizen at Paris. They proceeded to no
farther hoftility, however, in expedation that a change
favourable to their interefts might occur in the A-
merican government. For now in the month of Oc¬
tober 1796, George Wafhington, the preftdent, pub¬
licly announced his refolution of retiring from political
affairs on account of the infirmities of age, and re-
quefted his friends not to nominate him in the next
eledion of prefident. 4^
The eledion of a new prefident to fucceed a man of New preli-
fuch diftindion as George Wathington-, afforded abun-^enl>
dant aliment for the animofity of the political parties
in America. The federalifts wdffied to advance to the
office of prefident Mr Pinckney of South Carolina, a
man whofe perfonal charader was much refpeded,
and who had lately been ambaffador in England. He
had alfo been engaged in fome negotiations with Spain,
in which his condud gave general fatisfadion. His
name was affociated by the federalifts, in their votes,
along with that of John Adams, the vice-prefident.
They confidered it as probable, that he would have
the fecond greateft number of votes in the north,
where it was expeded that John Adams w^ould. have
the majority 5 and it was hoped, that he would-at leaft
have the fecond number of votes in the fouthern ftates,
N ' if
A M E E 98 ] A M E
America, it Mr JefFerfon fliould have the majority. * Upon the
1 whole, however, the federalifts generally profelTed a
wifh that Mr Adams fliould be prefident, although it
is faid, that the views of their leaders were privately
diredled to procure the elevation of Mr Pinckney.
The antifederalifls, on the contrary, openly and
unanimoully fupported Mr Jefferfon. . He is well
known to the public as a man of letters. He had been
fecretary of date and ambaffador in France, and was
aflive in procuring the original declaration of inde¬
pendence. The two parties drained every nerve to
i’upport their refpe&ive candidates. They mutually ac-
cufed each other of tricks to invalidate votes, of frauds
in the returns, and of all the other unfair proceedings
fo well underdood in the parent date of which they are
colonids. The leaders of the federalids were deceived
in their expectation of gaining a majority for Mr
Pinckney. John Adams had only one vote beyond
an abfolute majority of the whole wdiich is required
by the conditution, and wras declared prefident *, and
Mr Jefferfon having the fecond greated number of
votes, or three votes fewer than Mr Adams, was de¬
clared vice-prefident.
When the news arrived in America of the French
directory’s refufal to receive Mr Pinckney as minider
from the United States, their conduCt was reprefented
by Mr Adams the prefident, in a fpeech to congrefs,
as a high and aggravated infult to the dignity of the
American people. The federalid party, by whom he
was fupported, had a majority in congrefs, and fome
preparations for war were voted 5 but as the parties
were nearly balanced, the opinions of the oppofition
very frequently prevailed, and, the midion of three
ambaffadors to demand an explanation from the French
government was fcarcely followed by any preparations
for hodility. But by this time the perfons who re¬
tained the poffedion of the fupreme power in France,
under the appellation of an executive directory, had
difplayed a character which deeply wrounded the in-
tereds of their country with all foreign nations, and
ultimately overturned the republican conditution which
had been attempted to be edablidied. Their conduCt
was infolent and corrupted, while at the fame time
they were unable to compenfate thefe defeCts by the
ability of their management. Their negotiation with
the American ambaffadors terminated in an obfcure
and unprincipled intrigue, in wdiich it appeared that
the direClory wfidred to levy a fum of money upon
America, as the price of their forbearance •, a part of
which fum was to go into the public treafury, and a
part was to be received privately by the individual
members of the directory. They alfo, from a fhort-
fighted policy, authorized their privateers and cruizers
to feize all neutral veffels in which any article of Britifh
produce or manufacture Ihould be found, to wFomfo-
ever it belonged. As the Britilh manufactures were
in great demand in every country, this was equivalent
to a declaration ofholtility againitall nations, while, at
the fame time, the abfolute dominion which the Britifh
navy had at this period acquired over the ocean, con¬
verted it into an impotent menace.
In confequence of thefe events, the American con¬
grefs, towards the end of their feffion in 1798, by a
fmall majority, enaCted a law, to break off all com¬
mercial relation, with France or its dependencies, and
to forbid the entrance of French veffels into the Ame- America.
rican ports till the end of the fittings of next congrefs. ' 
A premium was alfo offered for the capture of French
armed {hips by American veffels. Still, however,
though the prefident, Mr Adams, fupported by the
leaders of the federalift party, continued to urge the
neceflity of a war with France, yet, as the majority of
the people appeared decidedly averfe to this meafure,
he had the good fenfe to depart from his own fenti-
ments, and to attempt a new negotiation. As the
French direftory, by their mifconduCl, fpeedily brought
their country to the greateit embarraffments, by once
more arming all Europe againft France, that nation
found it neceffary, for the fake of its fafety, to relinquifti
thofe hopes of freedom for which it had made fo many
facrifices, and to fubmit the wFole power of the Hate
to Bonaparte, who had been the moll; fuccefsful com¬
mander of its armies. He repaired the errors in the
diredlory by more moderate and better management,
and fettled all differences with the American Hates. 4I1.
During thefe political tranfaftions, the two greateft Yellow fe~
cities of thefe Hates, Philadelphia and New" York, hadver'
fuffered very feverely by a peflilential diforder 'called
the yellow fever. It is underflood to have been
brought originally by vcfiels employed in the Have-
trade on the weflern coafl of Africa to the Weff India
illands. After producing the mofl dreadful mortality
in that quarter, it wras conveyed to the two great cities
in America already mentioned, in confequence of their
frequent intercourfe with the iffands. From them it
at times extended itfelf to the other maritime towns.
Having once begun, it returned during different feafons
towards the end of fummer, and many thoufand per¬
fons periHred by it, befides thofe whofe health was per¬
manently injured. More than half the inhabitants ffed
from the cities •, but thofe infedled fortunately either
did not infeft the inhabitants of the country to whofe
houfes they went, or the infection produced a lefs
dangerous form of difeafe. The rents of houfes funk
about one half in Philadelphia and New York, and
their rapid increafe was confiderably retarded. In
confequence, howrever, of the adoption of thofe mea-
Hires of precaution wdiich have been fo long pradlifed
in Europe, but which have been negledted in America,
the danger of a return of the fame calamity feems to
be fomewhat diminiflied, though from the latefl ac¬
counts it is by no means done away.
It has been already mentioned, that a refolution Wafliing-
was very early adopted in America of endeavouring toton, or the
eflablifh a federal city, as it is called, as the capital of . era*
the United States, which ftiould be the feat of govern-
ment independent of every particular Hate, and having
its fovereignty vefled in the whole union \ and we have
Hated the circumflances which led to its eflabliffiment
on the banks of the Potowmiack. Congrefs according¬
ly commenced its fittings at Wafliington at the end of
the year 1800. For feveral years preceding that pe¬
riod the commiflioners of congrefs had been employed
in making out a plan of the city, and in ere£ling pu¬
blic buildings for the accommodation of the govern¬
ment. As the defire of wealth is a prevailing paffion
in America, and as the people there readily engage in
extenfive fpeculations upon every fubjeft, the federal
city of Wafliington wTas for fome time made the objeft
of an endlefs variety of purchafes and Tales of lots of
building.
A M E [ 99 j A M E
America, building ground. The public papers both in Europe
““’'■'V'"""''' and America were filled with exaggerated praife of
the new city, and with fictitious accounts of the rapidi¬
ty of its progrcfs towards completion. After various
perfons had fullered confiderably by unfuccefsful fpe-
culations, ,it was difcovered that it was an eafier mat¬
ter to exhibit upon paper a magnificent and beautiful
city, fitted from its extent to be the capital of the
wmrld, than to rear its buildings and to fill them with
inhabitants. The perfons who had obtained property
in the intended capital of the United States, became
at lad convinced, therefore, that the immenfe extent of
ground marked out in the plan would not be fo fpeedi-
ly covered with houfes as the fanguine fpirit of the
Americans had originally led them to expefr. The
proprietors of different lots therefore became rivals.
Inftead of boafting of the excellencies of the federal
city in general, every {peculator began to boaft of the
advantages of that fide of the city where his own pro¬
perty lay, and to depreciate every other quarter.
Hence the buildings have been begun in fituations very
remote from each other, fo as rather to form a fet of
fcattered hamlets than a fingle town.
The federal city is fituated in a kind of triangular
peninfula, formed by the junction of the rivers called
Potowmack and Eq/l Branch. The plan includes
4124 acres; of thefe 7x2 are allotted to 16 ftreets,
feverally bearing the names of the 16 ftates, and to
other ftreets of lefs magnitude, with fquares and public
gardens. The 3412' acres which remain, being the
property of the union, and of the original proprietors
of the foil, contain 23,000 lots of houfes, exclufive of
3000 feet of lots fet afide for quays. The capitol,
where congrefs affembles, is at the diftance of a
mile and a half from the prefident’s houfe, and three
quarters of a mile at leaft from thofe parts of the
rivers that are molt convenient for commerce. It is
alfo to be obferved that, in the neighbourhood of the
fpot chofen for the federal city, there previoufly exift-
ed a village called Georgetown upon the Potowmack.
From thefe circumftances, various quarters of the new
city w^ere regarded as more or lefs likely to become
fpeedily populous; and, according to the different no¬
tions entertained by individuals, have become more or
lefs favourite points for building upon. The inhabitants
of Georgetown, who had purchafed many lots of the
intended city in the quarter nearefl theinfelves, repre-
fented their own port, and the commerce already be¬
longing to it, as a favourable opening to the commerce
of the city of Wafliington, which would therefore
naturally fix itfelf in that quarter. The proprietors of
lots near the point of the peninfula contended, that
their fituation on the banks of both rivers, being at an
equal diftance between the capitol and the prefident’s
houfe, and being moft airy, healthy, and beautiful,
would foon be preferred to all others. The proprietors
on the Eaft Branch decried the port of Georgetown,
And the whole banks of the Potowmack, as not fecure
in winter from fhoals of ice. They reprefented the
point placed between two rivers as incapable of enjoy¬
ing completely the advantages of either: at the fame
time they boa fled of the great depth and fafety of their
own port, and of their vicinity to the capitol, where
all the members of congrefs muft affemble once every
day, and from which their diftance is not more than
three quarters of a mile. Amidft thefe contending
fpeculations, however, though the federal city of America.
Wafhington is underftood to be advancing w ith confi-' -j,—
derable rapidity, it is neverthelefs ftill in its infancy,
and for many years the greateft part of it muft remain
fubjeft to the plough or the hoe. Its profperity muft
depend in a great degree upon the liability of the fe¬
deral government, and the perfeverance wlxich fhall be
manifefted by congrefs in continuing its fittings there
amidft the inconveniences arifing from defeilive ac¬
commodation. Thefe laft will no doubt fpeedily di-
minifh, and the government has great inducements to
perfevere in fettling itfelf upon a fpot without the limits
of every particular ftate; and the police of w7hich is
entirely in the hands of congrefs, a circumftance
wThich greatly tends to fecure the tranquillity of the
deliberations of that body. Neither does there feem to
exift any reafon fot doubting the permanency of the
federal government. The feveral ftates are fo clofely
connefted with each other by fituation, and commercial
and focial intercourfe, that it is impoflible for them to
enjoy any tolerable degree of tranquillity or order
without fubmitting to a common head. If they lhall
become incapable of governing themfelves as a re¬
public, the evils of anarchy will no doubt fpeedily
compel them to fubmit to a mailer, but their natural
connexion will preferve them as a fingle nation ; and
when a capital is once eftablifhed, wuth public buildings
for the accommodation of all the branches of national
government, it is never eafily altered.
In the mean time it appears that the moft: ftri<5tly re- Prefent
publican or democratic intereft in America is gradual-ftate.Gt
ly acquiring an afcendancy. At the election of pre-P‘utieSj
fident of the United States in 1800, the antifederalifts,
or, as they are fometimes called by their antagonifts,
the jacobin party, were fuccefsful, though after an
eager ftruggle, in railing their favourite candidate, Mr
Jefferfon, to that fupreme office. The two fadftions
are underftood to be greatly irritated againft each
other ; but this circumftance does not appear at all to
difturb the tranquillity of the ftate, or the powrer of
the lawTs. Indeed it is probable that the fuccefs of the
moft violent party may be the firft ftep towards its
acquiring a moderate charafter, as the experience
of mankind in other countries fufficiently demon-
ftrates, that one of the fureft means of infpiring po¬
pular leaders with a refpeft for conftituted authorities
often confifts in admitting them to a participation of
power.
As the United States of America, though they have
received emigrants from all countries, w7ere originally
a Britilh colony, and upon the whole peopled from the
Britilh iftands, every circumftance in their fituation and
hiftory muft always be highly interefting to the inhabi¬
tants of this country. We are connefted writh them
by the ties of confanguinity, as wrell as by the polfeftion
of a common language, law’s, and religion. It is
only in Great Britain, of all the countries on earth,
that a native of the United States can find himfelf as
it were at home, or among a kindred people, poflefling
the fame manners, inftrucfted by the fame books, and
confequently poffefling the fame general features of
charadler and thought. On the other hand, it muft al¬
ways be to the Britilh nation a fubjeft of fair and juf-
tifiable pride, to refleft, that whatever may hereafter be
the deftiny of Europe, amidft its w’ars, debts, taxes, and
ufurpations, Britain has eftablilhed in a fecufe and un-
N 2 affailable
A M E [ ioo ] A M E
America, available pofition, a body of people of its own race and
charafter, who may hereafter be the guardians and
prefervers of civilization and of letters to mankind.—
Temporary hoftilities did indeed exift between the two
countries , and our neighbours the French were abun¬
dantly induftrious in endeavouring to ripen the feeds of
difcord, and to convert them into, a fource of perma¬
nent animolity : but their attempts have been ultimate¬
ly unfuccefsful, being founded upon cafual and paf-
fing circumftances, which could not long prevail againft
fo many bonds of union that are founded upon the moll
lading fentiments and qualities of the human mind.
It had been better, no doubt, both for Britain and for
the colonies, that the war had been avoided. In the
natural courfe of things, American independence mult
have taken place. Had the colonies wanted another
century, till they fhould poffefs five times the popula¬
tion of the parent date, one of tw'o things mud have
occurred ; either the Britilh monarch w'ould have de¬
ferred his little idands, to refide amidd the great mafs
of his people beyond the Atlantic, as his ancedor James
VI. deferted Edinburgh to go to live at London j or
the feparation would have cod America only a trifling
efibrt, and w^ould have faved her all the calamities of
the wrar of the revolution, and the difficulties which
followed it. But young nations, like young men, are
frequently in too great a hade to aid a part upon the
great theatre of the wrorld, and for a while, as happen¬
ed to the United States, they fometimes fuffer by their
raffinefs. This raffinefs, or, as it may perhaps be called,
this generous ardour, on the part of America, at the re-
ludance on the part of Britain to relinquifli fo flouriflr-
ing a branch of her empire, will be regarded by future
generations of Britons,, and of Americans, as fenti¬
ments wffiich naturally refulted from the fituation of
the parties, and as no caufe of continued diflike.
Though twro nations, they mud for ever be one peo¬
ple } and, as the huffiandmen of America mud for ages
be the employers of the manufaHurers of Britain, it is
probable that the intercourfe and amity of the coun¬
tries, founded upon ties both of intered and inclination,
will long continue to exid and to increafe. We
think it here neceffary, therefore, as far as our infor¬
mation extends, to give a general account of the pre-
fent fituation of the United States.
In the treaty of peace concluded in 1783, the limits
of the United States are thus defined : “ And that all
difputes which might arife in future on the fubject of
the boundaries of the laid United States may be pre¬
vented, it is hereby agreed and declared, that the fol¬
lowing are and ffiall be their boundaries, viz. from the
north-wed angle of Nova Scotia, viz. that angle which
is formed by a line drawn due north from the fource of
St Croix river to the Highlands, along the laid High¬
lands, wffiich divide thofe rivers that empty themfelves
into the river St Lawrence, from thofe which fall
41g into the Atlantic ocean, to the north-wredernmod head
Defcription of Connecticut river j thence dowTn along the middle
of the of that river to the 43th degree of north latitude ;
boundaries from thence by a line due-wed on faid latitude until
United ^ the river Iroquois or Cataraquy •, thence along
States. the middle of faid river into Lake Ontario, through the
middle of faid lake, until it ftrikes the communication
by water between that lake and Lake Erie ; thence
along the middle of faid communication into Lake Erie,
through the middle of faid lake, until it arrives at the
water communication between that lake and Lake Hu- AmeticSU-
ron ; thence through the middle of faid lake to the wa- * ' "1
ter communication between that lake and Lake Supe¬
rior ; thence through Lake Superior, north ward of the
illes Royal and Phillipeaux to the Long Lake; thence
through the middle of the faid Long Lake, and the wa¬
ter communication between it and the Lake of the Woods,
to the faid Lake of the Woods; thence through the laid
lake to the moil north-weftern point thereof, and from
thence on a due weft; courfe to the river Miffiluppi ;
thence by a line to be drawn along the middle of faid
river Miffiffippi, until it ftiall interfeift the northernmoft
part of the 31ft degree of north latitude. South, by
a line to be drawn due eaft from the determination of
the line laft mentioned, in the latitude of 31 degrees
north of the equator, to the middle of the river A-
palachicola or Catahouche ; thence along the middle
thereof to its junftion with the Flint river ; thence
ftraight to the head of St Mary’s river, and thence
down along the middle of St Mary’s river to the At¬
lantic ocean. Eaft, by a line to be drawn along the
middle of the river St Croix, from its mouth in the bay
of Fundy to its fource ; and from its fource dire&ly
north to the afbrefaid Highlands, which divide the ri¬
vers that fall into the Atlantic ocean from thofe which
fall into the river St Lawuence, comprehending all
iflands within twenty leagues of any part of the ffiores
of the United States, and lying between lines to be
drawn due eaft from the points where the aforefaid
boundaries between Nova Scotia on the one part and
Eaft Florida on the other, ftiall refpeflively touch the
bay of Fundy, and the Atlantic ocean, excepting fuch
iHands as now are, or heretofore have been, within the
limits of the faid province of Nova Scotia.” ^I9
In this defcription there are fome trifling inaccura-Errors in
cies ; in particular it now apppears, that a line drawn the ckfcrip*.
due weft wTould not touch the river Miftiffippi, buttlon'
would pafs to the northward of its fource. Neither w as
it well underftood, by the negotiators, what river was
meant under the name of St Croix, Thefe points, how¬
ever, were adjufted in the treaty between Great Bri¬
tain and the United States, which was entered into in
1799, and ccmmiffioners were appointed to point out
the river which thould be confidered as the boundary,
and to fix upon a line of juniftion between the Lake of
the Woods and the river Miffiffippi. The refult of the
whole is, that the territory of the United States of
America may be confidered as a vaft triangle, of which
the Atlantic ocean on the eaft forms the bafe. The
fouthern fide is formed by the river Miffiffippi, and the
northern by a very irregular line wholly formed by a
long chain of lakes and rivers, excepting at its eaftern
part, which confifts of a piece of territory called New
Brunfwick, referved by Great Britain near the fea
coaft. In this way, excepting on the corners touching
New Brunfwick belonging to Britain on the north-eaft,
and Florida belonging to Spain on the fouth-eaft, the
United States are almoft entirely furroimded by wTater.
Parallel to the Atlantic ocean, from Georgia on the
foutffi to the moft northern ftates> runs a traft of moun¬
tainous country, which receives the general appellation
of the Alleghany mountains. The principal chain of
thefe mountains is croffed by no river. On the eaft¬
ern fide of it a vaft variety of ftreams of the greateft
magnitude are formed, which defeend into the Atlantic
ocean. Beyond this chain of mountains, and parallel
to
A M E [ ioi ] A M E
America, to it, at a confiderable diftance, is the great river Ohio.
‘ ' All the rivers that take their origin among the Al¬
leghany mountains, beyond the principal ridge, flow
weftward into the Ohio. This laft river, after pafling
along the weflern fide of the Alleghany mountains, falls
into the Mifliflippi, which paffes round the fouthern ex¬
tremity of thele mountains into the Atlantic ocean at
the gulf of Mexico. The territory of the United
States weft of the Ohio may alfo be confidered as form¬
ing a triangle, of which the river Ohio, on the eaft,
forms the bale ; while the two fides are formed by the
chain of lakes alteady mentioned, and by the river
Mifliflippi. This weftern country, which is of immenfe
extent, is ftill in a great meafure poflefled by the In¬
dians. The whole territory of the United States con¬
tains, by computation, a million of fquare miles, in
which are - 640,000,000 of acres,
Deduht for water, 51,000,000
Acres of land in the United! 0
States, . f 589,000,000 . _
The territory to the weftward of the river Ohio a-
mounts to about 2 20,000.,000 of acres, after deducting
upwards of 40,000,000 for water. The whole of this
immenie extent of unappropriated territory belongs to
congrefs, as the head of the union, and is fet apart for
the payment of the public debts of the confederation.
It is meant, when peopled, to be divided into new ftates
^20 to form a part of the union.
The coun- No part of the world has fo many navigable waters
try well adjoining to its territory, or pafling through it, as the
•watered. United States of America. The Atlantic ocean, which
forms their eaftern boundary, is indented with numerous
bays, fome of which are of very confiderable extent,
and advance to a confiderable diftance into the coun¬
try. On the northern or north-eafterly part of the
ftates is the bay of Fundy, between Nova Scotia and
New England, chiefly remarkable for its tides, which rife
to the height of $0 or 60 feet, and flow fo rapidly as to
overtake animals that feed upon the ihore. Next to it,
on the fouthward, are the bays called Penobfcot and
Cafco, extending along the coaft of the province of
Main, which is the moft northern territory of the
United States. Maffachufets bay follows thefe, which
wathes the town of Bofton, and is comprehended be¬
tween Cape Ann on the north, and Cape Cod on the
fouth. Various fmall bays fucceed to thefe, to the fouth-
ward, after which is Long Maud found. This is a
* kind of inland fea, from three to 25 miles broad, and
about 140 miles long, extending the whole length of
the ifland, and dividing it from Connecticut. It com¬
municates with the ocean at both ends of Long Ifland,
and affords a very fafe inland navigation. Near the
weft end of this found, about eight miles eaftward of
the city of New York, is the ftrait called Hell Gate.
It is remarkable for its whirlpools, which make a tre¬
mendous roaring at certain times of the tide. They
are occaftoned by the narrownefs and crookednefs of
the pafs, and by a bed of rocks that extends quite acrofs
it •, but, a Ikilful pilot can with fafety conducft a Ihip
of any burden through this ftrait, with the tide, or at
ftill -water, with a fair wind. Still proceeding to the
fouth, is Delaware bay, 60 miles in length, which is
fo wide in fome of its parts that a Ihip in the middle
cannot be feen from the land. But of all the Ameri¬
can bays, the Chefapeak is the largeft. Its entrance America,^
is between Cape Charles, and Cape Henry in Virginia, —,_v ~
12 miles wide, and it extends 270 miles to the north-
%vard, dividing Virginia from Maryland. It is from
feven to 18 miles broad, and generally as much as nine
fathoms deep, affording many commodious harbours
and a fafe and eafy navigation. It receives the ■waters
ofthe Sufquehannah, Potowmack,Rappahannock, York,
and James’ Rivers, which are all large and navigable.
To the fouth of the Chefapeak, on the coaft of North
Carolina, are the three bays or founds called Albemarle^
Pamlico, and Core. Of thefe Pamlico found, which
lies between the other two, is the greateft. It is a kind
of lake, or inland fea, from xo to 20 miles broad, and
nearly 100 miles in length. It is feparated from the
fea in its whole length by a beach of fand, hardly a
mile wide, and generally covered with fmall trees and
bullies. Through this bank are feveral fmall inlets
by which boats may pafs. But Ocrecok inlet is the
only one that will admit veflels of burden into the
moft important diftrifls of Edenton and Newbern. This
inlet is in lat. 350 10', and opens into Pamlico found,
between Ocrecok iftand, and Core bank j the land on
the north is called Ocrecok, and on the fouth Port/-
mouth. A bar of fand having 14 feet water at low
tide croffes this inlet j and fix miles within this bar the
channel is crofted by a ftioal called the Swajh, having
only eight or nine feet water at full tide. Few ma¬
riners, though acquainted with? the inlets, chooie to
bring in their own veflels, as the bar often fliifts du¬
ring their abfence on a voyage. To the north ot"
Pamlico found, and^communicating with it, Albemarle
found extends 60 miles in length, and is from eight to
1 2 in breadth. Core found, which lies to the fouth of
Pamlico, likewife communicates with it. Thefe founds
are fo large, when compared with their inlets from the
fea, that no tide can be perceived in any of the rivers
which empty into them, nor is the water fait even in
the mouths of thefe rivers. A trail of low marfny terri¬
tory between Pamlico and Albemarle founds is called
DifmalSwamp. The fame name, however, is alfo given
to another trait at fome diftance to the northward of Al¬
bemarle found. Apart of this laft trait is in North Ca¬
rolina, and the reft within the boundaries of Virginia.
As already ftated, the northern or north-weftern
boundary of the United States, confifts almolt entirely'
of a chain of lakes dividing the country from Canada.
Thefe lakes confift of by far the largeft colleitions of
freth water that are to be found in the world. The
uppermoft or moft wefterly is called the Lake of the
Woods, from the great forefts upon its banks. Its
length from eart to weft is about 70 miles, and in fome '
places it is 40 miles wide. To the eaftward of it is
Rainy or Long Lake, which is nearly 100 miles long,
but never more than 20 miles wide. To the eaftward
of this is Lake Superior, juftly termed the Cafpian of
America. It is undoubtedly the largeft bafon of frefti
water in the world, being 1500 miles in circumfe¬
rence. The water is pure and tranfparent, and ap¬
pears generally to reft upon a bed of huge rocks. A
great part of its coaft is likewife rocky and irregular,.
It contains many ifiands, two of which are very confi¬
derable. The one, called Ife Royal, is about iod miles*
long, and in many places 40 miles broad. The lake-
abounds with filh, particularly trout and fturgeon. It
is
A M E [ r
America, is affe&ed by florins' in the fame manner as the ocean.
Its waves run as high, and the navigation is equally
dangerous. It difcharges its waters from the fouth-
eaft corner, by a ftrait called St Marie, of about 40
miles long, into Lake Huron ; but this ftrait is not navi¬
gable, on account of its having at one part what the
Americans call a rapid, that is, a quick defcent of the
waters among rugged rocks. It does not appear, how¬
ever, that above one-tenth of the waters which are
conveyed by about 40 rivers into Lake Superior, pafs
out of it by the llrait of St Marie, which neverthelefs
is its only vifible outlet. Connderable quantities of
copper ore are found in beds upon many fmall illands
in Lake Superior, but it has not hitherto become an
objedl of commerce.
Lake Huron is next in magnitude to Lake Superior,
being about 1000 miles in circumference. On the
north fide of it is an illand 100 miles in length, and
no more than eight miles broad. This ifland is confi-
dered as facred by the Indians. On its fouth-wefl fide
Lake Huron fends out a bay, called Saganutn Bay,
into the country, of about 80 miles in length and
about 18 in breadth. At its north-weft corner, this
lake communicates with Lake Michigan by the ftraits
of Michillimakinac.
Lake St Claire receives the waters of the three- great
lakes Superior, Michigan, and Huron, and difcharges
them, through a river or ftrait called Detroit, into
Lake Erie. It is about 90 miles in circumference.
Its navigation is obftrufted by a bar of fand near the
middle, which prevents loaded veffels from pafling.
Lake Erie is nearly 300 miles long from call to
weft, and about 40 in its broadeft part. Its illands
and banks are much infefted with rattle-fnakes. Near
the illands the water is covered for many acres to¬
gether with the large pond lilly, on the leaves of
which, in the fummer feafon, lie myriads of water
fnakes balking in the fun. The American geogra¬
phers tell us o£ a remarkable fnake found in this lake,
called the hijjing fnake. It is about 18 inches long,
and fmall and Ipeckled. When approached it flattens
itfelf, and the fpots upon its {kin become vifibly bright¬
er. At the lame time it blows from its mouth with
great force a fubtile wind, faid to be of a naufeous fmell,
which, if drawn in by the breath of the traveller, infal¬
libly brings on a decline, that in a few months proves
fatal. This lake is of more dangerous navigation than
any of the others, on account of the many pependicular
lharp rocks which it contains. It communicates with
Lake Ontario by the river Niagara, which is about
30 miles in length *, and which being crofted by a
branch of the Alleghany mountains, confifting of lime-
ftone rock, forms the celebrated falls of Niagara, one
of the moft wonderful natural objects in the world,
on account of the immenfe weight of water that is at
once precipitated from a height which different travel¬
lers have eftimated varioully, from 137 to 160 feet. It
has been often defcribed ; but as every traveller feems
to view it with greater aftonilhment than his predecef-
421 fors, we fhall ftate the terms in which it is mentioned
Defcription by the duke de la Rochefoucauit Liancourt, who vi-
of .Niagara, fited it in 179 <?• “ At Chippaway the grand fpedla-
cle begins. The river which has been conllantly ex¬
panding from Fort Erie to this place, is here upwards
of three miles wide; but on a hidden it is narrowed,
02 ] A M E
and the rapidity of the ftream redoubled by the decli- America,
vity of the ground on which it flows, as well as the
hidden contraftion of its bed. The channel is rocky j
and the interfperfed fragments of rocks increafe the
violence of the ftream. The country is flat and even
to this point; hut here a range of white rocks ariies
on each fide of the river, which is contracted to half a
mile’s breadth. This range is a branch ol the Alle¬
ghany mountains, which proceeding from Honda, pre-
vioully to their reaching this point, mterfeft the whole
continent of America. The river, more clofely hem¬
med in by the rocks on the right encroaching upon its
channel, branches into two arms, one of which flows
along the bank formed by the rocks on the right ; and
the other, far more eonfiderable, being feparated by a
fmall ifland, makes ftraight on to the left, and {weeps
through a bafon of ftone -which it fills with much
foam and noife. At length, being again obftrufted by
other rocks which it meets on its right, it alters its
courfe with redoubled violence ; and, along with the
right arm, nifties down a perpendicular ledge of rocks
160 feet high, nearly half concave, and probably
worn out by the inceflant impetuofity of the waters.
Its width is nearly equal to that of its bed, the unifor¬
mity of w-hich is only interrupted by an ifland w-hich
feparates the tw-o arms, refts unfhaken on its rocky ba¬
fts, and feems, as it wrere, to fwim between the two
ftreams wfliich rufti dowm at once into this ftupendous
chafm. The wraters of the lakes Erie, Michigan, St
Claire, Huron, and Lake Superior, and of the nume¬
rous rivers emptying themfelves into thefe lakes, incef-
fautly replace the water that thus daffies down. The
water of the falls tumbles perpendicularly on the rocks.
Its colour is at times a dark green ; at others a foam¬
ing wftiite, brilliant throughout, and difplaying a tliou-
fand variegations as it is {truck by the rays of the fun,
or, according to the time of the day, the ftate of the
atmofphere, the force of the wind, &c. The water
which nifties down the rocks rifes in part in a thick
column of miff, often towering above the height of the
falls and mixing with the clouds. The remainder,
broken in its perpendicular defcent by fragments of
rocks, is in continued agitation, fpouts and foams, and
calls on Ihore logs of wood, whole trees, boats, and
wu-ecks, which the ftream has fwept along in its courfe.
The bed of the river formed by the two ridges of rocks,-
which extend a great way farther, is ftill more nar¬
rowed, as if part of this mighty ftream had vaniftied
during the fall, or wTere fwalknved up by the earth.
The noife, agitation, irregularity, and rapid defcent
of the ftream, continue feven or eight miles farther on j
and the river does not become fufficiently placid for a
fafe paffage, till it reaches Queenftowm nine miles from
the falls. It is fuperfluous to mention, that notwith-
ftanding the feverity of the winter in this country, the
cataraSi as w7ell as the river above it are never frozen.
But this is not the cafe wuth the lakes and fmaller ri¬
vers that fupply it wdth water. Enormous flakes of
ice rufti conftantly down this cataradl when the thaw
fets in, without being entirely dallied to pieces on the
rocks 5 and thus are frequently piled in huge maffes
up to half its height. With the noife occafioned by the
falls, we wen lefs ftruck than wre expelled j and Mr
Guillemard, as well as myfelf, who had both feen the
Rhine fall near Schafhaufen, could not but acknow¬
ledge
A M E * [ 103 ]
ledge that the noife it pro ’uces is far more flriking. voyage
Yet I muft repeat it again and again, that nothing
can (land the tell of comparifon with the falls of Nia¬
gara. Let no one expedl to find here fomething plea-
ling, wildly beautiful, or romantic j all is wonderfully
grand, awful, fublime : every power of the foul is ar-
refted; the impreffion lirik.es deeper the longer you
contemplate, and you feel more ilrongly the impoffibi-
lity of doing juftice to your perceptions and feelings.”
Lake Ontario, which is the lowed of the great lakes
that form'the northern frontier of the United States,
is of an oval form, and abounds with filh of an excel¬
lent flavour. It difcharges itfelf on the north-ealt into
the river Iroquois, which, at the town of Montreal,
takes the name of the river St Lawrence ; and palling
by Quebec, falls into the Atlantic ocean at the gulf of
St Lawrence.
The river Mifliflippi, which forms the third or fouth-
weftern boundary of the United States, divides their
territory from the country of Louiliana, which belonged
to Spain, but has recently been ceded to France. This
river is fuppofed, when its windings are included, to
be upwards of 3000 miles in length, and to extend
nearly 2000 in a direft line. It is navigable to the
falls of"' St Anthony in about lat. 44® 30'. About
lat. 29°, a large river called the Illinois, belonging to
the United States, falls into it; and it is foon after¬
wards joined by a larger river than itfelf from the
fouth, called the Mijfouri, which has a greater length
of navigation. At the diftance of 230 miles below its
junftion with the Miflburi, the river Ohio, which is a
mile in breadth, falls into the Mifliflippi. From the
mouth of the Ohio it continues to defcend 1005 miles
to the town of New Orleans, after pafling which it
falls into the gulf of Mexico. In fpring floods the
Mifliflippi rifes to a great height and overflows its
banks, depofiting upon them immenfe quantities of
fertilizing mud or llime. After its jundfion with* the
Miflburi, its waters become fo loaded wuth the earthy
particles, that in a half-pint tumbler they have been
found to depofite a fediment of two inches of flime. Its
banks, to a great diftance from its mouth, appear to
have been gradually formed by the depofition of trees
and mud, which its floods bring dowm from the high¬
er country. The foil is accordingly extremely foft,
rich, and moift. It is apt to be broken up by the pe¬
riodical floods of the river, wdtich fometimes appears
to alter its channel.
When in flood, the current of the Mifliflippi is fo
ftrong that wuth difficulty it can be afcended. The
current defcends at the rate of five miles an hour ; but
it is obferved, that at this period there is a counter
current wduch runs at the rate of about two miles an
hour, clofe to the banks of the river, wdiich greatly af-
fifts the afcending boats. In autumn, when the wa¬
ters are low, it does not defcend fafter than two miles
an hour, unlefs where the ftream is narrowred by
clufters of iflands, ftioals, and land banks. The cir¬
cumference of many of thefe fhoeds being feveral miles,
the voyage is rendered more tedious and dangerous in
autumn than in fpring, when the water covers them
to a great depth. The upper parts of the Mifliflippi
are ufually navigated in veffels carrying about 40 tons,
and rowed by 18 or 20 men •, and what is remarkable,
the depth of the river increafes as it is afcended. The
A M E
from New Orleans, near the mouth of the America.
Mifliflippi, upwards to the river Illinois is ufually per- v
formed in eight or ten wyeeks. The river Miflburi is
faid to be navigable about 1200 or 1300 miles beyond
its junction with the Mifliflippi, but no part of it is with¬
in the territory of the United States. By a treaty con¬
cluded with Spain in 1795, it was agreed that the na¬
vigation of the Mifliflippi fhould be enjoyed in common
by the fubjefts of Spain and the citizens of America.
The waters in the interior of the United States are
no lefs convenient for navigation than thofe upon the
extremities of the country. ^23
The lakes in the interior, howyever, are by no means Lakes in
equal in extent to thofe upon the frontier. They are t;he inteman
chiefly fituated in the ftate of New York or in its vi¬
cinity. Lake Champlain is the largeft. It lies nearly
to the eaft of Lake Ontario, and is about 80 miles in
length from north to fouth, and 14 miles over at its
broadeft part. It is well ftored wflth fiih, and the land
around it is good. Crown Point and Ticonderago are
fituated on the fouthern bank of this lake. Lake
George lies in a mountainous country fouth-weft of
Lake Champlain, and is about 55 miles long from
north-eaft to fouth-weft, but narrow. The lakes Se¬
neca and Cayoga are each about 30 or 40 miles in
length. Lake Oneida extends to 25 miles. Befides
thefe there are feveral others of lefs magnitude, though
ufeful for inland navigation, called Otfego, Chatoque,
Coniaderago, and Utjlayantho. T here is alfo in Orange
County an amphibious trafl called the Drowned lands,
confifting of about 40,000 or 50,000 acres. The wa¬
ters which defcend from the furrounding hills, being
but flowly difeharged by the river Wallkill, cover thefe
vaft meadows every winter, fo that the furface of them
can be navigated. They were thus rendered extreme¬
ly fertile, but the inhabitants in the neighbourhood
are expofed to intermittent fevers. 423
It has been already mentioned that, to the eaft-Eaftern ri«
ward of the Alleghany mountains, all the riversvers'
flow into the Atlantic ocean. Of thefe, beginning
with the north, and going fouthward, the follow¬
ing are the moft remarkable. In the ftates to the
eaft ward of New York, tvhich were formerly called the
Neva England colonies, and which are now divided in¬
to the five ftates of New Hamplhire, Maffachufets,
Rhode Ifland, Connedlicut, and Vermont, there is on¬
ly one river of any importance, called ConneBicut river.
It rifes in lat. 45° 10', long. 71® weft from London.
Its length in a ftraight line is nearly 300 miles. At
its mouth is a bar of fand which obftrudls tire naviga¬
tion. Ten feet water at full tides is found upon this
bar. The river is navigable to Hartford, which is up¬
wards of 50 miles from its mouth, and the produce of
the country for 200 miles above is brought thither in
boats. The boats which are ufed in this bufinefs are
flat-bottomed, long, and narrow, for the convenience
of going up the ftream, and of fo light a make as to
be portable in carts. They are taken out of the river
for feveral miles at different carrying-places.
To the fouth of Connedlicut river is Hudfon’s river,
one of the largeft and fineft in the United States. It
rifes in the mountains between the lakes Ontario and
Champlain, and is 250 miles in length, falling into the
ocean near New York, which (lands upon it. About
60 miles above New York the water becomes freftr p,
but'
A M E
America, bvit the tide flows a few miles beyond the flourilhing
“'’■“V'—'-j town called Albuny, 160 miles above New York, and
to this diltance the river is.navigable by Hoops of 80
tons burden. From Albany to the neighbourhood of
Lake George is 65 miles, and to this diftance the river
is navigable by light boats ; but there are two port¬
ages, or carrying-places in the way, of half a mile
each. By this river the produce of the remoteit
farms is eafily and fpeedily conveyed to a certain and
profitable market at the great trading city of New
York. Its banks are populous to a confiderable di¬
ftance, and a flourifhing inland trade is carried on upon
it betwreen Albany and New York in nearly 100 vef-
fels of about 70 tons burden, the greater part of which
belong to the inhabitants of Albany. They make ten
voyages in a year, are navigated by a mafter, a mate,
and two men, who receive of wages, the mafter 20, the
mate 1 5, and the feamen 9 dollars a-month each.
The next great river to the foutlrward is the Dela¬
ware. It riles in the ftate of New7 York in Lake Ut>
ftayantho, and takes its courfe fouth-weft, till it croftes
into P-ennfylvania, in latitude 420. Thence it ftill
proceeds fouthward, dividing the ftates of New7 York
and New7 Jerfey, palling into the ocean through De¬
laware bay, having New7 Jerfey on the north-eaftern
fide, and Pennfylvania and Delaware on the weft.
From the mouth of Delaware bay, between Cape Hen-
lopen and Cape May, to the city of Philadelphia, is
about 118 miles. So far there is a fufficient depth of
water for a 74 gun ftiip. At Philadelphia the river
is extremely beautiful, pafting through a rich and
populous country. It is three miles broad, and the
water is perfe&ly frelh. From Philadelphia upwards
to Trenton Falls, where the Hoop-navigation ends, is
35 miles. The river is navigable 40 miles farther for
boats that carry eight or nine tons 5 and, with fome
carrying-places, it is navigable for Indian canoes, or
fuch boats as we have already mentioned to be in ufe
upon Connecticut river, for 150 miles. The tide reaches
Trenton Falls, and rifes fix feet at Philadelphia. Three
miles below7 this city, the Delaware receives the river
Schuylkill, which is navigable about 8 ? or 90 miles.
The Sufquehannah river alfo rifes in the ftate
of New York, crofles the ftate of Pennfylvania, and
flow7s into the great bay of Chefapeak, after receiving
many large ftreams, feveral of wdiich are navigable
for 50 miles j this river itfelf being navigable to an
immenfe extent, though fometimes interrupted by rocks,
which form troublefome rapids.
Next to thefe follow the Virginian rivers, the great¬
er part of which flow7 into the bay of Chefapeak. The
value of thefe ftreams can only be underftood by an
infpe&ion of the map of the country. Almoft every
farm houfe, to the eaftward of the Alleghany mountains,
has a navigable river at its door} the refult of which
has been, that few towns of any confequenee exift there,
the inhabitants having been induced to extend them-
felves everywhere along the banks of the rivers, by
means of which they enjoy at once all the advantages
of agriculture and of commerce ; every planter being
in fome meafure a merchant as well as a cultivator of
the foil. The moft northerly of the Virginian rivers
is the Potowmack, upon which the federal city of
Wafhington is placed. It is ieven miles and a half broad
at the mouth. The diftance from the capes of Virgi-
A M E
nia to the termination of the tide-water in this river Amt-uVa,.
is above 300 miles, and it is navigable for ftiips of the v——^
greateft burden nearly to that extent. Thereafter, it
is obftructed by four confiderable falls, or rather ra¬
pid defeents of the ftream among rocks, which for
a few miles interrupt the navigation. At thefe falls,
howover, navigation is continued, by means of canals
fupplied with locks 3 fo that this river affords a ivatex
communication for many hundred miles above the
termination of the tide. It alio receives a great va¬
riety of navigable ftreams ; one of which is the Shenan¬
doah, which is faid to be navigable for fmall veffels
for upwards of xoo miles. The Rappahannock, York
river, and James’s river, with their various tributary
ftreams, follow in fucceffion. In a multitude of direc¬
tions, they afford a communication acrofs the firft
ridges of mountains, called the B/w Mountains, to the
foot of the great middle ridge, or the proper Alleghany
mountains. In their courfe they not only facilitate
the intercourfe of the inhabitants, but, in feve»al fitua-
tions, exhibit inftances of fplendid and beautiful
feenery. The junction of two of thefe rivers is thus
deferibed by an American writer : “ The paffage of
the Potow7mack through the Blue Ridge is perhaps one
of the moft ftupendous feenes in nature. You Hand
on a very high point of land. On your right comes
up the Shenandoah, having ranged along the foot of
the mountain 100 miles to feek a vent. On your left
approaches the Potowmack, in quell of a paiTage alfo*
In the moment of their junction, they ruilr together
againft the mountain, rend it afunder, and pafs off to
the lea. The firft glance of this feene hurries our
fenfes into the opinion, that this earth has been created
in time: that the mountains were formed firft; that the
rivers began to flow afterwardsj that in this place par¬
ticularly they have been dammed up by the Blue
Ridge of mountains, and have formed an ocean which
filled the whole valley : that, continuing to rife, they
have at length broken over at this fpot, and have torn
the mountain down from its fummit to its bafe. The
piles of rock on each hand, but particularly on the
Shenandoah, the evident marks of their difriiption
and avulfion from their beds by the moft powerful
agents of nature, corroborate the impreftion. But the
diftant finilhing which nature has. given to the pitlure
is of a very different character. It is a true contrail
to the foreground. It is as placid and delightful as
that is wild and tremendous. For the mountain being
cloven afunder, fhe preterits to your eye, through the
cleft, a fmall catch of fraooth blue horizon, at an in¬
finite diftance in the plain country, inviting you, as it
were, from the riot and tumult roaring around, to pafs
through the breach, and participate of the calm below.
Here the eye ultimately compofes itielf 5 and that way
too the road happens actually to lead. You crofs the
Potowmack above the junction, pafs along its fide
through the bafe of the mountain for three miles, its
terrible precipices hanging’ in fragments over you, and
within about twenty miles reach Fredericktown, and
the fine country round it.”
To the fouthward of Virginia, that is, in the ftates
of North Carolina and Georgia, a great variety of ri¬
vers flow into the ocean. As the face of the country,
however, is very level, the land which they bring down
in fpring floods, or which is caft up by the ocean upon
[ 1 °4 ]
America.
4^4
Weftern
Waters.
A M E [ 105 ] A M E
the coaft, is apt to obftruft the entrance into them 5 fo
that they are deeper within the country than at the
ihore. One general rule obtains with regard to
them : They are navigable by any veffel that can pafs
the bar at their mouths j and while a river continues
broad enough for a veffel to turn round, there is gene¬
rally a fufficient depth of water for it to proceed. In
North Carolina, the principal rivers are, the Roanoke,
which is navigable for fmall veffels about fixty or fe-
venty miles ; the Pamlico, which is navigable for 90
miles 5 Neus river, which carries fmall boats to the di-
ftance of 250 miles j and Trent river, which is navi¬
gable for 40 miles. In South Carolina are the Sante,
the Savannah, and the Pedee, which rife from various
fources in that ridge of mountains which divides the
waters which flow into the Atlantic ocean from thofe
which fall into the Miffiffippi. They are navigable to
a great diftance, as well as a variety of others of lefs
note. In Georgia there are alfo feveral rivers, which
are navigable to the diftance of eighty or ninety miles ;
but the entrance into them from the ocean is very diffi¬
cult, as the extreme flatnefs of the country prevents
the ftream from having fufficient force to keep their
current clear of obftrudlions at their confluence with
the fea-tides.
The weftern waters of the United States, or thofe
beyond the Alleghany range, are not lefs abundant, or
lefs convenient for navigation, than thofe on the eaftern
lide of the mountains. We have already remarked,
that at Fort Pitt the great river Ohio commences;
being there formed by the confluence of two, or rather
three rivers, the Alleghany, the Monongahela, and the
Yohogany j which laft runs into the Monongahela,
about fifty miles above Fort Pitt. Thefe three rivers,
previous to their junftion, afford an inland navigation
of many hundred miles. The Monongahela is no lefs
than 400 yards wide at its mouth. At the diftance of
100 miles above this, it is ftill 300 yards in breadth,
and affords good navigation for boats. For 50 miles
higher it is ftill navigable; though the navigation is
apt to be interrupted during dry feafons. The Alle¬
ghany alfo affords a very diftant navigation, extending
at times in very fmall veffels to within 15 miles of
Lake Erie, on the northern boundary of the United
States. The Ohio, being formed by the junction of
thefe rivers, proceeds along the back, or weftern fide,
of the Alleghany, to the diftance of 1188 miles before
it falls into the Miffiffippi, receiving in its courfe a
great variety of tributary ftreams, both from its eaftern
and weftern fides. It is faid to be one of the moft
beautiful rivers on earth ; its current is gentle •, its wa¬
ters are clear *, and its bofom fmooth and unbroken by
rocks and rapids : a Angle inftance excepted. It is
one quarter of a mile wide at Fort Pitt, and increafes
gradually to one mile in width at its mouth 5 though
at various places it is occafionally broader and narrow¬
er. At the rapids or rocky part of its channel, which
for about a mile difturb the navigation, it is only a
quarter of a mile in breadth. Thefe rapids are in la¬
titude 38° 8'. It affords at all times a fufficiency of
water for light boats to Fort Pitt. The inundations
of the river begin about the laft of March, and fubfide
in July. During thefe, were it not for the rapidity of
the current, and the hidden turns of the river, a firft
rate man of war might amend from the ocean to the
Vol. II. Part I.
rapids. But at this place the rife of the water does not America.
exceed ten or twelve feet. The water there defcends v ““
about thirty feet in a mile and a half. The bed of the
river is a folid rock, and is divided by an ifland into
two branches. But it is faid that the fouthern branch
is at moft feafons navigable in fmall boats, when con¬
duced by Ikilful pilots.
Tht following are the chief rivers which flow into
the Ohio from the eaft : The Great Kanhaway, and
the Little Kanhaway } the navigation of wffiich laft is
much interrupted by rocks. The former, however, af¬
fords a tolerable navigation of about 90 miles, and
is 280 yards wide at its mouth. The Little Kanha-
wray is 150 yards broad •, but it is navigable only for
10 miles.—After thefe are the rivers called Sandy,
Licking, and Kentucky. The former conftitutes the
eaftern boundary of Kentucky, and reaches the Al¬
leghany mountains. It is of no great fize. Lick¬
ing river is 100 miles in length, and 100 yards broad
at its mouth. The Kentucky is a very crooked ftream,
of 200 miles in length. It falls into the Ohio by a
mouth of 100 yards broad.
Below the rapids of the Ohio, in the rich country of
Kentucky, is Salt river, 90 miles in length, and 80
yards wide. Green river falls into the Ohio 1 20 miles
below7 the rapids. Its courfe is upwards of 150 miles. 1
Cumberland river falls into the Ohio 413 miles below
the rapids. Its length is upwards of 530 miles.
Theie rivers are navigable for boats almoft to their
fources, without rapids or interruptions for the greateft
part of the year. Their banks are generally high, and
compofed of limeftone. Below7 thefe is the Teneffee,
wffiich runs into the Ohio a ftiort way below7 the mouth
of the Cumberland. The Teneffee is 600 yards wdde
at its mouth, and upon afeending it, to the diftance of
260 miles, it widens to between twro and three miles;
which width it continues for nearly thirty miles. Thus
far it is navigable by veffels of great burden. Here,
how'ever, it is interrupted by certain flioals, called the
Mufcle Shoals, from the great quantity of fhellfifh with
wffiich they are covered. Thefe flioals can only be
paffed in fmall boats 5 above wffiich, howrever, the river
again becomes navigable for boats of forty or fifty tons
burden for fome hundred miles } and it is eafily navi- •
gated at leaft 600 miles above the Mufcle Shoals.
Of the rivers that flow into the Ohio from the weft:
the following are the chief: The Mulkingum, which
is a gentle ftream, confined by high banks. With a
portage or carrying-place of about one mile, it affords
a communication writh a fmall navigable ftream called
the Cayahoga, which flows into Lake Erie. There¬
after is the river Hockhocking, inferior to the Muf-
kingum, but navigable for large boats about feventy
miles, and for fmall ones much farther, through a
country abounding with coal, iron ftone, and other
minerals. Next is the Sioto, which can be navigated
W7ith large barges for 200 miles. Then follows the
Great Miami, wffiich is navigable to an immenfe di¬
ftance, even to the neighbourhood of Lake Erie. The
Wabalh falls into the Ohio‘by a mouth 276 yards
w7ide, 1020 miles below Fort Pitt. The Wabalh is a
beautiful river, w7ith high and’ fertile banks. It can
be navigated with boats drawing three feet wrater, 412
miles, and by large canoes 197 miles farther. Befides
thefe ftreams wffiich fall into the Ohio, a va/lety of
O rivers
A M E
, Amerka. ^ rivers of great fize and importance are to be found
v dill farther to the weftward within the territory of the
United States. They.either fall into the MiiTjffippi
on the fouth-weft, or into the great northern lakes ;
but they are not yet fufficiently known to admit of ac¬
curate defeription. One of the chief of them is the
Illinois, which falls into the Miffiflippi, 176 miles abot'e
or to the weftward of the Ohio, by a mouth about 400
yards .wide. It is navigable to a great diftance, and
interlocks with the rivers that fall into the northern
lakes, in fuch a way as to furniih a communication
with Lake Michigan, with the aid of two portages, the
longeft of which does not exceed four miles. It re¬
ceives a number of rivers, which are navigable for boats
from 15 to t 80 miles.
One general remark muft be made with regard to
all the American rivers 5 that, in confequence of the
immenfe torrents of rain which fall at certain feafons of
the year, they are liable to fwell, and to overftow their
banks in a moil violent manner ; arifing, in a ftiort
time, 10 or even 20, or 25 feet in height. This ren¬
ders their navigation not a little difficult, on account
of the great force that is necefl’ary to convey a vefl'el up-
wards againit the rapidity of the ftream. Thefe great
floods alfo render it difficult to eftabliffi canals at thofe
parts of any river where falls, or, as the Americans
Itile them, rapids, occur ■, becaufe the locks, which, in
Inch fituations, are neceflary upon the canals to raife
and let down the velfels, are in great danger of being
fwept away by the hidden fwelling and overflowing
of the river. Notwithftanding this inconvenience, how¬
ever, it is abundantly evident, that no country on
earth poffefles the fame advantages, in point of inter¬
nal communication, with the United States of Ame¬
rica. Even the great Alleghany ridge, which feems
to form a barrier between the call and the weft, is fo
clofely approached on both fides by navigable ftreams,
that the land carriage neceffary in crofting it extends,
in fome fituations, to little more than 40 miles ; and,
when the increafing population of the country {hall
have rendered fuch a meafure ufeful or necefl'ary, it
will probably be found not difficult to- complete the
425 communication by water by the aid of artificial canals.
Face of trie With regard to the general face of the country
country. within the territory of the United States, it is very va¬
rious. We have already ilated, that a great chain of
mountains runs from the ftate of Georgia northward,
parallel to the Atlantic ocean, all the way to the great
northern lakes. Thefe mountains are not folitary, or
fcattered in a confufed manner ; but are formed into
different ridges, receiving various appellations in dif¬
ferent fiates. In Penrifylvania, Virginia, and North
Carolina, the principal ridges, beginning on the eaft,
are called, firft, the Kittatinny or Blue mountain, at the
diftance from 120 to 130 miles from the fea. It is
about 4000 feet high, and the country rifes from the
fea fo fiowly and gradually towards it, as to appear al¬
together level. Back from this firft ridge, and nearly
parallel to it, are the ridges called Peters, Pufcorara,
and Isefcopel; but thefe names are nothin all places ad¬
hered to. Then follow s the ridges called in Penfylvania
Shoreman'1 s hills, Sidelong kills. Ragged, Great-warriors,
Pd'tts and Hells mountains; then the great Alleghany
ridge which gives its name to the whole. Beyond it are
theLaJtel and Cheihut ridges, and various others. Thefe
A M E
ridges being parallel to each other are themfelves in- America,
capable of cultivation 5 but they are divided by rich ~
plains of various breadth and of immenle length, con¬
taining rivers of different degrees of magnitude. On
the eaft of the mountains, from the lowelt ridge to the
ocean, the country, as already mentioned, defeends very
gradually ; and in the fouthern Hates, for 1 50 miles
horn the ocean, is almoft entirely level, confifting of a
lowr flat country, apparently formed by fand thrown
up by the tides, and by particles of mud depofited bv
the rivers in their fpring floods. In the fouthern ftates,
that is, thofe to the iouth of New7 York, the ioil near
the rivers is coarfe or fine, according to its diftance
from the mountains- Near them it contains a large
mixture of coarfe fand 5 but on the banks of the rivers
towards the fea, it confolidates into a fine clay ; which,,
when expofed to the weather, falls dowm into a rich
mould. In the ftates of South Carolina and Georgia,
for many miles from the ocean, when a pit is dug to
the depth of 20 feet, every appearance of a fait marfti
is ufually found, luch as marih grafs,.marffi mud, and
brackifti water.
Beyond the Alleghany mountains the country to
the weftward is irregular, broken, and variegated, but
without great mountains. Various fmall ridges, how ¬
ever, defeend to the wefluvard, between which flow
the rivers that run into the Ohio. In fome fituations,
particularly in the neighbourhood of Pitflmrg, the
variety of its furface is faid to render the country ex¬
tremely beautiful.
Towards the north part of the ftate of New York
and in the New England ftates, the country, different
from the reft of America, is rough and hilly, or even
mountainous,* though, upon the w hole, their mountains
are trilling wdren compared to thofe in other parts of
the wmrld. Nor does it appear, that in almoft any
part of the United States, any fuch thing is to be met
with as mountains entirely rugged and barren, roering
their naked fummits to the clouds. Even to the top
01 the Alleghany ridge the whole country is one wav¬
ing foreft, though the trees are of different fize and
Ipecies, according to the variety of foil upon which
they Hand. Notwithftanding this general regularity of
the furlace of the country, to the eaftward of the
mountains, it is not deftitute of objedls which mark it
to have undergone convulfions or changes. Of thefe
we may mention one inftance, being a curiofity wor-
thy of attention, in the ftate of Virginia, called i\W«rtf/Naturai
Bridge or Rockbridge. It is on the afeent of a hill,bl>dge-
which feems to have been cloven through its length
by fome great convulfion. The fiffure juft at the
bridge is, by fome admeafurements, 270 feet deep, by
others only 205. It is about 45 feet wide at the bot- .
tom, and 90 feet at the top. The breadth of the
bridge in the middle is about 60 feet, but more at the
ends, and the thicknefs of the xaafs at the fummit of
the arch is about 40 feet. A part of this thicknefs
confifts of a coat of earth which gives growth to many
large trees. The refidue, wdth the hill on both fides,
is one folid rock of limeftone. Though the fides of
this bridge are provided in fome places with a parapet
of fixed rocks, yet few men have refolution to advance,
without creeping upon their hands and feet, to look
over into the abyfs. To a fpeftator from the- low
ground, the arch appears beautiful and light as if
fpringing
I 106 ]
A M E
fpnnwmg towards heaven; affording through it a plea-
fing view of the mountains at five miles diftance. The
water paflxng under the bridge is called Cedar Creek,
and the bridge itfelf is a part of a public road, as it
affords a commodious paflage acrofs a valley. The
county, in which it is fituated, is called from it the
427 County of Rockbridge.
Cavorus. jn the fame ftate 0f Virginia, there are fome caverns
mentioned by the American geographer, Dr Morfe,
•■•which are not unworthy of notice as natural curiofities.
The mofl noted is that called Maddifon^s Cave, on the
north fide of the mountains denominated the B/ue Ridge,
near the river Shenandoah. It is in a hill of about 200
feet perpendicular height, the afcent of which on one
fide is fo fleep, that you may pitch a bifcuit from its
fummit into the water which wafhes its bafe. The en¬
trance of the cave is in this fide, about two-thirds of
the way up. It extends into the earth about 300 feet,
branching into fubordinate caverns, fometimes afcend-
ing a little, but more generally defcending, and at
length terminates in two different places, at bafons of
water of unknown extent, nearly on a level with the wa¬
ter of the river, of which, however, they do not feem
to be refluent water, as they are never turbid, and do
not rife and fall in correfpondence with it, in feafons of
rain or drought. The vault of the cave is of folid lime-
ft one, from 20 to 40 and 50 feet high, through which
water is continually percolating. This water has de-
pofited a cruft, forming the appearance of an elegant
drapery, on the fides of the cave, and in dropping from
the roof of the vault, generates on that and on the
bafe, ftala&ites of a conical form, fome of which have
met and formed maffy columns.
There is another cave, in the North Ridge or North
Mountain, which enters from the fummit of the ridge.
The defeent is at firft 30 or 40 feet perpendicular, as
into a well, from whence the cave extends nearly ho¬
rizontally 400 feet, preferving a breadth of from 20 to
30 feet, and a height of from five to 12 feet. The heat
•of the cave is permanently at about 570 of Fahrenheit’s
thermometer.
In another ridge is a blowing cave in the fide of a
hill. It is about 100 feet diameter, and conftantly
emits a current of air, of fuch force, as to keep the
weeds proftrate to the diftance of 20 yards before it.
The current is ftrongeft in froft, and weakeft after long
rains. It probably communicates with a waterfall in
the bowels of the earth, the da firing of which gene¬
rates the current of air, as we know that at the mines,
called Lead Hills, in Scotland, for more than a century
paft, a fmall waterfall at the bottom of a mine, has
been ufed for the purpofes of ventilation, the air gen¬
erated from the water being conveyed in large tubes to
any place where it is wanted. The blowing engine,
called the trompe, which is ufed at fome founderies, is
alfo conftrmfted on the fame principle.
Rochefou. On t^e June *796) a pretty remarkable phe-
cault, Tra- nomenon occurred in the vicinity of the town of Katf-
wV/, vol. ii. kill, in the ftate of New York. The country in the
’ neighbourhood is a fucceflion of little hills, or rather
fmall elevations, detached from each other, and only
connected a little at the balls. One of thefe hills, the
neareft to Katfidll Creek, and elevated about 100 feet
above the level of the creek, fuddenly tuffered a fink¬
ing of more than half its declivity. It might have
A M E
meafured about 150. feet, from its fummit to the ext re* ^
mity 01 its bafe, following the line of inclination. A
breadth of about 80 fathoms fell in, beginning at about
3 or 4 fathoms from the top. The funken part gave
way all of a fudden, and fell fo perpendicularly that a
flock of fheep feeding on the fpot, went down with it
without being overturned. The trunks of trees that
remained on it in a half rotten ftate, “v\ere neither un¬
rooted, nor even inclined from their former direction,
and now Hand at the bottom of this chalrn, of above
four acres in extent, in the fame perpendicular pofi-
tion, and on the fame foil. However, as there was
not fufficient fpace for all this body of earth, which
before had lain in a Hope, to place itfelf horizontally
between the two parts of the hill that have v0 quitted
their ftation, fome parts are cracked, and as it were
furrowed. But a more linking circumltance is, that
the lower part of the hill, which has preferved its former
(hape, has been pulhed and thrown forward by the
finking part making itfelf room ; that its bafe has ad¬
vanced five or fix fathoms beyond a fmall rivulet, which
before flowed at the diftance of above 10 fathoms from
it; and that it has even entirely flopped the courie of
its ftream. The greateft elevation of the chafm, is about
50 or 60 feet: in its fides it has difeovered a blue earth, .
exhibiting all the characleriftics of marl. In fome of
the ftrata of the marl is found fulphat of lime in minute
cryftais. The finking of the hill made fo little noife,
as not to be heard at the proprietor’s houfe, at the dif-
tance of 300 fathoms, nor at the town, which is fe-
parated from the hill only by the narrow ftream of the
Creek.
The foil of the United States is not lefs various than Soil,
in other countries. In the New England ftates, in
confequence of the irregularity of the furface, rich
and poor territory are interfperfed ; but in the fouthern
ftates, the limits of the fertile and of the more unpro¬
ductive parts of the country are more diftinClly marked.
In general the foil is lefs deep and rich as the land
approaches- towards the mountains. The neighbour¬
hood of the fea conlifts of great fwamps, which being
overflowed by the adjoining rivers, render the land un¬
healthy, though fit for the cultivation of rice and other
valuable productions. Hence, as the .firft or loweft
ridges of mountains poflels a confiderable degree of fer¬
tility, they are better inhabited, becaufe more healthful
than the low country. The long vallies between the
ridges of the Alleghany mountains are everywhere fer¬
tile ; but they are fometimes very narrow-. Beyond
the mountains from Fort Pitt to the northern lakes in
the back parts of the ftate of New York, the country
is fertile but moift, and lies low. Around Fort Pitt
itfelf, as already mentioned, to a confiderable diftance,
the country has a beautiful variegated afpeft. On the
eaftern fide of the Ohio, however, below Fort Pitt,
the country fpeedily becomes rugged ; and, for fome
hundred miles is little inhabited, to the borders of the
fertile country of Kentucky, which in a few years has
been fettled, rendered populous, and affhmed into the
number of the United States. To the weftward of the
Ohio little is known, excepting that the country is co¬
vered with forefts and abounds in game, which laft
circumftance is always a fufficient proof of the exift-
ence of abundance of vegetable food, and confequent-
ly of a fertile foil. In general, however, concerning
O 2 the
[ 107 1
A M E
America.'the whale American territory
429
Minerals.
[ '
it may be obferved,
that wherever the land is tolerably level, it mull; have
been originally fertile. Being covered with forefts, it
received every year a bed of leaves fpread over its fur-
face 5 which, by continually rotting in fucceffion, have
formed a vegetable mould of great fertility. ,
The mineral produftions of the territory of the Unit¬
ed States are various, as in other parts of the world. The
form of mountains, rocks, and beds, of different minerals,
is the fame here as elfewhere. There are found different
fpecies of granite, combined and varied as in the moun¬
tains of Europe ; innumerable kinds of fchifts, of lime-
ftones, more or lefs perfect, and minerals of almoft eve¬
ry fpecies. In general, however, it may be remark¬
ed, that American mineralogy offers few varieties for
obfervation, as the fame fubftances ufually pervade a
confiderable traft of country. The great mountains,
that is to fay, the molt elevated, particularly the cen¬
tral ridge of the Alleghany, and the highert mountains
of New England, are generally formed of granite.
Thofe of inferior altitude fucceffively exhibit ichiftus
more or lefs perfeft, flate, feldtfpath, calcareous Hone,
and fome fand Hones of extreme hardnefs, and in a
Hate of great perfection. The whole territory to the
eaftward of the Alleghany mountains, appears to em-
bofom valt quantities of iron ore. The iron ore is of
two kinds : one is capable of being manufactured into
malleable iroh, and is found in the mountains, and al-
fo in low barren foils. The other kind of iron is call¬
ed bog-ore. It is produced in rich valleys. It is faid
to con lilt of iron united with the phofphoric acid. In
the furnace it yields iron of a hard brittle quality. In
confequence of the abundance of timber Itill to be found
in the country, a confiderable number of iron mines are
wrought to the ealtward of the mountains •, the fuel
ufed in which confifts of charcoal. Their produce,
however, is very trilling ; none of them make more
than to the amount of 1600 tons of pig iron annually,
and about 150 of bar iron. The toughnefs of the caff
iron manufactured in fome of the Virginian furnaces,
is faid to be very remarkable. Pots and other utenlils,
caff thinner than ufual of .this iron, may be fafely
throwm into or out of the waggons in which they are
tranfported. Salt pans made of it, and no longer
wanted for that purpole, cannot be broken up to be
melted again, unlefs previoully drilled in many parts.
Coal mines are wrought in the eaftern part of Vir¬
ginia } but, upon the whole, little coal is found in the
United States to the eaftward of the mountains, where
iron ores are extremely abundant. On the contrary, to
the weft ward of thtfe mountains, iron has fcarcely been
perceived 5 whereas coal is in the greateft plenty. In
the fine country round Pitlburg, at the head of the
Ohio, 320 miles w^eft from Philadelphia, coal is not
only extremely plentiful, but of a very fuperior qua¬
lity. A bed of it in that neighbourhood wTas on fire
for about twenty years, but little damage appears to
have been produced. Coal has been difcovered in fo ma¬
ny places to the eaftw^ard of the Ohio, as to produce an
opinion, that the whole trad of country beyond the
mountains, from Pitfburg to the Miiuftippi, abounds
with it. Immenfe beds of limeftone rock are to be
found in the moft eaftern traCl of mountains. Below
thefe mountains it feldom appears ; but in Virginia,
from the Blue Ridge weftward, the wThoie country
08 ] A M E
feems to be founded on a rock of limeftone, befides America.
great quantities on the furface both loofe and fixed. It <1—“
is formed into beds which range as the mountains and
fea coaft do, from fouth-weft to north-eaft ; the lami¬
nae of each bed declining from the horizon towards a
parallelifm with the axis of the earth. In fome in-
ftances, howTever, but rarely, they are found perpen¬
dicular and even reclining the other way. But fuch cafes
are always attended wuth figns of convullion, or other
circumftances of Angularity. Iftmeftone is alfo found
on the Miffiffippi and Ohio. Indeed that mineral ap¬
pears to pervade the whole length of the ridges of the
Alleghany mountains, and towards the lakes Erie and
Ontario, the w7hole country refts upon limeftone. It
is not found on the high ridges themfelves of the Al¬
leghany mountains \ but it occupies the fertile vallics
between them, and is feen at the banks of the rivers
which pafs along thefe vallies. It fometimes appears
to the eaftward, in the form of very fine marble, chiefly
coloured, quarries of which are wrought to adorn the
houfes of the wealthier citizens in the great towns.
Copper has been found in a variety of fituations to
the eaftward of the mountains. ' At the diftance of
eight or ten miles from New York is a pretty rich
copper mine. The ore is irregularly fcattered through
a kind of fand-ftone, often refembling grit, ^and fome¬
times the pudding-ftone. It yields from 60 to 70
pounds of fine copper per cwt. Previous to the revo¬
lution it ufed to be carried to England, where it bore
a higher price than any other ore of the fame metal.
The mine has been fe.-eral times wrought, abandoned,
and refumed. Some workmen, moftly Germans, were
brought over from Europe for the purpofe within thefe
few years, and paid from 1 5 to 20 dollars per month.
But the high price of labour and the difficulty of ob¬
taining well executed machinery, impcfe in the United
States great difficulties upon all mineralogical enter-
prifes. At New Brunfwick in New Jerfey, a copper
mine was at one time wrought, in which large quanti¬
ties of virgin copper were dilcovered. In particular,
in the year 1754, two lumps of virgin copper are faid
to have been found, which together weighed 1900
pounds. In the courfe of a few years preceding,
within a quarter of a mile of New Brunfwick, feveral
pieces of virgin copper, from five to thirty pound
weight, in wffiole upwards of 200 pounds, were even
turned up in a field , by the plough 5 but the mine has
ceafed to be wrought, and the fearch for the metal
difcqntinued.
Confiderable quantities of black lead are found, and
occafionally taken for ufe from a place, called Winter-
ham, in the county of Amelia in Virginia. No work
is eftabliftied there *, but thofe who want the mineral
go and procure it for themfelves.
To the weftward of the mountains fome lead mines
have been found, which will probably hereafter be¬
come valuable. In the wnffiern part of the ftate of Vir¬
ginia, one mine has been for fome time wrought by
the public. The metal is mixed fometimes with earth
and fometimes with rock, which required the force of
gunpowder to open it. The. proportions yielded are
from 50 to 80 pounds of pure metal, from 100 pounds of
worked ore. The moft common proportion is that of 60
to 100 pound. The lead contains a portion of filver, too
fmall to be worth feparation under any procefs known
to
A M E
[ I09 ]
A M E
America, to tKe American workmen. Tke veins are at times
 v 1 very flattering, and afterwards difappear fuddenly and
totally. They enter the lide of the hill and proceed
horizontally. Only about 30 labourers have been em¬
ployed, and they cultivate their own corn. They have
produced 60 tons of lead in a year, but the general
quantity is from 20 to 25 tons. Lead mines are alfo
faid to have been difcovered on the upper parts of the
Miffiflippi, extending over a great length of country j
but they are not wrought. Silver mines are alfo faid to
have been found in the territory of New York, and in
the weflern country, particularly on the Wabalh ri¬
ver •, but they are too poor to be worth working. In
the territory of New York zinc has been found, and
iikewdfe manganefe, with Various kinds of pyrites ; alfo
petrified wmod, plafter of Paris, talc, cryftals of va¬
rious kinds and colours, afbeftos, and feveral other
foflils ; alfo a fmall black ftone, which vitrifies with
little heat and makes good glafs.—A kind of mica,
called by the Americans ifing/qfs, has alfo been found,
which is tranfparent, and capable of being divided in¬
to thin laminae or Iheets, wdiich may be ufed as a con¬
venient fubftitute for wdndow glafs. Amethyfts have
been frequently found in Virginia ; and even the eme¬
rald is not unknown. In the north mountains are
immenfe bodies of fchift, containing impreflions of
fliells of various kinds. Petrified Ihells are alfo found
in very elevated fituations at the firlt fources of the
Kentucky river. On the banks of Savannah river
in South Carolina, about 90 miles from the fea in a
diredl line, and 150 or 200 as the river runs, there
is a remarkable colledtion of oyfter fhells of an un¬
common fize. They run in a north- eaft and fouth-wTeft
direftion, nearly parallel with the fea coaft, in three
dirtinft ridges, which together occupy a fpace of feven
miles in breadth. Such a phenomenon cannot eafily
be accounted for in any other way than by fuppofing
the wdrole of this flat country to have been at one
period an appendage of the ocean.
Sulphur is faid to be found in feveral places of the
wreftern territory ; and nitre is obtained, as in Spain,
found in the ^ lixiviating the fat earth that is found upon the
ter~ banks of the rivers. But the mofl: valuable mineral
that has hitherto been found in Kentucky and other
parts of the weftern territory, confifts of the fait that
is obtained by the evaporation of the wrater of certain
Salt fprings, fprings. Such fprings appear to be unknown to the
or licks, in caflward of the mountains 5 but they abound upon the
Kentucky. Qbi0j where they are more nec^ffary on account of the
great diftance from the fea. They were difcovered in
the following curious manner :—The firft inhabitants
found, that the wild beafts of the foreft, efpecially the
buffaloes and deer, w7ere accuftomed to come in great
crowds to certain fpots, and there to employ them-
felves, apparently with much pleafure, in licking the
ground. On examining the foil at thefe places, it wTas
found to poffefs a confiderable impregnation of fea fait,
of which almoft all animals that feed upon vegetables
are known to be fond. The want of this commodity
' wras a fource of much diftrefs to the firft emigrants to
Kentucky, and w7as one of the chief obftacles to the
fettlement of the country ; but the example of the in¬
ferior animals indicated a mode of relieving their
wants. The fpots frequented by the buffaloes were
called //ch} and at every lick it was found that an area
43°
Sulphur
and nitre
of from five to ten acres is impregnated with common America,
fait; fo that by digging wrells fait w7ater might be ob-
tained, from which fait can be extracted by evapora¬
tion. At leaft 1.2 of thefe licks, or fait fprings, have
been found in the new ftate of Kentucky ; the princi¬
pal of which are, Bullet’s Lick, or Salt River, 20 miles 451
from the rapids of the Ohio ^ Drinnon’s Lick, about a Names of
mile and a half from the mouth of the Kentucky. On ^!e.
what is called Licking Creek there are two fprings, call- a
ed the Upper and Lower Blue Licks; and there is one
called Great Bone Lick, from the bones of animals of a
monftrous fize, of a fpecies that no longer exifts, that
have been found fcattered in its neighbourhood. The
w7ater obtained from thefe fprings is by no means fo
ftrong as fea water. It requires nearly 400 gallons
to make one bufhel of fait, which is more by one half
than would be wanted of fea water in the fame latitude
to produce that quantity. In confequence, however,
of the abundance of fuel that exifts in a country wThere
the fineft timber is ftill confidered as a nuifance, fait is
here manufaflured in plenty, and is fold tolerably
Cheap\ . . .433
Various fprings of w7ater impregnated with other Mineral
mineral ingredients have been found in the territory fprmg3*!
of the United States, fome of which are much frequent¬
ed by valetudinarians. In 1794, a fulphureous fpring
was difcovered at a few yards diftance from the banks
of the river Chippawray, which falls into the Niagara,
a little above the falls. On the approach of a fire¬
brand, the vapour or fteam kindles, affumes the form
of burning fpirit of wine, and burns down to the bot¬
tom. In the ftate of New York, the fprings of Sara¬
toga are much noted. They are eight or nine in num¬
ber, fituated on the margin of a morafs, about twelve
miles weft from the confluence of a ftream called Fi/h
Creek, with Hudfon’s river. They are furrounded by-
a limeftone rock, apparently formed of petrifadlions de-
pofited by the water. One of the fprings particularly
attrafts attention: It fometimes rifes above the earth
in the form of a pyramid. The aperture in the top
which difcovers the water is perfectly cylindrical, about
nine inches diameter. In this the water is about
twelve inches below the top, except at its annual dif-
charge, which is commonly at the beginning of fum-
mer. At all times it appears to be in as great agita¬
tion as if boiling in a pot, although it is exremely
cold. The fame appearances obtain in the other
fprings, except that the furrounding rocks are of dif¬
ferent figures, and the water flows regularly from
them. The air which rifes in the fprings, and caufes
the ebullition, appears to confift in part at leaft of car¬
bonic acid gas, with which the wTater is ftrongly im¬
pregnated, as well as with lime, diflblved by the acid.
It alfo contains a chalybeate impregnation. In the
chain of the Alleghany mountains called the Laurel
RiLge, about latitude 36°, there is a fpring of w^ater 30
feet deep, very cold, and as blue as indigo ; but the
nature of the impregnation has not been afcertained.
There is in Pennfylvania, beyond the mountains, a
ftream called Oil Creek, which flows into the Alleghany
river. It iffues from a fpring, on the top of which
floats an oil fimilar to that called Barbadoes tar, and
from which one man may gather feveral gallons in a
day. The troops fent to guard the weftern poft halted
at tills fpring, collected fome of the oil, and bathed.
theirr
A M E [ ' i
- tlielr jqiuts with it. This gave them great relief frorn
“ the rheumatic complaints with which they were affeeT
ed. I he waters, of. which the troops drank freely,
operated as a gentle purge.
In the county of Augufta in Virginia, near the fources
of James’s river, are two fprings, diftinguifhedj by the
appellation of Warm and Hot. They are eight miles
hiilant from each other, and are ftrongly impregnated
with fulphur. They are laid to be ufeful for rheuma¬
tic, and fome other complaints. The warm /bring- if-
fues with a very bold dream, fufficient to work a grift
mill, and to keep the wvaters of its bafon, which is
feet in diameter, at blood heat, or 96° of Fahrenheit.
The hot/bring is much fmaller, and has been fo hot as
to boil an egg. Some believe its degree of heat to be
leflened. It raifes the mercury in Fahrenheit’s ther¬
mometer to 1120. It fometimes relieves where the
warm fpring fails. A fountain of common water if-
fuing near its margin gives it a lingular appearance.
What are called the fweet fprings are in the county of
Botetourt in the fame ftate, at the eaftern foot of the
Alleghany, 42 miles from the warm fprings. They
are quite cold, like common water, and their nature is
little known ; but all the three lorts of fprings are
much frequented. On the Potowmack, and on York
river, are alfo fome fprings, fuppoled to be medicinal j
but* in favour of whole virtues little is known,_
In the low grounds of the river called Great Kanha-
W'ay, 67 miles above its mouth, is a hole in the earth,
of the capacity of thirty or forty gallons, from vdiich
iffues conftantly a bituminous vapour, in fb ftrong a
current as to give to the land about its orifice the mo¬
tion which it has in a boiling fpring. On prelenting
a lighted candle or torch within 18 inches of the hole,
it flames up in a column of 18 inches diameter, and
four or five feet in height, which fometimes burns out
within 20 minutes, and at other times has been known
to continue three days, and then has been left ftill
burning. The tiame is unfteady, of the denfity of that
of burning fpirits, and fmells like burning pit coal.
Water fometimes collecls in the bafbn, which is re¬
markably cold, and is kept in ebullition by the vapour
iffuing through it. If the vapour be fired in that ftate,
the water loon becomes fo wTarm that the hand cannot
bear it, and evaporates wholly in a fhort time. On
Sandy River there is a fimilar hole that fends forth a
bituminous vapour, the flame of which is a column of
about twelve inches diameter and three feet high.
In the ftate of Georgia, in the county of Wilkes,
about a mile and a half from the town of Wafhington,
a fpring rifes from a hollow tree, four or five feet in
length. The infide of the tree is incrufted with a coat
of nitre an inch thick, and the leaves around the fpring
are incrufted with a fubftance as white as fnow, which
has not been analyzed. It is recommended for feurvy
and fcrophulous diforders.
The vegetable kingdom in the United States of A-
merica is fo extremely rich, that evep an enumeration
of its remarkable objefls would greatly exceed the
bounds which we have here preferibed to ourfelves.
Indeed, it does not appear that, excepting the fugar
cane, any valuable vegetable production is known
which cannot be reared within fome part of the ter¬
ritory of the ftates. With regard to the natural growth
10 3 A M E
of thefe countries, it connfts of an emfle s variety of Am#
trees and Ihruos, and Idler plants. Each trail of dif- ""v
ferent foil is ufually diftingutihed by its peculiar vege¬
tation, and is pronounced good, middling, or bad, from
the fpecies of trees which it produces and one fpecies
generally predominating in each foil, has produced the
deferiptive names of Oak Land, Birch, Beech, and
Chefnut Lands, Pine Barren Land, Maple, H/h, and
Cedar Swamps. Intermingled with thefe, which in
the New England ftates are the predominating fpecies,
we find in that northern territory others, as walnut,
firs, elm, hemlock, moofe wood, faffafras, and many
others. Walnut and chefnut trees indicate the belt
lands beech and oak grow upon the fecond 5 the fir
and pitch pine upon the third $ barberry and other
bifthes upon lands of the next quality ; and marihy
Ihrubs upon the worll. Along with thefe are found a
variety of flowering trees and ihrubs, including all thofb
known in Europe. Among the fruits which grow
wild in all the ftates are feveral kinds of grapes, which
are fmall, four, and thick ftrinned. The vines on
v ‘ch they grow are very luxuriant, and often over-
b read the higheft trees of the foreft. They are ex¬
tremely tough, and poffefs almolt the ftrength of cor¬
dage. On the more fertile foils, the largeft trees fel-
dom pufti their roots into the earth beyond the depth
of one foot, being no doubt fed by the rich mould
which is formed on the furface by the perpetual ihed-
ding of the leaves and the rotting of the grafs. In the
northern ftates, the fragrance of the woods from flow¬
ering fhrubs and trees is not fo remarkable as in the
fouth ; nor is the timber fo valuable. In South Caro¬
lina, indeed, the luxuriance of the woods Hands unri¬
valled. There are 18 different fpecies of oak, parti¬
cularly the live oak, palmetto, or cabbage tree, cucum¬
ber tree, deciduous cyprefs, liquid amber, hiccory,
&c.; in ihorf, all the fpecies of trees which are fo ex-
ceflively dear in Europe, ten of which are planted to
fave one, for which both fituation and foil are careful¬
ly felected, and which yet never attain any confiderable
height, are here the natural produce of the country,
and vegetate with the utmoft rapidity. Equally ftri-
king to Europeans is the pleafing luxuriance of ihrubs,
plants, and various kinds of grafs j moft of which dif-
fufie an exquifite fragrance.
Of the fmaller vegetables, maize, or Indian corn, is
a native of America. It agrees with all climates, from
the equator to latitude 450, but flourifties belt between
latitudes 30° and 40°. The wild rice is a grain which
grows in great plenty in fome of the interior parts of
the ftates, and feems the moft valuable of the fponta-
neous produftions of the country. It grows in the wa¬
ter, where it is about two feet deep, with a rich muddy
bottom. In its ftalk, ears, and maimer of growing, it
very much refembles oats. It is gathered by the In¬
dians in the following manner : About the time that
it begins to turn from its milky ftate, and to ripen,
they run their canoes into the midft of it, and, tying
bunches of it together, juft below the ears, they leave
it in this fituation for three or four weeks, till it is per¬
fectly ripe. At the end of this time, commonly about
the laft of September, they return to the river, and,
placing their canoes clofe to the bunches of rice, in
fuch a poiltion as to receive the grain when it falls.
A M E fur] A M E
America, they beat it out with pieces of wood. Thereafter they
' 1 v ' dry ft with fxnoke, and laftly tread or rub oif the out-
435 fide hufk 5 after which it is fit for ufe.
American We have already enunjerated the American quadru-
ImcU. peds, and have feen, that of thefe a considerable num¬
ber is peculiar to America. Upwards of 130 Ame¬
rican birds have been enumerated, and many cf them
defcribed by Catefby, Jefferfon, and Carver. The fol¬
lowing catalogue will fiiow the aflonifhing variety that
exifts in the American Hates, of this beautiful part of
the creation :
Blackbird.
Razor-billed do.
Baltimore bird.
Ballard Baltimore.
Blue bird. ;
Buzzard.
Blue jay.
Blue grofheak.
Brown bittern.
Crefted do.
Small do.
Booby.
Great booby.
Blue Peter.
Bullfinch.
Bald coot.
Cutwater.
White curlew.
Cat bird.
Cuckow\
Crow.
Cowrpen bird.
Chattering plover or kil-
dee.
Crane or blue heron.
Yellow-breafted chat.
Cormorant.
Hooping crane.
Pine creeper.
Yellow-throated creeper.
Dove.
Ground dove.
Duck.
Uathera duck.
Round-crefled do.
Sheldrake or canvafs do.
Buffels-head do.
Spoonbill do.
Summer do.
Blackhead do.
Blue-winged Shoveller.
Little brow n duck.
Sprigtail.
White-faced teal.
Blue-wfinged teal.
Pied-bill dobchick.
Eagle.
Bald eagle.
Flamingo.
Fieldfare of Carolina, or
robin.
Purple finch.
Bahama finch.
American goldfinch.
Painted finch.
Creiled fly-catcher.
Black-cap do.
Little brown do. _
Red-eyed do.
Finch creeper.
Storm finch.
Goatfucker of Carolina.
Gull.
Laughing gull.
Goofe.
Canada goofe.
Flawk.
Fifhing hawk.
Pigeon do.
Night do.
Swallow-tailed do.
Hangbird.
Heron.
Little white heron.
Heath cock.
Humming bird.
Purple jackdaw or crow
blackbird.
King bird.
Kingfi flier.
Loon.
Laik.
Large lark.
Blue linnet.
Mock bird.
Mow bird.
Purple martin.
Nightingale.
Noddy.
Nuthatch.
Oyfter-catcher.
Owl.
Screech owfi.
American partridge or
quail.
Pheafant or mountain par¬
tridge.
Water pheafant.
Pelican. •
Water pelican.
Pigeon of pafiage.
White-crowned pigeon.
Parrot of paradife.
Paroquet of Carolina.
Raven.
Rice bird.
Red bird.
Summer red bird.
Swan.
Soree.
Snipe.
Redftart.
Red-winged flarling.
Swallow7.
Chimney do.
Snow bird.
Little fparrow'.
Bahama do.
Stork.
Turkey.
Wild turkey.
Tyrant.
Crefted titmoufe.
Yellow do.
Bahama do.
Hooded do.
Yellow rump.
Of all thefe, it has been remarked, that the birds of
America generally exceed thofe of Europe in the beau¬
ty of their plumage 5 but are much inferior to them
in the melody of their notes. The buzzard, common- 435
ly called the turkey buzzard, from its refemblance to The Tur-
a turkey in plumage and fhape, is very common all ^^uz“
over South Carolina. It appears, that the police of
Charleftown is extremely deficient in thofe meafures
which fliould not be neglected in a populous town, in
fo hot a climate. Hence the bodies of'dead animals
are frequently left expofed in the neighbourhood, to¬
gether with the refufe of flaughterhoufes. But the
voracity of the turkey buzzard alleviates the effefts of
this negligence. It fpeedily devours every tiling, and
leaves only the bones of any carcafe that it finds.
Hence it is accounted a kind of facred bird : no law has
been enabled prohibiting it to be killed ; but among
the whole inhabitants of the town, the public opinion
fufficiently prote&s its fafety. ^
In all parts of the United States, confiderable num- American
bers of fnakes are found. But they are neither fo Shakes-
numerous nor fo venomous in the northern' as in the
fouthern ftates. The following is given as a lift of
them. *
TowRe bird. America.
Red thrufh, * v
Fox-coloured thrufh.
Little thrufh.
Tropic bird.
Turtle of Carolina.
Water wagtail.
Water hen.
Water witch.
Wakon bird.
Whetfaw.
Large white-billed wood¬
pecker.
Large red-crefted do.
Gold-wfinged do.
Red-bellied do.
Hairy do.
Red-headed do.
Yellow-bellied do.
Smalleft fpotted do.
Wren.
Rattle fnake.
Small rattle fnake.
Yellow rattle fnake.
Water viper.
Black do.
Brown do.
Copper-bellied fnake.
Bluifii-grecn do.
Black do.
Ribbon do.
Spotted ribbon do.
Chain do.
Joint do. ■
Green-fpotted do.
Coachw-hip do.
Corn fnake
Hognofe do.
Houfe do.
Green do.
Wampum do.
Glafs do.
Bead do.
Wall or houfe adder
Striped or garter fnake.
Water do.
Hiding do.
Thorn-tailed do.
Speckled do.
Ring do.
Two-headed do.
The joint fnake
parchment, and as
is a curiofity. Its {kin is as hard as , U5
fuaooth as glafs. It is beautifully fn^'Jin
ftriped
America.
439
Rattle
fnake.
440
Infects.
441
Bees.
A M E [ 11
ftriped with black and white. Its joints are fo few
and itiff, that it can hardly bend itfelf into the form
of a hoop. When ftruck, it breaks like a pipe’s ftem,
and with a whip it may be broken from the tail to the
bowels into pieces not an inch long, without produ¬
cing the leaft tinfture of blood. It is not venomous.
It is not known whether the two-headed fnake be a
diftinfl fpecies, or only a monffrous production, very
few of them having ever been feen. But of all the
American fnakes, the rattle fnake is the chief, as be¬
ing the mod frequent and the mod dangerous. It is a
peaceful animal however, and never bites but on being
irritated. In the northern dates it is little regarded,
and its bite feems not be fatal. “ We found, (fays
the duke de la Rochefoucault Liancourt), a young
man, who about fix weeks before had been bitten on
tiie knee by a rattle fnake, while he rVas filhing on
the banks of Lake Cauandaqua. At fird he did not
feel much pain in the part affeCfed 5 but an hour after¬
wards a fwellirtg appeared, which gradually extended
all along the leg to the foot, and both became fo did
that he was unable to move them. A cure was ed'eef-
ed within the fpace of only fix days by the juice of
fnake-root laid on the wound and fwelling, as a poul¬
tice, mixed with milk, together with a few drops of
that juice, pure and unmixed, taken internally. In¬
dances of fuch bites occur but very feldom, and only,
it feems, when the animal has been touched ; other-
wife it condantly retires, and may be killed by a
blow with the llendered dick.” But in the fouthern
dates, particularly in South Carolina, the inhabitants
are more afraid of thefe animals than in New York or
Pennfylvania ; as indances are known in that fouthern
climate of people having died a quarter of an hour
after they were bitten by the rattle fnake. The juice
'of plantago Virginiana, Linn, or the root and branches
of mahuba bruifed, are the remedies mod commonly
applied. F.ither'of thefe plants is lufficient; but they
are deemed more efficacious W7hen they are applied
jointly. A tobacco leaf deeped in rtnn, or a fingle
leaf of one of the above plants, takes off the pain and
iwelling. Caefar, a negro, difeovered this cure in
South Carolina 5 he proved its efficacy to the affembly
of the dates, in, 1*780,, by caufing a rattle fnake to bite
him and obtained for this arcanum his liberty, and a
penfion of 100 guineas a-year.
An adonilhing variety of infefls is found in the
United States. Of thefe, during 'the dimmer, the
mulketo is the Mod troublefome. In the back parts of
the date of New York^ the lands are frequently vifited
by a fpecies of locuds which fix chiefly on the trees,
and confume the leaves. They are fo extremely
numerous, that every attempt to- dedroy or remove
them is apparently fruitlefs. Flies, likewife, in moid
fituations, are very troublefome, being found in fuch
prodigious fwarms, efpecially about noon, that the
farmers are obliged to keep large fires burning near
their houfes, wffierd the cattle find fhelter from thefe
tormenting infefts till the cool of the evening, when
the latter difappear, and retire into the woods.
Bees are found in the woods in fwarms, which pro¬
duce large quantities of honey, of different qualities,
according to the kinds of flowering fhrubs and plants
that prevail in the neighbourhood. It is faid, how¬
ever, that this valuable infett is mod ufually found in
1
2 ] A M E
the vicinity of cultivated places, where a part at lead Arniffica*
of the timber has been cut down, and that hence,
when the favages perceive a fwarm of bees, they fay,
that it is time for them to remove, as the approaches
of cultivation not only bring white men, who are al¬
ways in fome meafure their enemies, but alfo tend to
narrow their hunting grounds. The planters not only
rear enough of bees to fupply themfelves with honey
of an excellent quality, but confiderable quantities are
brought to the coad for exportation.
An account has been given by an American phy- Poifonous
fician, Dr Benjamin Smith Barton, of a poifonous or^0116!'
injurious kind of honey collefted by bees in the terri- f^ilofopb.
tory of the United States, which is, perhaps, worthy ,v!.uq."ix
of attention both for philofophical and for commercial 1802.
reafons. “ The honey wffiich I call deleterious, (fays he)
or poifonous honey, produces, as far as I have learned,
the following fymptoms, viz. In the beginning a dim-
nefs of fight, or vertigo fucceeded by a delirium, which
is fometitnes mild and pleafant, and fometimes ferocious,
ebriety, pain in the domach and intedines, profufe per-
fpiration, foaming at the mouth, vomiting and purg¬
ing, and, in a few indances, death. In fome perfons a
vomiting is the fird effett of the poifon. When this
is the cafe, it is probable that the perfons differ much
lefs from the honey than when no vomiting is induced.
Sometimes the honey has been obferved to produce a
temporary palfy of the limbs : an effeft which 1 have
remarked in animals that have eaten of one of thofe
very vegetables, the kalmia latifolia, from whofe
flowers the bees obtain a pernicious honey. Death is
very feldom the confequence of eating this kind of
honey* The violent ifnpreflion which it Makes upon
the domach and inteflines often induces an early vomit¬
ing or purging, which are both favourable to the fpeedy
recovery of the patient. The fever which it excites
is frequently relieved, in a ftrort time, by the profufe
perfpiration, and perhaps by the foaming at the mouth.
I may add, that, as the human conditution refifls to an
adonilhing degree the effe&s of the narcotic or other
poifonous vegetables that are bed known to us, fo we
need not wonder, that it alfo refifls the effects of the
deleterious honey that is produced from fuch vege¬
tables.
“ It deferves to be mentioned, that the honey which .
is formed by two different hives of bees in the fame
tree, or at a little diflance from each other, often pof-
leffes the mod oppofite properties. Nay, the honey
from the fame individual combs is fometimes not lefs
different in tafle, in colour, and in its effefts. Thus
one flratum or portion of it may be eaten without the
lead inconvenience, whilfl that which is immediately
adjacent to it fhall occafion the feveral effefts which I
have jufl enumerated. I have taken fome pains to
learn what are the figns by which the deleterious ho¬
ney may at fird view be diflinguiflied from innocent
honey. I am informed, that there is no difficulty in
the matter.
“ The poifonous honey is faid by fome to bd*of a
crimfon colour •, by others, it is faid to be of a reddilh
brown colour, and of a thicker confidence than com¬
mon innocent honey. Thefe are the figns by wffiich
I am told the mod experienced hunters in the fouthern
parts of North America are enabled to didinguifh per¬
nicious from innocent honey.”
Dr
A M E [ i
America. Dr Barton, however, juftly doubts the infallibility
Vll-i.u- y—q£ thefe ligns, fo far as they depend upon the colour
of the honey, as Mr Bruce found honey red like blood
at Dixan in Abyffinia, which he does not fay was poi-
fonous ; and the honey colle&ed in Scotland from the
flowers of the et'icci, or blooming heather, is ufually of
a dirty brown colour, though it was never known to
poffefs any noxious property. He proceeds to ftate,
that a friend of his, Mr William Bartram, who has
Written upon the natural produ£lions of North Ame-
tica, informed him, that “ in the Carolinas and Flori-
das the poifonous honey is often fo fimilar in colour,
tafte, and odour, to the common or innocent honey,
that the former cannot be diilinguiihed from the lat¬
ter. It is owing, he fays, to this circumftance that fo
many accidents daily happen from the ufe of the wild
honey. He was informed, that it is experience alone
which enables the hunters and others to determine
whether the honey which they find in the woods be
poifonous or innocent. They have obferved that the
injurious effefts manifeft themfelves, in a (hort time,
after the honey is taken into the flomach. They are
accuftomed, therefore, to eat a fmall quantity before
they venture to fatisfy their appetite. Should this
t produce any difagreeable effe£ls, they do not think it
prudent to continue the ufe of it : but, if in a fhort
time it fliould occafion no inconvenience, they think
they may, with perfetl fafety, indulge their appetite to
the full.
“ I have been informed, that the poifonous honey^
by boiling and draining, may be rendered as innocent
as any honey whatever. It is likewife faid, that, by
long keeping, it becomes harmlefs. It is poifonous to
dogs as well as to men. Hitherto I have not been
able to obtain any certain information concerning the
means to be purfued in the treatment of perfons la¬
bouring under the effecfs of the poifonous honey. It
is faid, that the Indians and fome of the whites ufe
cold bathing with advantage. As the effefls produ¬
ced by this honey are fimilar to thofe produced by fe-
veral nhrcotic vegetables that are well known to us ;
fuch as opium, hyofciamus ?iiger or henbane, datura
Jiramonium or thorn-apple, &c. it is probable that
the fame means of treatment will apply to both cafes*
In South Carolina, Georgia, and the two Floridas, but
more efpecially in Fall Florida, the inftances of injury
from the eating of wild honey are more numerous than
in any other parts of North America that are known
to us. There is a tra£l of country, included between
the rivers St Ilia and St Mary’s in Fall Florida,
that is remarkable for immenfe numbers of bees.
Thefe infects, which were originally introduced into
Florida by the Spaniards, have increafed into innume¬
rable fwarms from the facility with which they procure
their food, in, perhaps, the richeft flowered country of
North America. In this tract of country the alarm¬
ing effects of the wild honey are often experienced by
the fettlers, by wandering hunters, and by lavages.
“ It is highly probable that this poifonous honey
is procured from a confiderable number of the flowers of
the countries which I have mentioned. A complete
lift of f fe flowers would be acceptable; but fuch a
lift it will be difficult to procure at prefent. Meanwhile
I am happy to have it in my power to mention fome of
the vegetables from whole flovrers the bees extrait a de-
Vo l II. Part I.
13 ] A M E
leterious honey, not only in the country between the Ameftcai
St Ilia and St Mary’s,- but alfo in fome other parts of' ^
North America. Thefe vegetables, are the halmia
angujlifolia and latifolia of Linnaeus, the kahnia hirfuta
of Walter, the andromcda mariana, and fome other fpe- Flora Ca°
cies of this genus. rohmana^
“ Every American has heard of the poifonous pro-P- I^!i*
perties of the kalmia anguitifolia and latifolia. The
former of thefe plants is known in the United States
by the names of dwarf laurel, ivy, lamhkill, &c. It
has long been known that its leaves, when eaten by
fheep, prove fatal to them. The following fail like¬
wife will fhew, that the flowers alfo are endued
with a poifonous property. About 20 years fince, a
party of young men, folicited by the profpeil of gain,
moved with a few hives of bees from Pennfylvania in¬
to the Jerfeys. They were induced to believe, that the
favannahs of this latter country were very favourable
to the increafe of their bees, and confequently to the
making of honey. They accordingly placed their
hives in the midil of thefe favannahs, which were finely
painted with the flowers of the kalmia anguilifolia.
The bees increafed prodigioully ; and it "was evident,
that the principal part of the honey which they made
was obtained from the flowers of the plant which I have
jull mentioned. I cannot learn that there was any
thing uncommon in the appearance of the honey ; but
all the adventurers, who ate of it, became intoxicated
to a great degree. From this, experiment they were
fenfible that it would not be prudent to fell their ho¬
ney ; but, unwilling to lofe all their labour, they made
the honey into the drink well known by the name of
metheglin, fuppofing that the intoxicating quality, which
had refided in the honey, would be loll in the metheg¬
lin. In this refpe£l, however, they were miltaken :
the drink alfo intoxicated them, after which they re¬
moved their hives* In North Carolina, this fpecies of
kalmia, and the andromeda mariana are fuppofed to be
the principal vegetables from which the bees prepare
the poifonous honey that is common in that part of the
United States*
“ The kalmia latifolia* known in the United States
by the names of laurel, great lHurel, winter green, fpoon
haunch, fpoon wood, &c. is alfo a poifon. Its leaves
indeed are eaten with impunity by the deer, and by
the round-horned elk ; but they are poifonous to flieep,
to horned cattle, and to horfes. In the former of thefe
animals they produce cqnvuHions, foaming at the
mouth, and death. Many of General Braddock’s
horfes wrere deftroyed by eating the leaves and the
twngs of this flirub in the month of June 1755, a few
days before this’unfortunate general’s defeat and death*
In the fevere winter of the years 1790 and 1791,
there appeared to be fuch unequivocal reafons for be¬
lieving that feveral. perfons in Philadelphia had died
in confequence of their having eaten our pheafant, in
Whole crops the leaves and buds of the kalmia latifolia
were found, that the mayor of the city thought it pru¬
dent, and his duty, to warn the' people againft the ufe
of this bird by a public proclamation. I know, that
by many perfons, efpecially by fome lovers of pheafant
flefh, the circumftance juft mentioned was fuppofed to be
deftitute of foundation : but the foundation was a folid
v one. This might be Ihown by feveral well authenti¬
cated fafts. It is fufficient for my prefent purpofe to
P obferve,
A M E [ i
America.
obferve, that the colleflion of a deleterious honey from
the flowers oi this ipecies of kalrnia gives forne counte¬
nance to the opinion, that the fleflr of pheafants that
had eaten the leaves and the buds of this plant may
have been impregnated with a pernicious quality.
“ In Georgia and Florida the kalmia hirfuta is fup-
pofed to be the principal vegetable from which the
deleterious honey in thofe parts of our continent is
procured. The andromeda mariana or broad-leaved
moorwort is a very common plant in many parts of
North America. The leaves are poifonous to flieep.
The petioli or footftalks of the leaves, and the feeds
within the feed veffel, are covered with a brow n pow7der
limilar to that of the kalmia. This powder, applied to
the noftrils, occafions violent fneezing. From the
flowTers of this plant the bees extraft conflderable
quantities of honey ; and it deferves to be mentioned,
that this honey, as well as that obtained from feme
other American fpecies of andromeda, has frequently
the very fmell of the flowers from which it is ob¬
tained.”
In addition to the above plants, from wdrofe flowers
the bees are known to obtain poifonous honey, the fame
writer mentions fome others which are fufpecled to be
dangerous, as the rododendron maximum or Pennfyl-
vania mountain laurel. The. feeds of this plant and
the footilalks of the leaves are covered, like fome of
the andromedae and kalmiaqwith a brown powder which
excites fneezing ; and, it is lingular, that Diofcorides
mentions fneezing as one of the fymptoms produced
by honey made about Heraclea Pontica. The azalea
nudiflora, called in the United States the wild hotiey-
Juckle, is alfo fufpebled of producing poifonous honey.
A fpecies of this genus, the azalea pontica of Linnaeus,
is fuppofed to be the ogolethron of Pliny, who men¬
tions it as the plant from which the poifonous honey
about Heraclea Poutica is prepared. The datura
ftramonium, called in America James-town weed,gym-
fin,jlinh weed, or French chef nut, produces in the tube
of its flower a connderable quantity of honey, which
is iufpebfed to be of a bad quality ; becaufe the plant
itfelf is known to poflefs poilonous properties. Upon
the w7hole, from what is known upon the fubjebf in
America, Dr Barton is led to fufpeft, that every flower
that is poifonous to man may produce a honey injuri¬
ous to man, fince the properties of the fluid are fo de¬
pendant upon the properties of the plant from which
it is produced. Hence he thinks, that there is more of
poetry than philofophy in the following lines of Pope.
. 443
The kai-
In the nice bee, what fenfe fo fubtly true,
From poifonous herbs extrabls the healing dew ?
Fffay on Man.
The kaiman, a fpecies of the alligator, or crocodile,
is allb found in the fouthern rivers of the United States.
Some ol the kaimans are of io inonftrous a fize as to ex¬
ceed five yards in length. They devour all living animals
that they can catch. They are fond of the flefli of
hogs and dogs. When balking on the fhore, they keen
their huge mouths wdde open, till they are filled with
mufquetoes, flies, and other infeHs ; when they fudden-
ly flint their jaws, and fwallow their prey. They are
great deftvoyers of filh in the rivers and creeks, which
they catch with the fame addrefs. Eight or ten of
them lie at the mouth of the river or creek, whilft
14 ] A M E
others go to a diftance up the river, and chafe the f.fli Areenca.
downward ; by which means, none of any bigneis ef- " v-' '
cape them. They are laid, however, to remain torpid
during the winter in dens which they find in the banks
of the rivers, having previoufly fwallowed a large num¬
ber of pine knots, which forms their only fuftenance
till the period of their revival or wakening. The kai¬
man feldom touches a man, however near it mav lie
to him. It conftantly flees when at land ; but in the
water it is fiercer, and has been known to bite off the
leg of a perfon bathing. It more frequently attacks
dogs. Sometimes when hounds, in puri’uit of a flag,
fwira through the water, the kaimans feize both hounds
and deer, and pull them down to the bottom, without
their ever appearing again. The fcales with which they
are coated render them invulnerable, unlefs the w ound
be inflicted in the interftices of the fcales, or at the
extremities.
The climate e; the great territory belonging to the cihnau-.
United States, mufl neceffarily be various, in confe-
quence of the difference of latitude and foil that takes
place in it. The fnow covers Vermont and the pro¬
vince of Maine, during five or fix months of the year j
and the winter there lafts feven months, while there is
hardly any winter in South Carolina, and ftill lefs in
Georgia. Should any fnow fall in the latter of thele
Hates, it does not remain two days upon the ground.
1 he ludden variation of temperature which frequently
occurs, is the mort remarkable charafteriftic of the cli¬
mate of the whole ftates. It is ufual to fee the ther¬
mometer rife or fall 250 of Fahrenheit’s fcale in 24
hours. In April 1796, it fell in 12 hours from the
77th degree of Fahrenheit to 444°, and this obfervation
was made at Wilmington in Delaware, and in Balti¬
more. The river Delawrare at Philadelphia, 3 miles
in breadth, is fometimes frozen over in one night, and
the fame thing occurs in all the rivers of Virginia
and to -the northward. The feafons, in the United
States, are only three : fummer, winter, and autumn,
or what the Americans more expreflively call the fall,
from the falling of the leaves in the forells. The tran-
fition, from the locking up of all vegetation in winter
to the hidden burl! of it again to life at the beginning
of fummer, is fo rapid as utterly to exclude that progref-
five and dehghtiul feafon, which, in the more moderate
climate of Europe receives the appellation of fpring.
Within a w:eek or ten days after the melting of the
fnow, the woods and orchards are in full bloom.
Both the heat and the cold are more intenfe in Ame¬
rica than in Europe. The froft is ffronger and’ more
durable. T he funfhine is more ardent and perma¬
nent, and the heat is far more oppieflive and infup-
portable. It may be remarked, that in the different
latitudes of the United States, the heat differs more in
its duration than in its power. In 1795 at Newark,
on the frontiers of Upper Canada, the duke de la
Rochefcucault Liancourt law the thermometer of Fah¬
renheit rile in July to the 920. In the month of Au-
guft the fame''year, he faw it at 96° at Albany in the
flate of New York. At Savannah in Georgia, it fel¬
dom riles above that height 5 though from Newark
or Albany, to Savannah, there is a differenr; of 140
of latitude. But the thermometer remains during a
month or trvo at Savannah at this height, and very fel¬
dom two days together in the northern ftates. The
following
A ME [ n
follawfng remarks and faels, relative to the climate
and feafons in America and Europe, are given by Dr
Holyoke of Salem in the ftate of Maffachufets j and
completely demonftrate the intenfenefs both of the
heat and the cold that are experienced in the moft nor¬
therly flates of the American union,
“ The following table exhibits the mean or medium
degree of greateft heat and cold by Fahrenheit’s ther¬
mometer ;
Stockholm
Copenhagen
Berlin
Mona
Prague
Wurtzburg
Manheim
Ratifbon
Buda
Geneva
Rochelle
Padua
Marfeilles
Rome
Salem in Maffa'
chufets
I,at.
north.
$9° 2°'
55 40
52 32
50 25
50 4
49 46
49.27
48 56
47 4°
46 12
46 O
45 22
43 17
4i 53
} 42 31
Mean of
gr. heat.
83.98
81.77
89-37
89.15
92.7
93‘87
89.6
79-7
9°-7
88.9
90*5
91.4
89.6
85-43
97.2
Mean of
gr. cold.
JO.I96
2.98a
0.62b
1.18a
12.77^
4^
1,2a
2.426
4.26a
10.2a
16.93a
16.93a
27.5a
33-4^
2.426
« Thefe European cities, except Rome, are all north
of the latitude of Salem. But in the whole middle region
of Europe, which is from 7 to 10 degrees north of Sa¬
lem, the heat in fummer and cold in winter is, on an
average, lefs than at Salem by a difference of 5, 8, and
xo degrees. Comparing the temperature of the Eu¬
ropean atmofphere under nearly the fame parallel of
latitude with Salem, viz. at Rome, Padua, and Mar¬
feilles, it is found that the mean of greateft heat in
Europe falls fhort of ours by 8 degrees, and the mean
of-greateft cold by more than 30 degrees. It is alfo
found, by obfervations made at different times and
places, that in America there falls a greater quantity
of rain annually than in Europe ; we have notwith-
Itanding more fair weather, and fewer cloudy, foggy,
and rainy days. The medium quantity of rain that
falls yearly in Europe does not exceed 30 inches of
water, whereas in America the medium quantity is at
leaft 50 inches.
“ The mean number of fair days, according to
obfervations made in 20 cities of Europe, amounts
only to 64. Several obfervations in America make
the mean number of. fair days to be about j16
mean number of cldudy days in the fame cities of Eu¬
rope fall which are upon the continent) was, in I785»
ii3j in America there are about 80 or 90, The
number of rainy days in the fame cities was, on a mean,
j 22 $ the number in America is 85 or 90. Thefe
fa&s feem to prove that the atmofphere of Europe is
more humid than that in America $ and this may be
one caufe why the European climate is more temperate
under the fame parallels of latitude, and lefs fubje^f
to extremes of heat and cold.
“ The following fads concerning the temperature
of our own climate are extremely curious. From ob¬
fervations made at four different hours in the day for
s ] A M E
feven years, it is found that the mercury in Fahrenheit Amei
rofe to 8o° and upwards. w—v
In 1786.
Days,
June 13
july 11
Aug. 8
Sept. 2
oa. 1
35
In 1789.
Days.
May
J une
Aug.
Sept.
In 1787.
Days.
June 10
July *3
Aug. 13
Sept, 2
38
In 1788.
Days.
June c
July 13
Aug. 8
Sept. 1
27
1
12
13
11
1
38
In 1790.
Days.
May 1
June 5
July 14
Aug. 7
Sept. 2
29
In 1791.
Days.
In 1792..
Days.
May
June
July
zVug.
Sept,
oa.
7
15
16
15
1
55
May
[une
July
Aug.
Sept,
• 7
10
15
10
2
44
The thermometer was at and above 90°,
IniySb, 4 days, 1790* 2 days.
1787, 2 do. J79E i2 do.
1788, 1 do. 8 do.
1789, 4 do.
.During the fame years in winter, the thermometer
was at and below 3 2°, the freezing point 5
In 1786, 108 days, and below o, 4 days,
1787, in do, do. 4 do.
1788, 108 do. do, 6 do.
1789, 105 do, do, 3 do,
1790, 119 do. do, 5 do,
1791, m do, do, 1 do,
1792, 102 do, do, 3 do.
The mean of the mean temperature of each month
during the feven years is as follows;
Jan. 24.8 tenths,
Feb. 25,
Mar. 36,
April 45,
May 56.8
June 67,
July 71.
Aug. 69.7
Sept 61.
oa. 49.5
Nov, 40.
Dec. 27.
Mean temperature of each feafon.
Winter, Spring. Summer, Autumn,
1786, 25*71 45*9 7°06 5°09
1787, 25.8 45,7 68.1 co-3
1788, 25.5 45.2 68.9 52-1
1789, 24.9 43.9 70.2 49.5
I’rgo, 29.2 43.6 67.9 49-5
I79D 23,3 48.6 7^ 49-o
1792, 25.5 49-4 68.7 51-3
Total mean temperature of each year :
1786, 48*53 1790, 46*43
1787, 47.88 *79D 48.96
1788, 47.67 1792, 48.44
1789, -47.68
Total mean temperature of the feven years, *"47.94.
P 2 As
A M E [ i
America. As the obfervations in the morning were not made at
v ~ funriie, but at eight o’clock, Dr Holyoke fuppofes a
fmall abatement mull be made 5 and the mean tem¬
perature of the feven years fixed at 47.5.
Mean temperature at the time of each obfervation :
At eight o’clock A. M. 46.55.
At noon, - - 54.15.
Sunfet, - - 47.60.
At ten o’clock P. M. - 43-7*
“ Whence it appears, that the mean temperature of
the day is at funfet, and that the temperature of the
month of April is very little below the mean tempera¬
ture of the year.”
The very great variations of climate here indicated
are faid not to extend themfelves in an equal degree
beyond the trafl of the Alleghany mountains ; fo that
in the fame latitude the climate is much more mild
upon the banks of the Ohio than on the fliores of the
Atlantic ocean. As that part of the country, how¬
ever, is yet lefs inhabited, or has only been fo for a
ftiort period, very few authentic documents have reach-
445 ed us concerning it.
Effect of The extremes of heat and cold which fo rapidly fuc-
ontheTr^6 ceec^ eac^ ot^er America at different feafons, and
habitants, which perfevere fo ileadily when they are once be¬
gun, do not fail to affeft very fenfibly the health of
the inhabitants of the United States. In general,
people become old in America fooner than in Europe.
In the more northern parts of the country, that is, in
the New England ftates, and alfo near the mountains,
this is lefs fenfibly the cafe, but excepting in thefe
fituations, it is more rare to fee men of a great age
there than in Europe. The influence of the climate
upon females is ftill more fenfible. When young, they
are generally beautiful, and more particularly fo at
Philadelphia, and in the other middle ftates. But
after 20 years of age they foon begin to lofe their frefh
colour. At 25, many of them might be taken for
Europeans of 40 ; as their bloom is faded, and their
form has already fuffered a change. If they have pre-
vioufiy been mothers, which in this rifing country is
ufually the cafe, their alteration is ftill more premature.
Yet, it is admitted, that neither nightly revels, the
abufe of fpirituous liquors, the want of exercife, nor an
excefs of it, can be brought to account for this early
change. In the northern ftates, the period of their
beauty is indeed lengthened, but only for a few years.
Whereas, in the fouthern ftates it is fhortened. In
South Carolina, at the age of 30, a woman appears old 5
and both men and women foon lofe the bloom of
youth, and feel the infirmities of age. At the age of
50,. in that exhaufting climate, the hair becomes en¬
tirely white. The number of children that die in
their infancy is faid to be proportionally much greater
than in Europe j though this does not prevent the po¬
pulation from advancing with nearly twenty times the
rapidity that it does with us. Colds, hooping-coughs,
and diforders of the throat, carry off great numbers of
children. The moft common mortal difeafes in all the
ftates are dropfies of the cheft, confumptions, and bili¬
ous and putrid fevers. Of difeafes that are not mor¬
tal, the moft frequent of all is the ague or intermitting
16 ] A M E
fever, which, however, fometimes degenerates into a America,
bilious fever. I hefe intermitting fevers are undoubted- 1 y—
ly the refult of a climate abounding in moifture, arifing
from immenfe rivers, fwamps, and forefts, afted upon
by the intenfe heat of a burning fun. In fuch a fitu-
ation the human ftrength is exhaufted, fo as to be at
all times liable to fall into this fimpleft and leaft danger¬
ous form of fever. Though it is experienced by al-
moft every ftranger, and at times by moft of the na¬
tives, it is feldom hazardous 5 but at the fame time it
undoubtedly enfeebles the conftitution, and prepares it
for finking under other difeafes. It is always towards
the end of fummer, when the heat is moft intenfe, and
the health of the people moft weakened by the hot
and moift climate of America, that the dreadful dif-
eafe, the yellow fever, makes its appearance. It thus
comes at a period when intermittent fevers at all times
abound 5 and the extreme mortality which it produces
is probably to be accounted for, not lefs from the ftate
of debility and relaxation with regard to general
health, than from any peculiar malignity of the dif-
temper, which never fails to yield to the reftorative
and ftrengthening power of a few frofty days, or even
of rainy. It is a Angular circumftance, that of the
great number of French who were in Philadelphia
during the different periods at which it was defolated
by this fatal fcourge, lometimes none, and never more
than four or five in a fealon, fuffered by the yellow
fever, though none of them deferted the city on that
occafion. The only plaufible, though probably inade¬
quate, account which has ever been given of the caufe
of their efcaping that calamity, is their habitual ab-
ftinence from {pirituous liquors ; in the ufe of which
the Americans of all ranks, that is the men, not the
wromen, indulge very freely, and thereby no doubt in-
creafe the degree of debility which the climate has a
tendency to produce, and confequently expofe them¬
felves in a greater degree to the influence of any con¬
tagious diftemper. Under all its advantages, however,
the climate of America allows the full exertion and
enjoyment of all the human faculties. Men of found
conftitutions in every part of it attain to old age. Even
in South Carolina in 1787, of the 9600 white inhabi¬
tants of Charleftown 200 were above 60 years ; and in
the New England ftates inftances of great longevity
abound.
The manufadlures that are carried on in the United American
States are extremely few\ A year feldom paffes away, manufac-.
wfithout attempts being made by individuals to eftahlifh tures.,
cotton-wmrks, glafs-houfes, and other extenfive manu-
fadtories, but without fuccefs. Sometimes, particular
ftates aflift in the moft liberal manner, with the public
money, the undertakers of thefe plans 5 but the money
is foon fpent, and the work obliged to be dropped.
The reafon is obvious. In the European nations, men
and women abound, and the lower clafles are, therefore,
under the neceflity of giving their induftry, and the
refult of their {kill, for little more than what is barely
fufficient to afford them fubfiftence. In America the
cafe is different. Men are few7, the foil is fertile and un¬
occupied, and fubfiftence is eafily procured. Every man
afpires, therefore, to the poffeftion of fomething beyond
the gratification of his prefent wants, or the mere necef-
faries of life. He endeavours to become independent,
by obtaining and cultivating a portion of the foil for
A M E [ i
America, his own ufe. T® withdraw him from an enterprife of
• i this kind, which is fo flattering to the paflkms of all
men, a large reward is neceffary, or, in other words,
if an ordinary tradefman in America do not receive
high wages, he will go to the woods, and fettle as a
farmer, or fmall proprietor, which in that country he
can do upon eafy terms. Hence it happens, that the
manufa&urers of Europe find it eafy to underfell all
thofe who attempt to rival them in America. Even,
when a fkilful European manufaflurer conveys his ca¬
pital and his tools acrofs the Atlantic, the cafe is not
altered. His fervants and labourers muft be carried
along with him. Suppofing this difficulty to be fur-
mounted, he muft immediately give them three times
the wages that they received in Europe, or they will
not remain in his fervice, as they can eafily obtain fuch
a price for their induftry there. In confequence of high
wages, they are enabled, in a year or two, to accumu¬
late enough of money to enable them to purchafe or
obtain credit for a fmall farm, in a fertile though re¬
mote part of the country. They never fail, therefore,
fpeedily to defert the bufinefs to which they were ori¬
ginally educated, and to betake themfelves to agricul¬
ture, which, from the independence it affords, is of all
occupations the moft grateful to the human mind. Thus,
any great manufacture carried on in America, could
only be fupported by a fucceffion of emigrant work¬
men, receiving exorbitant wages, and having the pro-
fpeft of immediately deferting it; a fituation, in which
it evidently could not profper.. Hence, to a very re¬
mote period, that is, till land lhall become fcarce and
precious, in confequence of an overflowing population,
the United States of America muff depend upon Eu¬
rope for their molt valuable manufactures. Neither
is this a misfortune to America. Men there, as elfe-
where, in following out their own private intents, con¬
tribute molt effectually to advance the profperity of
their country. Agriculture is there purfued becaufe it
is the molt profitable of all employments to thofe who
engage in it, and leads them molt rapidly to the pof-
feffion of property and independence', at the fame time,
by providing in abundance the means of fubfiftence, it
facilitates to the community the acquifition of what
chiefly it wants, a numerous population, which, by the
natural progrefs of things will ultimately bring in its
train the cultivation of all the arts.
The Americans, however, are not deftitute of a con-
fiderable variety of fuch manufactures, as their peculiar
fituation has naturally led them to eftabliffi. \Ve have
already mentioned, the manufacture of iron from the
ore, which they praCtife in feveral fituations to the
eaftward of the mountains, though not to fuch extent
as to fupply the wants of their country. They alfo
tan leather, which they are induced to do from the
abundance of oak-bark that they poffefs j and they
manufacture hats in confiderable quantities. They have
diftilleries for the preparation of fpirituous liquors, both
from molaffes imported from the Weft India iilands,
and from grain. Tradefmen in the towns, and private
families in remote fituations, prepare foap, candles, and
malt liquors. In the remoter diftriCts, the women alfo
prepare a confiderable part of the clothing of their
families. Upon the rivers, great numbers of faw mills
are ereCted, for the purpofe of converting to profit the
7 ] A M E
timber, which they are under the neceffity of cutting America,
down, before the lands can be brought into cultiva- v—-v—-
tion. ConneCled with this operation, of clearing the
land of timber, is the preparation of pot and pearl allies.
As this forms a confiderable branch of the trade of
many American towns, the back country of which
has been recently fettled, we lhall here Hate the mode
of preparing this fait, which has been generally adopted. 4 .,7
Large tubs with a double bottom are filled with the Potafh
allies of wood : the uppermoft bottom, which contains work's~'
feveral holes, is covered writh alhes, about 10 or n
inches deep, while the under part of the tub is filled
with ftraw or hay. Water being poured over the alhes
extrafts the particles of fait, and difeharges all the hete¬
rogeneous matter which it may yet contain on the lay¬
er of hay or ftraw. The ley is drawn off by means
of a cock, and if it fhould not yet have attained a fuf-
ficient degree of ftrength, poured again over the fame
or over frelh allies. The ley is deemed fufficiently
ftrong when an egg fwims on it. This ley is after¬
wards boiled in large iron caldrons, which are con -
ftantly filled out of other caldrons, in which ley is
likewife boiling. If the ley begins to thicken in the
caldron, no frelh ley is added, but the fire is well
fed with fuel until all the aqueous particles are fe-
parated, and the whole is completely infpiffated and
indurated. This fait is of a black colour, and called
b/ack potajh. Some manufacturers leave the potalh in
this ftate in the caldron, and increafe the fire, by
means of which the oil is difengaged from the fait in a
thick fmoke, and the black potalh affumes a gray colour,
in which ftate it is packed up in the barrels for fale.
The procefs of preparing the potalh requires more
or lefs time according to the quality of the alhes and
the ley, and to the degree of ftrength of the latter :
the medium time is 24 hours. The allies of green
wood, and efpecially of oak, are preferred. No potalh
can be prepared from the alhes of refinous trees, and
alhes which are five or fix months old are better thaix-
thofe that are new.
Some manufaChirers ufe only one caldron for boil¬
ing, which they fill with cold ley as it comes from the
tubs, and others put the fait, as foon as it begins to
coagulate, into fmaller caldrons to complete the pro¬
cefs.
In many parts of the ftate of New York, efpecially
in the north, and the vicinity of Albany, the inhabi¬
tants who fell the wood prepare the potafh. But
there are alfo large manufactories, where from 30 to
40 tubs are ufed for preparing the ley, and from 1 o to
12 caldrons for its evaporation. The manufacturers
buy the alhes from private families. The tubs and
caldrons are of different fizes, in proportion to the
greater or lefs extent of the manufactory. By a gene¬
ral eftimate, from five to fix hundred bulhels of alhes
yield a ton of potalh.
The barrels in which the potalh is packed up, muft
be made of white oak, or if this cannot be had, of
wood which is but little porous. The Haves ought to
be far more durable than for calks in which other
dry goods are packed, the hoops alfo muft be more
numerous ; for the leaft fiffure would expofe the pot¬
alh to humidity, to the air, and confequently to deli-
quefcence and diffolution. Inftances have occurred;.,
when.
449
Maple
jfugar.
A M E [ i
America, wlign barrels badly made and hooped, and which had
been filled with potalh, were foon after'found to be half
empty.
Pearl-allies. Pearl-alh is well Known to be potalli purified by cal¬
cination, To this end the potalh is put into a kiln,
conftru&ed in an oval form, of plafter of Paris $ the
infide of which being made otherwife perfeftly clofe,
is horizontally interfered by an iron grate, on which
the potalh is placed. Under this grate a fire is made,
and the heat reverberated by the arched upper part of
the kiln, completes the calcination, and converts the
potalh into pearl-alh, which is taken out of the kiln,
and, when completely cooled, packed in barrels. The
procefs of calcination lafts about an hour. Pearl-alh is
proportionally more heavy than potalh, on account of
its greater comparnefs, and the lofs of weight experi¬
enced by the latter, though the calcination is very
trifling. Although pearl-alh is lels liable to deliquefe
by the air than potalh, yet the barrels in which it is
packed arc of the fame fort and ftrubfure of thole in
which the latter fait is barrelled. They are of differ¬
ent fixes, and contain from 200 to 300 pounds, Pot¬
alh as well as pearl-alh is fold by tons in the courfe
of trade •, and it is not lawful to export either before
it is duly infpe&ed by the public fearchers, who are ap¬
pointed for this purpofe an all the hates where pearl or
potalh is manufa&ured..
The manufacture of fugar from the maple tree,
acer faccharinum Linn, called by the Indians <j<zehta,
is peculiar to the United States of America. The
whole country to the northward of Pennfylvania, a-
bounds with thefe trees, and alfo to the fouthward up¬
on approaching the mountains. In the weftern terri¬
tory they everywhere abound. Very confiderable
quantities of fugar are made from them; fo as' to af¬
ford to the inhabitants an abundant fupply of that va¬
luable commodity. The medium produce of a tree
Handing in the midfl: of a wood, is three pounds of fu¬
gar. The average produce of trees Handing on ground
which has been cleared of all other woods, is from fix
to feven pounds per tree. A barrel of the firfi juice
which comes from the maple tree will yield feven
pounds of fugar, and four if it Hand in the midH of
other wood. The ordinary price of this fugar is is.
per pound. A barrel of the fecond juice will yield
three gallons and a half of treacle. Four or five bar¬
rels of the third juice will yield one barrel of a good
and pleafant vinegar. The vinegar is found to be bet¬
ter in proportion, as the juice is more concentrated by
boiling. Hence fome periods brew but one barrel of
vinegar from 10 barrels of the third juice. To clari¬
fy this vinegar it mull be boiled with leaves. The
third juice, when not ufed for vinegar, yields, if mix¬
ed with an equal quantity of water, a fermented li¬
quor of an excellent flavour. The longer the firft
juice is boiled, the better and finer the fiugar becomes.
In order that the trees may continue productive, they
require to be tapped with extraordinary care, that is,
the fiffures or wounds made in them for extracting the
juice, mult neither be too deep nor too wide j fo that
no water may fettle in them, and that the wood may
(dole again in the fpace of a twelvemonth. During
the time the juice is flowing our, which lafls about fix
weeks, and generally begins about the commencement
of the month of February, all the days on which it
2
i3 ]
A M E
freezes or rains are loft ; fo that the number of da vs on A
which the bufinels can be purfued to advantage, is fre- f
quently from thefe circumflances much diminithed.
Yet du ring the above time, two peribns can often
make from 500 to 600 pounds of good fugar, and this
quantity is increafed in proportion to the number of
workmen employed. As the maple tree, wherever ^
it is encouraged upon a moift foil, multiplies with
aHonifhing rapidity, there is no other limit to the ma¬
nufacture than the want of people to engage in it, or
the limited demand for the commodity in a thinly
peopled country, (For other particulars refpebting
this interefling fubjebt, fee Sugar.) "
Ship-building is an art much prabtifed in the north- Ship-build-
ern Hates upon the lea coalt. The Americans are un-ing,
derflood to poffefs confiderable fkiil in this branch of
bufinefs, and to perform their work both in a i'ubftan-
tial and frugal manner. In building veffels in New
England, they make the beams which iupport the deck
from the trunk of the fpruce fir; taking care that
thefe, and fome other parts which are framed of this
timber, have a lufficient thicknefs of wood, and be
fufficiently rivetted together. The rell of the veflel is
made of oak planks. It is only of late that the fpruce
fir has been ufed in building fhips in this quarter. The
(hip-builders aflirtn, that it is an improvement to the
veifels, though in all probability, the fcarcity of oak
which now begins to be felt on the fea coaH of New
England, has been the chief caufe of the innovation.
It is faid, however, that the fpruce fir refills, better
than almofi any other kind of wood, the action of the
lun and the weather, which in the American climate
put all kinds of timber to a fevere trial. The planks
of the body of their fhips, to the water’s edge, are 'often
made, not of oak but of beech wood, or of the wood
of the black birch, which is reckoned equally hard and
good. The keel is of the wood of the beech, of the
fugar maple, or of what is called the rock maple.
By ufing thefe kinds of wood for fo many purpoles,
there is often not above a fifth part of the (hip mado
of oak. The ftiipbuildcrs maintain, that the beech,
the black birch, and the maple, are very ferviceable
for the prefervation of iron, which the faline particles
of the oak are apt to confome, Infiead of ufing tal¬
low for thole purpofes in Ihipbuilding, to which it has
been ufually applied, all the (hip-carpenters in Ameri¬
ca make uie of train oil very plentifully laid on. By
thefe devices, they have reduced the expence of (hip-
building to half of what it formerly was, to the great
emolument of the perfons engaged in it. ^ ,x
The fifheries are a branch of indufiry in which the Fiflimes
Americans engage to a confiderable extent, The-ofcod.
whole coafi of MalTachufets, and eipeciaily of the di-
Hrift of Maine, is inhabited by fiftiermen engaged in
the fififing of cod, upon the great bank of Newfound¬
land, or in the fea in their own neighbourhood. They
bring all the fiih on (bore, where they receive the lait
drefling. The fifii are walhed and laid in heaps, that
the water may run off. Thereafter they are expofod
for two or three days to the air ; after which they arc
placed on hurdles that are about four or five feet in
breadth, three or four feet above the ground, and as
long as the field on which they are erected. The fiih
are laid feparately, and frequently turned, that they
may get thoroughly dry $ which happens under a
bright
45 «
Whale
filhery.
A M E [ i
j^meMea. bright American fun in about fix days. At laft they
are packed in cafes, preffeu down, and exported either
to the Weft Indies or to Europe. The beft fiih, that
is, thofe caught in the firft fifiling months, are fuperior
to the reft, from being dried more flowly. They are
fent to Spain, excepting a few that are ufually befpoke
by the better Ert of people in the neighbourhood, and
are fold at double the price of thofe which are caught
later in the year, when the heat is more intenfe. The
fifh caught on the coafts of MaffachuEts and of Maine
are neither fo large nor fo plentiful as thofe taken at
the Great Bank near Newfoundland ; yet this fiihery
employs a conftderable number of veffels, which pro¬
ceed only five or fix miles from the coaft, and return
home every week.
Befides this, and the falmon and herring fifheries,
which are confiderable, the Americans alfo engage ex-
tenfively in the whale fifhing, on the coaft of Brazil,
and in the Pacific ocean in the fame latitude, and in
the Weft Indian feas, as far eaftward as to the Cape of
Good Plope, from the 18th to the 25th degree of lati¬
tude. This bufinefs is fometimes alfo profecuted in
Hudfon’s bay and the feas adjacent to the coafts of
Greenland and Labrador, which abound more than the
fouthern feas in whales, and thofe of a larger fize, and
fuch as afford oil of a better quality. But as the vaft
maffe's of ice which infeft the feas in thefe northern la¬
titudes render the fifhing dangerous, the Americans in
general abandon the fifhery in the north to the Euro¬
pean filhermen. Of late years, the whales have alto¬
gether abandoned the coafts of the United States,
though they were formerly found in confiderable num¬
bers in that quarter.' The fpermaceti whales are chief¬
ly found in the Indian ocean, on the coafts of Africa
and -Madagafcar, in the Pacific ocean, and on the
coafts of Peru and Chili. A voyage to this fifiiing oc¬
cupies from ten to eighteen months. The crew receive
no wages, but have a certain fhare of the blubber ; the
captain has a fifth •, the pilot a five-and-fortieth, or a
fiftieth, part of what is taken. The owners never
make lefs than 20 per cent, upon the adventure ; and
the captain, from a fuccefsful voyage, in common years,
and at ordinary prices, ufually receives about eight or
nine hundred dollars. A fliip of 160 tons has a crew
of 15 perfons and two boats. At their return, the
blubber which has been barrelled at iea is put into
freftr barrels, and cleared from its fediment before it is
carried to market \ for though the fediment he as fit as
the reft for ufe in the foap-works, yet the oil in which
it appears is regarded as of inferior quality in the Eu¬
ropean market. This fediment, and a fort of white
flefti which is found in the head and belly of the whale,
are then fqueezed in a prefs. A new quantity of oil
of the beft quality is thus obtained. The refidue which
remains after the firft preftmg is put again into the
prefs, and more forcibly fqueezed than before. It af¬
fords a certain quantity of oil •, and it is the produce of
this laft fqueezing which, after undergoing a boiling,
is poured into moulds, and forms fpermaceti candles :
Thefe are fold for half a dollar a pound. Thofe which
are called fpermaceti fifties yield this matter in great
quantity. In their heads alone there are often five or
fix tons of this matter; though the other whales have
the head differently compofed, and do not afford above
a quarter of a ton out of each head. Thus all whales
o 453 •
Spenr.aceti
candle;'.
19 ] A M E
yield more or lefs of this matter, which is fo much va- America,
lued as a material for candles. 1 'v
Though the Americans have few manufaclures, they 454
engage extenfively in every kind of trade. In the in- ^^<erican
terior of the country, almoft every perfon who can com¬
mand the requifite capital is an innkeeper, or keeps a
ftore. The employment of innkeeper is there perfect¬
ly refpeCtable, and is carried on by perfons of diftin-
guirhed character. What is called a ftore in Ameri¬
ca is a ihop or place where all kinds of commodities in¬
tended for confumption are to be found and fold by re¬
tail. Nothing is excluded from it. Train oil and
candles, ftationary. wares, hardwares, and cloth, toge¬
ther with diftilled fpirits, fugar, wines, and coffee, are
all kept in it in the fame manner as in the fhops of
fome of the remote villages in Scotland. In fome fitu-
ations in America, thefe ftores produce confidcrable
profit, and are made fubfervient to other (peculations.
When a man engages in the clearing of land, and can
at the fame time afford to lay in the goods neceffary
for keeping a ftore, he is enabled to get back from the
workmen whom he employs the greateft part of the
wages he has paid them, in the form of profit upon the
goods which they purchafe at his ftore. In this way,
he contrives to have his work performed at a price
which ultimately does not amount to more than a half
of what is paid by others for the fame labour.
With regard to foreign trade, the United States Foreign
have of late years poffefled a very great proportion oftiatl£-
that which has. been carried on among civilized na¬
tions. d'he vaft extent of fea coaft, amounting to near¬
ly 2000 miles, which fpreads before the United States,
the number of excellent harbours, the numerous
creeks and immenfe bays which indent the coaft,
and the rivers and lakes which peninfulate the whole
country, fo habituate all young perfons in America to
the idea of a maritime life, and to a fondnefs for navi¬
gation, that great numbers of them are at ail times
found ready to engage in it. The enterprifing fpirit
of the people favours this tendency 5 and accordingly,
every kind of commercial (peculation eafily finds men
ready to embark in it. For fome time after the treaty
of peace with Britain, by which their independence
was acknowledged in 1783, while each ftate continued
to have its particular laws, prohibitions, and regula¬
tions ; while the cuftomhoufe rates changed every year,
according to momentary confiderations} and while an
aclive jealoufy and rivalfhip fubfifted between the dif¬
ferent ftates, the commerce of the whole remained on
a very precarious footing. It was only from the pe¬
riod of the eftablilhment of their new conftitution that
a confiftent fyftem of national commerce could be
adopted. It fo happened, that this period proved ex¬
tremely favourable to their engaging extenfively in fo¬
reign trade. The violent ftiock, or rather the utter
ruin, which the revolution brought along with it to
the manufactures and commerce of France, forced her
to open the ports of her colonies to the veffels of neu¬
tral powers. From that moment, the Americans en-
groffed all the commerce of the French colonies, which
they were fo well fituated to^carry on to advantage.
The other powers of Europe, which had alfo colonies
in the Weft Indies, being all fucceftively engaged in
the war, opened the ports of their colonies in like man¬
ner to the Americans, or at lead confiderably diminifh-
ed;
A M E [ i
America, ed their prohibitive regulations. Thus the commerce
“—■'v”" ■' of the United States had the viftualling of the Weft
India iflands, as well as an exclufive trade with the
French and Dutch colonies 5 not only in proviftons,
but alfo in commodities of every kind. Their {hips
Were freighted to carry Weft India produce to Eu¬
rope, and to bring back in return the articles neceflary
for the confumption both of the United States and of
thofe fame colonies. Add to this, that, in confequence
of the great fcarcity of provifions that during various
years prevailed either in France or in Great Britain,
the Americans found in thefe countries a ready and
profitable market for all the productions of their coun¬
try. By thefe means, aided by the eftablilhment of
banks, and by an unexpenfive, though efficient, go¬
vernment, the commerce of the United States foon be¬
came extremely extenfive. It reached the Eaft In¬
dies, Chinaj and every part of the known world. It
is is true, that by the raffmefs of their fpeculations, ma¬
ny American rherchants fuffered ; but the tide of com¬
mercial profperity was very great upon the whole, and
almoft unexampled j fo that great fortunes have been
rapidly acquired in all the maritime towns of the Uni¬
ted States.
Whether this commercial profperity will be perma¬
nent, now that the 'European nations have returned to
the enjoyment of peace, and confequently have reco¬
vered the power of carrying on their own commerce
without danger or interruption, with all the advanta¬
ges of an abundant population, and of inferior Wages
of labour, is a queftion about which many doubts have
been entertained* It remains, however, with men of
found relleftion in America, a queftion of fome diffi¬
culty, whether, in the prefent ftate of their affairs, the
attempt that has been made to conduct an extenfive fo¬
reign commerce, is, upon the whole, favourable to the
profperity of their empire. Diftant navigations are un¬
doubtedly unfavourable to the progrefs of population,
by the great number of men which they confume, and
by preventing the increafe of families* This kind of
commerce, alfo, by keeping up a tafte for foreign luxu¬
ries, induces a people that have no manufactures to
lavilh away the neceffaries of life on the purchafe of
fuperfiuities, and thus to introduce a coftly ftile of li¬
ving, which is faid already to prevail too much in the
United States, and which in every country has been
found to be the greateft enemy to the increafe of the
people.
One circumftance in the mode of managing the A-
merican commerce^ought not to pafs unnoticed. In
Europe, we are accuftomed to imagine that a man can¬
not be qualified to aft as captain of a ftfip till he has
made a number of voyages, and palled through a regu¬
lar courfe of ftudy 5 whereas, in New England the
merchants do not liefitate to entruft their fhips to young
perfons, who have frequently been only one year at
fea. As they have grown up in the bufinefs of the
counting-houfe, they are perfectly acquainted with the
price, the quality, and the fale of each different com¬
modity. The firit year, they are aflbciated with a
Ikilful fteerfmate, and aft at once in the capacity of
captain and fupercargo. Their veffels do not fuffer
Ihipwreck more frequently than other ihips which are
more cautioufly navigated. In the courfe of a few
vears, thefe young people become merchants them-
1
20 ] A M E
felves, the captain’s profits being always confiderable; Amerk'a,
As they are generally appointed from the families of 1 v—“,
merchants, they teceive affiftance from their em¬
ployers. _ _ . . 45?
There is one kind of commerce which, in fpeaking T- Ac of
of the trade of the United States, ought not to beland.
omitted, as it is altogether peculiar to North Ameri¬
ca j that is, the traffic of land. This track is founded
upon the confiderable mafs of land in the territory of
the United States, in comparifon with their prefent po¬
pulation, and upon the probability of the rapid aug¬
mentation of that population, either by the natural and
ordinary means of reproduction, or by foreign emigra¬
tions. This, like all other branches of trade, and more
than any other, is a traffic of fpeculation. At the end
of the revolution, the wafte lands, which amounted to
more than four-fifths of the American empire, were
found to belong to different itates, which, as fove-
reigns, now inherited this property from the fovereign-
ty of the crown of Great Britain. The lands granted
by the kings of Great Britain have, with fome excep¬
tions, remained in the pofieffion of the granters 5 but
the amount of thefe was infinitely fmall in proportion
to the mafs of the uncultivated land. The fmall Hates
near the fea having been longer inhabited, pofi’effed but
a fmall portion and fome had none at all j while the
great ftates, whofe territory extended far into the inte¬
rior, fuch as Georgia, the Carolinas, Virginia, Penn-
fylvania, and New York, were in poffeffion of immenfe
quantities of foreft lands. It was neceffary for thefe
ftates to fell the wafte lands, to afford encouragement
to their growing population, to prefent a bait to fo¬
reign emigration, and to liquidate the debts refulting
from the war without burdening the people with new
taxes, which at that time they were little able to bear*
Among the lands to be fold were the confifcated eftates
of the royalifts, who had given affiftance to the Britiffl
during the war. To bring thefe lands to fale, the
ftates opened land offices, wffiere perfons who meant to
purchafe received warrants to have the lands they
pointed out furveyed by the furveyor of the ftate, pof¬
feffion being delayed till payment of the price, or ful¬
filment of fome part of the conditions of the transfe¬
rence* Great fpeculations immediately began, land
being purchafeable of all the ftates at a very low price.
The ftates were then inundated with paper money, pe¬
culiar to each, and all in a ftate of depreciation. By
buying up this paper at a trilling price throughout the
country, and delivering it to the ftates as the price of
territory, many fpeculators acquired land with a real
value of two or three cents, or hundredth part of a dol¬
lar per acre, payable in fix or eight years, with a dif-
count from the treafury of the ftate for prompt pay¬
ment, according to the value at which the land was
rated by the law. Other fpeculators, without adopt*
ing fuch a mode of payment, made purchafes merely
upon the hope entertained by every American of an
immediate increafe of population, by emigration and
otherwife, which wTould neceffarily foon raife the price
of lands. Confiderable quantities of land were alfo
beftow'ed by the ftates upon the officers and foldiers
that had been employed in their armies during the war,
as a remuneration for their fervices. By thele grants,
and by purchafes made by individuals from the land
offices of the feveral ftates, or from coramiflioners ap¬
pointed
A.tnerica,
Sales of
land in
large por¬
tions,
,458
Sales of
land in
fmall par¬
cels.
A M E [ i
pointed to put up large portions to public fnle, a groat
extent of territory in all the dates foon came to be held,
and continues to this day to be fpeculated upon, by pri¬
vate perfons. The {peculators in land who hold great
quantities of that commodity, endeavour to turn it to
account chiefly in three ways : lit, By felling the land
in large parcels to men of fortune in Europe or Ame¬
rica $ 2dly, By felling it in fmall parcels to families
who mean to fettle upon it j and, laftly, By preferving
it till time and a diminution of the quantity of this fort
of merchandife have raifed the value of it to a price an-
fwerable to their expeftation.
The firit of thefe modes, is that which is moft ge¬
nerally defired. To accompliih it, agents have at dif¬
ferent times been fent to Europe. Several great fales
were by their means eftefted in England upon advan¬
tageous terms, which raifed the price of the remain¬
ing lands, increafed the confidence of the {peculators,
added to their numbers, and extended their fchemes.
The opinion of an immenfe emigration, to which the
Trench revolution and the fituation of Europe gave
rife, confpired for fome time to give confidence to thefe
{peculators. The great fales to Europeans were faci¬
litated by the periods of the payments to be made to
the dates, which were always diftant, and by the delays
of thefe payments which could not be obtained with¬
out much difficulty. In the dates of Pennfylvania and
Maryland, every foreigner could buy and poflefs land
as well as a citizen. In fome others, although this
privilege was not given by law to foreigners in gene¬
ral, yet it was readily permitted by the legidature when
applied for. In all the dates, a foreigner may hold
land in the name of an inhabitant; and the great in-
tcred the dates had in felling, and in buying foreign
capitals into their territory, has always given entire fe-
curity to this borrowed right of pofleffion. In making
bargains of this kind, the conditions are various accord¬
ing to the views of the parties. The periods of pay¬
ments are generally diort; at lead a large part of the
purchafe money is paid down wffien the bargain is con¬
cluded. The conditions impofed by the dates in the
contradls of fale are bidding by law upon the new pur-
chafers ; but very often the old purehafer remains re-
fponfible, in cafe of their not being fulfilled by the
new one. The new purchafers become {peculators
themfclves, and in order to turn their new property to
account, have recourfe to the fame means that were
employed by thofe of whom they bought it.
Land is fold in fmall parcels in feveral ways: either
out and out for ready money, a mode of fale which
though not unfrequent, is not the mod common j or
out and out, but to be paid for by indalments j in
which cafe the title deeds are not delivered till after
the purchafe money is entirely paid ; and the feller re¬
tains a right of eje&ing the new fettler from his land,
If the conditions of payment be not fulfilled. Some¬
times the feller only requires a fmall part of the price
of the land in ready money j and the land remains
fubjedt to a perpetual rent, payable in money or in
produce, which the purchafer is not always left at li¬
berty to redeem. Sometimes the feller endeavours to
let his lands, for a certain number of years, for an an¬
nual rent, or under condition of clearing annually a
certain number of acres, the whole improvements be¬
ing to return to himfelf at the termination of the leafe:
Vol. II. Part I.
i ] A M E
But fuch bargains are unufual; fettlers being unwilling America,
to accept of a temporary right. Almod all the great 1
landed proprietors, therefore, endeavour to get fome
perfons to accept, upon moderate terms, of finall lots,
and to lettle upon their eftates j becaufe by clearing
fome portions of it, they enhance the value of the
reft’ . . . 459
The third mode of deriving advantage from pur-Land with
chafes of land, by waiting till time has raifed its price,ljC^.n'OIX1
is the refource of great proprietors who have not beenj^^T11^
able to employ the two others. Some perfons, how-r:cg ot jts
ever, with little capital, endeavour to wait upon the price,
mere calculation of the rife that will probably take
place in a given time. In thefe calculations, men of
a fanguine' temper are frequently deceived ; and there
are many examples of proprietors, who in the follow¬
ing year, would be extremely glad to fell at the price
that they had refufed the year before. Thefe {pecula¬
tions in land, however, have been the me airs of making
great fortunes in America ; but they have alio, when en¬
gaged in without fufficient capital, occafioned more di-
ftrefs and greater and more difaftrous bankruptcies than
any other kind of commercial adventures. The lands
in America are alio the branch of trade, which has
given occafion to the greateft number of law fuits, as
well on account of the titles as of the boundaries of
efiates, and of the fulfilment of the conditions of fale.
The moft certain, as well as the moft advantageous
means of deriving profit from a great extent of new
land in America, is faid to be for the purchafer to be¬
gin clearing it himfelf) to attract inhabitants as
fpeedily as poffible by giving them, at a low rate, and
even for nothing, if neceffary, a number of acres fuffi¬
cient for the maintenance of their families j to eredt
mills, make bridges and roads, even to build a few
houfes, and to encourage in every way the efforts of
the new fettlers. There is no example of thefe fir ft
facrifices, when made wuth intelligence and to a fuit-
able extent, having failed rapidly to increafe the value
of the land referved by the proprietor, and fpeedily to
enrich him by attracting great numbers of emigrants
from other countries. As the fubduing of a vaft wil-
dernefs, and filling it with men of a civilized race and
charadler, is an event of much importance in the hi-
ftory of mankind, we ffiall here take notice of one of
the inftances of great fuccefs in an undertaking of this
kind, that occurred to an European {peculator. 460
The diftridt called Genejfee on the fouthern flbore ofK-emark-
Lake Ontario, or rather that part of the diftrict which
was not then fold, was in 1791 purchafed, in London,
from Mr Morris for is. per acre. He had bought it chafe of
from Mr Phelps for jd per acre. The contradt was land,
concluded on the fuppofition that this trad! of land
contained 1,000,000 of acres j and a condition was ad¬
ded that the price or fum of 50,000!. fterling which
was to be paid immediately, ftiould be returned by Mr
Morris, provided that: Captain Williatnfon, the oftenli-
ble purchafer, who was to view the lands, ftiould not
find them anfwerable to the defeription given of them.
The purchafer was fatisfied with the lands, and on fur-
veying them a furplus was difeovered of no lefs than
120,000 acres. But Mr Morris made no difficulty on
transferring them, together with the reft, to Captain
Williamfcn, without the Icaft remuneration, becaufe,
as he obferved, he had intended to fell the whole with-
Q*. out
A M E [ i
America, out any refervation. Captain Williamfon is fufpecletl
' to have been only the agent of a very wealthy Britifh
baronet. But in every refpect he has afted as pro¬
prietor. The diftrifl bought by him, bounded on one
hde by Lake Ontario, and on the other by the river
Geneffee, extends 80 miles in length by 30 or 40 in
breadth. To preferve the continuity of his lands, he
made feveral additional purchafes, fq that his ellate
foon amounted to 1,500,000 acres. After furveying
the whole, he fixed on fpots for building towns, as
central points to a fyftem of fettlements. Thefe towns,
were, Bath, on the creek of Conhoftoon, Williamf-
burg, on the river Geneffee, and Great Sodus, on
Lake Ontario. He immediately eftablifhed a mode of
communication between Philadelphia and this new
tradl, by forming roads in a dire£l line, fo as to
Ihorten the journey at leaf! 300 miles. Thefe new
roads were made merely by felling the trees to the
breadth of an ordinary road, in as ftraight a line as
poffible through the forell, and by removing them to
one fide of the path 5 their flumps to the height of
leveral feet being Hill left Handing. He alfo erected
feven faw mills, and three corn mills. He built a great
number of fuch houfes as the firft fettlers upon lands
ufually require ^ and he began in feveral places to clear
the woodlands. His firft labourers were Germans,
brought from Hamburgh) but they fpent their time in
idlenefs and drunkennefs, and Toon left him. They
were replaced by Irifhmen, by whofe aftiftance his
roads were foon put into what the Americans account
good condition in fuch a fituation ; that is, he made
lanes through the woods in the wray already mentioned.
The refult was, that his lands, which at firft fold at
one dollar per acre, in two years time, fold for 3 dol¬
lars. The produce of about 800,000 acres difpofed
of in this way, not only refunded the purchafe money,
and the whole amount of the other expences incurred,
but is alfo underftood to have yielded a nett profit of
50,000!. fterling. To obtain this fuccefs, however,
Captain Williamfon found it neceffary to refide in the
woods in the midft of his pofleflions. When he fold
fmall fhares of 500 or 1000 acres, he always ftipulated
that one family fhould come to fettle upon each fhare
within 18 months, under the penalty of a forfeiture of
the bargain. When larger portions were fold, he fti¬
pulated, that a proportional number of acres Ihould be
cleared of wood. His terms of payment were, to dif-
charge half the purchafe money in 3 years, and the re¬
mainder at the expiration of fix years-, the payment of
intereft to commence within 18 months after the bar¬
gain. Thus, a purchafer w'ho inftantly fet about clear¬
ing the ground, could eafily obtain its produce before
the intereft became due ; and his crops frequently af-
fifted him towards the payment of the firft inftalment.
He alfo eftabliihed ftores of provifions in different
places ) but thefe he never opened for fale unlefs the
fettlers could not otherwife fupply themfelves, that the
fale of the produce of their lands might not be injur¬
ed. He likewife built a fchool at Bath, and endowed
it w-ith fome hundred acres of land. He gradually
built inns, and even a feftions houfe and a prifon, for
the public ufe. By all thefe efforts, added to great
care in preventing litigation among the fettlers ) by
fixing in a precife manner the boundaries of the feve¬
ral pieces of property fold, thefe extenfiye forefts were
22] A M E
in a few years reduced under the dominion of man, America.
and put into a train of fpeedily becoming populous and
valuable.
461
From what has been already faid concerning the State of
ftate of manufaftures in America, and the general fitu-aSncuIture*
ation of the country, it will eafily be conceived, that
the greater number of the people muft be ftill engaged
in agriculture. Indeed, it is underftood, that nine-
tenths of the inhabitants of the United States follow
this employment. Concerning the ftate of it, when
confidered as an art, it is difficult to fpeak with preci-
fion, on account of the variety of forms in which it is
praftifed indifferent diftridlsof that great country. It
may juftly be faid, that the art of agriculture exifts in
America in all its known degrees and varieties, both of
perfection and of imperfection. The ancient ftate of
Maffachufets is as much cultivated as France or Eng¬
land. The houfes Hand near to each other, in the
midft of the fields and farms to which they belong :
fome of the roads feem to be one continued village j
and to fupport this population much induftry is exerted
upon the foil. Mbft of the fences are made of ftone.
The harveft is always completely fecured in houfes^
and a great part of the ground is always periodically
laid doum 4n grafs. Numbers of horfes employed in
country labour are feen in the fields ) but they are not
remarkable for beauty. The cattle are of a fine
breed, and all the pafture grounds are covered with
them. But the agriculture of Maffachufets, and of
fome other parts of the New England ftates, affords no
proper criterion by which to judge of the ftate of this
important art in the greater part of America. The
general rule with regard to huftralidry in that country
is, that it is extremely defective and flovenly. This
does not arife fo much from the want of fkill on the
part of the Americans, as from the nature of their fitua¬
tion. In that country, land is plentiful and cheap ^
but men are few, and labour is confeqnently dear.
An American hufbandman, therefore, is more lludious
to make the moll of the labour that he can command,
than to raife great crops from a fmall portion of foil.
Having abundance of fertile land to wafte, he finds it
more profitable to turn over negligently, with as little ■
toil as poffible, a large portion of it, than to labour
any part of it perfectly. In this way he derives the
greatell benefit from his own perfonal indufiry, or
from the labour of thofe perfons whom it is in his
power to engage for hire. This negligent mode of
cultivation, however, is laid afide in the neighbourhood
of the great towns, where land is valuable and dear 5
and it prevails in proportion to the remotenefs of the
fituation, and the facility with which land is obtained. 462
In fome places, in confequence of the multitude of They floo<I
rtreams that are to be found in America, the valuable l*ie lam‘*
practice of Hooding land is adopted ) and the American
hufbandmen are faid to practice this branch of the art
of agriculture with confiderable ingenuity and induftry.
Inftead of attempting to level their ground, however,
they manage to convey confiderable ftreams of water
through the valleys to the fummits of the eminences,
or high grounds, by means of tubes or pipes, formed
of the trunks of trees bored or hollow'ed out. In
other refpects, howrever, the pradlice ol American huf-
bandry is undoubtedly very imperfetft. Even in thofe
parts of the country in which timber has become dear,
the
A M E [ 123 ] A M E
America, tlie Americans Hill continue from habits to ufe wooden
* fences. No fuch thing as a hedge is to be feen in any
No hedges t^ie ^at;es* ^ ^1e farmers fay, that the thorn does not
* thrive in their climate. This point has not perhaps
been well afcertained by experiments 5 but there can
be no doubt, that out of the endlefs variety of native
plants and fhrubs, fome might eafily have been found
that are capable of being ufed as a living fence. All
the cultivated fields at the firft clearing of the ground
are inclofed with fences, which confill of poles of wood
once fplit and laid zig-zag upon another without any
Hakes. Thefe fences are afterwards exchanged for
regular palings of different kinds of wood, which are
neceffarily attended with all the defefts of that mode
of attempting to fecure either corn or flock j running
^ rapidly into decay, and requiring conftant repairs.
No ftacks Tile Americans have an expenfive mode of fecuring
grain, their grain. Inftead of building it up in Hacks, they
are at the trouble of bringing it ail into houfes or barns.
They fay, that it would not be fecure in flacks againfl
the fudden and violent torrents of rain that occur in
their climate j an error into which they have un¬
doubtedly been led by building and covering their
Hacks in an unfkilful and improper manner. They do
not reap their grain with the fickle, but cut it down
with the fcythe, which muH undoubtedly produce con-
fiderable wade. But this is perhaps done from necef-
ffty, in confequence of the high price of labour, or
rather the difficulty of obtaining a fufficient number of
labourers to perform this work in another manner.
InHead of thrafhing, they ufe in many places, and par¬
ticularly in Virginia, the ancient cuflom of treading
out the corn by means of cattle, by whofe feet it mull,
no doubt, be confiderably bruifed and damaged.
New fettle- The fimplefl and lead artful kind of American huf-
ments, how bandry is that pra6lifed in the formation of new fettle-
lormed. mexits. When a family have come to a refolution to
fettle in a particular diflridl, they ufually proceed in
the following manner : The hufitand in the latter end
of fummer repairs to the fpot where the fettlement is to
be made. The firfl thing he does is to cut down the
imall trees on one or two acres. He next barks the
larger trees. This lad operation confills of cutting off a
circle of bark from the tree all round with a hatchet, pe¬
netrating at the iame'time a ihort way into the wood; the
effeft of which operation is, that on the following year, the
tree produces few or no leaves to prevent the fun from
leaching the foil. In that climate, trees thus barked
or girdled fpeedily decay, and in a few years are over¬
turned by any florm ; after which they can be burnt
with little trouble on the ground. Among the trees
thus barked, and upon the ground that has been clear¬
ed, the new fettler breaks up the foil, by dragging
along it a common harrow with iron teeth. Without
farther preparation, and without the ufe of a plough,
he lows wheat or rye. Wheat thus fowh produces
from 20 to 25 bufhels an acre, of an excellent quality 5
and, in confequence of the great fertility of the foil,
and its natural foftnefs, being wholly formed of rotten
leaves and grafs, good crops of wheat are obtained
with no greater degree of indullry during feveral years
in fucceffion. Having fovvn his grain in this way,
the fettler, with the wood which he has felled, con-
ffrudls a fmall log-houfe, and makes fuitable fences
around it; a labour which may be performed in about
a month’s time ; after which, the new plantation is AmeHcs.
left to itfelf for the winter. It is to be obferved that y
a log-houfe is built by laying trees upon each other at
right-angles in fuch a way as to enclofe a fquare fpace 5
the interllices being filled up with Hone and clay, or
only with loam, and the roof covered with trees and
turf. A chimney is ufually built, in one corner, of
Hones and clay. In the beginning of fpring, this ad¬
venturer brings his family and the bell of his cattle to
his new fettlement. His cows are turned into the
woods to graze. He plants potatoes, and fows Indian
corn, and thus is enabled to provide for the firfl year’s
maintenance. While thus employed, he is at the
fame time clearing more ground, burning the trees he
has already felled, and, as far as may be, even thofe
which he has barked. The affies afford a very ufeful
manure ; and in the opinion of the beff judges, are
employed in this way to much greater advantage than
when converted into potalh, the making of which is
with the new fettlers merely the refult of neceffity.
For if a law-mill be at hand, the large trees are con¬
veyed thither by oxen. Thus, within the fpace of
twelve months, a man may clear 15 acres ; and few
families cultivate more than 30. The barked trees
are left Handing for a longer or Ihorter time, according
to circumflances, viz. the ipecies of the tree, the na¬
ture of the foil, and the degree of the wetnefs of the
feafon. The hemlock fir will Hand eight or nine
years, the oak four or five, the maple three or four ;
and trees, all the branches of which have been burnt
off, feldom fall before this time. The flumps of the
felled trees, generally two or three feet high above the
ground, hardly rot f'ooner than the barked trees which
have been left Handing on the lands. Salt pork and
beef are the ufual food of the new fettlers. Their
drink is water and whilky ; but there are few families
unprovided with coffee and chocolate. The axe which
the Americans ufe in felling trees has a Ihorter handle
and a fmaller head than that of European wood-cut¬
ters ; and they affert, that they can do more work
with this fhort-handled light axe than with the Euro¬
pean.
The Americans appear to entertain fewer local at¬
tachments than the peafants of Europe', and accoid-
ingly, emigration with them is extremely common.
Some families make a bufinefs of forming new fettle-
ments in the way now mentioned. After building a
houfe, forming enclofures, cutting down a part of the
wood, and putting every thing into a decent train of
cultivation, they fell the fettlement which they have
formed with fo much labour, and proceed farther into
the rvoods, to commence anew the fame career of
hardffiip and of indidlry. By thefe operations, they
never fail to earn a very confiderable profit, on ac¬
count of the additional value which the land acquires
by their efforts in the eyes of perfons of greater pro¬
perty. The fame kind of undertakings, however, are
alfo engaged in by men of a vagrant and refflefs cha-
ra&er, who delight in an idle life, the greatefl part of
which is fpent in hunting. Thefe men keep upon the
frontiers of every new colony, and as foon as their
amufements begin to be reffrained by fettlers occupy¬
ing the country round them, they immediately fell
their plantations, and proceed to more remote fitua-
tkms; thus becoming a kind of voluntary outcafls
CE? from
46<S
Children
apt to be
loft in the
woods.
Cattle ufed
in agricuK
tore.
A M E [12
America, from civilized igciety. In thefe undertakings, there is
~ " ufually little perfonal hazard, as the wild animals
are lei’s fierce in America than in other parts of the
globe. Wolves, bears, nay even panthers, ufually fly
before man j and the inflances of their doing mifchief
are fo rare, that the very reality of it might be doubt¬
ed. The fevered misfortune to which the inhabitants
of the American forells are liable is the lofs of their
children in the woods. Thefe unfortunate infants,
over whom it is almod impoffible to keep conftantly a
watchful eye-, are apt to run out of the houfe, which
is feldom fenced the firft year, and, ftraying from their
houfes, are unable to find them again. In fuch cafes,
however, all the neighbours join in the fearch, and
fometimes the children are found. But there are alfo
inflances of their being totally loll, or difcovered only
when dead of hunger or fear.
Both horfes and oxen are ufed in agriculture in A-
merica. In fome places, however, they have at times
found it neceffary to confine themfelves exclufively to
the ufe of the latter, becaufe they are fubjeft to no
difeafe' in that country. Whereas in Pennfylvania,
New1 York, and elfewhere, almoft the whole horfes are
fometimes carried off by a w7eaknefs which deftroys
them in the courfe of tw’o months. The liver is blown
up by a fwelling, which extends into the legs and the
whole mafs of blood, and is called the yellow wTater.
Is is faid, that in the ftate of Virginia the Arabian
horfe, wuth a very moderate degree of attention, thrives
as in bis native climate, and without degenerating.
Southwardly, the heat of the fun occafions a deficiency
.of pafturej and northwardly the w-inters are too cold
for the fhort and fine hair, and the particular fenfibili-
ty of conftitution of that race. Their patience of heat
fits them, in that and the fouthern climates, even for
the drudgeries of the plough ; and numbers of them
are exported from thence to the Weft India iflands,
as articles of luxury to the wealthy planters there.
Very few flieep are reared by the American farmers.
The w'ool is of a good enough quality $ but there is
little or no demand for it, unlefs for the fupply of
fome manufaftories of hats. The mutton is in general
not good} the carcafes being very large, and the
flefh coarfe from being fed on the high rank grafs of
the American paftures. Accordingly few7 farmers
keep more than j 8 or 20 to fupply w'ool to be manu¬
factured in their own families. Great numbers of
fvvine are kept by the Americans. This is faid to
have foon become a very favourite kind of flock among
the earlieft fettlers in the country •, from the delight
W’hich they found the fwine took in hunting out and
devouring all kinds of ferpents, with wrhich the coun¬
try abounded, and wkich wrere objects of great terror to
perfons newly arrived from the cultivated countries of
Europe, in which thefe reptiles are more rare.
The kinds of grain cultivated in America are nearly
the fame wdth thofe reared in Europe, with fome ad¬
ditions. A regular fucceffion of crops is defcribed by
an American writer, as ufed in recruiting w7orn-out
lands. In Maryland and Virginia, they have long
been in the praffice of fowring a pint of the beans of
the 'cq/Jia chamiccrijia wdth every bufhel of oats on
poor lands. The oats ripen, and are cut in July,
when the beans are young, and efcape the injury of
the fcythe. They flower in Auguft and September.
468
Sheep.
469
Swine.
47°
Grain.
4 ] A M E
In Oftober the leaves fall off j the feeds ripen, and America,
the pod opens with fuch elafticity as to fcatter the " v'——^
beans to fome diftance around. The year following
the field is cultivated with Indian corn, which is fown
in . drills. The beans which fprout early are all de-
ftroyed by the plough and the hoe ; but the more nu¬
merous part not making their appearance above ground,
till the culture of the corn is ended, fpring up unhurt
by the inftruments of agriculture, and furnifh feed for
the enfuing year, when the field is again fown with
oats. By this alternate cultivation of Indian corn
and oats with beans, the land is fo far improved by
the rotting of leaves and ftalks of the beans, that the
product is 15 bufhels to the acre, on fuch as prior to
this management would not have produced more than
five. The American hulbandmen are alfo of opinion,
that the common field pea is preferable to every thing
elfe for improving lands, if the vines or ftraw be left
to rot on the ground, inftead of being given to cattle
for fodder. ^
Indian corn or maize everywhere forms a confider-Indian corn,
able article of the produce of American hufbandry.
The mode of rearing it is fimple. Holes are made in
the field, four feet afunder every way, and fo as to form
ftraight lines, for the conveniency of hoeing, or
ploughing. In every hole are put five or fix grains
previoufly fteeped in w ater, to make them fpring up
the quicker. By day people are placed for a Ihort
time, to guard them againft birds, and by night, fires
are kept up till the corn has fprung, to frighten away
the fox, who would otherw'iie turn up the ground, and
eawthe corn of all the rows one after another. As
foon' as the corn has (hot out of the earth, when it
mounts up, the earth is drawn towards its root, to
ftrengthen it againft the wind. Five or fix ears are
commonly found on each ftalk. The grains are near¬
ly of the lize of a pea, and 700 grains are commonly
found upon one ear. A light black foil agrees better
with it than a ftrong and rich one. The grain is ufed
in various w'ays, but chiefly in the form of a kind of
porridge or gruel. Bread is alfo made from it, and
it is fometimes ufed in diftillation.
As in Europe, wheat is regarded as the moft valuable Wheat,
kind of grain. In Virginia, however, near the fea
coaft, the cultivation of it is not -a little difcouraged
by an iniedf called the weave/. This is a worm whofe
eggs are almoft conftantly depofited in the ear of the
grain. A flight degree of heat greater than that of
the common atmofphere in fummer kills it, and is en¬
deavoured to be obtained in the following way : The
grain is thrafhed as loon as it is cut, and laid up in its
chaff in large heaps. The heat which is fpeedily pro¬
duced deftroys the vital principle of the egg, and pro¬
tects the corn from the inconveniences of its being
hatched, while at the fame time the chaff fufficiently
reltrains the heat from riling into putrefadlion. If the
grain continued in the ears without being fpeedily
thrafhed, it would be deftroyed by the worm which
w’ould be excluded from the eggs. This fcourge,
however, fpreads no farther nortlwvards than the Po-
towmack, and is bounded to the weft by the ridge
called the Blue Mountains. A few7 weeks after the
wheat has been beaten or trodden out by horfes, it is
free from all danger, is winnowed, and lent to market. 47-
Tobacco continues to be cultivated to a confiderable Tobacco.
extent
America.
A M E [ 125 ]
A M E
extent in Virginia, and the ftates to the fouthward. It
is yearly, however, giving place to wheat, which is of
infinitely more value to the country, as having a lefs
tendency to impoveriih the foil, and contributing in a
more direct manner to the encouragement of popula¬
tion. The culture of tobacco, on account of the con-
Ihant attention and labour which it requires under a
burning fun, is chiefly performed by negroes. It is
difficult, troublefome, and uncertain. It is fown in the
month of March, in a fat and rather moift foil. Be¬
fore the time of lowing, the land is covered with fmall
branches of trees, which are burnt for the purpofe of
deflroying the herbs and roots that might injure the
growth of the plant, and alfo in order to increafe the
fertility of the foil by their allies. The tobacco is
thickly fown on a bed in the moft flickered corner of
the field. This bed is covered with branches, leil the
froft fliould hinder the unfolding of the feed, and pre¬
vent the fprouting of the plants. When they are three
or four inches high, they are tranfplanted into a field,
which has been well manured and prepared for their
reception. A negro heaps earth around the plants,
which are fet four feet diftant from each other ou all
lides. The ground is conftantly kept clear of weeds,
and all the leaves are taken from the plant, which it is
thought might injure its perfeft growth, beginning al¬
ways with thofe that are next the ground, and which
might be affedled by the wet. More earth is heaped
around the ftalk, and its head bruifed with the nail to
prevent its running up too high. All the fprouts which
Ihoot forth below the leaves are cut away, and all the
leaves fucceflively torn off, except eight or nine, which
alone are left on the ftalk. At laft, when the plant is
fuppofed to be ripe, which happens in the month of
Auguft, it is cut, left feveral days in the field to dry in
the fun, and then carried into the barns, where every
plant is fufpended by its undermoft part. In this pofi-
tion the leaves attain by deficcation the laft degree of
maturity, but not all of them at the lame time ; for
this deficcation, which, in regard to fome, is completed
within two days, takes, with refpeft to others, leveral
weeks. When the leaves are prefetffly dry, they are
taken from the ftalk, and laid one upon another in
fmall parcels. The moft perfeft leaves muft be put
together, and thofe of an inferior quality feparated in¬
to different claffes : this is at leaft the method follow¬
ed by fuch planters as pay moft attention to the fabri¬
cation of their tobacco. Thefe fmall parcels of leaves,
tied together by their tails, are then brought under
the prefs, and afterwards preffed down into hogfheads.
This proccfs varies more or lefs in the different plan¬
tations, but the variations are not by any means con-
flderable. The feed for the next year is obtained
from 40 or 50 ftalks .per acre, which arts fuffered to
run up as high as they will grow without their heads
being bruifed.
The forts of tobacco cultivated, in Virginia, are the
fwect-fcentedr the moft efteemed of all ; the big and
little, which follow next *, then the Frederick; and,
laftly, the one-and-a/l, the largeft of all, and which
yields moft in point of quantity. A negro can culti¬
vate two acres and a half; and, as each acre yields, upon
an average, 1000 pounds of tobacco, each negro can
confequently produce 2500 pounds. But the culture
of this plant is, as already has been ftated, extremely
troublefome. It is expofed to a great variety of acci- Ameru a,
dents, wffiich cannot always be avoided, and wffiich' "l—v • 1
deftroy many ftalks, or fpoil at leaft many leaves. Af¬
ter the plant has been tranfplanted, the root is fre¬
quently attacked by a fmall worm, which caufes the
leaf to turn yellow, and which muft be taken out of
the ground with the fingers, to fave the plant. Humi¬
dity communicates the. rot to the plant, that is, covers
it with red fpots, which caufe it to moulder away, and
the ftalk is loft. Violent winds are apt to break the
ftalk. When the leaves are at the point of attaining
their maturity, horn-worms neftle in them, attack
them, and completely deftroy the plant, unlefs they
can be torn off. Laftly, When the tobacco is .cut and
fpread on the ground to dry, the wet impairs its qua-
lhy- . , 474
Indigo and cotton are alfo cultivated in fotne of the Indigo and
fouthern ftates. Cotton in particular is exported from cotton.
Charleftown in confiderable quantities ; and of late it
has been brought down the river Miffiflippi, from Ken¬
tucky and other fettlements to New Orleans, in fuch
abundance as to form an important article of commerce. 47-
In South Carolina, rice is cultivated to a great extent. Rice^
That country is divided by nature into Upper and
Lower. The latter, which is the eaftern part, ad¬
joining to the Atlantic ocean, extends inward almoft
xoo miles. The land in this low diftridt confirts of
marflaes and fwamps, interfperfed with a little high
land. The marfhes are a fecond-rate land, which pro¬
duces a coarfe kind of grafs in very great abundance.
Little attention is paid to them, though they could in
general be drained and cultivated. The high land is
alfo neglefted for the fake of the fwamps, which are
the moft valuable kind of foil, confifting of a rich blue
clay, or fine black earth, to the greateft depth. The
rice which is cultivated upon them is fown in April
and May. The ground is turned up eight or nine
inches deep in furrows, into which the rice is thrown
by a woman ; and the negroes, who alone are em¬
ployed in this cultivation, fill up the furrows. The
feed Ihoots up in 10 or 12 days, according as the
ground is more or lefs wet. When the blade is from
fix to feven inches high, and after the negroes have
cleared away the weeds, the wTater is made to flow over
the field, fo that no more than the tops of the blades
can be feen. In three or four weeks the water is let
off, and the negroes take away the remaining weeds.
The field is covered again with wrater, which is drawn
oft' when the yellow colour of the ear and the hardnefs-
of the ftalk denote the ripenefs of the rice. It vs then
cut and kept in ftacks till winter. It is afterwards
thraflied, and put into a fmall wooden boufe, which is
fome feet high, and refts upon four pillars ; and in the
ceiling of which is faftened a large lieve, which fepa-
rates it from the other parts, and the wind clears it
perfeftly before it falls to the ground. The rice,- after
being thus cleared, muft be freed from the firft ftvell
that furrounds it. For this purpofe, it is carried to a
mill, the grinders of which are made of fir, and are
about four inches thick, and two and a half in diame¬
ter. One is moveable, the other fixed. They are both
fcooped out in an oblique but concentric form. A-
gainft the edges thus formed, the rice is preffed ; and
by that means feparated from the hulks. Thefe mills
are turned by a negro. On account of the rapid mo¬
tion
A M E
America.
[
tion and the foft wood of which they are made, they
do not laft longer than one year. The rice is win¬
nowed as foon as it comes from the mill, but ftill it
has a fecond {hell which mull be taken off, and this is
done by the negroes pounding it with clubs. Thefe
clubs, however, are iometimes put in motion by ma¬
chinery turned by oxen. After the rice is pounded, it
is winnowed again to cleanfe it from the fecond (hell;
and it is put into another fieve for the purpofe of fepa-
rating the imall from the larger grains. The lalt on¬
ly are faleable. Whether the i'eparation is carefully
made or not, muff depend on the honefty of the plant--
er; and during the late dearth of provifions in Eu¬
rope, when the rice bore a high price, it is faid that
they were not very fcrupulous in this refpedt. The
rice deftined for 1'ale is packed up in barrels, offered
for the infpection of the officer appointed for that pur¬
pofe, and then exported. During its growth, the rice
is expofed to feveral dangers, which render the crop
uncertain. Before the blade grows up, it is attacked
by fmall worms, which gnaw the root. It is alfo fre¬
quently injured by little fillies that live in the water
which covers the fwamps. Againft them the rice is only
defended by the heron garden alba minor) which feeds
on thefe little fiffies and worms } and on this account
is fpared by the planters, as the turkey-buzzard is by
the town’s people. When the rice is ripe, it is affail-
ed by innumerable quantities of fmall birds, which are
known in Carolina by the name of rice birds. The
young negroes are continually kept belide the fields to
frighten them away j but thefe voracious birds cannot
be entirely kept off. The rice fwamps yield between
50 and 80 buffiels of rice an acre, according to the
quality of the foil. Sometimes 120 bufliels have been
produced from an acre 5 but inftances of this kind have
been rare. Twenty bulhels of rice, with the ffiells,
weigh about 500 pounds. Without the {hells, thefe 20
make but eight bulhels ; without, howrever, lofing
much in weight. The ffraw is given to oxen and
horfes.
It will eafily be believed, that the cultivation of
rice has a tendency to render a hot climate, in which
alone it can be praftifed, extremely unhealthful. • The
inhabitants accordingly, in the warm and damp cli¬
mate of South Carolina, fuffer feverely every autumn
from malignant bilious fevers, which cut them off in
great numbers. When originally introduced, this con-
lequence was not forefeen ; but it nowT maintains its
ground, from the difficulty of altering an eftablifired
i’yftem of induffry. It will probably, however, be
fuppreffed in the courfe of time, as white men will not
engage in the operative part of the cultivation ; and
the unlkilful labour of negroes is always expenfive,
which prevents the cultivation of it from being attend¬
ed with any great degree of profit. The American
rivers alfo being fubjedl to violent inundations, which
they call frefhes, often fweep away the wffiole harveff,
together with the woods and fences which furround
the rice fields. >
The lands that have been brought under cultivation
try irregu- America do by no means extend in a regular pro-
tied 1 " gre^s at equal diftances from the fea coaft or from the old¬
er fettlements. In confequence of the fuperior goodnefs
of the foil, of the fuppofed falubrity of particular parts of
the country, or of fpeculations by purehafers of land,
A meric*.
476
The eoun-
26 ] A M E
tvho have held out unufual encouragements to new fet-
tlers; very remote diftridls are in many places inhabited,
wffiile others at a leis diftance from the feat of the origi¬
nal colonies, ftill remain in a ftate of nature. In general,
however, the progrefs of emigration neceffarily mult
be towards the weft, and from choice, it ufually is
from the north to the fouth. The fhortnefs of the
winter in the louthern territories of the union, affords
a great temptation to this courfe of things, on account
of the heavy tax which is impofed upon human indu-
ftry, by the neceffity of ftoring up great quantities of
fuel for man, and food for cattle, in the more northern
regions. In general, the great traft of the Alleghany
mountains is left unfettled, and emigrants from the
eaftern parts of the union ufually proceed altogether
beyond them before -they think of fettling. It has
been computed that, in fome years lately, no lefs than
30,000 perfons have crofted thefe mountains in fearch
of new habitations. The ftate of Kentucky, adjoining
to the Ohio, has been the chief point towards which
thefe emigrants have directed their courfe. They
ufually proceed by land, acrofs the mountains, to Fort
Pitt, which is 320 miles from Philadelphia. Families
are conveyed thither in waggons, by perfons who en¬
gage in this employment, and take whole families of
men, w;omen, and children, and their goods, at fo
much per cwt. Near Fort Pitt, where many of the
emigrants remain, boats are obtained at a trifling price,
in which travellers commit tbemfelves to the ftream of
the Ohio, which conveys them downwards to thefe re¬
mote regions. Other emigrants travel towards the
fame place by land, through the high country of Vir¬
ginia, fome of whom advance into the new ftate of
Teneffee, that has been formed in the back parts of Ca¬
rolina. Of the immenfe territory beyond the Ohio,
very little is yet occupied, though the fuperior mild-
nefs of the climate and the fertility of the foil begin
to drawT emigrants thither from the eaftern Hates.
Of the principal cities and towns of the American Houle/
union, we ihall take notice in feparate articles. In the
mean time, it may be obferved, that the kinds of houfes
ufed in America are no lefs various than the fituations
of men in that country, from remote and folitary fami¬
lies in the woods, to wealthy citizens who inhabit ele¬
gant dwellings in the flreets and fquares of populous
towns. In general, however, houfes of all kinds
throughout the country of America are formed of tim¬
ber. We have mentioned the log-houfes which the
firft fettlers ereft. Thefe are fubftantial habitations,
though uiually very clumfy. They are generally re¬
placed by handfome houfes, finiftred by carpenters,
with chimneys and ovens formed of brick. The towns
in the fouthern ftates, being built in this way, have re¬
peatedly fuffered great calamities by fire. The fear of
this evil, together with the increafing price of timber,
has introduced in the northern ftates very extenfively the
ufe of brick for building. Accordingly the city of Phi¬
ladelphia, containing nearly 80,ooo inhabitants, and
wffiich is faid to be one of the moft regular and beauti¬
ful in the world, has now a very great proportion of
its houfes built with brick. They are ftill, however,
not a little expofed to accidental fires, as their roofs
are formed of Ihingles or boards, fo placed as that the
lower edge of each overlaps the upper part of the board
immediately below it, in the W'ay that flates or tiles
are
47 8
Reiigion.
A M E [ i
America, are laid upon each other to cover the roofs of houfes
v'—-J in Europe. Thefe roofs, and alfo the whole outfide
of the wooden houfes, are ufually very neatly painted.
One convenience that attends the ufe of wooden houfes
is, that, as they are not lofty, and their ftrufture is
very flight, ii a man who has only a fmall houfe dif-
likes the place of the town in which he lives, he can
remove his dwelling to a more agreeable neighbour¬
hood. The furniture is taken out, the brick chimneys
are taken down, and the houfe is mounted upon very
low but very ftrong carriages, formed for the purpofe,
and is wheeled away to its new fituation in any other
ftreet, where ground for the purpofe has been procu¬
red. When the chimneys are eredted, the transference
is complete.
In the United States, religion does not form, as elfe-
where, a part of the political eftablifliment of the coun¬
try, but is rather to be regarded as connedted with the
ftate of manners, fcience, and charadter of the people.
In confequence of the entire freedom of religious opi¬
nion and w'orlhip which has for many years been en¬
joyed in America, all the varieties of fedts have efta-
blilhed themfelves there, though nobody has departed
from the public profeffion of Chriftianity. In general,
however, religion is confidered as an objedt of more
importance in the northern than in the fouthern ftates.
Accordingly, the emigrants from the New England
colonies, who are the moll numerous of all, never fail
very fpeedily to eflablilh religious meetings or church¬
es in their new fettlements. Throughout the ftates,
the prevailing forms of religious worlhip are thofe of
the Church of England, and of the Prelbyterians. The
Independents are alfo numerous. In Pennfylvania,
the greateft variety of religious denominations prevail;
but the Quakers are the moll numerous. They w'ere
the firll fettlers in that ftate in 1682, under William
Penn ; and maintain in that country the reputation
which they have acquired in England of fobernefs, in-
duftry, humanity, pundluality in their dealings, and
ftridlnefs in the obfervanco of all the peculiarities of
drefs, fpeech, and manners, that their religious opi¬
nions enjoin.
The Moravians (fee Unites Fratrum), have made
feveral ellablilhments in Pennfylvania and elfewdiere.
That at Bethlehem, 53 miles north of Philadelphia, is
the oldell and the molt confiderable. In 1740, Count
Zinzendorff purchafed the diftrldl, and foon 'brought
to it 140 Moravian brethren and fillers from Germa¬
ny. They held every thing in common : but fuch wras
their zeal, that the men foon cleared the woods, made
roads, and reduced the lands into cultivation, while
the women prepared their clothes and victuals. The
fyftem of common property was afterwards done aw'av,
excepting as to certain objedls, fuch as corn mills, a
tannery, a tavern and buildings, which belong to the
whole community. The town of Bethlehem is inhabited
by 500 or 600 perfons, all of the brother or fifterhood.
They are divided into five departments, each under the
direftion of an infpeflor or infpedlrefs; and the tempo¬
ral adminiftration of the fociety is in fome degree mix¬
ed with its difeipline. The unmarried brethren live
together in a feparate holife; that is, they eat and fleep
there, but they do not work there if they can work
elfewhere. The money they earn is their own, but
they mull pay for their board and their proportion of
47?
Moravian?.
27 ] A M E
the public taxes. The infpedlors lupply them with America,
work if they cannot find it elfewhere. Thus thefe “x--—
brethren coll nothing to the fociety at large. The
fame is the cafe with regard to the unmarried fillers,
fome of whom are employed as fervants and cookmaids
in the houfes of the towm, where they receive board and
lodgings. They pay a certain fum to the fociety,
wdfich preferves their right of entering to the unmar¬
ried fillers houfe when they pleafe. In this houfe molt
of the fillers are employed in fewing and embroidery,
and are paid for their work by the infpeftrefs, rvho
fells it for the benefit of the houfe. The widows houfe
is lupported by the brethren, and the widows them¬
felves contribute their whole labour, which is net fuf-
ficient for its fupport. They have a fchool or academy
which enjoys fome reputation. The married people
live in their own houfes. No communication is allow¬
ed between the young men and the young women.
When a young man willies to marry, he mentions to
the infpeftor the girl of whom he has made choice,
but to whom he has never fpoken. The infpedlor ap¬
plies to the infpeflrefs of the girls, and if ftie judge the
young woman’s character not incompatible with that
given of the young man by the infpedlor, the girl is ap¬
plied to, who may refufe, but is not allowed to lay whom
Ihe would prefer. If an unmarried brother and filler
are detected in a correfpondence without marriage, the
matter is kept fecret by the rulers of the fociety, but
the parties are never allowed to marry each other.
They are all of German extraflion, and fpeak that
language ; but their numbers are not increafing, not-
withftanding the fecundity of the American tvomen,
of which the Moravian married fillers have their ftiare.
They have other fettlements in the fame ftate, parti¬
cularly one at Nazareth, 10 miles north from Beth¬
lehem, and another at Litiz, in Lancafter county.
They are alfo fettled in New Jerfey and North Caro¬
lina. There is a general diredlory of the whole fo¬
ciety for America, which correfponds with the gene¬
ral college of the fociety in Europe, that meets at Her-
nutt in Upper Lufatia. 4ger
At Lebanon, in the ftate of New York, a religious Shakers,
fociety is eftablilhed, of a lingular nature, called the
Shakers. This fociety is a republic governed in a def-
potic manner. All the members wmrkforthe benefit of
the fociety, which fupplies them with clothes and vidluals,
under the direction of the chief elder, whom they eledl,
and whofe power is unlimited. Subordinate to him are in-
fpe&ors of all clafles, in veiled with different degrees of
authority. The accounts reach him in a certain regular
gradation, and his commands are conveyed in the
fame manner. It would be an unpardonable breach
of order to addrefs the chief elder himfelf, unlefs the
addreffer belongs to a clafs which enjoys this privilege.
Marriage is prohibited in this fociety, which has been
recruited merely by profelytes for 80 years. Married
men and women are admitted into the ibeiety, on con¬
dition that they renounce each other ; and they fre¬
quently bring their children with them, who in this
cafe are confidered as belonging to the fociety. They
make cloth, gauze, flioes, faddles, nails, cabinet work,
and in fliort every article that finds a ready market.
They fell their commodities in the neighbouring towns,
and. the women perform fuch bilfinefs as is generally
allotted to their fex. The fociety poffeffes confiderablte
property^
v 12
A M E [ i:
America, property, the amount of which, however, is known to
none but the chief elder. They are an honed, good-
natured people, are faithful workmen, and very mode¬
rate in their prices. Of any peculiar doClrines enter¬
tained by them little is known, excepting, that the
fe£l was founded by a woman, called Anna Leefe,
whom they ftyled the E/e61 Lady. They affert, that
fhe was the woman fpoken of in the I 2th chapter of
the Revelations, that Ihe fpoke 72 tongues, and could
converfe with the dead. Their worlhip conlifts of lit¬
tle more than a fet of whimlical gelticulations perform¬
ed upon a fignal given by the chief elder, along with
the chanting of fame hymns known only to tbem-
falves. This fociety has nothing in common with the
4S1 Quakers. _ ,
Tankers. At Ephrata, 60 miles weftw’ard of Philadephia, is
the fettlement of what are called the Tankers or Dunk-
ers, (fee Tunkers, or Dumplers.) They are a
kind of Baptiils, but profefs a llrange medley of te¬
nets. They were inftituted in this place by one Con¬
rad Peyfel, a German. He collected them into a fa-
ciety, and conduced them to Pitfburg, wdrich at that
time was a wild uninhabited place. The chief of the
community wdio fucceeded Peyfel, having made fame
alterations in their difcipline, diflenfxons took place \
they difperfed, but afterwards united again in the lame
, place where they were firft eftablifhed. A compnunity
of property is obferved among them, and they make a
vow of poverty and chaftity. This vow is not always
kept $ as fame of them quit the faciety and marry,
wdrich it cannot prevent their doing, as the law re¬
gards fuch vow's as not obligatory. They lament the
fall of our firft parent, who would rather have for his
wife, a carnal being, Eve, than let the celdtial So¬
phia, a being thoroughly divine, bear a child. She
w7ould have communicated only with the fpiritual na¬
ture of Adam, and thus a race would have been en¬
gendered all pure and without the ieaft corporeal in¬
gredient. They lament the indulgence which God
ihowed in regard to this defire of Adam $ how'ever,
God, according to their doftrine, has merely deferred
the period of this date of perfeftion. It is certainly to
arrive, and the Tuckers forefee the time, when, after
the general refurreftion, the divine Sophia will defcend
into every one of us.
Three diftincl races of men continue to inhabit the
terrvtorylof the United States. Thefe are the Indians j
the Negroes, who wrere introduced as Haves from the
S2 coaft of Africa) -and the Whites, of European extrac-
Indians. tion. The Indians, who were the original inhabitants
of the country, have now been expelled from a very
large portion of it, and their numbers are rapidly de¬
clining. “• It is a melancholy reflexion, (fays the
American fecretary at war, in a memorial addreifed to
the prefident in 1794), that our modes of population
have been more dellruclive to the Indian natives than
the condufl of the conquerors of Mexico and Peru.
The evidence of this is the utter extirpation of nearly
all the Indians in the moll populous parts of the union,
A future hxiforian may mark the caufes of this de-
llruflion of the human race in fable colours.” The
government of the United States has made fame hu¬
mane attempts to regulate the intercourfe of their
people with the unfortunate original inhabitants of the
'■Country. In 1796, a law.was palled, with this view,
i
8 ] A M E
which contains many falutary provifions. It ordains, America,
that the boundaries of the Indian territory Ihall be ai-■“v''—
certained and marked as clearly as polhble. All per-
fons are prohibited to hunt upon the territory ac¬
knowledged by treaty to belong to the Indians, or to
carry off cattle from it, on pain of a fine of 100 dollars,
and fix months imprifanment. None are allowed to
enter the Indian territory without a pafiport. Any
fraud, robbery, or other crime, committed againft an
Indian, is to be punilhed by a fine and reffitution, and
the United States bind themfelves to fee the reffitution
made, providing the Indian do not himfelf take ven¬
geance for the injury; in which cafe he lofes his
claim. To kill an Indian of any tribe, in amity with
the United States, is declared a capital crime. None
are allowed to trade with the Indians without a li-
cenfe, and thofe to whom this privilege is granted are
prohibited to purchafe any implements of hunting, agri¬
culture, or houlehold economy ; and the troops of the
United States are authorized to apprehend white men,
wrho trefpafs againff thefe laws, even upon the Indian
territory j and they may alfo be apprehended in any
part of the United States where they are found. An
Indian guilty of any crime yiay be apprehended with¬
in the territory of the Umted States, If he efcape,
the perfcn injured by him may date his complaint to
the agent of the United States on the frontier of the
Indian territory, who is to demand reparation from the
tribe to which the offending Indian belongs, and to
acquaint the prefident with the refult of his demand.
If reparation be not made, the injured party is in¬
demnified from the treafury of the United States, and
the fum thus applied is deducted from the fubfidies
granted by the United States to that tribe. The
courts of the United States, and alfo, when the caufe
is not capital, the courts of the individual ftates, take
cognizance of offences againft this law, even when they
have been committed within the territories belonging
to the Indians.
Another law enabled in the fame year 1796, with a
view to fecure to the Indians fair treatment in their com¬
mercial dealings with the white people, eftablifhes a trade
with them to be carried on under the authority of the pre¬
fident. One hundred and fifty thoufand dollars are ap¬
propriated to the- trade, of which the objefls are, to fur-
niih the Indians with fuch fupphes and implements as their
wants require, and to purchafe from them fkins and furs.
The law direfts, that the prices of the articles fold to the
Indians be fa regulated as barely to prevent the Unit¬
ed States from lofing any part of their capital. It re-
ftrains the agents employed in their trade from traffic¬
king direclly or indire&ly on their own account. It
forbids them to cheat the Indians, and fubjedts them
to fines of different magnitudes, in proportion to the na¬
ture of the offences by which they tranfgrefs thefe re¬
gulations. The diftrift courts of the ffate, where the
ftorehoufes are eftablilhed for the commerce with the
Indians, take cognizance of thefe offences.
It is underftood, that the juft and liberal provifions
of thefe laws, have never been punctually reduced to
praClice. The extremity of the United States, bor- The4ten¬
dering on the territory of the Indians, is inhabited by tier fettlers
a fet of men who are in conftant hoftility w ith them, are always
This clafs of inhabitants is univerfally admitted to
conlilt of the very world men in all America, The L ’
kind
A M E [ 129 ] A M E
kind of perfons who in Europe became robbers, thieves,
poachers, and fmugglefs $ in ihort, the refllefs fpirits,
of whom fome exift in every community, who can ne¬
ver be confined to regular habits of induftry, emigrate
in America to the frontiers, and become voluntary ex¬
iles from lociety and civilization. They live, like the
favages, by hunting and filhing, or by other trifling
exertions of induftry, but more frequently, when they
find it practicable, they engage in plundering the neigh¬
bouring Indians. Accordingly, where thefe are con¬
cerned, the fentiments and even the idea of honefty
and humanity are unknown to thofe remote fettlers.
W ith very flight fliades of difcrimination between
them, they are uniformly a plundering and ferocious
banditti, who confider an Indian as a being not be¬
longing to the human fpecies, and whom they may
juitly plunder or deftroy. Hence it molt commonly
happens, in thofe quarters, that neither accufers, wit-
nefles, nor juries, can be found to convift a white man
guilty of a trefpafs or crime againft an Indian. The
oppreflions, the ufurpations, and the crimes committed
by the whites againft the Indians are therefore never
ptinifhed, or at leaft the inftances of puniihment are fo
rare, that it would be difficult to find an example of
its having occurred.
The Indian, on the other hand, haraffed and plun¬
dered by a fet of men, the meaneft of whom pofleffes
more art and more powerful means of doing mifchief
than himfelf, contracts the habit of robbery and pil¬
lage, of which he fees the example, and is the conftant
viClim. As he extends, according to the praClice of
favages, his vengeance to every individual of the fame
colour with the perion who has injured him, the whites,
even of the belt charaCler, are compelled, as a meafure
of fafety, to hold themfelves in a ftate of hoftility
againft the Indians, and thus acquire a fpirit of enmity
towards them. This hoftility uniformly ends to the
diladvantage of the original inhabitants of this great
country, not only becaufe they are lefs fkilful in war,
but becaufe the lofles of men which they fuftain are
not rapidly repaired by reproduftion, as happens to a
civilized people, who know how to rear upon a fertile
foil all the means of fubfiftence in abundance. It is
riot a little remarkable, that the Indians fay, it is the
worft clafs of their whole tribes that habitually conti¬
nue near the frontiers, engaged in a conftant ftate of
fraud and violence.
The government of the United States does not pof-
fels upon its remote frontier fufficient ftrength to re-
prefs the irregularities now mentioned. The govern¬
ments of the individual Hates do not attend to them.
Every perfon admits, that the evil arifes principally and
originally from the lawlefs aggreffions of the whites $
but as the evil is become habitual, and fo inveterate
that it is not eafy to difcover a remedy, it is ufually
Ipoken of by tiie white Americans without horror. In
the mean time, the Indians as a people are the only
fufferers by it. They are the weaker party. Every
conteft ends in their difcomfiture, and every tranfac-
tion tends to their difadvantage ; whereas the wander¬
ing and reftlefs clafs of white men that conftantly keep
upon the frontier of the fettled country are of effential
fervice to their country. They ad: as a kind of pio¬
neers in preparing the way for the eftablifliment of per¬
fons of better charaCler, wffio gradually fucceed them.
Vol. II. Part I.
It is an eftabliffied opinion in America, among the America,
moft exempt from prejudices, that the Indians never
can be civilized •, that the ftrifteft education, the moft
affiduous and perfevering cares, cannot deftroy their
favage habits, to which they recur with the moft ar¬
dent paffion, from the tranquillity and from the man¬
ners of the white people ; and an infinite number of
examples are cited, of Indians brought up at Philadel¬
phia and New York, and even in Europe, wffio never
ceafed to figh after their tribe. The opinion that has
been reared upon thefe faCIs has, no doubt, had a con-
fiderable effeCl in diminiftung the exertions of benevo
lent perfons towards their civilization. It has bee -
juftly remarked, howTever, that we have no reafon to
be furprifed by the conduCI of thofe educated Indians
who refumed their original habits. “ The Indians,
fays the duke de la Rochefoucault Liancourt, “ whofe
education has been attempted, or laid to be, had al¬
ready paffed fome years of their life in the tribe to
' wffiich they belonged. Tranfported alone from their
fpecies into the midft of white people, different in lan¬
guage, habits, and in colour, and often even in cloth¬
ing, they became as it wvere infulated •, they were re¬
garded by the wffiites as a different fpecies of men ;
they did not attempt even to make them forget that
they wrere from a nation ftill exifting, wffiefe manners
and habits had rivetted their firft attention, and made
the deepeft impreffion upon them. If, when arrived
at the age of manhood, they fhould have imbibed for
a white woman that affeCtion which naturally created
the defire of an union with her, the difference of co¬
lour became almoft an infurmountable obftacle. Is it
to be wmndered, then, that thefe Indians fhould wifti
to return to their tribe, of which they had ftill the moft
lively memory, and where alone they were able to find
companions of fimilar manners to their own, and thofe
plealures which caufe in man an attachment to life ?”
There are, however, in Connecticut, and in the ftate of
New York, a confiderable number of Indians, both
men and wromen, who ferve as domeftics in w hite Ame ¬
rican families, and who perform their duty as well and
as faithfully as thofe of any other race. One tribe on¬
ly of Indians, the Oneidas, in the back parts of the ftate
of New York, on the ffiore of Lake Ontario, appears
to have acquired what can be laid to refemble civiliza¬
tion. They cultivate the ground with fuccefs, and
have a confiderable number of villages. They are
mild and peaceful, and kindly officious in performing
little fervices to the whites. On the whole, they are
accounted excellent neighbours.
In the mean time it is evident, from the ordinary
progrefs of things, that, unlefs the other tribes of In¬
dians ftiall refolve, wffiich feems extremely unlikely, to
fubfift by agriculture, they muft fpeedily yield to the
encroachments of American population and induftry.
In the territory of the United States, beyond the Ohio,
which, with fome trifling exceptions, is ftill occupied
by the Indians, it is believed there exifts a population
of about ijo,oco fouls. Between the head of the Ohio
at Fort Pitt and the northern lakes, a few7 thoufands
more are to be found. In the ftates of Carolina and
of Georgia, and Florida, belonging to Spain, about ten
or twrelve thoufand are ftill to be found ; fo that, in the
territory of the United States there is probably, in all,
between fixty and feventy thoufand Indians. The ter-
R ritories
A M E [ i
Armitica. ritories occupied by the Indians are acknowledged to
tjlejr 0W11^ t})at t]1Cy cannot taken away by
force. But this affords no protection to thefe people.
A little whifky will bribe their chieftans to give their
conlent to the largefi: transferences. It is perfectly
common for great traCts of the finelt territory in the
world to be bartered away, with the confent of all par¬
ties, for a few rings, a few handkerchiefs, fome barrels
of rum, and perhaps lorne money, which the unfortu¬
nate natives know not how to convert to any valuable
ufe. The European nations and their defcendants have
long been accuftomed to regard all the world as their
property, and the reft of mankind as a kind of intru¬
ders, or an inferior race, whom they have a right to
diipoiTefs when it fuits their conveniency. We are apt
to treat as abfurd the right wdiich the pope, as high
prieft of the European ftates, once claimed, to give
away at his pleafure whole empires, and immenfe trafts
of unknown territory which never belonged to him •,
but the conduct of the parties to the treaty of Paris in
i 783 was probably neither lefs unjuft nor lets abfurd,
when the king of Great Britain gave up, and the Ame¬
rican ftates were underftood to acquire, a right of un-
dil’puted fovereignty over an immenfe territory inha¬
bited by independent nations. The ftates of America,
accordingly, conlider themfelves as poffefling the fu-
preme right to the property of the territory belonging
to the Indians 5 and though they do not feize that ter¬
ritory by force, or transfer it by fale, they readily do
what is nearly equivalent 5 they fell to private perfons
the right to purchafe certain portions of it from the
Indians. I bus the ftate of Mafl'achufets fold to Meffrs
Phelps and Gorham the exclufive privilege of purcha-
fing from the Indians a large territory upon the river
Geneffee, whenever they Ihould confent to part with
it. Meflrs Phelps and Gorham fold this privilege of
purchale to Mr Morris, whp again fold it to the Dutch
Company •, binding himfelf at tire fame time to prevail
with the Indians to relinquilh their right to a certain
part at leaft of the lands. Thus four different fets of
purchafers fucceeded each other in regard to an object
concerning the fale of which the confent of the true
original owners had not yet been obtained ; and four
different contrails were entered into, founded on the
fuppofition, that it would be an eafy matter to remove
the Indians from thole dillant corners to which they
had retired ; a point about which their more polifhed
neighbours were rvell affured.
I he hnallpox has at different periods proved ex¬
tremely fatal to the Indians, and has greatly diminifh-
perance fa- ecj the;r numbers. But the moll dangerous enemy
winch they have to encounter is their attachment to
fpirituous liquors, which the whites cannot be prevent¬
ed from felling to them, and which they cannot reftrain
themfelves from purchafing. Thefe liquors are pecu¬
liarly fatal to their ftrength and health, and daily ren¬
der their marriages lei's prolific.—So that, from a com¬
plication of evils, the hoftility and oppreffion of the
neighbouring white people, the imprudent fales which
they make of their territory, and the difeafes to which
they are expofed, the Indian tribes are gradually expa¬
triated and decreafmg in number. Every nation is
nowr divided into different branches 5 the families are
difperfed abroad ; and whifky is rapidly diminilhmg
'the number of thole which yet remain. A few years
4S4
JSmallpox
and intern
Indians.
30 ] A M E
more, and thefe nations will difappear from the fur face America,
of the earth, as civilized people'approach. w—~
Negroes originally imported from the coaft of Afri-N
ea, and held in flavery or emancipated, form another' L°
part of the population of the United States. The
Britifh nation, which refufed to pollute its population at
home by the exiftence of domeftic llavery, had never-
thelefs tolerated the practice in its diftant colonies,
where the charafter of the people was accounted of
lefs importance to the empire, and where the interefts
of commerce were regarded as the primary objeft of
attention. In the convention which formed the con-
ftitution of the American union, the fouthern ffates
were fuccefsful in obtaining an enactment in favour of
the Have trade, which was couched in the following
ambiguous terms : “ The migration or importation of
fuch perfons as any of the ftates now exifting fhall
think proper to admit, lhall not be prohibited by the
congrefs, prior to the year 18085 but a tax or duty
may be impol'ed on fuch importation, not exceeding
10 dollars for each perfon.” There are no fiaves in
the commonwealth of Maffachufets 5 and this is the
only ftate in the union that is entirely exempt from the
dilgrace of perfonal llavery. It was abolilhed in the
following manner. No law' in New England had po-
fitively authorized ftavery 5 but it prevailed under the
fanftion of cuftom and of public opinion. Several laws
indeed prefuppofed it 5 as they authorized the reclaim¬
ing of negroes who quitted their mailers, enjoined the
neceffity of reftoring them, and prohibited the intermar¬
riage of blacks with free people. The new conllitm
tion of Maffachufets, like thole of the other ftates,
declared an equality of rights for all men. In 1781,
fome negroes, prompted by private fuggeftion, maintain¬
ed that they were not Haves, and they found advocates
who brought their caufe before the fupreme court.
Their counl'el pleaded, ill That no law eftabliHied Ha-
very, and that the law’s fuppofing it w ere the refult of
error in the legiflators who had an authority to enact
them 5 2dly, They contended, that all fuch laws were
annulled by the new conllltution. They gained the
caufe upon both thefe principles 5 and, as there were
only few Haves in Maffachufets, all further idea of Ha-
very was banilhed. But in the other New England
ftates, under limilar laws, and in limilar circumftances,
a contrary decilion w7as given.
It is to be obferved, that in 1778, the general cen-
ius or enumeration of the population of Maffachufets,
included 18,000 Haves 5 whereas, the fubfequent cen-
fps of 1790, exhibits only 6000 blacks. It appears
that a great proportion of the emancipated negroes
went to the towns, where making an indifereet ufe of
their newly acquired freedom, many of them addifted
themfelves to the intemperate ule of fpirituous liquors,
and died in conlequence 5 others engaged as failor.^
even on board foreign fliips. The generality of thofe
who did not difappear became fervants 5 fome are
tradefmen, or even farmers 5 and a tolerable number,
confidering their education and the habits which flavery
produces, have attained to independence. They have
not fallen under the lafh of public jullice more fre¬
quently than the whites, in proportion to the numbers
of each clafs.
In the eaftern part of Virginia, one-fifth of the po¬
pulation is Hill laid to conlift of Negroe Haves, and
farther
A M E [ i
America. fatlKer fouth where rice is cultivated, the proportion
' of negroes is ftill greater. In Pennlylvatua, and the
other middle or northern dates, meafures have been
adopted for their gradual emancipation. Such meafures
have become popular, not only from the general tem¬
per ©f the age, but from the convi&ion now generally
diffufed of the tendency of domeltic iiavery to degrade
^85 the charafter of the free white men.
Whites. With regard to the whites, who form the third and
lad clafs of the people of this great country; it may
be obferved, that when the American conftitution or¬
dained the enumeration of the inhabitants of the Uni¬
ted States, within three years after its acceptance, it
enabled alfo, that the fame enumeration fhould be re¬
newed every 10 years, and left it to the congrefs to
make a law for regulating the manner of performing
it. A law was accordingly pafled for this purpofe in
1790. The marlhal of every diltrift, who is a kind
of iheriff, is ordered to fuperintend the enumeration.
In this work he may call in what aid he thinks proper.
He mud make a return to the prefident of the United
States, didinguilhing in the table of population, the
number of free males under and over the age of 16
years 5 and alfo the free women and girls; and the
llaves. The Indians are not included in the lid of po¬
pulation. The lids are exhibited upon public places,
for the corretticn of the inhabitants, and the heads of
families are required, under a pecuniary penalty, to date
correfVly the number of their families. The whole enu¬
meration is required to be performed in nine months.
The total expence of it is edimated at 40,000 dollars
evexy time it is made.
The enumeration of the people taken in 1791, by
virtue of this law, announced a population of 3,929,3 26
inhabitants, of whom 3,231,629 were free.' Among
the free perfons were 57,707 negroes, or mulattoes.
The Haves amounted to 697,691. By the lated enu¬
meration, the population of the United States amount-
. ed to about 5,000,000.
National character of the inhabitants of the United States
<;harjl(fter. of America is neceflarily various, according to the
climate which they inhabit, and the laws and hidory
of the different ftates. The ufe of (laves, in particular,
has of itfelf produced a confiderable effetd upon the
charafter and habits of the free men of thofe parts of
the empire in which they abound. Certain features of
character, however, are in fome meafure common to
the whole inhabitants of the dates •, and it may be ob¬
ferved in general, that the Britiih nation, which was
the founder and the parent of thefe people, has no rea-
fon to be afhamed of them. Indeed, in a country
which belonged to Great Britain for a long time, which
was peopled from it, of which the mod numerous and
neared connexions are yet with Great Britain, and which
carries on with us almod all its commerce, the man¬
ners of the people mud neceffarily in a great degree re-
lemble our own. Accordingly, the American man¬
ners particularly thofe relative to living, are the fame
as in England, or the fouth of Scotland ; and New
York and Philadelphia are faithful copies, in this re-
fpeft, of Liverpool and of Glafgow. As to the drefs,
the Englidx fafhions are as faithfully copied, as the
tranfmiffion of mei'chandife from England, and tke
correfpondence of taylors and mantua-makers, will ad¬
mit of. The didribution of the apartments in their
31 } A M E
houies is like that of Great Britain. The furniture is America.
Britiih $ the town carriages are either Britifh or in the ■v—
Brithh talle, and it is no (mail merit in the fadiionable
world, to have a coach newly arrived from Londwn,
of the newed fadxion there. The cookery is Britifh ;
and as in Britain, after dinner, the ladies withdraw,
and give place to drinking wine, a cudom which the
Americans carry at lead to as great a length, as the
natives of the parent date. Indeed, frequent and
fumptuous dinners are faid to be held in as high con*
fideration in the new, as in the old world.
In the United States, the Britidi charafter is modi¬
fied by the fituation in which the inhabitants of this
new empire find themfelves. The mod general quali¬
ties common to all Americans, are underdood to be,
intrepidity, an ardour (or enterprife, a high opinion of
themielves, humanity, and a boundlefs love of gain.
Thele qualities, fome of which are fo apparently dif-
cordant, are neverthelefs found to unite in the Ameri¬
can charafter. They who confider candidly the hi¬
dory of the war of the revolution, the indances of in ■
dividual courage which they exhibited in it, and the
perfeverance which the whole people difplayed under
’repeated difcomfiture, will be fully fatisfied concern¬
ing their firmnefs and courage. Habituated to fatigue
from their infancy, having for the mod part made their
fortunes by their labour and their indudry, fatigue and
labour are not yet become repugnant, even to thofe in
eafy circumdances. While they wifli to enjoy the luxu¬
ries of life, they do not regard them as abfolute wants.
They know how to difpenfe with them, and to quit
them and to travel in the woods whenever their inte-
red requires it. They can forget them whenever a re-
verfe in the current of their affairs takes them away.
They are not depreffed by difappointment, but in-
dantly relume the purfuit of fortune when (be has mod
cruelly deceived them.
Great pride of fpirit, and a high notion of their own
worth, are alfo driking parts of the American chai-ac-
ter. A committee of the houfe of reprefentatives of
the United States, appointed to prepare an ani’wer to
the addrefs of the prefident, in December 1796, gave
a notable indance of this. Thefe gentlemen very mo-
dedly thought fit, to call their countrymen the mojl en¬
lightened nation of the whole world-, and very great la¬
bour and long difcuffions, were neceffary before the
majority of the houfe could be prevailed upon to facri-
fice this fuperlative, which it is faid would not have
embarraffed the modedy of their condituents. No white
American will fo far degrade himfelf, as to confent to
accept of the fituation of a domedic menial fervant or
footman. Hence it is faid, that throughout the whole
extent of the United States, 20 native Americans are
not to be found in the date of domedic fervants. This
clafs of domedics in America, is compofed of emi¬
grant prieds, Germans, and negroes or mulattoes.
As foon as the former of thefe have acquired a little
.money, they quit a dation which they find to be re¬
garded with fuch contempt, and edablidi themfelves in
a fmall trade, or upon land which they clear and cul¬
tivate, Hence it may eafily be inferred, that a good
domedic man fervant is not readily to be found in A-
merica.
The prejudice which caufes the men in America to
have fo great a repugnance to the date of domedic
K 2 Servitude,
A M E [13
America, fervitude, does not influence the women in the fame
^ degree. And accordingly, nothing is more common
than to fee young women of good families, in the
fxtuation of fervants during the firfl years of their
youth.
At the fame time, it muft not be imagined, that
pure republican manners prevail in America. Though
there are no diilin&ions of rank, formally acknow¬
ledged by law in the United States, yet fortune and
the nature of profedions form different claffes ; the firft
clafs is occupied by the great merchants, the lawyers,
the phyficians, the clergy, and the land-owners who
do not cultivate their land themfelves ; the number
of whom is fmall from the Hate of Delaware to the
north, but is great in the Hates of the fouth, where
ilavery prevails. The fecond clafs confifts of the in¬
ferior merchants, the farmers, and the artifans. And
the third clafs is compofed of workmen, who let
themfelves to labour by the day, the month, &c. In
balls, concerts, and public amufements, thefe claffes do
not mix 5 though, except ordinary labourers, and com¬
mon failors, every one calls himfelf, and is called by
others, a gentleman. A fmall income is fufficient for
the affumption of this title,' as it eafily carries men
from one clafs to another. It is faid, indeed, that
the ftruggle for rank between different claffes produ¬
ces, in the great towns, a very ruinous degree of
oftentation. In New York and Philadelphia, luxury
is very high, and makes a dangerous progrefs every
year, by increafing the expence of living, and altering
the public opinion with regard to what conffitutes eafy
circumftances and a competent fortune. Still, how¬
ever, the inferior claffes of workmen entertain a high¬
er opinion of themfelves than elfewhere. They find
the road to independence more prafticable, and as the
price of their labour is high, their circumftances are
f afy, and they endeavour to throw afide, as far as pof-
fible every appearance of rufticity. They fee all ranks
of men engaged in bufinefs $ they do not therefore ac¬
count themfelves degraded by being compelled to la¬
bour, efpecially as they find their fkill find induftry
fought after by others, while it is productive of afflu¬
ence to themfelves ; for in the United States there is
not a familyr, even in the mefl: miferable hut, who do
not eat butchers meat twice a-day at Icaft, and drink
tea and coffee ; nor is there a man who drinks pure
water. Having heard much of the modes of living
ufual among perfons of their rank in other nations,
they are led to entertain an unbounded value for them¬
felves and their country.
Did not the praftice of flavery Hill Hand in the
way, the Americans would not be furpafled in the re¬
putation of generofity and humanity. When a brother
or a 'lifter dies, leaving orphan children, they are
readily adopted into the families of their uncles and
other kindred, who treat them entirely as their own.
This conduft is fb common in America, that it meets
with no praife, and is confidered merely as the per¬
formance of the moft ordinary duty, and as requiring
no effort. Hofpitality to ftrangers is alfo exerted to a
great extent, and in a way that even perplexes for
fome time the modefty of an European. In cafes of
unufual calamity alfo, great liberality is difplayed by
them. The unfortunate fufferers by the fires of
Charleftown and Savannah, and by the dreadful dif-
2 ] A M E
eafe which raged at Philadelphia, New York, and America,
other cities, were relieved by the abundant fubfcrip-—v~—
tions of the citizens of all the American totvns w here
thefe difafters did not occur. The inhabitants of the
French Weft India iflands who fled to the fhores of
America, in confequence of the events of the late ter¬
rible revolution, were relieved by voluntary contribu¬
tions, to the amount of more than 200,coo dollars.
Whole families of them were fupported for one or
two years, according to their neceftities, by individual
Americans, in their houfes, merely becaufe they were
unfortunate. There alfo exifts a very confiderable
number of charitable focieties for various purpofes, in
the United States. Some of thefe are marine focieties,
wdrofe purpofe is in fome towms to provide a fubfiftence
for the wives and children of thofe who die at fea, or
to provide affiftance to all veffels wrecked upon their
coafts. There are alio focieties for the afliftance of
emigrants, that is to fay, for affifting with advice and
fuccours thofe ftrangers who arrive from Europe, with
an intention of eftabliftung 'themfelves in America.
Others fubfcribe for the fupport of hofpitals and fchools,
and for the diftribution of proper medicines. There,
are focieties for the civilization of the Indians, and
others for the purpofes of ameliorating the fituation of
prifoners. Indeed, it is with regard to this laft fub-
jedf that the Americans are entitled to boaft that the
triumph of humanity has been mere complete in fome
parts at leaft of their country than anywhere elfe in
the world. At Philadelphia, the adminiftration of the
prifons has been eftablithed upon the moft enlightened
and beneficent principles, and is conduced with a de¬
gree of advantage to the public, and to imprifoned
criminals, that has hitherto been unknown in the hi-
ftory of mankind. The jailors receive ample falaries ;
a conftant infpedlion is exerted over them, by the moft
refpedfable charafters in the ftate 5 the convifts are
treated with the utmoft mildnefs $ yet licentioufnefs is
banilhed, they are enabled to fupport themlelves, and
fometimes to carry out with them a fum of money, or
to fupport their families during their confinement ; and
in almoft all cafes, the much yvilhed-for, but hitherto
unattainable end, is laid to be gained, of rendering
punilhment the means of accomplilhing the Reforma¬
tion of the criminal. Such is faid to be the admirable
eil'cct of the humane and Ikilful management which has
been here adopted, chiefly, it is underflood, by means
of the members of the fedl of Quakers ^ that, inftead of
the prifons containing what are called old offenders, it
ufually happens, that of 100 convidds dilcharged, either
in confequence of pardons, or at the expiration of the
term of their fentence, there are never above two com¬
mitted for new crimes, although imprifonment for a
longer or a fhorter period is the only punilhment adopt¬
ed for all great crimes ; no crime being capital except¬
ing only wilful murder.
But the moft remarkable feature in the American
charadfler, and indeed their ruling paflion, is a bound-
lefs thirft after gain. This paflion, however, is in
them altogether different from that timid and hoarding
appetite which with us is fometimes feen to quench all
the energies of the human mind, and to extinguilh
every generous and liberal fentiment. In truth, the
avarice of an American is nothing more than the paft
lion of ambition diredfled to the acquifition of wealth
as
m XL
L J
A M
America, as the only means of attaining diftin£lion in the ftate of
v fociety in which he is placed. Accordingly, he en¬
deavours to gratify his love of riches, not lo much by
the ilow and fure mode of faving what he already pof-
feffes, and of fulfering it to accumulate, as by enter¬
ing into bold and hazardous fpeculations, with a view
to the hidden acquifition of fortune. If his {pecula¬
tion is unfuccefsful, he thinks not the worfe of himfelf
on that account, nor is difcouraged from repeatedly
encountering fimilar hazards. If he is at laft fuccefs-
ful, his wealth is ufed in fuch a manner as evidently
demonftrates, that the love of riches has not fully en-
grofled his mind. He is luxurious, oftentatious, gene¬
rous to the unfortunate, and ready to contribute to
every fcheme of public beneficence or utility. Still,
this ardent paffion for the acquifition of money which
occupies fo much of the thoughts'of every American,
never fails to appear difgufting to men of letters, or to
men of rank who have at any time gone from Europe
to America. They are aftonifhed to find phyficians,
lawyers, and priefts, deeply engaged in flockjobbing
and commercial fpeculations, and that every part of fo¬
ciety is compofed of men whofe ruling pafiion and great
fubjedl of meditation is, the hidden acquifition in fome
way or other of great pecuniary gain.
The Americans marry .very young, efpecially in the
country. Youngmen, who generally ellablilh themfelves
very early either in fome new lands or in fome trade,
have occafion for a wife to affift them in their labours •,
and this conduces to their early marriages as much
as the general purity of manners. If a vfife die, fhe is,
for the fame reafon, very fpeedily replaced by another.
Both in town and country, fhe is an indifpenfable re-
fource for domellic affairs, when her hufband is enga¬
ged in his owm affairs, as every one is in America. She
is alfo necetfary as a companion in a country where the
children foon quit their parents, and where the men,
conftantly engaged in fome kind of bufinefs, find it in¬
convenient to leave their owm families in fearch of fo¬
ciety. The manners of the Americans in their con-
dudf towards the other fex are reprefented as very pure.
Young women of uncommon beauty travel alone from
J 5 to 2 5 miles to Philadelphia to market with eggs,
fowls, butter, and other commodities, beginning their
journies at the commencement of the night, without
finding that their youth and beauty expofe them to any
hazard or inconvenience.
All travellers agree in reprefenting the American
women as highly virtuous and refpedlable ; as faithful
and indufhious wives, and affectionate mothers. The
young women enjoy entire freedom, and the commerce
of the fexes is free from gallantry and frpm jealoufy.
The crime of adultery, which attacks fociety in its
firft elements, is faid to be unknown. One quality
afcribed in a remarkable degree to the American wo¬
men ought not to pafs unnoticed, wdiich is, a remark¬
able attention to clecnnel's, both in their perfons and
their houfes. The French who took refuge in the
United States during the revolution, though attentive
- enough in this refpedt to the appearance of their per¬
fons, were regarded as fo flovenly and dirty in the
management of their houfes and furniture, that they
foon rendered themfelves altogether odious to the A-
mencans.
The date of education and of literature js dill defec¬
tive in mod parts of America. The phyfical or natural Amer
part of the education of the Americans is faid to be lefs
excellent. Left to themfelves from their tendered age,
they are expofed without precaution to the rigour'of
heat and cold, with their feet and legs bare, and with
few clothes. The children of the rich are not brought
up much more tenderly than thofe in lefs eafy circum-
dances. In the country, they often go alone twice a-
day to fchools, two or three miles didant from home.
There are few American children who cannot fwim
boldly, and at ten years of age, manage a gun and hunt
without danger : and not one who does net ride with
great courage, or who fears fatigue. This liberty
given to children teaches them to take care of them¬
felves, and, bold as they are, they avoid, dangers better
than children brought up with much greater care.
They become drong and enterprifing men, whom no
difficulties didiearten ; and produce a growing genera¬
tion, which will be as invincible in its territory, as that
which preceded it was found to be.
The indruftive part of education has not attained
the fame perfeftion. Maffachufets is the only date in
which a fydem of education has hitherto been edabliflr-
ed by lawn It was enafted in 1789, that each town
or townfhip containing 50 families or houfes fhall have
a fchoolmader of good charafter, to inftrudl the children
in the Englifh language, reading, waiting, and arith¬
metic. The fchool to be open fix months in the year.
The towns or townftiips of 100 families, are to have
fchools of the fame kind, which are to be open during
the wdiole year. Thofe of 150 families are bound to
have tw?o fchools, one for 12 months and one for fix.
Thofe of 200 families, or more, are bound to have tw o
fchools, one for 1 2 and one for fix months, and in ad¬
dition to thefe, a grammar fchool, in which the Greek,
Latin, and Englilh languages are to be taught gram¬
matically. The expence of fupporting the fchool-
maders, together with the fchool houfes, the fuel, and ink
that may be necelTary, are defrayed by a general tax
or affeffmerrt upon the whole people. The parents pay
their fiiare of this affeffment, in proportion only to their
wealth, and not to the number of their children. They
fupply their children wuth the neceffary books, and with
p$ns and paper. Colleges are alfo edablilhed ; but in
thefe the profefibrs receive fees from the dudents. The
books read at the fchools are regulated by law j and
we are informed, that the Latin grammar wEich the
date of MaiTachufets has preferred is that of Dr Alex¬
ander Adam, redlor of the High School of Edinburgh,
author alfo of the celebrated treatife upon Roman
Antiquities, and other works illudrative of claffical
literature.
Though the date of MaiTachufets is the only one
that has eftabllfhed a fydem of education by law, the
manners of the people in the whole New7 England dates
have produced fuch a degree of attention to literature,
that there are few or no white perfons there who can¬
not read the Englifh language, and the -.'eople at large
pofifels a conliderable degree of literature. In propor¬
tion, however, to the didance from New7 England
fouthward, education becomes gradually defeclive, and
in the Carolinas and Georgia, a fchooi is fcarcely to
be found. In different dates, however, there are col¬
leges and univerfities, in which the fciences are taught,
and degrees sonferred.
■ v The.
A M E [ i
America, The education of youth in America is conduced as
v in Scotland, with a view rather to introduce young per-
fons quickly into life,, than to render them men of pro¬
found learning. A young man in America hardly ar¬
rives at the age of 16 years before his par-ents are defi-
rous of placing him in the counting-houfe of a mer¬
chant, or in the office of a lawyer : Hence he is never
likely to refign himfelf to the fciences and to letters.
He foon lofes all other ideas than thofe which can hur¬
ry him on to the acquifition of a fortune. He fees no
other views in thofe around him, or in fociety $ and
that his whole confideration is attached to this kind of
fuccefs. Hence it will not appear furprifing, that there
Ihould be few learned men in the United States. In¬
deed, the number of learned, ingenious, and well-in-
lormed individuals, which is very confiderable, that
have appeared there, muff be aferibed rather to their
own native energy of charadler than to their edu¬
cation, or the date of fociety in which they were
placed.
In the American fchools, the inftru&ion in Latin is
feldom extended farther than the firfl: claffic authors,
including Cornelius Nepos, Ovid, and fome orations of
Cicero. A little of Virgil and Horace are read in the
colleges. The New Teflament in Greek, and a little
of Homer in fome colleges, is the limit of claffical in-
ftrudtion in that language. Mathematical inftru&ion
is ufually confined to the Elements of Euclid, and the
firfl: principles of conic fedtions. Praftical geometry,
however, for the purpofes of land-furveying and navi¬
gation, is much valued, on account of its connexion
with thofe branches of bufinefs which lead to riches.
Mechanics, hydroftatics, and hydraulics, are taught
after the wrorks of Nicolfon, Fergufon, or Enfield.
Medicine, however, and the branches of fcience con¬
nected wdth it, are faid to be well taught in fome Ame¬
rican univerfities j and that profeflion has produced
many refpedtable and well-informed men. Still it is
probable, that however enlightened the Americans may
account themfelves, the nature of their purfuits is fuch,
that a confiderable time will elapfe before they can ex¬
hibit any great number of men of profound and exten-
five learning. Such accomplilhments, however, as their
fituatioh acquires they pofiefs in much perfection. In
the debates of congrefs, fpeeches full of correct reafon-
ing, drawn from a knowledge of mankind and of hi-
ftory, and exprefled with purity and eloquence, are of¬
ten heard ; and almoft all perfons engaged in bufmefs
afpire in their correfpondence to difplay much elegance
34 1 _ A M E
of expreffion, though their ffwle is apt to fwell out into Amerba.
verbofity. —y—*
The moft common vices of the American people are,
an oftentatious luxury, on the part of the rich in great
towns ; and of the inferior clafs, a too free ufe of fpi-
rituous liquors. This they are led to by their eafy cir-
cumftances, and by a great fondnefs for fociety. Thefe
vices are greater and more remarkable in the fouthern
Hates than in the northern. In the fouth, alfo, men
are more fond of gaming than in the north, and the
energetic qualities of the American charafter are lefs
conlpicuous, a circumixance which is fuppofed to arife
from the exiitence of fiavery, which in thefe Hates ren¬
ders labour and perfonal induftry lefs refpeftable. But,
in general, the chara&er of the Americans is rendered
pure by the train of conftant induffry in which all per¬
fons are engaged. One of the moll trouble feme of
their faults, however, ought not to pafs unnoticed :
They are, upon the whole, a very litigious people,
and lawyers abound and fiourifli among them to a great
degree. . But, in common with all the countries that
have derived any part of their conftitution or their laws
from England, they poffefs a very pure adminirtration
ot juftice. I his has always been the fingular privilege
and the glory of the Engliffi nation. No people that
attains to it can fail to pollefs found morals, nor confe-
quently to enjoy all the profperity of which a nation is
capable. To the habits of integrity, and a refpeCl for
the laws and the magiftrates, which it produces, w^e
mull aferibe the internal tranquillity of America. Po¬
litics forms the only fcience which all men ftudy there;
and political aeal hurries the different parties into the
moft uncharitable mifreprdentations of each others
views and conduct. But no man has preferred hisowm
perfonal aggrandisement to the authority of the law or
the w-elfare of his country ; no ufurpatxon has defaced
the fair page of the American hiifory ; and if rebellion
has occurred, it has been bloodlefs, and has only af¬
forded to all ranks of men an opportunity of difplaying
their attachment to public order.
Upon the 'whole, though men exclufively attached
to the purfuits of literature, and to the enjoyment of
idle but polilhed fociety, wmuld find themfelves ill
fituated in America, yet we muff undoubtedly regard
the United States as forming at this moment the molt
profperous empire upon the globe. It contains an ac¬
tive people, eafy in their circumftances and happy ; and
every day gives an acceffion of population and of
ftrength to thus new7 country.
INDEX.
Act, ftamp, framed, N° 126
received with univerfal
indignation, 127
repealed, 128
Hr Franklin’s opinion of, I 29
ABs, feveral, exafperate the Ameri¬
cans, 157
Agriculture, ffate of, 461
Agriculture, cattle ufed in, N° 467
America, peopling of, 92
divifions of, 117
produdlions of, 118
different poffeffors of, 119
coalt of, invaded by the
Britiftr fleet, 307
North, provinces of, fuccefs-
ful expedition againff: the, 322
2
America, independence of, acknow¬
ledged, N0
immediate confequences of
the revolution to,
hiffory of, continued,
American army, fituation of the, at the
commencement of war,
army for 1777,
troops, difeontent of the,
381
385
402
237
261
351
American
American ftores, large quantity of,
deilroyed by Arnold, N° 338
flores, deflruflion of, 363
ftates, conflitution of, 384
army, difmiflion of the, 386
government, executive, of¬
ficers in the, 394
hufbandmen flood the land, 462
Americans, cruelty of the, 209
defeated with great fiaugh-
ter at Long Jiland, 238
abandon their camps in the
night, ^ 239
’ greatly diiperfed, 252
defeated, 261
detachment of the, furpri-
fed and defeated with
great (laughter, 262
defeated at Germantown, 265
defeated by land and water, 271
defeated again, and aban¬
don Fort Anne, 272
retreat to Saratoga, 274
detachment of the, cut in
pieces, 276
attack the royal army, 282
with difficulty repulfed, 283
fend agents to dift’erent
countries, 29S
defeated at Briar Creek, 311
defeated at Port Royal, 315
unfuccefsful expedition of
the, againft Penobfcot, 323
take vengeance on the In¬
dians, 327
reafons alleged by the, for
General Arnold’s con-
duft, _ 348
defeated at Guildford, 361
embarraffments of the, 387
Ancients fuppofed to have had fome
imperfect notions of the
new world, 106
Andre, Major, unhappy fate of, 345
amiable character of, 346
Animals, degeneracy of, alierted by
Buffon, 64
growth of, prevented by
moiiture, confidered, 65
growth of, encouraged by
moiiture, afferted by Mr
Jefferlbn, 66
initinft of, altered by habit, 90
initinct of, altered by habit,
confirmed by an obferva-
tion on the Franks, 91
Antiquity, remains of, 105
AJJ'emblies, public, 1 8
AJJhnbly of New York difobeys an
a6t of parliament, 131
of Maifachufets required to
refcind their circular let¬
ter by their governor, 135
refufe to refcind their circu¬
lar letter, 136
[ >35 ]
Ajfembly of Maffachufets accuies the
governor, and petitions
for his removal, Nc
general proceedings of this,
at Salem,
general, called, and dilfolved
by proclamation,
of Maffachufets recommends
preparations for war,
B
Bank, national,
Bees, of,
Belts, or wampum, of,
Bill, declaratory, gives offence,
for the impartial adminiitration
of juftice,
Quebec,
Port, refentment occafioned by
the,
Quebec, difagreeable to thofe
whom it vTas intended to
pleafe,
conciliatory, received with indig¬
nation by the Britiih troops in
America,
conciliatory, defpifed by the co-
lonilts,
Birds, American,
Bq/lon, tumult at,
affembly at, diffolved,
difturbances at, increafe,
troops ordered to,
convention of, formed, •
convention of, diffolves, and
labours to vindicate its con¬
duit,
mob, fome people killed by
the foldiers at,
tea deltroyed at,
punifhment of, refolved upon,
petitions againlt puniffiment
of,
people of, generoufly treated
by the people of Salem,
caufe of, efpoufed by all the
relt of the colonies,
folemn league and covenant
formed at,
governor at, attempts in vain
to counterait the folemn
league and covenant,
people of, generoufiy treated
by the inhabitants of Mar¬
blehead,
people of, ftrongly beloved by
the country people,
Neck of, fortified by General
Gage,
military (tores, province of,
feized by General Gage,
inhabitants, diftrefs of,
a great army affembles at,
troops in, diitreffed,
inhabitants, miferable fituation
of the.
Bq/lon cannonaded by the provin¬
cials, N° 213
137 evacuated by the Britifh, 2x4
fortifications of, llrengthened, 215
159 Boundaries of America, 1
Breyman, Colonel, defeated, 281
172 Bridge, natural, a great curiofity, 426
Britain, confederacy againit, joined
177 .. by Spain, 324
Britijh poffeffions, vaft extent of the,
398 before the late revolution, 120
441 colonies, {late and charadter _
19 of, at the end of the wvar
130 1763, 122
parliament, both houfes of,
153 addrefs the king againxt A-
merica, 144
taxation, right of, denied by
158 Maffachufets Bay afiembly, 148
miniftry attempt in vain to
arm the Indians, 187
186 general, humanity of the, 220
forces repulfed, 231
army, fituation of the, at the
301 commencement of the wmr, 237
troops entirely overrun the
Jerfeys, 248
433 regiments, three, attempt on, 255
138 three, make good
139 their retreat, 256
140 fleet fail for Philadelphia, 259
141 army land at the head of the
142 Elk, 260
army attacked at German-
town, 264
143 fliips of wTar burnt, 266
army in danger of being fur-
145 rounded, 290
151 army attempt a retreat, 291
153 army, diftreffed fituation of
the, 292
x 54 army in the north obliged to
capitulate, 293
160 troops, predatory war carried
on by the, . 300
161 commiflioners, bad fuccefs of
the, 303
163 troops advance to Charlef-
town, 3x2
troops, hardfirips endured by
164 the, 362
admiral and general, mifun-
derftanding betwixt, 366
167 and French fleets, action be¬
twixt the, off the capes of
168 Virginia, 367
and Americans, feveral ac-
169 tions betwixt the, 369
and French fleets, a£tion be-
170 tween the, off the Chefa-
J75 peak, _ 374
179 troops, different places evacu-
183 ated by the, 380
Bull, famous, of Paul III. ’ - 58
2X2 Bunker's Hill, battle at, 180
Burgoync}
Burgoyne, General, joined by the In¬
dians, N° 269
proceeds to Fort Edward
_ with great difficulty, 273
diftrefled for want of pro-
vifions, 278
attacks the provincial ma¬
gazines at Benning¬
ton, 279
capture of, occafions great
dejection, 295
troops of, detained in A-
America, 299
Buzzard, turkey, 436
C
Calumny, remarkable inftance of, in
De Paw, 37
Canada, conqueft of, attempted by the
Americans, 191
penetrated into by Colonel
Arnold, 196
inhabitants of, defeated by
the provincials, 218
Candles, fpermaceti, . 453
Carleton, General, defeated, 193
Sir Guy arrives at New York
with pow:ers to treat of
peace, 378
Carolina, South and North, governors
of, expelled, 211
North, inhabitants of, de-
* clare in favour of Bri¬
tain, 225
royalills of, defeated, 226
invaded, 3x0
South, aflions in, 349
Chamblee, fort of, taken, 192
Champlain, Lake, Britiffi fend veffels
up, 250
Character, remarkable penlivenefs and
taciturnity of, 116
national, 490
CharleJIown^ Britifh armament fent
againft, 228
attacked by the fleet, 229
General Lincoln advan¬
ces to the relief of, 313
attempt on, abandoned, 314
expedition againll, by
Sir Henry Clinton, 328'
defended by Lincoln, ib.
furrenders to Sir Henry
Clinton, 331
Chiefs, terrible trials of, 14
Climate, moifture of, 9
account of, mifreprefented, 7
proofs of its mildnefs, ib*
further defcribed, 444
effefts of, on the inhabitants, 445
Clinton, Sir Henry, letter of, to Ge¬
neral Burgoyne, w ith Bur-
goyne’s anfwer, 285
Sir Henry, fuccefsful expedi¬
tion of, 294
£ 1
Clinton, Sir Henry, late arrival of, to
the fuccour of Lord Corn¬
wallis, N° 376
Cod, fifheties of,
Cold, remarkable, 3
reafons for, 4
Colour of the natives, 10
remarkable difference of, arl-
fing from accidental caufes, 86
no charafteriffic of a different
fpecies, 87
altered by different caufes, 89
Columbus, reprefentation of, 59
projefts of, to difcover a
newr continent, 109
voyage of, 110
aftonifhment of, on obferv-
ing the variation of the
compafs, 11 1
perilous lituation of, 11 2
crews ready to mutiny, 113
crews, joy of, upon difco-
vering land, 114
conduit of, upon landing
. upon one of the illands
of the new world, 115
difcovers the new conti¬
nent, 116
Communication between the old and
newr continent, two
ways of, 92
Congrefs meets at Philadelphia, 165
tranfaitions of, account of, 166
commiffioners, fpeech of, to
the Indians, 188
announces the^ independence
of America, 216
proceedings of the, 337
difficulties of the, by the de¬
preciation of their paper
currency, 338
refolutions of, in confequence
of Carleton’s powers to
treat of peace, 379
Cono/ly, Mr, difcovered and taken
prifoner, * 208
Conjlitution, new, propofal of, 388
Continents once joined, 94
reafons for, tb.
probable caufe of feparation, 95
feparated by a narrow^ ftrait, 96
eafinefs ofpaffage between the, 97
Convention of Philadelphia, 389
Corn, Indian, 471
Cornwallis, Lord, victory of, over
General Gates, 342
exertions of, in North
Carolina, 354
marches through North
Carolina, 357
proclamation by, 368
critical fituation of, 3 7 2
attempts to affifl, ineffec¬
tual, 373
Cornwallis, danger of, increafed, Xa 333
furrender of, 377
Country well watered, 720
face of the, 425
irregularly fettled, • 476
Crimes and puniihments, 35
Crown Point and Ticonderago taken
by the Americans, 182
Cufloms of the North Americans,
D
Declaration on taking up arms, 185
Divifions into North and South, 2
Drefs, peculiarities of, 11
DreJJ'es and cuftoms common to the
eaftern Afiatics and Ame¬
ricans, 102
E
Dloquence, Indian, fpecimen of, 77
England, Newr, expedition againft, 268
Ejiaing, D’, proclamation of, 316
fails to the Weft Indies,
expedition of, againft
Georgia, 318
abfurd conduft of, 319
Extent of America, 1
F
Eederalifls attached to Britain, 408
Fever, yellow”, 413
Figures painted on their bodies, 11
France and America, treaty betwixt, 296
cccalions great debates, 297
difputes with, * 413
Franklin, fpeech of, 390
Fi 'azer. General, killed, 288
French, intrigues of the, 1 23
fleet arrives in America, 305
fleet, attempt of the, againft;
Rhode Bland, 306
and American generals, cruel¬
ty of the, 320
and Americans defeated, 321
troops, large body of, land at
Rhode Ifland, 340
G
Cage, General, difficulties of, in ac¬
commodating his troops, 173
Georgia, inhabitants of, accede to the
confederacy, 190
expedition againft, 308
poffeffion taken of, 309
Germans defeated wuth great flaugh-
. ter, 289
Government, form of, 17
Grain, nature of, 470
Greene, General, attacked in his
camp, and defeated by
Lord Rawrdon, 363
defeated by Colonel Stuart, 370
Guildford, battle at, 360
Hedges, America deftitute of, 463
Honey, poifonous, 442
Hnjiilities commence betwixt Britain
and America, 236
Houfes
x
Haufes of the, N# 4*7*7
Howe, General, lands on Staten
Illand, and publifhes a cir¬
cular letter calling the co-
lonifts to fubje£lion, 234
Lord, fends a meffage to con-
grefs, 240
waited on by a committee of
the congrefs, 241
Lord and committee of con-
grefs, unfuccefsful confe¬
rence betwixt, 242
fiutchifon, Governor, letters of, to
the Britifh miniftry dif-
covered, 149
I
Jay, treaty of, 412
Inclemencies of weather, infenfible of, 13
Indians defert and force Colonel Le-
ger to raife the liege of
Stanwix, 277
defert from General Bur-
goyne, 284
■war with the, 411
of the, 482
Indigo and cotton of, 474
infells of, 8
lize of, ib.
farther defcribed, 446
Infenfbiliiy, remarkable, to pain, 1 2
Interior, lakes in the, 422
John, St, fort of, taken, 194
K
Kaiman, of the, 443
Knyphaufen, General, unfuccefsful ex¬
pedition of, in the J er-
feys, 341
L
Hand, traffic of, 456
fales of, in large portions, 457
fales of, in fmall portions, 458
withheld from Lie. in the hopes
of a rife in its price, 459
remarkable fpeculations in the
purchafe of, 460
laurens, Mr, capture of, 350
Lee, General, taken prifoner, 453
Lexington, 178
Liberty, love of, 34
Lice, of, 8
Lincoln, General, reinforcements fent
to the relief of, intercept¬
ed, 330
ItOgan, ftory of, 76
London, New, expedition again!!, 371
M
Manners, peculiar, of different nations, 36
Manufactures, American, 446
Mexican Indians, flature, ffiape, Stc. 48
not delfitute of beard, 49
form and afpedl of,
contrafted with
other nations, ?o
Vol. I. Part. II.
[ >37. 1
Mexican -Indians, conftitution and
corporeal abilities
of, _ N° 51
- . labour and induftry
of, 52
healthinefs and
ilrength of, pro-
ved, _ _ 53
mental qualities of, 54
JDe Paw’s proofs of
the cowardice of, 55
De Paw’s account
of, refuted, 56
Migrations into the new continent, 98
Mr Pennant’s opinion of, 99
probably lirll from the
eaftern parts of Afia, 100
from Alia, proved by a li-
milarity of cuftoms, IOI
of the brute creation from
the old continent to the
new by the lame route as
men, ' 104
of brutes, remarks con¬
cerning, 104
Minerals, of, 429
Montgomery, General, killed, and the
Americans defeated, 198
Montreal taken, 193
Moravians, of the, 479
Morris, Captain, bravery of, 230
. . N
Natives, defeription of the, 9
their indolence, 11
quicknefs of fenfe, 24
vigilance, 25
manner of lighting, 26
chara£fer and contra!!, 30
treatment of dead friends, 31
fuperliitions, 32
longevity, 37
vices and defefts aggravated, 38
reproached with pulillanimity, 40
accufed of perfidy, 41
underlfandings prefented as
weak, 42
llupidity, _ 43
vanity and conceit, 44
eloquence difparaged, 45
partly mifreprefented, 46
Buffon and De Paw’s phyli-
cal defeription of the, re¬
futed, 47
conclufions concerning their
capacities, 60
ingenuity afferted, 61
fcience, tokens of, among, 62
morality, fpecimen of, 63
degeneracy of the, alleged, 70
obfervations by Mr Jefferfon
on their degeneracy, 71
coldnefs to the fex accounted
for, 7 2
Natives, why few children, N° 73
their fenlibility, 74
courage, 73
, anecdotes, 78
politenefs and civility, 79
hofpitality, 80
Lord Kaimes’s argument for
different fpecies of, 81
Lord Kaimes’s hypothelis'
concerning the different
fpecies of, 82
Kaimes’s argument incom¬
plete, _ _ 83
. general principles to be kept
in view in reafoning on the
different fpecies of, 84
Lord Kaimes’s argument in-
confiftent, 85
Negroes, of the, 485
Niagara, defeription of, 421
Ninety fx, poll of, laid fiege to by
General Greene, but
without fuccefs, 364
Norfolk, town of, deffroyed, 210
Norwegian pretenlions to the dif-
covery of America
conlidered,
o
Vmoa Fort, taken by the Britiffi, 325
evacuated by the Britilh, 326
Oppoftion again!! Britain confirmed, 162
to Britilh parliament Hill
increafes, 171
more and more confirmed
again!! Britain, 181
P
Parties, character of, 406
prefent Hate of, 417
Pearl-afhes, of, - 448
Petition again!! Governor Hutchinfon
refufed, 130
Pennfylvania lines, revolt of the, 332
ineflfedlual attempts to
induce the, to join
the royal army, 333
Philadelphia taken pofleffion of by
General Howe, 263
forts near, reduced, 267
evacuated, 304
American independence
celebrated at, 339
Pitjhurg, rebellion at, zzx.
Political fadlions, 404
Potajh works, 447
Prefcot, General, taken prifoner, 238
Prefdent and vice-prelident, how
defied, 393
condufl of, 409
new, ' 414
Prifoners, treatment of, 27
fhocking treatment of, 28
conllancy of, 29
Proclamation by General Clinton, 336
S Provincials
Provincials defeated by General Car-
leton, N° 219
purfued by General Car-
leton, 221
purfued by General Bur-
goyne, 223
efcape to Crown Point, 224
naval force of the, de-
ftroyed, 251
expedition of the, againlf
Ticonderago, 286
defperate attack of the, on
the royal army, 287
. o.
Quadrupeds, aboriginals of Europe
and America, com¬
parative view of, 66
aboriginals of one onlv,
Table II. ' ib.
domefticated in Europe
and America, Table III. ib.
refult view of, in Table I. 67
deferibed, Table II. 68
deferibed, Table III. 69
Quarrels between the people of Maf-
fachufets Bay and their
governor, 134
Quebec, attempt to furprife, by the
Americans, J97
liege of, continued, 217
R
Religion, of, 478
Republic, American, rife of the, 121
Refe mb la nee between the Afiatics and
North Americans, 103
Revenge, remarkable inftance of, 39
Rhode IJlandtaken, 249
Rice, of, 475
•RrWrj’, eaftern, 423
S
Secretary of date, 396
Settlements, new, how formed, 465
children refiding in the, apt
to be loft in the rvoods, 466
Settlers, frontier, always hoftile to the
Indians, 483
Sheep, nature of, 468
Ship-building, of, 450
Shakers, of the, 480
Skirmijhes, different, between the Bri-
tilh and Americans, 359
Snakes, American, 437
the joint, 438
rattle, 439
fait, in Kentucky, 413
names of the, 432
mineral, 433
- ■ .[ 13S ]
Stacks ol grain not made ufe of in A-
merica, N° 464
Star.wix, fort, befieged, 275
Staten IJland attacked by the provin-
ciahs, _ 334
provincials make a preci¬
pitate retreat from, 339
Stature, no proof of a different fpecies, 88
Sugar-maple, 449
Sulphur and nitre found in the weftern
territory, 4^0
Swine, nature of the, 469
T
Tarleton, Lieutenant-colonel, aftivity ‘
a t°f’ r 343
cleieat or, g ^5
operations in confequence of
the defeat of, 3 i;6
Pax, plan of, by Mr Towmfhend, 132
plan raifes greater indignation
than even the ftamp aft, 133
tea violently oppofed, 147
Paxes, heavy, impofed, and other ob¬
noxious afts framed, 1 24
exafperate the Americans, 123
all, removed except on tea, 146
Pea refufed admittance in feveral
places, 132
Phomfon, General, defeated and taken
by General Frafer, 222
Piconderago belieged and taken, 270
Pities propofed, 405
Pobacco, of, 474
Prade, American, 4 34
foreign, 455
Preafury, of the, 397
Punkers, of the, 481
u
Union, articles of, betwixt the col©'
nies, 184
United States, conftitution of, 391
✓ conftitution of, addi¬
tions to the, 392
conftitution of, the op-
polition againft the, 393
army of the, 399
law offices of the, 400
the mint of the, 401
defeription of the bound¬
aries of, 418
errors in the defeription
of the boundaries of, 419
V
Vegetables, of, 434
Vegetation, luxuriant, 6
Virginia, province of, difputes .with
their governor, 200
Virginia, Dunmore, governor of, lends
his family on board a man
of war, N° 201
governor of, fortifies his pa¬
lace, 202
governor of, argues in fa¬
vour of Lord North’s
conciliatory plan, 203
governor of, retires on .
board a man of war, 204
governor of, attempts to
reduce the province by
force, 205
governor of, entirely de¬
feated, 206
plan of reducing, by Mr
Conolly, 207
Lord Dunmore finally
driven out of, 227
caverns in, 427
w
Warriors, drefs of, 23
Wars, of, 20
ceremonies before, 21
enfigns of, 22
FFbr, preparations for, 174
lofs of men and treafure by the, 382
confequences of the, 383
Weljh, pretenfions of the, to the dif-
covery of America in the
12th century, 107
Wejlern waters, 4 24
Women, condition of the, 3 3
Whale-JiJhery, 43 2
Wheat regarded in America as the
moll valuable kind of grain, 472
Whites, of the, 489
Wajhington, George, appointed com¬
mander in chief, 189
refufes a letter from Lord
Howe, 225
is defeated at the White
Plains, 247
prefident, 403
name of, given to the fe¬
deral city, 416
Y
York, New, armament fent againft, 233
abandoned by the provincials, 243
fet on fire, 245
General Walhington removes
farther from, 246
Bntilh excurfions from, 257
apprehenfions at, 332
forwardnefs of the inhabitants
of, to be enrolled for its de-
fence> 333
AMERICAN
Plate XV HI.
-Z4 ^ itflc 22\0 Lanmtude“West zz e Aam Pondan :ic\c p\o
-j&mzs..
.JwmsmusL-,
■<« H
t*V ^ L
IKUJJSlsjf
S „ .-T.">',
L^Tvfs
•-•"■•'Ax
|',»n,.«««.*<
4* ' I. j
'Sfcg/'l
./'■*{
Lo 4V ^
A M E [ 139 ] AM II
AMERICAN night s hade. See Phytolacca,
Botany Index.
American ground nut. See Arachis, Bota-
. n y Index.
A MERIC US Vespucius. See Vespucci.
AMERSFORT, a city in the Netherlands, in the
province of Utrecht, leated on the river Etns, E. Long.
5. 20. N. Lat. 52. 14. The moil remarkable objefts
are, the townhoufe ; the grand palace, which is trian¬
gular •, the public walk, planted with trees *, and the
great church, dedicated to St George. The land to
the eaft and iouth of this city is very fruitful \ on the
north there is nothing but pafture ground, and on the
weft it is woody. Not far from hence is a mountain
called jimer.fort-berg, on which is planted a villa of
trees, which reaches to Utrecht.
AMERSHAM, or Agmondesham, a market
town in Buckinghamihire, conlifting of about 200
houles, with a free-fchool, and four alms-houfes. It
fends two members to parliament, and has a market
on Tuefday. It is a r-eUory rated at 48I. 16s. 8d. in
the king’s books. ' The market-houfe is a very hand-
fome ftru£lure. W. Long. c. 15. N. Lat. 51. 47.
AMES, Willi am, D. D. a learned independent
divine, celebrated for his controyerfial writings, was
born in 1576, and educated at Chrift’s college, in
Cambridge. In the reign of King James I. he left the
univerfity, and foon after the kingdom, on account of
his being unwilling to conform to the rules of the
church ; and retired to the Hague, where he had not
been long before he was invited to accept of the divi¬
nity chair in the univerfity of Franeker, in Friefland,
Which he - filled with admirable abilities for above
twelve years ; during which his fame was fo great,
that many came from remote nations to be educated
under him. He from thence removed to Rotterdam
for a change of air, which his health required 5 and
here he continued during the remainder of his life. His
Controverfial writings, which ccmpofe the greateft: part
of his works, are chiefly againft Bellarmine and the
Arminians. He alfo wrote, 1. A freih Suit againft
the ceremonies. 2. Lechones in Pfa/mos Davidis.
3. Medulla Theologue; and feveral pieces relative to
the fciences. He died of an afthma at Rotterdam, in
November 1633.
AMESTRATUS, a town of Sicily (Cicero) ; M-
me/lratos (Stephanus) ; Amajlra (Silius Italicus) ;
Multijlratos (Polybius) : Now Mi/lretta, in the Val
di Demona, on the river Halefus. It was a very
flrong fort of the Carthaginians, beneged in vain by
the Romans for feven months with confiderable lofs ;
at length, after another fiege, taken and razed (Dio¬
dorus Siculus.)
AMETHYST, a tranfparent gem of a purple co¬
lour, which feems compoied of a itrong blue and a
deep red ; and, according as either of thefe prevails,
affording different tinges of purple, fometimes ap¬
proaching to violet, and fometimes even fading to a
pale rofe colour. Though the amethyft is generally
of a purple colour, it is neverthelefs fometimes found
naturally colourlefs, and may at any time be eafily
made fo by putting it into the fire $ in which pellucid
or colourlefs ftate, it fo refembles the diamond, that
its want of hardnefs feems the only way of aiftinguifh-
ing it. Some derive the name ametbyjl from its co¬
lour, which refembles wine mixed with water; whilft
others, with more probability, think it got its name
from its fuppofed virtue of preventing drunkennefs ; an
opinion which, however imaginary, prevailed to that
degree among the ancients, that it was ufual for great
drinkers-to wear it about their necks. Be this as it
will, the amethyft is fcarcely inferior to any of the
gems in the beauty of its colour 5 and in its pureft
ftate is of the fame hardnefs, and at leaft of equal va¬
lue, with the ruby and fapphire. It is found of vari¬
ous fizes, from the bignefs of a fmall vetch to an inch
and a half in diameter, and often to much more than
that in length. Its flrape is extremely various, fome¬
times roundifti, fometimes oblong, and at others flat¬
ted, at leaft on one fide ; but its moft common appear¬
ance is in a cryftalliform figure, confifting of a thick
column, compofed of four planes, and terminated by a
flat and Ihort pyramid, of the fame number of fides j
or eli’e, of a thinner and longer hexangular column ;
and fometimes of a long pyramid, without any column.
It makes the gayeft figure in the laft of thefe ftates,
but is hardeft and molt valuable in the roundifti and
pebble-like form. The amethyft is found in the Eaft
and Weft Indies, and in feveral parts of Europe 5 the
oriental ones, at leaft fome of the finer fpecimens, be¬
ing fo hard and bright as to equal any of the coloured
gems in value. However, by far the greater number
of amethyfts fall infinitely fliort of thefe ; as all the
European ones, and not a few of thole brought from
the Eaft and Weft Indies, are very little harder than
common cryftal.
Counterfeit or FaSlitious AvETHr&r. Spars and erv-
ftals tinged red and yellow, &c. are fold for amethyfis.
The falfe ones come from Germany, are tinged by va¬
pours in the mines, and contain fome lead.
Amethyfts may be counterfeited by glafs, to which
the proper colour or ftain is given. There were fine
ones made in France about the year 1690, which may
even impofe on connoiffeurs, unlefs the ftone be taken
out of the collet.—The method of giving this colour
to glafs is direfted as follows : Take cryftal frit, made
with the moft perfebf and fine tarfo : Then prepare a
mixture of manganefe in powder, one pound ; and zaf-
fre prepared, one ounce and a half: Mix thefe powders
well together; and add to every pound of the frit an
ounce of this powder. Let it be put into the pots
with the frit, not into the prepared metal. When the
whole has ftood long enough in fufion to be perfeiftly
pure, work it into veffels, and they will refemble the
colour of the amethyft.
Amethyst, in Heraldry, a term for the purple co¬
lour in the coat of a nobleman, in ufe with thofe who
blazon wdth precious ftones, inftead of metals and co¬
lours. This, in a gentleman’s efcutcheon, is called
Purpure ; and in thofe of fovereign princes, Mercury.
AME FHYSTEA,amethyst. SeeBotanr Index.
AMETHYSTINE is applied, in Antiquity, to a
kind of purple garment dyed of the hue of amethyft.'
In this fenfe amethyftine differed from Tyrian as well
as from hyacinthine purple, being a kind of medium
between both.
AMHAR, or Amhara, a province of Abyftinia,
faid to extend 40 leagues from eaft to weft. It is
conlidered as the moft noble in the whole empire, both
on account of its being the ufual refidence of the A-
S 2 byflinian
Amhurft
A M I [ 140 ] AMI
byiFmian monarchs, and having a particular dialeil: dif¬
ferent from all the reft, which, by reafon of the empe¬
rors being brought up in this province, is become the
language of the court and of the politer people. Here
is the famed rock Amba-gefhen, where the young mo¬
narchs were formerly confined. See Amba and A-
BYSSINIA.
AMHURST, Nicholas, an Englifh poet and
political writer of the 18th century, was born at Mar-
den in Kent, and entered of St John’s college, Oxford ;
from whence he was expelled for irregularity of con-
du<ft and libertine principles. Retaining great refent-
ment againft the univerfity on this account, he abufed
its learning and difcipline, and fome of the moft re-
fpedftable charaifters in it, in a poem publifhed in 1724
called Oculus Britannicc, and in a book entitled Terrce
Films. He publifhed, A Mifcellany of Poems, facred
and profane ; and, The Convocation, a poem in five
cantos, which was a fatire on the Bifhop of Bangor’s
antagonifts. But he is beft known for the ftrare he
bad in the political paper called The Craftfman
though, after having been the drudge of his party
for near 20 years, he was as much forgotten in
the famous compromife of 1742 as if he had never
been born} and, when he died in that year of a bro¬
ken heart, was indebted to the charity of his bookfel-
ler for a grave.
AMIANTHUS, or Earth-flax, in Mineralogy,
a fibrous, flexile, elaftic, mineral fubftance, confifting
of fhort, abrupt, and interwoven filaments. It is
found in Germany, in the ftrata of iron ore, fometimes
forming veins of an inch in diameter. Its fibres are fo
flexible that cloth has been made of them, and the
fliorter filaments that feparate in the wafhing of the
ftone may be made into paper in the common manner.
For the method of its preparation for .manufacture in¬
to cloth, fee Asbestos.
Amianthus is clafied by Mr Kirkwan in the muriatic
genus of earths, becaufe it contains about a fifth part
of magnefia. Its other conliituents are, flint, mild
calcareous earth, barytes, clay, and a very fmall pro¬
portion of iron. It is fufible per_/e in a ttrong heat,
and alfo with the common fluxes. See Mineralogy
Index.
AMICABLE, in a general fenfe, denotes any thing
done in a friendly manner, or to promote peace.
Amicabl r Benches, in Roman Antiquity, were, ac¬
cording to Pitifcus, lower and lefs honourable feats al¬
lotted for the [fudices pedanei, or inferior judges, who,
upon being admitted of the emperor’s council, were
dignified by him with the title amici.
Amicaslc Numbers, denote pairs of numbers, of'
which each of them is mutually equal to the fum
of all the aliquot parts of the other. So the firft or
leaft pair of amicable numbers are 220 and 284; all
the aliquot parts of which, with their fums, are as fol¬
lows, viz.
of 220, they are I, 2, 4, 5, 10, II, 20, 22, 44, 55,
no, their fum
of 284, they are 1, 2, 4,
The 2d pair of amicable numbers are 17296 and
18416, which have alio the fame property as above.
And the third pair of amicable numbers are 9363584
and 9437056.
Thefe three pairs of amicable numbers were found
2845
1,142, and their fum is 220.
out by F. Schooten, fedl. 9. of his Exercitationes Ma~ Amicable
thematicce, who, it isfaid, firft gave the name of arnica- lumbers.
ble to fuch numbers, though fuch properties of num- A
bers, it feems, had before been treated of by Rudol- 1 l_l’-'a‘ ,
phus, Defcartes, and others.
To find tire firft pair, Schooten puts 4^ and qyz, or
a\v and a2yz for the two numbers where a=2 j then
making each of thefe equal to the fum of the aliquot
parts of the other, gives two equations, from which are
found the values of x and 2;, and confequently afluming
ajrroper value for y, the two amicable numbers them-
felves 4# and t\y%.
In like manner for the other pairs of fuch numbers ^
in which he finds it neceffary to affume 16# and i6yz
or aAx and aAyz for the 2d pair, and 12S.V and 128^2;
or a^x and a^yz for the 3d pair.
Schooten then gives this praftical rule, from Def¬
cartes, for finding amicable numbers, viz. aflume the
number 2, or fome power of the number 2, fuch that
if unity or 1 be fubtrafled from each of thefe three
following quantities, viz j
from three times the affumed number,
alfo from 6 times the affumed number,
and from 18 times the fquare of the affumed number,
the three remainders may be all prime numbers ; then
the laft prime number being multiplied by double the
affumed number, the produbb will be one of the ami¬
cable numbers fought, and the fum of its aliquot parts
will be the other.
That is, if a be put ~ the number 2, and n fome
integer number, fuch that ^a*—1, and 6tf"—1, and
18tf2”—1 be all three prime numbers; then is 1 '6ahn—1
X 2an one of the amicable numbers) and the fum of
its aliquot parts is the other.
AM ICTUS, in Roman Antiquity, was any upper
garment worn over the tunica.
Am ictus, among Ecclejiajlical Writers, the upper-
moft garment anciently worn by the clergy \ the other
five being the alba, iingulum, ftola, manipulus, and
planeta. The amiftus w’as a linen garment, of a iquare
figure, covering the head, neck, and flioulders, and
buckled or clafped before the breaft. It is ftill wTorn
by the religious abroad.
AMICULUM, in Roman Antiquity, a woman’s
upper garment, which diftered from the pala. It w^as
worn both by matrons and courtezans.
AMICUS CURI.C, a law term, to denote a by-
ftander who informs the court of a matter in law that
is doubtful or miftaken.
AMID-AMID, in Geography, a lofty, ridge of
mountains in Abyffinia. See Abyssinia.
AMID A, a god worlhipped by the [ananefe,- who
has many temples eredfed to him in the ifland of Japan,
of which the principal is at Jeddo. The Japanefe
have fuch a confidence in their idol Amida, that they
hope to attain eternal felicity by the frequent invoca¬
tion of his name. One of the figures of this idol is
reprefented at Rome.
A-Mida, in Ancient Geography, a principal city of
Mefopotamia, otherwife called Ammcea; fituated on
a high mountain, on the borders of Affyria, on the
Tigris, wTere it receives the Nymphius. It was ta¬
ken from the Romans, in the time of the emperor
Conftans, by Sapores king of Perfia. The ffege is
faid to have coil him 30,000 men } however, he redu¬
ced
AMI [ i
Amiens, ced it to fuclx ruin, that the emperor afterwards wept
——v——' over According to Ammianus Marcellinus, the city
was razed) the chief officers were crucified j and the
reft, with the foldiers and inhabitants, either put to the
fword or carried into captivity, except our hlftorian
' himfelf, and two or three more, who, in the dead of
the night, efcaped through a poftern unperceived by
the enemy. The inhabitants of Nifibis, however,
being obliged to leave their own city by fovian’s trea¬
ty with the Perfians, foon reftored Amida to its for¬
mer ftrength *, but it svas again taken by Cavades in
50 x, but wTas reftored to the Romans in 503. On the
declenfion of the Roman power, it fell again into the
hands of the Perfians j but wras taken from them by
the Saracens in 899. It is now in the pofleflion of
Turks. Here are above 20.000 Chriftians, who are
better treated by the Turks than in other places. A
great trade is carried on in this city of red Turkey lea¬
ther, and cotton cloth of the fame colour. The Ara¬
bian name of Amida is Diarbehir, and the Turkifh one
Kara-Arncd. E. Long. 39. o. N. Lat. 36. 58.
AMIENS, a large handfome city of France, the
capital of Picardy. It is agreeably iituated on the ri¬
ver Somme, and faid to have received its Latin name
Ambianum from being everywhere encompaffed with
water. It is a place of great antiquity 5 being men¬
tioned by Caefar as a town that had made a vigorous
refiftance againft the Romans, and wLere he convened
a general affembly of the Gauls after having made him¬
felf mafter of it. The emperors Antoninus and Mar¬
cus Aurelius enlarged it; and Conftantine, Conftans,
Julian, and feveral others, refided here a confiderable
time. The town is encompaffed with a wall and other
fortifications j and the ramparts are planted with trees,
which form a delightful walk. The river Somme en¬
ters Amiens by three different channels, under as many
bridges 5 and thefe channels, after waffling the town in
feveral places, -where they are of ufe in its different
manufaftures, unite at the other end by the bridge of
St Michael. Here is a quay for the boats that come
from Abbeville with goods brought by fea. At the
gate of Noyon there is a fuburb remarkable for the
abbey of St Achen. Next to this gate you come to
that of Paris, where they have a long mall between
two rows of trees. The houfes are well built j the
ftreets fpacious, embelliflied with handfomc fquares
and good buildings; and the number of inhabitants
is between 40,000 and 50,000. The cathedral, dedi¬
cated to our Lady, is one of the largeft and moll mag¬
nificent churches in France ; adorned with handfome
paintings, fine pillars, chapels^ and tombs; particu¬
larly the nave is greatly admired. The other places
worth leeing are the palace of the bailiwuck, the town-
houfe, the fquare des Fleurs, and the great market place.
Amiens was taken by the Spaniards, in 1597, by
the following ftratagem : Soldiers, difguifed like pea-
lants, conducted a cart laden with nuts, and let a bag
of them fall juft as the gate was opened. While the
guard was bufyln gathering up the nuts, the Spaniards
entered and became mailers of the town. It was re¬
taken by Henry IV. who built a citadel here. The
definitive treaty of peace, entered into by the different
European powers in 1802, was negotiated here.
This town is the feat of a bifttop, fuffragan of Rheims,
as alfo of a prefidial, bailiwick, vidam, a chamber of
1 ] AMI
accounts, and a generality. The bilhop’s revenue is Amilcar
30,000 livres. They have fome linen and woollen ma- Arn^nan
nufadlures, and they alfo make a great quantity of ■
black and green foap. It lies in E. Long. 2. 18.
N. Lat. 49. 53.
AMILCAR, the name of feveral Carthaginian cap¬
tains. The molt celebrated of them is Amilcar Barcas,
the father of Hannibal, who, during five years, in-
felled the coaft of Italy 5 wdren the Romans fending
out their whole naval llrength, defeated him near Tra¬
pani, 242 years before Chrilt ; and this put an end to
the firft Punic -war. Amilcar began the fecond, and
landed in Spain, where he fubdued the moft warlike
nations j but as he v/as preparing for an expedition
againft Italy, he was killed in battle, 228 years before
the Chriftian era. He left three fons, whom he had
educated, as he faid, like three lions, to tear Rome in
pieces ; and made Hannibal, his eldeft fon, fwear an
eternal enmity againft the Romans.
AMILICTI, in the Chaldaic Theology, denote a
kind of intellectual powers, or perfons in the divine
hierarchy. The amilicli are reprefented as three in
number j and conftitute one of the triads, in the third
order of the hierarchy.
AMIRANTE, in the Spanijh Polity, a great offi¬
cer of Hate, anfwering to our lord high admiral.
AMIS US, in Ancient Geography, the chief city of
the ancient kingdom of Pontus. It was built by the
Milefians, and peopled partly by them and partly by
a colony from Athens. It -was at firft: a free city, like
the other Greek cities in Afia ; but afterwards fub¬
dued by Pharnaces king of Pontus, who made it his
metropolis. It wns taken by Lucullus in the Mithri-
datic war, who reftored it to its ancient liberty. Clofe
by Amifus flood another city called Eupatoria, from
Mithridates Eupator its founder. This city w-as like-
wife taken by Lucullus, who levelled it with the
ground; but it was afterwards rebuilt by Pompey,
who united it with Amifus, giving them the name
of Pompeiopolis. It wyas taken during the w’ar be¬
tween Caefar and Pompey, by Pharnaces king of Pon¬
tus, who put moft of its inhabitants to the fword ;
but Caefar, having conquered Pharnaces, made it again
a free city.
AMITERNUM, a towm of the Sabines, in Italy,
( Livy, Pliny) •, nowr extinft. The ruins are to be feen
on the level ridge of a mountain, near St Vittorino,
and the fprings of the Aternus 5 not far from Aquila,
which rofe out of the ruins of Amiternum.
AMITTERE legem terr^e, among Lawyers, a
phrafe importing the lofs of liberty of fwearing in any
court : The punifhment of a champion overcome or
yielding in battle, of jurors found guilty in a w7rit of
attaint, and of a perfon outlawed.
AM-KAS, in Hi/lory, a name given to a fpacious fa-
loon in the palace of the Great Mogul, wffiere he gives
audience to his fubjefts, and where he appears on fo-
lemn feftivals with extraordinai-y magnificence. His
throne is fupported by fix large fteps of maffy gold, fet
wdth rubies, emeralds, and diamonds, eftimated at
6o,ooo,oool.
AMMA, among Ecclejiajlical Writers, a term ufed
to denote an abbefs or fpiritual mother.
AMMAN, or Ammant, in the German and Belgic
Polity, a judge who has the cognizance of civil caufes.
—It
A
A M M [ 142 ] A M M
*aninama, —h {s ali0 ufecj among the French for a public notary,
^.nanarm-. or 0fpcer? w]10 draws up inllruments and deeds.
AMMANIA. See Botany Index.
AMMI, bishop’s weed. See Botany Index.
AMMIANUS Marcellinus, a Roman hiftorian
of the fourth century, was a native of Greece, born in
the city of Antioch. Having ferved feveral years in the
early part of his life in the army, he wras afterwards
promoted to the honourable ftation of protedior domeJH-
cus. In the year 350 he entered the fervice of Con-
flantius, the emperor of the call, and, under the com¬
mand of Urficinus, a general of the horfe, he ferved
during feveral expeditions. According to his own mo-
deft relation, it appears that he acquired confiderable
military fame, and that he deferved well of his fove-
reign. He attended the emperor Julian in his expedi¬
tion into Perlia, but hiftory is filent whether or not he
role to any higher military rank than that which has
already been mentioned. He w7as either in the city or
the vicinity of Antioch when the confpiracy of Theo¬
doras was difcovered, under the reign of Valens, and
was an eye witnefs of the fevere torments to which ma¬
ny perfons were expofed by the emperor on that account.
But his lafting reputation was not to be acquired
from military exertions. He left the army, and reti¬
red to Rome, where he employed his time and talents
in writing the hiftory of that empire during the period
of three centuries. Though a native of Greece, he
wrote in the Latin language \ but, according to the re¬
mark of Voffius, his Latin ftiows that he was a Greek,
and alio a foldier. His hiftory begins -with the reign
of Nerva, and continues to the death of Valens 5 and
the work was originally divided into 31 books. Of
thefe the firft 13 have periihed, and the 18 which re¬
main commence with the 17th year of the reign of
Conftantius, and terminate at the year 375. But there
are feveral fadls mentioned in the hiftory which prove
that the author was alive in the year 390. Of this
number are the acceffion of Theodoftus to the eaftern
empire, the charadler of Gratian, and the confulate ot
Neothorius. Similar to the manner in which Herodo¬
tus, the father of Grecian hiftory, read his hiftory,
Marcellinus read his books in public with general ap¬
probation. Some have reckoned the ftyle harlh and
redundant, but this may eaftly be excufed, from his
education and military life \ and the valuable informa¬
tion communicated abundantly compenfates for that de¬
feat. Candour and impartiality are leading features
in his hiftory. The charafler given him by Mr Gib¬
bon appears to be accurate, when he lays that he is
“ an accurate and faithful guide, who compofed the
hiftory of his orvn times without indulging the preju¬
dices and pafllons which ufually affedf the mind of a
contemporary.”
A difference of opinion has obtained, whether or
not our hiftorian wras a Chriftian or a Pagan. But the
refpecfful manner in which he fpeaks of Pagan deities,
and of the advantage of heathen auguries to foretel fu¬
ture events, render it abundantly evident that he was
a heathen. The favourable account w hich he gives of
the religion, manners, and fortitude of Chriftians, are
the refult of his candour and impartiality as an hifto-
rian. The work of Marcellinus has paffed through
feveral editions j but that printed at Leyden in 1693,
with explanatory notes, is efleemed the beft. (Gen. Amnun-t.;,
Biog.) y
AMMIRATO, Sctpio, an eminent Italian hifto-,Aminon- ^
rian, born at Lecca in Naples in 1 531. After travel¬
ling over great part of Italy, without fettling to his
fatisfadfion, he was engaged by the great duke of,
1 ufcany to write Bhe tlijiory oj Florence ; for which
he wras prefented to a canonry in the cathedral there#
He wrote other w orks w hile in this ftation 5 and died
in 1600.
AMMOCHRYSOS, from uppas fandy and xgo<ro<j
gold, a name given by authors to a ftone very common
in Germany, and feeming.to be compofed of a golden
fand. It is of a yellow7 gold-like colour, and its par¬
ticles are very gloffy, being all fragments of a coloured
talc. It is ufually io loft as to be eaiily rubbed to a
powder in the hand ; ibmetimes it requires grinding to
powder in a mortar, or otherw ife. It is uied only as
far.d to ftrewT over writing. The Germans call it Lat-
%engold. There is another kind of it lefs common, but
much more beautiful, conftfting of the fame fort of
gloffy fpangles, but thofe not of a gold colour, but of
a bright red, like vermilion.
AMMODYTES, or sand-eel. See Ichthyo¬
logy Index.
AMMON, anciently a city of Marmarica (Ptole¬
my). Arrian calls it a place, not a city, in which
flood the temple of Jupiter Ammon, round which there
was nothing but fandy waftes. Pliny fays, that the
oracle of Ammon was 12 days journey from Memphis,
and among the Norm of Egypt he reckons the Nemos
Jimmoniacus : Diodorus Siculus, That the diftrieft w here
the temple flood, though furrounded with deferts, was
watered by dews which fell nowhere elfe in all that
country. It was agreeably adorned with fruitful trees
and fprings, and full of villages. In the middle flood
the Acropolis or citadel, encompaffed with a triple
W’all •, the firft and inmoft of which contained the pa¬
lace 5 the others the apartments of the women, the re¬
lations and children, as alfo the temple of the god, and
the facred fountain for luftrations. Without the Acro¬
polis flood, at no great diftance,. another temple of
Ammon, ihaded by a number of tall trees: near which
there was a fountain, called that of the fun, or Soils
Fans, becaufe fubjedf to extraordinary changes accor¬
ding to the time of the day 5 morning and evening
warm, at noon cold, at midnight extremely hot. A
kind of foflil fait was faid to be naturally produced
here. It was dug out of the earth in large oblong
pieces, fometimes three fingers in length, and tranlpa-
rent as cryftal. It was thought to be a prefent wor¬
thy of kings, and ufed by the Egyptians in their facri-
fices.—From this our fal ammoniac has taken its name.
Ammon, or Hammon, in Heathen Mythology, the
name of the Egyptian Jupiter, worfhipped under the
figure of a ram.
Bacchus having fubdued Afia, and palling with his
army through the deferts of Africa, was in great w7ant
of water : but Jupiter, his father, anuming the ftiape
of a ram, led him to a fountain, where he refrefhed
himfelf and his army j in gratitude for which favour,
Bacchus built there a temple to Jupiter, under the title
of Ammon, from the Greek e.yp-,i, w hich fignifiesy'hW,
alluding to the fandy defert where it was built. In
A M M [ 143 ] A M M
Ammon tills temple was an oracle of great note, which Alex-
11 . ander the Great confulted, and which lalted till the
mmt.n ^ i_ime 0f Theodohus.
Hammon, the god of the Egyptians, was the fame
with the Jupiter of the Greeks ; for which reafon thefe
latter denominate the city which the Egyptians call
No-Hammon, or the habitation of Ammon, Diojholis
or the city of Jupiter. He is thought to be the fame
with Ham, who peopled Africa, and was the father
of Mizraim, the founder of the Egyptians.
Ammon, otBen-Ammi, the fon of Lot, was the fa¬
ther of the Ammonites, and dwelt to the call; of the
Dead fea, in the mountains of Gilead. See Ammoni-
tis and Ammonites.
Ammon, or Ammonius,an excellent La¬
tin poet, born at Lucca in Italy, was lent by Pope Leo
X. to England, in the characters of prothonotary of
the Apoltolic See, and colleftor-general of that king¬
dom. He was a man of lingular genius and learning,
and foon became acquainted with the principal literati
of thofe times ; particularly with Erafmus, Colet, Gro-
cin, and others, for the fake of whofe company he re-
fided fome time at Oxford. The advice which Eraf¬
mus gives him, in regard to pufhing his fortune, has a
good deal of humour in it, and was certainly intended
as a fatire on the artful methods generally pra6tifed by
the felfifh and ambitious part of mankind : “ In the
firit place (fays he), throw off all fenfe of lhame 5 thruft
yourfelf into every one’s bufinefs, and elbow out whom-
foever you can ; neither love nor hate any one ; mea-
fure everything by your own advantage; let this be
the fcope and drift of all your aftions. Give nothing
but what is to be returned with ufury, and be complai-
fant to every body. Have always two firings to your
bow. Feign that you are folicited by many from
abroad, and get every thing ready for your departure.
Show letters inviting you eliewhere, with great promi-
fes.” Ammon was Latin fecretary to Henry VIII.
but at -what time he was appointed does not appear.
In 1512 he was made canon and prebendary of the
collegiate chapel of St Stephen, in the palace of Well-
minder. He was likewife prebendary of Wells ; and
in 1514 was prefented to the redtory of Dychial in that
diocefe. About the fame time, by the king’s fpecial
recommendation, he was alfo made prebendary of Sa-
lilbury. He died in the year 1517, and was buried in
St Stephen’s chapel in the palace of Wredminder. He
was edeemed an elegant Latin writer, and an admi¬
rable poet. The epidles of Erafmus to Ammon abound
with encomiums on his genius and learning. His works
are, 1. Ef>iJ)ol<z ad Erafmum, lib. i. 2. Scotici coti/Hc-
tus hi/loria, lib. i. 3. Bucolicce vei eclogc?, lib. i. Badl
1546, 8vo. 4. De rebus nihil, lib. i. 5. Panegyricus
tjuidatn, lib. i. 6. Varii generis epigrammata, lib. i.
7. Poemata diverfa, lib. i.
AMMONIA, or Volatile Alkali. See Che¬
mistry Index.
AMMONIAC, a concrete gummy refinous juice,
brought from the Ead Indies, ufually in large maffes,
compofed of little lumps or tears, of a milky colour,
but foon changing, upon being expofed to the air, of a
yellowilh hue. We have no certain account of the
plant which affords this juice : the feeds ufually found
among the tears refemble thofe of the umbelliferous
clafs. It has been, however, alleged, and not without
fome degree of probability, that it is an exudation Ammoniac,
from a fpecies of the ferula, another fpecies of which Ammo-
produces the alafoetida. The plant producing it is faid . j
to grow in Nubia, Abydinia, and the interior parts
of Egypt. It is brought to the vedern parts' of Eu¬
rope, from Egypt, and to England from the Red fea,
by fome of the (hips belonging to the Ead India Com¬
pany trading to thofe parts. Such tears as are large,
dry, free from, little dones, feeds, or other impurities,
diould be picked out, and preferred for internal ufe :
the coarfer kind is purified by folution and colature,
and then carefully infpiffating it ; unlefs this be art¬
fully managed, the gum will lofe a confiderable deal
of its more volatile parts. There is often vended in
the diops, under the name of drained gum ammonia-
cum, a compofition of ingredients much inferior in
virtue.
Ammoniac has a naufeous fweet tade, followed by a
bitter one ; and a peculiar fmell, fomewhat like that of
galbanum, but more grateful: it foftens in the mouth,
and grows of a whiter colour upon being chewed.
Thrown upon live coals, it burns away in dame : it is
in lome meafure foluble in water and in vinegar, with
which it affumes the appearance of milk ; but the re¬
finous part, amounting to about one half, fublides on
danding.
Ammoniac is an ufeful deobdruent, and frequently
preferibed for opening obdruttions of the abdominal
vifeera, and in hyderical diforders occafioned by a de¬
ficiency of the mendrual evacuations. It is likewife
fuppofed to deterge the pulmonary veffels; and proves
of confiderable fervice in fome kinds of adhmas, where
the lungs are oppreffed by vifeid phlegm ; in this inten¬
tion, a folution of gum ammoniac in vinegar of fquills
proves a medicine of great efficacy, though not a little
unpleafant. In long and obdinate colics proceeding
from vifeid matterlodged in the intedines, this gummy
refin has produced happy effects, after the purges and
the common carminatives had been ufed in vain. Am¬
moniac is mod ccmmodioufiy taken in the form of pills ;
about a fcruple may be given every night, or oftener.
Externally, it foftens and ripens hard tumours : a folu¬
tion of it in vinegar dands recommended by fome for
refolving even fchirrous fwellings. A plader made of
it and fquill-vinegar is recommended by fome in white
fwellings. A dilute mixture of the fame is likewife
rubbed on the parts, which are alfo fumigated with the
fmoke of juniper berries. In the drops is prepared a
folution of it in pennyroyal water, called from its mil¬
ky colour lac atnmoniaci. It is an ingredient alfo in
the fquill pills.
Sal Ammoniac, the old name of muriate of atnmo-
nw, a native fait, compoied of ammonia, or volatile al¬
kali, and muriatic acid, was generated in thofe large
inns or caravanferas where the crowd of pilgrims co¬
ming from the temple of Jupiter Ammon ufed to
lodge ; who, in thofe parts, travelling upon camels,
and thofe creatures when in Cyrene, a province of
Egypt, where that celebrated temple dood, urining
in the dables, or (fay fome) in the parched fands,
out of this urine, which is remarkably drong, arofe
a kind of fait, denominated iometimes (from the
temple) Ammoniac, and fometimes (from the country)
Cyreniac. Since the ceffation of thefe pilgrimages, no
more of this fait is produced there ; and, from this de..
ficiency
A M M [ 144 ] AM M
Animonian ficiency, fome fufpe^t there never was any fuch thing :
II But this fuipicion is removed, by the large quantities
Amm°- ojp a near]y Qf tiie fame nature, thrown out by
Mount ^tna.
The modern fal ammoniac is entirely fadlitious. See
Chemistry Index.
AMMON1AN philosophy. See Ammonius.
AMMON IT/E, in Natural Bijiory. See Cornv
Ainmonis.
AMMONITES, a people defeended from Ammon
the fon of Lot. The Ammonites deftioyed thole
giants which they called Zamzummims (Deut. ii. 19
—21), and feized upon their country. God forbade
Mofes, and by him the children of Ifrael {id. 19.),
to attack the Ammonites *, becaufe he did not intend
to give their lands unto the Hebrews. Before the If-
raelites entered the land of Canaan, the Amorites had
by conqueft got great part of the countries belonging
to the Ammonites and Moabites. 1 his Mofes retooK
from the Amorites, and divided between the tribes of
Gad and Reuben. In the time of Jephtha, the Am¬
monites declared war againft the Ifraelites (Judg. xi.),
under pretence that they detained a great part of the
country which had formerly been theirs before the
Amorites poffelTed it. Jephtha declared, that as this
was an acquilition which the Ifraelites had made in a
juft .war, and what they had taken from the Amorites,
who had long enjoyed it by right of conqueft, he was
under no obligation to reftore it. I he Ammonites
were not Satisfied with this reafon \ wherefore Jephtha
gave them battle and defeated them, d he Ammonites
and Moabites generally united whenever there was any
defign fet afoot of attacking the Ifraelites. After
the death of Othniel {id. iii.), the Ammonites and
Amalekites joined with Eglon king of Moab to op-
prefs the Hebrews j whom they fubdued, and governed
for the fpace of 18 years, till they wer^ delivered by
Ehud the fon of Gera, who flew Eglon king of Moab.
Some time after this, the Ammonites made war againft
the Ifraelites, and greatly diftreffed them. But thefe
were at laft delivered by the hands of Jephtha j who
having attacked the Ammonites, made a very great
flaughter among them .(chap, xi.) In the beginning
of Saul’s reign (1 Sam. xL), Nahaih king of the Am¬
monites having fat down before Jabefti-gilead, reduced
the inhabitants to the extremity of demanding a capi¬
tulation. Nahafh anfwered, that he wmuld capitulate
with them upon no other conditions than their fub-
mitting to have every one his right eye plucked out,
that fo they might be made a reproach to Ifrael: but
Saul coming feafonably to the relief of Jabelh, deli¬
vered the city and people from the barbarity of the
king of the Ammonites. David had been the king of
Ammon's friend *, and after the death of this prince,
he fent ambaffadors to make his compliments of con¬
dolence to Hanun his fon and fucceJor j who, ima¬
gining that David’s ambaffadors were come as fpies to
obferve his ftrength, and the condition of his king¬
dom, treated them in a very injurious manner (2 Sam.
x. 4.) David revenged this indignity thrown upon
his ambaffadors, by fubduing the Ammonites, the
Moabites, and the Syrians their allies. Ammon mid
Moab continued under the obedience of the kings
David and Solomon •, and, after the feparation of the
ten tribes, were fubjeft to the kings of Ifrael till tue
2
death of Ahab in the year of the world 3107. Two Ammonites
years after the death of Ahab, Jehoram his fon, and v II
fucceffor of Ahaziah, defeated the Moabites (2 Kings [,n’li:unuu;
iii.) : but it does not appear that this viftory was fo
complete as to reduce them to his obedience. At the
fame time, the Ammonites, Moabites, and other peo¬
ple, made an irruption into the lands belonging to
Judah *, but were forced back and routed by Jehofha-
phat (2 Ch. xx. 1, 2.) Alter the tribes of Reuben,
Gad, and the half tribe of Manaffeh, were carried in¬
to captivity by Tiglath-pilnefex in the year 3264, the
Ammonites and Moabites took poffcftion of the cities
belonging to thefe tribes. Jeremiah (xlix. 1.) re¬
proaches them for it. The ambaffadors of the Ammo¬
nites were fome of thofe to whom this prophet (chap,
xxvii. 2-—4.) prefented the cup of the Lord’s fury, and
diredfed to make bonds and yokes for themfelves; ex¬
horting them to fubmit themfelves to Nebuchadnezzar,
and threatening them, if they did not, with captivity
and flavery. Ezekiel (xxv. 4.— ic.) denounces their
entire deftrudfion •, and tells them that God would
give them up to the people of the eaft, who ihould fet
their palaces in their c«ur.try, fo that there fhould be
no more mention of the Ammonites among the na¬
tions. It is believed that thefe misfortunes happened
to the Ammonites in the fifth year after the taking of
Jerufalem, when Nebuchadnezzar made war agarnft all
the people that dwelt upon the confines of Judea, in
the year of the world 3420.
It is alfo thought probable, that Cyrus gave the
Ammonites and Moabites the liberty of returning into
their own country, from whence they had been remov¬
ed by Nebuchadnezzar : for we fee them in the place
of their former fettlement, expofed to thofe revolu¬
tions which were common to the people of Syria and
Paleftine j fubjedl fometimes to the kings of Egypt,
and at other times to the kings of Syria. We are
told by Polybius, that Antiochus the Great took Rab-
both, or Philadelphia, their capital, demoliftied the
w^alls, and put a garriibn in it in 3806. During the
perfecutions of Antiochus Epiphanes, Jofephus informs,
that the Ammonites {bowed their hatred to the Jews,
and exercifed great cruelties againft fuch of them as
lived about their country. Juftin Martyr fays, That
in his time there were ftill many Ammonites remain¬
ing ; but Origen affures us, that when he was living
they were known only under the general name of
Arabians. Thus w^as the predidlion of Ezekiel (xxv.
10.) acc mplilhed j who faid that the Ammonites
fhould be deftroyed in fuch a manner as not to be re¬
membered among the nations.
AMMONITIS, m Ancient Geography, a country of
Arabia Petrsea, occupied by the children of Ammon,
whenpe the appellation. Its limits partly to the weft
and partly to the north were the river Jabbok, whefe
courfe is nowhere determined ) though Jofephus fays,
that it runs between Rabbath-Ammon, or Philadel¬
phia, and Gerafa, and falls into the Jordan.
AMMONIUS, fumamed Saccas, was born in
Alexandria, and flourifhed about the beginning of the
third century. He was one of the moft celebrated
philofophers of his age j and, adopting with alterations
the Eccle&ic philolophy, laid the foundations of that
feft which was diftinguiihed by the name of the New
Platonics. See Ecclectics and Platonism.
This
A M M
Ammonms. Tins leirned man was born of Chriftian parents, and
» " J educated in their religion •, the outward profedion of
which, it is faid, he never entirely deferted. As his
genius was vail and comprehenfive, fo were his projefts
bold and Angular : For he attempted a general coali¬
tion of all feels, whether philofophical or religious, by
framing a fyllem of dodlrines which he imagined cal¬
culated to unite them all, the ChrillianS not excepted,
in the moll perfedl harmony. In purfuance of this
defign, he maintained, that the great principles of all
philofophical and religious -truth were to be found
equally in all fedls j that they differed from each other
only in their method of exprelfmg them, and in fome
opinions of little or no importance *, and that, by a
proper interpretation of their refpeclive fentiments,
they might ealily be united into one body. Accord¬
ingly, all the Gentile religions, and even the Chiillian,
were to be ill nitrated and explained by the principles
of this univerfal philofophy *, and the fables of the
priefts were to bp removed from Paganifm, and the
comments and interpretations of the difciples of Jefus
from Chriilianity. In conformity to this plan, he in¬
filled, that all the religious fyllems of all nations fhould
be reilored to their original purity, and reduced to
their primitive itandard, viz. the ancient philolophy
of the call, preierved uncorrupted by Plato : and he
affirmed, that this projefl was agreeable to the inten¬
tions of Jefus Chrill •, whofe foie view in defeending
upon earth was to let bounds to the reigning fuper-
ilition, to remove the errors that had blended them-
felves with the religions of all nations, but not to abo-
lilh the ancient theology from which they were deri¬
ved. He therefore adopted the do6lrines which were
received in Egypt concerning the univerfe and the
Deity, confidered as conllituting one great whole ;
concerning the eternity of the world, the nature of
fouls, the empire of Providence, and the government
of the world by demons. He alfo eftablifhed a fyllem
of moral difeipline *, which allowed the people in ge¬
neral to live according to the laws of their country and
the dictates of nature ; but required the wife to exalt
their minds by contemplation, and to mortify the body,
lo that they might be capable of enjoying the prefence
and affillance of the demons, and of afeending after
death to the prefence of the Supreme Parent. In or¬
der to reconcile the popular religions, and particularly
the Chriilian, with this new fyllem, he made the whole
hittory of the Heathen gods an allegory •, maintaining
that they were only celellial minillers, entitled to an
inferior kind of worlhip. And he acknowledged that
Jefus Chrill was an excellent man, and the friend of
God ; but alleged that it was not his defign entirely
to abolifh the worlhip of demons, and that his only
intention^ was to purify the ancient religion. This fy-
ftem, fo plaulible in its firll rife, but fo comprehenfive
and complying in its progrefs, has been the fourcc of
innumerable errors and corruptions in the Chrillian
church. At its firlt eftablilhment it is faid to have
had the approbation of Athenagoras Pantfemis, and
Clemens the Alexandrian, and of all who had the care
of the public fchool belonging to the Chrillians at
Alexandria. It was afterwards adopted by Longinus
the celebrated author of the treatife on the Sublime,
Plotinus, Herennius, Origen, Porphyry, Jamblichus
the difciple of Porphyry, Sopater, Edifrus, Eultathius,
Voi/. II. Part I.
[ Hj 1
AMO
\ninntons.
Maximus of Ephefus, Prifcus, Chryfanthius the mailer Aimmim-
of Julian, Julian the Apollate, Hieroclis, Proclus, and tl^n
many others both Pagans and Chrillians.
The above opinions of Ammonias are collefled from 1
the writings and deputations of his difciples the mo¬
dern Platonics ; for he himfelf left nothing in writing
behind him 5 nay, he impofed a law upon his difciples
not to divulge his doflrines among the multitude 3
which injun&ion, however, they made no fcruple to
negleft and violate.
AMMUNITION, a general name for all warlike
provifions ; but more particularly powder, ball, &c.
Ammunition, arms, utenfils of war, gunpowder, im¬
ported without licenle from his majelly, are, by the
laws of England, forfeited, and triple the value. And
again, fuch licenfe obtained, except for furnilhing his
majelly’s public llores, is to be void, and the offender
to incur a premunire, and to be difabled to hold any
office from the crown.
Ammunition Bread, Shoes, &c. fuch as are ferved
out to the foidiers of an army or garrifon.
AMNESTY, in matters of policy, denotes a par¬
don granted by a prince to his rebellious fubjecls, ufu-
ally with fome exceptions : fuch was that granted by
Charles II. at his relloration.—The word is formed
from the Greek upnr'riot., the name of an edi£l of this
kind publiffied by Thrafybulus, on his expulfion of the
tyrants out of Athens.
AMNIOS, in Anatomy, a thin pellucid membrane
which furrounds the foetus in the womb. See Foe¬
tus.
AMOEB^EUM, in Ancient Poetry, a kind of poem
reprefenting a difpute between two perfons, who are
made to anfwer each other alternately 3 fuch are the
third and feventh of Virgil’s eclogues.
AMOL, a town of Afia, in the country of the Uf-
becks, 1’eated on the river Gihon. E. Long. 64. 30.
N. Lat. 39. 20.
AMOMUM, Ginger. See Botany
Amomum Vulgare. See Sium, Botany Index.
AMONTONS, William, an ingenious experimen¬
tal philofopber, the fon of a lawyer of Normandy, was
born at Paris in the year 1663. From his childhood he
laboured under the infirmity of extreme deafnefs, which
led him to amufe himfelf in the want of fociety, by ftudy-
ing geometry and mechanics. He learned defigning
and furveying, and was employed in many public works.
He prefented to the Academy of Sciences, in the year
1687, ah hygrometer upon a new conftrublion, which
was highly approved. In 1695, he publiihed, in French,
a treatife, entitled “ Obfervations on a new Hour-Glafs,
and Barometers, Thermometers, and Hygrometers.”
This work was dedicated to the Academy of Sciences,
of which he became a member in the year 1699.
Upon his admiffion, he read a paper on fri£tion, in
which a new theory upon that fubjeft is propofed : the
paper will be found in the memoirs of the academy.
He difeovered a method of conveying intelligence
fpeedily to a great dillance by means of fignals, from one
perfon to another, placed at as great a diftance as they
could be feen by means of telefcopes: he may therefore
be efteemed the inventor of the telegraph. This in¬
genious man, who was diftinguiihed for his ingenuity
in inventing, and his accuracy in executing experiments,
died in the year 1705. His pieces which are numerous,
T aud
AMO [ 146 ] A M O
Amoraeans and on various fubjecta, as air, fire, "barometers, pumps,
i &c. may be found in the volumes of the Memoirs of
* the Academy of Sciences. (Gen. Biog.)
—v— < A MORGANS, a fefl; or order of Gemaric doflors,
or commentators on the Jerufalem Talmud. The
Amorceans fuccceded the Mifchnic doftors. They
fubfifted 250 years ; and were fucceeded by the Se-
burseans.
AMORGOS, or Amurgus, in Ancient Geography,
now Morgo, not far from Naxus to the eaft, one of the
European Sporades j the country of Simonides the
iambic poet. To this illand criminals were banilhed.
It was famous for a fine flax called Emorgis.
AMORITES, a people defcended from Amor-
rhseus, according to the Septuagint and Vulgate 5 E-
morseus, according to other expofitors j Hsemori, ac¬
cording to the Hebrew ; or Emorite, according to our
verfion of the Bible ; who was the fourth fon of Ca¬
naan, Gen. x. 16.
The Amorites firft of all peopled the mountatins ly¬
ing to the weft of the Dead fea. They had likewife
eftablifliments to the eaft of the fame fea, between the
brooks of Jabbok and Arnon, from whence they for¬
ced the Ammonites and Moabites, Numb. xiii. 30. xvi.
29. Tolh. v. 1. and Judges xi. 19. 20. Mofes made a
conqueft of this country from their kings Sihon and
Og, in the year of the world 2 5 $3.
The prophet Amos (ii. 9.), fpeaking of the gigan¬
tic ftature and valour of the Amorites, compares their
height with that of cedars, and their ftrength with
that of an oak. The name Amor he is often taken in
Scripture for all Canaanites in general. The lands
which the Amorites poITeffed on this fide Jordan were
given to the tribe of Judah, and thofe which they had
enjoyed beyond this river were diftributed between the
tribes of Reuben and Gad.
AMORIUM, a town of Phrygia Major, near the
river Sangarius, on the borders of Galatia.—rlt was
taken from the Romans by the Saracens in 668 ; but
foon after retaken by the Romans. A war break¬
ing out again between thefe two nations in 837, the
Roman emperor Theophilus deftroyed Sozopetra the
birthplace of the caliph AP Motafem, notwithftand-
ing his earneft entreaties to him to fpare it. This fo
enraged the caliph, that he ordered every one to en¬
grave upon his fhield the word Amorium, the birth¬
place of Theophilus, wdiich he refolved at all events
to deftroy. Accordingly he laid fiege to the place, but
met with a vigorous refiftance. At length, after a fiege
of 55 days, it was betrayed by one of the inhabitants
who had abjured the Chriftian religion. The caliph,
exafperated at the lofs he had fuftained during the
fiege, put moft of the men to the fword, carried the
women and children into captivity, and levelled the ci¬
ty with the ground. His forces being diftrefled for
want of water on their return home, the Chriftian pri-
foners rofe upon fome of them, and murdered them ;
upon which the caliph put 6000 of the prifoners to
death. According to the eaftern hiftorians, 30,000 of
the inhabitants of Amorium were flain, and as many
-carried into captivity.
AMORPHA, False Indigo. See Botany In¬
dex.
AMORTIZATION, in Law, the alienation of
lands or tenements to a corporation or fraternity and Ahum,
their fucceflbrs. See Mortmain. w—y—.
AMOS, the fourth of the fmall prophets, who in
his youth had been a herdfman in Tekoa, a fmall town
about four leagues fouthward of Jerufalem, was lent
to the king of Balkan, that is, to the people of Sa¬
maria, or the kingdom of Ifrael, to bring them back
to repentance and an amendment of their lives 5 whence
it is thought probable that he was born within the ter¬
ritories of Ifrael, and only retired to Tekoa on his be¬
ing driven from Bethel, by Amaziah the prieft of the
golden calves at Bethel.
The prophet being thus retired to Tekoa, in the
kingdom of Judah, continued to prophefy. He com¬
plains in many places of the violence offered him, by
endeavouring to oblige him to fileiice. He boldly re-
monftrates againft the crying fins that prevailed among
the Ifraelites, as idolatry, oppreffion, wantonnefs, and
obftinacy. He likewife reproves thofe of Judah, fuch
as their carnal fecurity, fenfuality, and injuftice. He
terrifies them both with frequent threatenings, and
pronounces that their fins will at laft end in the ruin of
Judah and Ifrael, wdiich he illuftrates by the vilions of
a plumb-line and a balket of fummer-fruit. It is ob-
fervable in this prophecy, that as it begins wdth de¬
nunciation of judgment and deftruflion againft the Sy¬
rians, Philiftines, Tyrians, and other enemies of the
Jew s, fo it concludes wdth comfortable promifes of re-
ftoring the tabernacle of David, and eredling the king¬
dom of Chrift. Amos was chofen to the prophetic of¬
fice in the time of Uzziah king of Judah, and Jero¬
boam the fon of Joafti king of Ifrael, two years be¬
fore the earthquake (Amos i. 1.), which happened in
the 24th or 2 5th year of Uzziah, according to the
rabbins and moft of the modern commentators j or the
year of the world 3219, wdien this prince ufurped the
prieft’s office, and attempted to offer incenfe to the
Lord : but it is obferved, that this cannot be the cafe,
becaufe Jotham the fon of Uzziah, wTho was born in
3221, wTas of age to govern, and confequently was be¬
tween 15 and 20 years of age, w hen his father under¬
took to offer incenfe, and was ftruck with a leprofy.
The firft of the prophecies of Amos, in order of
time, are thofe of 7th chapter : the reft he pronoun¬
ced in the town of Tekoa, wffiither he retired. He
foretold the misfortunes which the kingdom of Ifrael
ffiould fall into after the death of Jeroboam II. who
wras then living; he foretold the death of Zecha-
riah, the invafion of the lands belonging to Ifrael
by Pul and Tiglath Pilnefer kings of Aflyria •, and
he fpeaks of the captivity of the ten tribes, and their
return.
The time and manner of this prophet’s death are
not known. Some old authors relate that Amaziah,
prieft of Bethel, provoked by the difeourfes of the
prophet, had his teeth broke, in order to filence him.
Others fay, that Hofea or Uzziah, the fon of Ama-
ziah, ftruck him with a flake upon the temples,
knocked him down, and wounded him much ; in
which condition he was carried to Tekoa, where he
died, and w^as buried with his fathers j but it is gene¬
rally thought that he prophefied a long time at Tekoa,
after the adventure which he had with Amaziah ; and
the prophet himfelf taking no notice of the ill treat¬
ment
AMO
Amoy ment which he is faid to have received, is an argument
ti that he did not fufFer in the manner they relate.
raus!'1 Jerome ohferves, that there is nothing great or
—.y—— fublime in the ftyle of Amos, He applies the words
of St Paul (2 Cor. vi. 6.) to him, ‘ rude in fpeech
though not in knowledge.’ And he farther obferves,
that he borrows his comparifons from the date and pro-
feilion to which he belonged.
AMOY, an illand in the province of Fokien, in
China, where the Englilh had a fa&ory : but they
have abandoned it on account of the impolitions of the
inhabitants. E. Long. 118. o. N. Lat. 24. 30. It
has a fine port, that will contain many thoufand vef-
lels. The emperor has a garrifon here of 7000 men.
AMPEL1S, the vine. See Vitis, Botany Index.
Ampelis, the Chatterer. See Ornithology In¬
dex.
AMPELITES, CANNEL-COAL, or CANDLE-COAL,
a hard, opaque, foffil, inflammable fubilance, of a black
colour. It does not effervefee with acids. The am-
pelites, though much inferior to jet in many refpecls,
is yet a very beautiful foffil j and, for a body of fo
compact a ftrufture, remarkably light. Examined
by the microfcope, it appears compofed of innumerable
very fmall and thin plates, laid clofely and firmly on
one another ; and full of very fmall fpecks of a blacker
and more finning matter than the reft, which is evi¬
dently a purer bitumen than the general mafs, Thefe
fpecks are equally diffufed^ver the different parts of
the maffes. There is a large quarry of it near Alen-
■<;on in France. It is dug in many parts of England,
but the finert is in Lancalhire and Cheftiire; it lies
ufually at confiderable depths. It makes a very brifk
fire, flaming violently for a fiiort time, and after that
continuing red and glowing hot a long while 5 and
finally is reduced into a fmall proportion of gray afhes,
the greater part of its fubftance having flown off in the
burning.—It is capable of a very high and elegant po-
lifh ; and in the countries where it is produced, is turn¬
ed into a vaft number of toys, as fnuff-boxes and the
like, which bear all the nicety of turning, and are made
to pafs for jet. Hufbandmen fmear their vines with
it, as it kills the vermine which infefts them. It is
likewife ufed for the dying of hair black. In medicine,
it is reputed good in colics, againft worms, and of being
in general an emollient and difeutient j but the pre-
fent pra&ice takes no notice of it.
AMPELUSIA, in Ancient Geography, a promontory
of Mauritania Tingitana, called Cottes by the natives,
which is of the fame fignification with a town of the
fame name not far from the river Lixus, near the ftraits
of Gibraltar 5 now Cape Spartel. W. Long. 6. 30.
Lat. 36. o.
AMPHERES, in Antiquity, a kind ofveffels where¬
in the rowers plied two oars at the fame time, one with
the right hand and another with the left.
AMPHIARAUS, in Pagan Mythology, a cele¬
brated prophet, who poffeffed part of the kingdom of
Argos. He was believed to excel in divining by
dreams, and is faid to be the firft who divined by fire.
Amphiaraus knowing, by the fpirit of prophecy, that
he fhould lofe his life in the war againft Thebes, hid
himfelf in order to avoid engaging in that expedition :
but his wife Eriphyje, being prevailed upon by apie-
fent, difeovered the place in which he had concealed
A M P
himfelf 5 fo that he vtas obliged to accompany the Ampliiar-
other princes who marched againft Thebes. This tlirofis.>
proved fatal to him ; for the earth being fplit afunder
by a thunderbolt, both he and his chariot were fwal-
lowed up in the opening. Amphiaraus, after' his
death, was ranked among the gods j temples were de¬
dicated to him ; and his oracle, as well as the fports
inftituted to his honour, were very famous.
AMPHIARTHROSIS, in Anatomy, a term for
fuch junctures of bones as have an evident motion,
but different from the diarthrofis, Stc. See JDiarthro-
sis.
AMPHIBIA, in Zoology, the name of Linnaeus’s
third clafs of animals ; including all thofe which live
partly in water and partly on land. This clafs he fub-
divides into four orders, viz. the amphibia reptiles $
the amphibia ferpentes -} the amphibia nantes 5 and the
amphibia meantes.
It has been a queftion whether the animals common¬
ly called amphibious, live t.ioft in the water or on land.
If we confider the words {utrinque, both ways),
and {yita, life), from which the term amphibious
is derived ; we fhouid underftand, that animals, having
this title, flrould be capable of living as well by land,
or in the air, as by water 5 or of dwelling in either con-
ftantly at will : but it will be difficult to find any ani¬
mal that can fulfil this definition, as being equally qua¬
lified for either. An ingenious naturalift *, therefore, * Dr Par-
from confidering their economy refpefrively, divides/^; in a
them into two orders, viz. 1. Such as enjoy their chief l'aPer rea<*
functions by land, but occafionally go into the water.
2. Such as chiefly inhabit the water, but occafionally ciety.
go afhore. What he advances on this fubjeft is curious,
and well illuftrates the nature of this clafs.
I. Of the firft order, he particularly confiders the
phocae ; and endeavours to Ihow, that none of them can
live chiefly in the rvater, but that their chief enjoy¬
ment of the funftions of life is on ihore.
Thefe animals (he obierves) are really quadrupedsj
but, as their chief food is fifh, they are under a ne-
ceflity of going out to fea to hunt their prey, and to
great diftances from fhore j taking cate that, however
great the diftance, rocks or fmall ifiands are at hand,
as refting places when they are tired, or when their
bodies become too much macerated in the water ; and
they return to the places of their ufual refort to fieep,
copulate, and bring forth their young, for the follow¬
ing reafons, viz. It is w^ell known, that the only effen-
tial difference (as to the general ftru&ure of the heart.)
between amphibious and mere land animals, or fuch as
never go into the water, is, that in the former the oval
hole remains always open. Now, in fuch as are with¬
out this hole, if they were to be immerled in water for
but a little time, refpiration would ceafe, and the ani¬
mal muft die ; becaufe a great part of the mafs of blood
pafles from the heart by the pulmonary artery through
the lungs, and by the pulmonary veins returns to the
heart, w'hile the aorta is carrying the greater part of
the mafs to the head and extremities, &c.
Now, the blood paffes through the lungs in a con¬
tinual uninterrupted ftream, while refpiration is gentle
and moderate : but when it is violent, then the circu¬
lation is interrupted, for infpiration and exfpiration are
now carried to their extent ^ and in this ftate the blood
cannot pafs through the lungs either during the total
T 2 infpiration
t >47 ]
AMP [ 148 ]
AMP
Amphibia, infpiration or total exfpiration of the air in breathing :
5     for, in the forrner cafe, the inflation compxelfes the re¬
turning veins ; and in the latter, by the collapfion of
the lungs,, thefe veins are interrupted alfo •, fo that it is
only between thefe two violent adfions that the blood
can pafs : and hence it is, that the lives of animals are
fhortened, and their health impaired, when they are
fubjecled to frequent violent refpiration j and thus it is,
that when animals have once breathed, they mull con¬
tinue to refpire ever after, for life is at an end when
that ceafes.
There are three neceflary and principal ufes of refpi¬
ration in all land animals, and in thofe kinds that are
counted amphibious. The firft is that of promoting
the circulation of the blood through the whole body
and extremities. In real fillies, the force of the heart
is alone capable of fending the blood to every part, as
they are not furnilhed with limbs or extremities j but
in the others mentioned, being all furnilhed with ex¬
tremities, refpiration is an Alfiftant force to the arte¬
ries in fending blood to the extremities ; which, being
io remote from the heart, have need of fuch afliftance,
otherwife the circulation would be very languid in thefe
parts : thus we fee, that in perfons fubjedt to althmatic
complaints, the circulation grows languid, the legs
grow cold and (Edematous, and other parts fuffer by
the defedt in refpiration.—A fecond ufe of breathing
is, that in refpiration, the variety of particles, of dif¬
ferent qualities, which float always in the air, might
be drawn into the lungs, to be inlinuated into the mafs
of blood, being highly neceffary to contemperate and
cool the agitated mafs, and to contribute refined pa¬
bulum to the finer parts of it, which, meeting with
the daily fupply of chyle, ferves to aflimilate and more
intimately mix the mafs, and render its conftitution the
fitter for fupporting the life of the animal. Therefore
it is, that valetudinarians, by changing foul or un-
wholefome air for a free, good, open air, often recover
from lingering difeafes.—A third principal ufe of re¬
fpiration is, to promote the exhibition of voice in ani¬
mals : which all thofe that live on the land do accord¬
ing to their fpecific natures.
From thefe confiderations it appears, that the phocae
of every kind are under an ablolute neceffity of ma¬
king the land their principal refidence. But there is
another very convincing argument why they refide on
Ihore the greatelh part of their time : namely, that the
flefh of thefe creatures is analogous to that of other land
animals ^ and therefore, by over long maceration, ad¬
ded to the fatigue of their chafing their prey, they
would fuffer fuch a relaxation as would deftroy them.
It is well known, that animals which have lain long
under water are reduced to a very lax and even putrid
ilate ; and the phoca muft balk in the air on fhore : for
while the folids are at reft, they acquire their former
degree of tenfion, and the vigour of the animal is re-
ftored : and while he has an uninterrupted placid refpi¬
ration, his blood is refreshed by the newr fupply of air,
as explained above, and he is rendered fit for his next
cruife : for action waftes the moft exalted fluids of the
body, more or lefs, according to its duration and vio¬
lence 5 and the reftorative reft murt continue a longer
or fhorter time, according to the quantity of the pre¬
vious fatigue.
Let us now examine by what power thefe animals
are capable of remaining longer underwater than land Amphibia,
animals. "v
All thefe have the oval hole open between the right
and left auricles of the heart ; and, in many, the cana-
lis arteriofus alfo : and while the phoca remains under
water, which he may continue an hour or two more or
lefs, his reipiration is flopped ; and the blood, not
finding the paflage through the pulmonary artery free,
rufties through the hole from the right to the left au¬
ricle, and partly through the arterial canal, being a
Ihort paffage to the aorta, and thence to every part of
the body, maintaining the circulation : but, upon rifing
to come aftiore, the blood finds its pafiage again
through the lungs the moment he refpires.
Thus the'foetus in utero, during its confinement,
having the lungs comprefled, and confequently the pul¬
monary arteries and veins impervious, has the circula¬
tion of the blood carried on through the oval hole and
the arterial canal. Nowt, fo far the phoca in the water,
and the fcetus in utero, are analogous j but they differ
in other material circumffances. One is, that the foetus
having never refpired, remains iufticiently uourifhed
by the maternal blood circulating through him, and
continues to grow till the time of his birth, without
any want of reipiration during nine months confine-,
ment : the phoca, having refpired the moment of his
birth, cannot live very long without it, for the reafonS
given before j and this hole and canal would be doled
in them, as it is in land animals, if the dam did not,
foon after the birth of the cub, carry him fo very fre¬
quently into the water to teach him ; by which prac¬
tice thefe paffages are kept open during life, otherwife
they would not be capable of attaining the food de«
figned for them by Providence.
Another difference is, that the phoca, as was faid be¬
fore, -would be relaxed by maceration :n remaining too
long in the water •, whereas the foetus in utero fuffers
no injury from continuing its full number of months
in the fluid it fwims in: the reafon is, that water is a
powerful folvent, and penetrates the pores of the fkins
of land animals, and in time can diffolve them; where¬
as the liquor amnii is an inlipid foft fluid, impregnated
w ith particles more or lefs mucilaginous, and utterly
incapable of making the leaft alteration in the cutis of
the fcetus.
Otters, beavers, and fome kinds of rats, go occafion-
ally into the water for their prey, but cannot remain
very long under water. “ I have often gone to fhoot
otters (fays our author), and W'atched all their mo¬
tions ; I have feen one of them go foftly from a bank
into the river, and dive down ; and in about two mi¬
nutes rife at 10 01-15 yards from the place he went
in, with a middling falmon in his mouth, which he
brought on Ihore : I fliot him, and laved the fifh
whole.” Now as all foctufes have thefe paffages open,
if a whelp of a true water fpaniel v-as* immediately af¬
ter its birth, ferved as the phoca does her cubs, and
immerfed in water, to flop reipiration for a little time
every day, it is probable that the hole and canal would
be kept open, and the dog be made capable of remain¬
ing as long under w7ater as the phoca.
Frogs, how capable foever of remaining in the wa¬
ter, yet cannot avoid living on land, for they refpire ;
and if a frog be thrown into a river, he makes to the
Ihore as fail as he can.
The-
A M P [ 149 ] A M 1*
Amphibia. The lizard kind, inch as may be called water-liz-
^ v ards (fee Lacerta), are all obliged to come to land,
in ordej: to depofite their eggs, to reft, and to fleep.
Even the crocodiles, who dwell much in rivers, bleep
and lay their eggs on ftiore ; and, while in the water
are compelled to rife to the furface to breathe 5 yet,
from the texture of his fealy. covering, he is capable of
remaining in the w’ater longer by far than any ipecies
of the phoca, whofe fkin is analogous to that of a horfe
or cow.
The hippopotamus, who wades into the lakes or
livers, is a quadruped, and remains under the water a.
confiderable time *, yet his chief refidence is upon land,
and he muft come on fhore for refpiration.
The teftudo, or fea-tortoife, though he goes out to
fea and is often found far from land j yet being a re-
fpiring animal, cannot ren\ain long under water. He
has indeed a powrer of rendering himfelf fpecifically
heavier or lighter than the wrater, and therefore can
let himfelf down to avoid an enemy or a ftorm : yet
he is under a neceftity of riling frequently to breathe,
for reafons given before ; and his molt ulual fttuation,
while at fea, is upon the furface of the water, feeding
upon the various fubftances that float in great abun¬
dance everywhere about him ; thefe animals fleep fe-
curely upon the furface, but not under water", and
can remain longer at fea than any other of this clafs,
except the crocodile, becaufe as it is with the latter,
his covering is not in danger of being too much mace¬
rated ; yet they muft go on fhore to copulate and lay
their eggs.
2. The conftderation of thefe is fuflicient to inform
us of the nature of the firft order of the clafs of amphi¬
bious animals ", let us now fee what is to be faid of the
fecond in our divifion of them, which are fuch as chiefly
inhabit the waters, but occafionally go on ftiore;
Thefe are but of two kinds : the eels, and water fer-
pents or fnakes of every kind. It is their form that
qualifies them for loco-rnotion on land, and they know
their wray back to the water at will; for by their ftruc-
ture they have a ftrong periftaltic motion, by which
they can go forward at a pretty good rate : whereas all
other kinds of fifh, whether vertical or horizontal, are
incapable of a voluntary loco-motion on fhore ; and
therefore, as foon as fuch fifh are brought out of the
water, after having'flounced a while, they lie motion-
lefs and foon die.
Let us now examine into the reafon why thefe ver¬
micular fifh, the eel and ferpent kinds, can live a confi¬
derable time on land, and the vertical and horizontal
kinds die almoft immediately when taken out of the
water : and, in this refearch, we fhall come to know
what analogy there is between land animals and thofe
of the waters. All land animals have lungs, and can
live no longer than while thefe are inflated by the am¬
bient air, and'alternately comprefled for its expulfion ;
that is, while refpiration is duly carried on, by a regu¬
lar infpiration and exfpiration of air.
In like manner, the fifh in general have, inftead of
lungs, gills or branchiae : and as in land animals the
lungs have a large portion of the mafs of blood .circu¬
lating through them, which muft be flopped if the air
has not a free ingrefs and egrefs into and from them ;
ho, in fifh, there is a great number of blood vefiels that
pafs through the branchiae, and a great portion of their
blood circulates through them, which muft in like man- Amplubiu.
ner be totally flopped, if the branchiae are not perpe-L,~ v
tually wet with water. So that, as the air is to the lungs
in land animals a conftant afliftant to.the circulation ;
fo is the water to the branchiae of thofe of the rivers
and feas : for when thefe are out of the water, the bran~_
chise very foon grow crifp and dry, the blood vefiels are
fhrunk, and the blood is obftrudred in its paffage ; fo,
when the former are immerfed in water, or otherwiie
prevented from having refpiration, the circulation ceafes,
and the animal dies.
Again, as land animals would be deftroyed by too
much maceration in water; fo fifties would, on the other
hand, be ruined by too much cxficcation : the latter
being, from their general flrutlure and conlfitution,
made fit to bear, and live in, the water ; the former,
by their conftitution and form, to breathe and dwell in
the air.
But it may be afked, Why eels and vrater fnakes are
capable of living longer in the air than the other kinds
of fifh ? This is anfwered, by confidering the providen¬
tial care of the great Creator far thefe and every one
of his creatures : for fince they were capable of loco¬
motion by their form, which they need not be if they
w7ere never to go on fhore, it feemed neceffary that they
fhould be rendered capable of living a confiderable time
on fhore, otherwife their loco-motion would be in.vain.
Howr is this provided* for ? Why, in a mod: convenient
manner ; for this order of fifties have their branchiae
W'ell covered from the external drying air ; they are alfo
furnifhed with a flimy mucus, which hinders their be¬
coming crifp and dry for many hours ; and their very
fkins always emit a mucous liquor, which keeps them
fupple and moiil for a long time : whereas the branchiae
of other kinds of fifh are much expofed to the air, and
want the flimy matter to keep them moift. Now, if
any of thefe, when brought out of the water, were laid
in a veflel without water, they might be preferved alive
a confiderable time, by only keeping th$ gills and fur¬
face of the fkin conftantly tvet, even without any water
to fwim in.
It has been advanced, that man may, by art, be ren¬
dered amphibious, and able to live under ryater as well
as frogs. As the foetus lives in utero without air, and
the circulation is there continued by means of the fora¬
men ovale ; by preferving the paffage open, and the
other parts in Jlatu quo, after the birthr the fame facul¬
ty would ftill continue. Now, the foramen, it is al¬
leged, would be preferved in its open ftate, were peo¬
ple accuftomed, from their infancy, to hold their breath
a confiderable time once a-day, that the blood might
be forced to refume its priftine paffage, and prevent its
drying up as it ufually does. This conjedlure feems,
in fome meafure, fupported by the practice of divers,
who are taught from their childhood to hold their
breath, and keep long under water, by which means the
ancient channel is kept open.—A Calabrian monk-at
Madrid laid claim to this amphibious capacity, making
an offer to the king of Spain, to continue twice twen- '
ty-four hours under water, without ever coming up to
take breath. Kircher gives an account of a Sicilian,
named theyf/Z> Colas, who by a long habitude from his
youth, had fo accuftomed himfelf to live in water, that
his nature feemed to be quite altered ; fo that he lived-
rather after the manner of a filh than a man.
AIV'IPHIBGLE..
AMP r i
Ampnibole AMPPIIBOLE. Se^ Mineralogy Index.
Amphiifly- AMPHIBOLOGY, in Grammar and Rhetoric, a
ons. term ufed to denote a phrafe fufceptible of two differ-
-y-—j ent interpretations. Amphibology arifes from the or¬
der of the phrafe, rather than from the ambiguous
meaning of a word.
Of this kind was that anfwer which Pyrrhus received
from the oracle: siio te, JEacida, Romanos vincere f>of~
fe; where the amphibology confifts in this, that the
vyords te and Romanos, may either of them precede, or
either of them follow^, the words pojfe vincere, indiffer'
-ently. See Oracle.
I he Englilh language ufually fpeaks In a more na¬
tural manner, and is not capable of any amphibologies
of this kind : nor is it fo liable to amphibologies in
the articles, as the French and molt other modern
tongues,
AMPHIBRACHYS, in Greek and Latin Poetry,
the name of a foot confiding of three fyllables, where¬
of that in the middle is long, and the other two Ihort 5
fuch are the words [abne, amare.]
AMPHICOME, in Natural Hi/lory, a kind of fi¬
gured ftone, of a round fliape, but rugged, and befet
with eminences, celebrated on account of its ufe in di¬
vination. The word is originally Greek,
q. d. utrinque comata, or “ hairy on all fides.” This
ilone is alfo called Erotylos, Egdlvhos, udmatoria, pro¬
bably on account of its fuppofed power of creating
love. The amphicome is mentioned by Democritus
and Pliny. Mercatus takes it for the fame with »he
lapis lumbricatus, of which he gives a figure.
AMPHICTYONS, in Grecian Antiquity, an affem-
bly compofed of deputies from the different dates of
Greece j and refembling, in fome meafure, the diet of
the German empire. Some fuppofe the word AptpiKUon?
to be formed of ctpQi, “ about,” and d\mv or in
regard the inhabitants of the country round about met
here in council: others, with more probability, from
Amphidtyon, fon of Deucalion, whom they fuppofe to
have been the founder of this aflemblyj though others
will have Acrifius, king of the Argives, to have been
the fird who gave a form and laws to it.
Authors give different accounts of the number of the
Amphictyons, as well as of the dates who were en¬
titled to have their reprefentatives in this council. Ac¬
cording to Strabo, Harpocration, and Suidas, they
were twelve from their fird inditution, lent by the fol¬
lowing cities and dates; the lonians, Dorians, Per-
rhaebians, Boeotians, Magnefians, Achaeans, Pbthians,
Melians, Dolopians, iEnianians, Delphians, and Pho-
cians. Alfchines reckons no more than eleven: indead
of the Achteans, /Enianians, Delphians, and Dolo¬
pians, he only gives the Theffalians, Oetians, and
Locrians. Ladly, Paufanias’s lid contains only ten
viz. the lonians, Dolopians, Theffalians, iEnianians,
Magnefians, Melians, Phthians, Dorians, Phoeians, and
Locrians.
In the time of Philip of Macedon, the Phocians
were excluded the alliance, for having plundered the
Delphian temple, and the Lacedaemonians were ad¬
mitted in their place ^ but the Phocians, 60 years af¬
ter, having behaved gallantly againd Brennus and his
Gauls, were redored to their feat in the Amphhffyonic
council, finder Augudus, the city Nicopolis was ad¬
mitted into the body j and to make room for it, the
2
5° ] AMP
Magnefians, Melians, Phthians, and /Enianians, who Aiaphiifly-
till then had dirtimff voices, were ordered to be num- W!S
bered with the 1 heffalians, and to have only one com- . ^ ,
raon representative. Strabo fpeaks as it this council
were extindt in the times of Auguilus and Tiberius : v■ ■ v- j
bmy Paufauias, who lived many years after, under An¬
toninus Pius, affures us it remained entire in his time,
and that the number of Amphictyons was then 30.
The members were of two kinds. Each city fent
two deputies, under difierent denominations j one called
'l^tupvpoy, whofe bufinefs feems to have been more im¬
mediately to infpett what related to facrifices and cere¬
monies of religion; the other, charged with
hearing and deciding of caufes and differences between
private perfons. Both had an equal right to delibe¬
rate and vote, in all that related to the common inte-
rells of Greece. The hieromnemon was defied by lot,
the pylagoras by plurality of voices.
Though the Amphhffyons were firft infiituted at
1 hermopylae, M. de Valois maintains, that their firft
place of refider.ee was at Delphi 5 where, for fome ages,
the tranquillity of the times found them no other em¬
ployment than that of being, if we may fo call it,
church-wardens of the temple of Apollo. In after¬
times, the approach of armies frequently drove them to
Thermopylae, where they took their ftation, to be near¬
er at hand to oppofe the enemies progrefs, and order
timely fuccour to the cities in danger. Their ordinary
refidence, however, was at Delphi.
Here they decided all public differences and difputes
between any of the cities of Greece; but before they
entered on bufinefs, they jointly facrificed an ox cut in¬
to fmall pieces, as a fymbol of their union. Their de¬
terminations were received with the greateft veneration,
and even held facred and inviolable.
The Amphictyons, at their admiffion, took a folemn
oath never to divefl any city of its right of deputa¬
tion $ never to avert its running waters j and if any at¬
tempts of this kind were made by others, to make mor¬
tal war againft them: more particularly, in cafe of any
attempt to rob the temple of any of its ornaments, that
they would employ hands, feet, tongue, their whole
power, to revenge it—This oath was backed with ter¬
rible imprecations againft: fuch as ftiould violate it* e.g.
May they meet all the vengeance of Apollo, Diana,
Minerva, &c. their foil produce no fruit, their wives
bring forth nothing but monfters, See.
1 he ftated terms of their meeting were in fpring and
autumn : the fpring meeting was called nvAan*,
that in antumn Ms7o5ra>g*nj. On extraordinary occafions,
however, they met at any time of the year, or even con¬
tinued fitting all the year round.
Philip of Macedon ufurped the right of prefiding in
the affembiy of the Amphictyons, and of firft confuting
the oracle which was called
AMPHIDROMIA, a feaft celebrated by the an¬
cients on the fifth day after the birth of a child.
AMPHIDRYON, in Ecc/eliajlical Writers, denotes
the veil or curtain which was drawn before the door of
the lema in ancient churches.
AMPHILOCHiA, in Ancient Geography, the ter¬
ritory of the city of Argos in Acarnania •, Ampkiio-
chium, (Thucydides) * called Amphilochi (from the
people), in the lower age, (Stephanas.) A town alfo
of Spain, in Galicia, built by Teucer, and denomi¬
nated
AMP
Arnphilo. nated from Amphilochus one of his companions, (Stra-
dnus bo^; now Orenfe. W. Long. 8. 20. Lat. 42. 36.
Amphif- AMPHILOCHIUS, bithop of Iconiura, in the
bsena. fourth century, was the friend of St Gregory Nazian-
—Y—zen and St Bahl. lie affifted at the firll; general coun¬
cil of Conflantinople in 3815 prefided at the council of
Sidae; and was a ibrenuous oppofer of the Arians. He
died in 394 ; and his works were publifhed in Greek
and Latin at Paris 1644, by Francis Combefis.
AMPHILOCHUS, fon of Amphiaraus and Eri-
phyle, was a celebrated diviner. He had an altar erect¬
ed to him at Athens, and an oracle at Mallus in Ci¬
licia, which city was founded by him and Mopfus.
The anfwers of this oracle were given by dreajns 5 the
party inquiring ufed to pafs a night in the temple, and
that night’s dream was the anfwer. Dion Cahius men¬
tions a pidlure done by order of Sextus Condianus, re-
prefenting the anfwer he received of the oracle, in the
reign of the emperor Commodus.
AMPHIMACER, in Ancient Poetry, a foot con¬
fiding of three fyllables, whereof the firft and lad are
long, and that in the middle ihort; fuch is the word
[caditas.J
AMPHION, fon of Jupiter and Antiope ; who, ac¬
cording to the poets, made the rocks follow his mufie;-
and at his harp the Hones of Thebes danced into walls
and a regular city.
AMPHIPOLES, in Antiquity, the principal ma-
gidrates of Syracufe. They were edabiidied by Ti-
moleon in the 109th Olympiad, after the expulfion of
the tyrant Dionyfius. They governed Syracufe for the
fpace of 300 years: and Diodorus Siculus allures us,
that they lubfided in his time.
AMPHIPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, a city of
Macedonia, an Athenian colony, on the Strymon, but
on which fide is not certain: Pliny places it in
Macedonia, on this fide ; but Scylax, in Thrace, on
the other. The name of the town, Amphipolis, how¬
ever, feems to reconcile their diffeience ; becaufe, as
Thucydides obferves, it was wafhed on two fides by
the Strymon, which dividing itfelf into two channels,
the city dood in the middle, and on the fide towards
the fea there was a wall built from channel to channel.
Its ancient name was Ema eda, the Nine ways (Thu¬
cydides, Herodotus.) The citizens were called Arn-
phipolitani, (Livy). It was afterwards called Cri/io-
polis; now Cbrifopoli, or Chifopoli, (Holdenius.)
Amphipolis, in Ancient Geography, a town of Sy¬
ria, on the Euplnates, built by Seleucus, called by the
Syrians Turrneda, (Stephanus): the fame with Thap-
facus, (Pliny); and fuppofed to have been only renew¬
ed and adorned by Seleucus, becaufe long famous be¬
fore his time, (Xenophon.)
AMPHIPPII, in Grecian Antiquity, foldiers who,
in war, ufed two horfes without faddles, and were dex¬
terous enough to leap from one to the other.
AMPHIPRORfE, in the naval affairs of the an¬
cients, vedels wdth a prow at each end. They were
ufed chiefly in rapid rivers and narrow channels, where
it was not eafy to tack about.
AMPHIPROS l’\ LE, in the architecture of the
ancients, a temple which had four columns in the front,
and as many in the afpedd behind.
AMPHISBiENA. See Ophiology Index.
A M P
Amphisbjsna Aquatica. See Gordius, Helmin- Amphif-
THOLOGY Index. baena
AMPHISCII, among Geographers, a name applied
to the people who inhabit the torrid zone. The Am- theatre,
phifeii, as the word imports, have their diadows one
part of the year towards the north, and the other to¬
wards the fouth, according to the fun’s place in the
ecliptic. They are alfo called Afcii. See Ascii.
AMPHISSA, in Ancient Geography, the capital of
the Locri Oxolse, 120 dadia (or 15 miles) to the w-ed
of Delphi, (Paufanias.) So called, becaufe furround-
ed on all fides by mountains, (Stephanus.) Hence
Aniphiffiei, the inhabitants j wrho plundered the tem¬
ple' at Delphi (Demodhenes.)—Alfo a town of Mag¬
na Graecia, at the mouth of the Sagra, on tlm coad
of the Farther Calabria, fituated between Locri and
Caulona 5 now called Rocelia. AmphiJJius the epithet,
(Ovid.)
AMPHITHEATRE, in Ancient ArchiteBure, a
building of an elliptic form, of two or more dories of open
arcades, with a number of interior galleries and arched
paffages, which ferved both as a communication and fup-
port to feveral rows of feats which’ rofe above each other,
and were arranged round a large fpace called the arena.
The derivation of the wTord amphitheatre, indicates that
it is a place where the fpeftators, circuitoully arranged,
faw the performance equally well on all fides.
The hidory of amphitheatres is of confiderable im¬
portance, in confequence of its connexion with ancient
manners. Thefe druftures owed their origin to the
barbarity of the ancients, and their ruin to the huma¬
nity of the moderns. They are the produftion of
Pi.oman invention in the lad ages of the republic. The
ferocious difpofition of the Romans was immoderately
fond of every fpecies of amufement; but efpec.’ally
that which was of a bloody and horrible nature. The
political rulers improved this general feature in the
Roman charaider, to roufe and foder that martial fpi-
rit which rendered them maders of the wmrld. Af¬
ter the Samnite war had extended the Roman feeptre
over Etruria and the whole peninfula of Italy, the
fird gladiatory conflifts were exhibited in Rome in the
year of the city 490. Lucius Metellus brought into
the circus the elephants which were part of the fpoil of
the Carthaginians, in the year 502, and this proved
the introduflion of wild beads into the fpedlacles of
Rome. This addition was equally agreeable to the
Roman tade ; and thofe who courted the popular fa •
vour, vied with each other in entertaining the people
in this barbarous manner. This foon gave birth to a
profeflion of men denominated gladiators, w ho were
trained to the combat, and for reward flaughtered one
another in the forum, whild every devouring animal
which the wilds of Afia or Africa produced, added to
the horrid feene.
In the days of Pompey and Caefar thefe barbarous
amufements were given with an ador.iflring profufion.
In thefe games given by Pompey, the elephants at¬
tempted to break dowm the barrier between them and
the people, and the fituation of the circus prevented
the people from feeing equally well : this induced Cae¬
far to alter the original form, and condruft edifices
wdrere the populace might be entertained wdthout
danger or interruption. Amphitheatres were fuited
to
f ij'i ]
Arliphi-
'heatre.
AMP [ i
to tins pufpofe'; therefore they were adopted, and be-
, came the common place for the exhibitions both of
gladiators and wild beads.
It is fuppofed, that the firfl amphitheatre was com-
pofed of thofe lingular machines, formed by Gains
Curio •, for the games which Caefar prefented among
the funeral honours of his father. In a femicircular
form Gains made two large theatres* and oppofed their
backs to each other : and, having amufed the people
in thefe the’one half of the day, then they wheeled
round, forming one fpaclous theatre where the gladi-*
ators contended during the remainder of the day.
Pliny is the only one who makes mention of this amphi¬
theatre 5 and from his account it is difficult to afcertain
whether this was the firlt idea of an amphitheatre, or
Whether the previous fight of one had fuggefted this
huge and wonderful ftru&ure. It is reported, that
Julius C^far, a few years after, formed a hunting thea¬
tre of wood j and, in confequence of the circular po-
fition of the feats, it obtained the name of an amphi¬
theatre. This appears to have been of very fuperior
kind and in great eftimation.
In the reign of Augullus, Statilius Taurus ere£ted
one of Hone, but it feems to have been feldom ufed $
and, from its being confumed by fire in the time of
Nero, it is evident that it was not wholly of Hone.
Thefe wooden buildings appear to have been tempo¬
rary, and a few of them permanent from the embellilh-
ment conferred upon them. The politic fpirit of
Auguftus induced him to ereft feveral of thefe, and
Caligula began one, which he left unfinilhed. Nero
formed a large and fpacious one, which is faid to have
been a year in building. Herod of Judea ereffed am¬
phitheatres both in Jerufalem and in Caefarea. Du¬
ring.the reign of Tiberius, one was built at Fidenae,
which Tacitus informs us fell while the games were
performing, and flew or hurt about 50,000 perfons.
There was another at Placentia, reported to have been
the moft fpacious in Italy •, but it was deftroyed by fire
in the conteft between Vitellius and Otho.
The unfortunate accidents, which happened to
thefe wooden buildings, led the public to conftrucf
others of a more durable and ftronger nature,
where the crowd might be entertained without dan¬
ger. This honour was referved to Vefpafian and
Titus. In his eighth confulate, the former began
the Flavian amphitheatre, which the latter finiffied
during his reign. It is faid, that the expence of this
building would have eredfed a capital city, and it is
defervedly efteemed one of the moft celebrated edi¬
fices of ancient times. Dio fays, that 9000 wild beafts
were deftroyed at the dedication of this huge building,
but Eutropius reflridfs their number to 500b. After
the hunting of thefe ferocious animals w^as ended,
inllantly the arena was filled with water, and fea ani¬
mals were made to contend, and a fea-fight exhibited.
This immenfe building obtained the appellation of the
Colifeum. See Plate XX. figi 1.
This amphitheatre became the model of other
amphitheatres throughout the empire. Compared
with the original model, thefe were merely natural val¬
leys, with feats formed in the furrounding heights fi-
milar to the amphitheatre at Corinth. On the decli¬
vity of two hills feats of ftone were fometimes placed,
and the extremes formed by regular works of ftone.
1
A ni of.
theatre
52 ] AMP
Of this kind was that of Gortyna in Candia. One in
the vicinity of Sandwich in Kent had its benches form¬
ed of turf } and fimilar muft have been thofe amphi-
theatres, which w ere formed along with the camps and
military ftations of the Roman foldiers.
When Chriftianity became the religion of. the em.
pire, it meliorated the difpofitions of the Romans, and ‘
induced them to lay afide this barbarous cuftom.
Conftantine the Great terminated the gladiatory com¬
bats in the eait during his reign 5 but they were not
finally aboliffied at Rome until the beginning of the
fifth century, in the reign of Honorius. The combats
of wild beafts continued, however, fome time longer 5
but during the progrefs of the fifth century thefe gra¬
dually declined, until they were finally aboliffied, and
the amphitheatres w^ere abandoned >to the ravages of
time and accident. During the middle ages they were
fometimes employed for judicial conffidts, tilts, and
tournaments j but thefe pradfices having been difcon-
tinued, the amphitheatres experienced univerfal negledt
and ruin.
It it very difficult to give an accurate defcription ofConftruc
an amphitheatre. It is fcarcely poffible to give a cleartian*
idea of the maimer in which fuch immenfe crowds of
people were feated and arranged, and how they had a
convenient entrance and a returning. It has already
been mentioned, that thefe buildings w^ere circuitous,
and that the exterior circuit was compofed of two or
more ftories of arcades •, and it may now be added, that
the number of thefe ftories varied according to the nature
of the building. A correfponding number of arched
paflages and itaircafes opened upon the ground floor
towards thefe ftories in the direftion of radii towards
the arena. Thefe communications w7ere again interfecled
by arched palfages which encircled the whole ftruc-
ture, and afforded an uninterrupted entrance to every
part of the amphitheatre. Sometimes an intermedi¬
ate gallery furrounded the whole in the centre of the
fabric, and ferved as a common place of refort to all
the ft airs which led to the higher galleries. This was
the form of one at Nifmes. Sometimes each ftaircafe
had its diftinft communication by itfelf. Such was the
cafe with one at Verona. See Plate XX. fig. 2.
The four radiating entries on the diameter wTere
ufually more capacious j and by the two principal of
thefe the emperor, the fenate, and other perfons of
diftimftion, w^ere conduced to their feats on a place
which was called the podium. The other two led to
the arena, and by thefe the gladiators and beafts made
their entrance. The various ranks of the people paf-
fed by to the ftaircafes, which led to th. ir refpe&ive
feats. The doors which opened from the ftaircafes
were called •vomitories, and varied in magnitude, ac¬
cording to the extent of the amphitheatre, and the
number of exterior arches. The number of feats be¬
tween the feveral vomitories was unequal, and feems
to have been fubjeft to no pofitive regulation. Thefe
benches were about one foot and eight inches in height,
and about two feet four inches in breadth. A plat¬
form four feet eight inches broad was formed of one
of thefe benches, which ferved as a circular communi¬
cation to the whole building. Thefe obtained the
name of pretin&ions, and the boundaries on the fide
were called belts. The latter were furmounted by
balluftrades, to protect the perfons from falling who
occupied
AMP [ i53 ] A M P
Amphi- occupied the benches in the vicinity. The podium
theatre. was moi-e fpacious than the precinftions, and was a
“11L" v platform encircling the arena. From one precindtion
to the belt of another, a flight of flairs two feet fix
inches in breadth defcended oppofite to every vomi¬
tory. Small canals were cut in the tops of the benches,
by which the rain and urine were conducted from
bench to bench, until they reached the inftruments
prepared to convey them to the drains below. Thefe
flairs radiated from the higheft bench to the podium ;
fo that, with the preemptions, they feparated the whole
cavity into wedge-like divifions, which the people oc¬
cupied according to their rank.
The amphitheatre called the Colifeum, was of an
elliptical form, whofe longeft diameter was about 615
Englith feet fix inches, and the Ihorteft 510. The
length of the diameter of the arena was about 281
feet, and the breadth 176, referving a fpace for the
feats and galleries of about 157 feet in breadth. The
external circumference covered a fuperficies of about
five acres and a half, and could fcarcely be included
in a parallelogram of feven acres. Three ftories of
arcades, adorned wdth columns of the Doric, Ionic, and
Corinthian orders, and enclofed with a pilaftrade of
the Corinthian order, compofed the external elevation.
The firfi flory rofe about four feet from the ground,
and the pavement fupported the balls of the columns.
The columns which fupported the upper flories were
placed upon pedeftalsj, A ftylobata fupported the pi¬
laftrade, in which were the windows of an interme¬
diate gallery, and in every fecond interpilafter was a
window to illuminate the higheft gallery. A cantali-
ver cornice, perforated with fquare holes, through
which the eredt pieces of wood palled that fupported
. the awning to a range of corbels, about the centre of
the pilaftrade, crowned the building. Thefe various co¬
lumns, pilafters, and ftories, appear to have been con¬
tinued without interruption around the whole edifice.
The height of the firft ftory is about 33 feet fix inches,
the fecond about 39, and the third about 38 ; the pila¬
ftrade about 46 ; and the whole, including the blocking
courie and the fteps, was about 164 feet in height.
An elliplis of 80 open arches formed the exterior
circuit of the ground plan •, the piers, with three-
quarter columns in front, of about two feet 10 inches
diameter. The four which correfponded to the four
femi-diameters formerly mentioned, were about 14
feet twro inches, and 76 of the arches were about 13
feet eight inches. Thefe arches led to a large double
corridor, that encircled the whole ; this corridor is a
magnificent and diftinguilhing feature in the Colifeum
theatre. Square openings in the precindiion above, illu¬
minated the interior corridor, and the corridor which
was united with the wrall of the podium appears to
have been illuminated in a fimilar manner. A double
corridor wTas feen on the floor of the fecond ftory di¬
rectly above the corridor of the lower floor, and an in¬
terior corridor, which lent forth flairs leading to a
range of vomitories on the one hand, and on the other
hand an intermediate corridor which formed a mezza¬
nine floor above the double corridor of the interior
circuit. Here the flairs began to afeend to the next
ftory, and Iquare holes in the upper floor enlightened
this gallery. A double corridcr formed the third fto
ry, and it appears that here the flairs commenced that
Vol. II. Part I.
led to the galleries above. There were alio fome win- Ampin-
dorvs in the interior wall, and vomitories which opened dieatre-
to the uppermort cunei of benches. In a fimilar man- r~~'
ner were other three ftories conftrudted and filled above
the wdiole, compoiing a moft magnificent and fpacious
ftruflure.
Juftus Lipfius fuppofes that this amphitheatre was
capable of containing 87,000 fpeflators on the bench¬
es } and Fontana adds 22,000 for the galleries and
other paffages. Upon a fair calculation it appears,
that if all was crow'ded, it might contain about 80,000.
1 his magnificent ftrufture certainly excelled both the
monuments of Grecian and Egyptian genius which
have reached our times. When this amphitheatre was
in its glory, and crowded with Romans, the fight muft
have been magnificent and linking. If the report is
accurate, that this was completed in two years and nine
months, it affords an aftonilhing inftance of Roman
vigour and perfevering induftry. Befides former de¬
predations, Michael Angelo removed near the one
half of the external wall to build the Palazzo Farnefe.
To prevent thefe depredations, Pope Benedidl XIV.
confecrated thefe ruins, and eredled feveral altars,
which wTere much frequented on the Sundays and Fri¬
days, before the revolution in France. To guard
thefe relicks, a hermit was ftationed in a fmall dwelling
near the centre.
The different kinds of amufement have already been Amufe-
mentioned during the progrefs of the hiftory. Gla-meats.v
diators contended together, or entered the lifts with
wild beafts. Thefe wild animals were hunted or en¬
countered, or left to devour each other, according to
the humour of the times or the tafte of him who gave
the entertainment. It appears alfo, that criminals
wrere fometimes forced to fight with thefe ferocious
creatures for the entertainment of the people of Rome;
and, in the dawn of Chriftianity, many of the Chri-
ftians fuffered death in this brutal manner. It is
alio reported, that artificial mountains were fometimes
conftrufted with caves below, from whence thefe de¬
vouring animals ruftied forth to attack their prey.
Information concerning the laws that regulated the
amphitheatre is rather fcanty ; but the following are
among the number. In the centre of one fide of the
podium was the emperor’s feat, called the fuggejlum,
and highly adorned. The remainder of the podium
was occupied by fenators 5 and when this fpace was
not fufficient, feveral of the adjacent wedges were ap¬
propriated to the other fenators and to perfons of
diftinftion. The equeftrians, and the civil and military
tribunes, had their places next afligned them. From
this order both the liberti and the legati were exclud¬
ed. The married men fat by themfelves. The young
men were alfo arranged by themfelves, and their tutors fat
near them to obferve their condudl. The attendants and
fervants occupied the higheft gallery. The veftals
were feated, and frequently the princeffes and the la¬
dies of diftinguifhed rank fat along with them. The
front of the gallery was aingned to the women, who
were placed on. chairs, and the loweft order of ple¬
beians flood behind them. It appears alfo, that for the
better accommodation of the people, the different
tribes had particular wedges allotted to them. It
is alio proper to remark, that the arrangements in the
different provinces, was different from that of Rome
AMP [ 154 ] AMP
Ampin- as cxrcumftances varied. The general direction of the
theatre amphitheatre was under the care of an officer, named
Amphora- V1^'LCUS amphdljcatri; and different officers who were
rium. called locaru, had the direction of the cunei. By
v—carefully preventing any perfon from occupying a
place to which he was not entitled, all confuiion was
prevented, and ftricf order maintained.
Remains. The means ufed by Pope Benedict to preferve the
Colifeum at Rome, have already been mentioned. Of
one which was erefted at Verona, only four arches of
the external circuit remained in the commencement of
the eighteenth century. Thefe confift of three ftories
of about 90 Englifh feet. The whole building was
erefted without cement, and joined and fecured by
iron cramps, overlaid with lead. The whole fuperfi-
cies is about four acres and nearly one third. One
has been erected at Nimes, which has fuffered much
dilapidation; but the remains are yet worthy of
the attention of the traveller. In the year 1533,
Francis I. gave orders to have the rubbifh removed ;
but his misfortunes prevented this order from being
carried into execution. Louis XVI. iffued a fimilar
order, but the work is not yet finifhed. This amphi¬
theatre is laid, by Governor Pownall, to be occupied
with houfes arranged in the form of ftreets, and re-
fembles a fmall walled town. The galleries are con¬
verted into wretched dwellings, but the exterior gal¬
lery of the fecond ftory, and that of the attic, were in
their original ffate.
At Pola in litria, there are the remains of an am¬
phitheatre built on the declivity of a hill. The whole
of the exterior circuit was Handing, except a few yards
of the parapet, when Maffei vifited thefe remains. It
was ereffed of Hone, with cramps of iron ; and all
the benches and other parts conftrudled of wood, have
been deflroyed.
Amphitheatre, in Gardening, certain difpofitions
of trees and fhrubs on the lides of hilly places, which,
if the hill pr rifing be naturally of a circular figure, al¬
ways have the beft effeft. They are to be formed of
evergreens, fuch as hollies, phillereys, lauruftines, bays,
and fuch plants, obferving to plant the ihorteft grow¬
ing trees in the front, and thofe which will be the
talleft behind, fuch as pines, firs, cedars of Lebanon, &c.
Amphitheatres are alio fometimes formed of Hopes
on the Hdes of hills, covered only with turf 5 and, when
well kept, they are a great ornament to large gardens.
AMPH1TRITE, (from circunferendo),
in the Heathen Mythology, the wife of Neptune, and
goddefs of the fea, fometimes taken for the lea.
AMPHITRYON, fon of Alcaeus, and the father
of Hercules, lefs known by his own exploits than from
his wife iVlcmena’s adventure. See Alcmeka.
AMPHORA, in Antiquity, a liquid meafure among
the Greeks and Romans. The Roman amphora con¬
tained 48 fextaries, equal to about feven gallons one
pint Englilb wine meafure 5 and the Grecian or Attic
amphora contained one-third more.
Amphora was alfo a dry meafure ufed by the Ro¬
mans, and contained about three bulhels.
Amphora, among the Venetians, is the large A mea¬
fure ufed for liquids, containing about 16 quarts.
AMPHORARIUM vinum, in Antiquity, denotes
that which Is drawn or poured into amphorce or pitch¬
ers j by way of diftinclion from vinum doliare, or caffe.
wine.—The Romans had a method of keeping wine in Amphoti-
amphorce for many years to ripen, by faHening the lids ^es
tight down with pitch or gypfum, and placing them ^ |a(ra
either in a fituation within reach of fmoke, or under b‘ ,
ground.
AMPHOTIDES, in Antiquity, a kind of armour
or covering for the ears, worn by the ancient pugiles,
to prevent their adverfaries from laying hold of that
part.
AMPHRYSUS, or Amphryssus, in Ancient
Geography, a river of Phthiotis, a diitrift of Theffaly,
running by the foot of Mount Othrys, from fouth to
north, into the Enipeus at Thebes of Theffaly j where
Apollo fed the herds of King Admetus (Yirgil, Lu¬
can). Another Amphryfus in Phrygia, rendering
women barren, according to Pliny : Hence the epi¬
thet Amphryjiacus (Statius). Alio a town of Phocisq.
at the foot of Mount Parnaffus, encompaffed -with a
double wall by the Thebans in the war with Philip
(Paufanias) : Amphryfia Vates, in Virgil, denotes the
Sibyl.
AMPHTHILL, a town of BedfordHiire in Eng¬
land, fituated pleafantly between two hills, near the
centre of the county, but in a barren foil. W. Long,
o. 29. N. Lat. 52. 2.
AMPLIATION, in a general fenfe, denotes the
aft of enlarging or extending the compafs of a thing.
On a medal of the emperor Antoninus Pius, we find
the title Amphator civium given him, on account of
his having extended tha jus civitatis, or right of citi-
zenfnip, to many Hates and people before excluded
from that privilege. In effeft, it is generally fuppo-
fed to have been this prince that made the famous con-
flitution, whereby all the fubjefts of the empire were
made citizens of Rome.
Ampliation, in Roman Antiquity, was the defer¬
ring to pals fentence in certain caufes. This the judge
did, by pronouncing the word amplius ; or by writing
the letters N. L. for non liquet; thereby fignifying,
that, as the caufe was not clear, it would be necefl'ary
to bring further evidence.
AMPLIFICATION, in Rhetoric, part of a dif-
courfe or fpeech, wherein a crime is aggravated, a
praife or commendation heightened, or a narration en4
larged, by an enumeration of circumHances; fo as to
excite the proper emotions in the fouls of the auditors.
Such is the paflage in Virgil, where, inflead of faying
merely that Turnus died, he amplifies the circumflan-
ces of his death :
—AJl illi folvuntur frigore membra,
Vitaque cum gemitu fugit indignata fub umbras.
The maflers of eloquence make an amplification to be
the foul of difcourfe. See Oratory.
AMPLITUDE, in AJlronomy, an arch of the ho¬
rizon intercepted between the eait or weit point and
the centre of the fun, or a planet, at its rrfing or fet-
ting and fo is either north and fouth, or ortive and
occafive.
Magnetical Amtiitude, the different rifing or fet-
ting of the fun from the eafl or weft points of the com¬
pafs. It is found by obferving the lun, at his rifing
and fetting, by an amplitude compafs.
AMPS AG A, a river of ancient Numidia. See Al¬
giers.
AMPSANCTI
I I
\
A M R [
AMPSANCTI Valms, or Ampsancti Lacus,
II cave or lake in the heart of the Hirpini, or Principato
Amiapltel, ultra, near the city Triceuto (Cicero, Virgil, Pliny) j
it is now called Moffeta, from Mephitis, the goddefs
of llench, who had a temple there. The ancient poets
imagined that this gulf led to hell. The Moffeta is
thus defcribed by Mr Swinburne : “ We were led into
a narrow valley, extending a confiderable way to the
fouth-weft, and prefled in on both fides by high ridges
thickly covered with copfes of oak. The bottom of
the dell is bare and arid : in the lowed: part, and clofe
under one of the hills, is an ot'al pond of muddy afh-
coloured wTater, not above 50 feet in diameter : it boils
up in feveral places with great force in irregular fits,
which are always preceded by a hiding found. The
water was feveral times fpouted up as high as our heads
in a diagonal dire&ion, a whirlpool being formed
round the tube, like a bafon, to receive it as it fell.
A large body of vapour is continually thrown out with
a loud rumbling noife. The ftones on the riling
ground that hangs over the pool are quite yellow,
being dained with the fumes of fulphur and fal ammo¬
niac. A mod naufeous fmell riling with the deam
obliged us to watch the wind, and keep clear of it, to
avoid fulfocation. The water is quite inlipid both as
to tade and fmell *, the clay at the edges is white, and
carried into Puglia to rub upon fcabby Iheep, on which
account the lake is farmed out at 100 ducats a-year.
On a hill above this lake dood formerly a temple de¬
dicated to the goddefs Mephitis $ but I perceived no
remains of it.”
AMPULLA, in Antiquity, a round big-bellied vef-
fel which the ancients ufed in their baths, to contain
oil for anointing their bodies ; alfo the name of a cup
for drinking out of at table.
Ampulla, among Ecclejiajlical Writers, denotes
ore of the facred veflels ufed at the altars. Ampulbe
were allb ufed for holding the oil ufed in chrifmation,
confecration, coronation, Stc. Among the ornaments
of churches we find frequent mention made of ampuls
or vials. Iu the inventory of the cathedral o*f Lin¬
coln we meet with ampuls of crydal, varioully enrich¬
ed with filver feet and covers j one containing a tooth
of St Chridopher, another a tooth of St Cecily, ano¬
ther a bone of the head of St John Baptid.
Knights of St Ampulla, belong to an order indituted
by Clovis I. king of France •, at the coronation they
bear up the canopy under which the ampulla is carried
in proceflion.
AMPU11A, a piovince of the kingdom of Peru,
before its conqued by the Spaniards. Here the inha¬
bitants worlhipped two lofty mountains from a prin¬
ciple of gratitude, becaufe of the defcent of the water
from them by which their lands were fertilized. It is
laid to have been conquered by Virachoca the eighth
inca.
AMPURIAS, the capital of the territory of Am-
purdan, in Catalonia, feated at the mouth of the rwer
Fluvia, in E. Long. 2. 56. N. Lat. 42. 5. The land
about it is barren, full of briars and bulrulhes, except
in fome places, which produce flax.
AMPUTATION, in Surgery, the cutting off a
limb, or any part, from the body. See Surgery
Index.
AMRAPHEL, the king of Shinar, or Babylonia,
»!? ] AMR
confederated >vith Chedorlaomer, king of the Elamites, Am-s',
and two other kings, to make war againfl the kings of Atnru-ebn*
Pentapolis j that is to fay, of Sodom, Gomorrah, and al'a3'
the three neighbouring cities. The kings who were in ^
league with Amraphel worded thofe of Pentapolis,
plundered their city, and carried off abundance of cap¬
tives, among whom was Lot, Abraham’s nephew: but
Abraham purfued them, retook Lot, and recovered all
the fpoil. See Abraham.
AMR AS, a drong cadle of Germany, feated in Ti¬
rol ; by fome German writers called Arx Ambrofiana,
which was a houfe of pleafure for the archdukes to re¬
tire to in the heat of the fummer. By others this fort
is called Qmbrafs ; a name derived from the defign of
it, which was to be a lhady fummer-houfe. It is mod
delightfully fituated at the foot of a mountain, but has
no great external beauty. All the furniture of ordi¬
nary ufe has been carried away j yet it is dill remark¬
able for its galleries, which contain a very large col-
leftion of antiquities, and both natural and artificial
curiofities. It excels all others in its curious collec¬
tion of armour and coats of mail, many of which be¬
longed to very great men, There is allb a great col-
leftion of gold medals, which weigh, as they affirm,
about 16 pounds 5 there are alfo 3000 cameos and in¬
taglios, but few of them very fine. A great part of
thefe antiquities were fent to this place by Charles V.
On the walls and ceiling there are fome very good
paintings; and, among the red, they have an admi¬
rable pi&ure of Noah’s ark, done by Baflano, for
which the grand duke of Tufeany is faid to have of¬
fered 100,000 crowns. They have a library, which
is not in very good order •, and a gallery full of buds
and other pieces of antiquity, befides many other apart¬
ments adorned with pidlures of great value. E. Long.
II. 40. N. Lat. 47. o.
AMRU-EBN-AL-AS, one of the mod famous of
the fird race of Saracen leaders, was defcended of Aafi,
of the tribe of Koreilh, by a notorious proditute. In
his youth he indulged in poetry, and wrote fatirical
verfes againd the perfon and doftrine of Mahomet.
His zeal in oppofing the new religion prompted him to
undertake an embaffy to the king of Ethiopia, to di-
mulate him againd the converts whom he had taken
under his proteftion. It is uncertain by what argu¬
ments he was induced to change his religious fenti-
ments; but he returned a convert to the Mahometan
faith, and, along with Caled, joined the fugitive pro¬
phet at Medina. The military talents of Amru had
begun to attra£l general attention when Abubeker re-
folved to make a new attack upon Syria, in which
he obtained the chief command. After feveral dif-
plays of his military valour and addrefs in fome fuc-
cefsful enterprifes, he rofe to the elevated dation of
chief in Irak, when Caled requeded the attendance of
all the Arabian generals before Damafcus. During
the caliphate of Omar, he alfo ferVed in Paledine, un¬
der Abu Obeidah. While befieging Casfarea, he held
a memorable conference with Condantine, the fon of
the emperor Heraclius. Hidorians mention that their
time was chiefly occupied in producing genealogical
arguments to prove the affinity of the Greeks and Ara¬
bians, and the confequent rights of the latter as their
defcendants. Amru concluded with the candid de¬
claration, “ That the Arabians were tired of living
U 2 .in
AMR
Amru-ebn- in their fcorching deferts, and were refolved to re-enter
. into the pofleffion of the delightful country which was
the inheritance of their forefathers.” He withdrew
from the conference, after denouncing perpetual enmi¬
ty againft the Greeks, unlefs they ihould either be¬
come converts to the Mahometan faith or tributaries
to that government. In the year of the Hegira iy,
A. D. 638, Amru took Caefarea, and reduced to fubjec-
tion all the maritime towns of Syria.
After the death of Obeidah, Amru affumed the chief
command in Syria, in which he was confirmed by the
caliph, notwithftanding the -oppofition of Othman. An
expedition againft Egypt being formerly refolved upon,
Amru wrote to the caliph, informing him that he
would inftantly march into Egypt. During the pro-
grefs of his march, attended only by 4000 Arabs, a
meffenger from Omar arrived with a letter, containing
diredtions to return, if he ftiould receive this letter in
the territories of Syria ; but if he fhould receive it in
thofe of Egypt, he might advance, and all needful af-
fiftance would be inftantly fent him. Anticipating the
contents, he haftened on to the frontiers of Egypt, and
there colledling his principal officers, he opened and
read the inftrudtions of the caliph. Then requefting
fome of the inhabitants to be brought before them, and
enquiring at them in what country they were, and be¬
ing informed that they were in Egypt, Amru replied,
“ Let us, then, continue our march.” Having taken
Pharma, he advanced to Mifrah, the ancient Memphis,
and befieged it during the fpace of feven months. Al¬
though numerous reinforcements arrived, he would
have found it very difficult to ftorm the place previous
to the inundation of the Nile, if Mokawkas had not
treacheroufty leflened the forces of the citadel, which
was accordingly taken by ftorm ; and the Greeks who
remained there were either made prifoners or put to the
fword. On the fame fpot Amru erefted a city named
Foftat, the ruins of which are now known by the name
of Old Cairo. The Coptic Chriftians, who compofed
the great majority of the Egyptian natives, and who
were enemies to the Catholic Greeks, after this vi£lory
fubmitted to Amru, and engaged to provide quarters
and fupport for the Mufiulman army.
Amru purfued the Greeks to Alexandria, and, after
an obftinate and bloody fiege of 14 months, the city
was taken, A. D. 640. During the fiege, the gene¬
ral, along with one of his officers and a Have, was ta¬
ken prifoner, and brought before the governor, who
was at that time ignorant of the value of his prifoner.
The manner, however, in which the general at firft
conduced himfelf induced the governor to fuppofe that
he was a perfon of rank, therefore he ordered him to be
beheaded. This order would have immediately been
carried into effe6t, had not the flave, who underftood
the Greek tongue, in which the command was given,
fortunately chaftifed the imprudent language of Amru
by giving him a box on the ear. This circumltance
changed the mind of the governor, and obtained a re¬
peal of his order.. Ey an engagement to propofe an
accommodation, the captive officer obtained the releafe
of all the three ; and the acclamations of the army on
the return of their general firft informed the governor
of his egregious miftake. Amru prevailed upon his
foldiers to refrain from the pillage of Alexandria, and
to content themfelves with the prefervation of the mo-
A M R
ney, jewels, and other valuable articles, to defray the Amru-ebn-
expence of the w ar. Amru was difpoled to preierve a^'as*
the famous library, and to have given it in a pre- v-—'
fent to John the grammarian, but, by the command
of the caliph, he wTas obliged to commit it to the
flames. If the relation is not exaggerated, luch w7as
the number of books in that famous library, that they
afforded fuel to 5000 baths during the {pace of fix
months.
The capital being taken, all Egypt foon fell into
the hands of the conqueror. Amru obferved a wife
and equitable policy, although his pecuniary demands-
were great. Egypt became the ftorehoufe to famifti-
ing Arabia, and camels carrying provifions covered the
wdrole road from Memphis to Medina. Amru alfo
employed his army in opening the canal from the Nile
to the Red lea. The adjacent parts of Africa next
felt the conquering power of Amru, but, upon the ele¬
vation of Othman, he was fucceedcd in the govern¬
ment of Egypt by Abdallah-ebn-Said. The inhabi¬
tants were fo dilpleafed with this change, that they
formed a confederacy, and delivered up the city to a
Grecian fleet. Amru was defpatched in hafte to re¬
take Alexandria, which, after an obftinate defence,
was taken with great flaughter. The general at
length interpofing his authority, the daughter was
flopped, and upon the fpot where the mallacre ceafed
the Mofque of Mercy was erected. To prevent future
rebellion, he difmantled the town, and was again fuc-
ceeded by Abdallah ; and he himfelf tetired to Me¬
dina.
When Ali afeended the throne, he became an ad-
verfary, and united himfelf to the intereft of Moawiy ah,
whom he acknowledged caliph, and fwore allegiance
to him. Ali propeffed to decide the quarrel by Angle
combat, and the valour of Amru inclined him to urge
his mafter to accept of the propofal ; but Moawiyah
pofitively declined the challenge. Amru, however,
continued firm to the intereft of Moawiyah, and took
poffeflion of Egypt in his name, having defeated the
governor of Ali. About this time, he fortunately
efcaped affaffination by the hands of the frantic Cha-
regites, who had marked him out as one of the three
who, by their death, was to reftore peace to the con¬
tending parties. The affaffin w aited his arrival at the
mofque, but being prevented by a fit of the colic, his
friend who was fent to officiate for him was flain in his
ftead.
In the year 663, of the Hegira 43, he died in his
government of Egypt, highly tileemed, and much
regretted by his countrymen. In a pathetic oration to
his children on his deathbed, he bitterly lamented his
youthful offence in fatirizing the prophet, although Ma¬
homet had forgiven the offence, and had frequently af¬
firmed “ that there was no Muffulman more fincere and
ftedfaft in the faith than Amru.” It is reported, that
one day the caliph defired to fee the fw ord of Amru,
wffiich had cut in pieces fo many Chriftians. Amru
drew his fw ord, which was a ft ort and common feymi-
tar y and when Omar manifefted figns of unufual fur-
prife, he exclaimed, “ Alas ! the fword itfelfi, without
the arm of its mafter, is neither fharper nor more
weighty than the fword of Pharezdak the poet.” The
greatnefs of the man, the firmnefs of the friend, the va¬
lour of the general, the policy of the ftatefman, and
[ >56 ]
AMS [ 157 ] AMS
Amfanfti the fanclity of the Mahometan moralift, were united
II in the character of Amru. (Mod. Vniv. Hid. Gen.
Biog.) , , ,
> — AMSANCTI. See Ampsancti.
AMSBURY, or Ambersbury. See Ambres-
with 26 baftions, on each of which there is now a wim’-
milh There are eight gates towards the land, and one
towards the water.
Amfterdam being feated on a marlhy foil, is built on
piles of wood ; for which reafon no coaches are allow-
BURY.
AMSDORFIANS, in Church Hi/lory, a fedt of
Proteftants in the 16th century, who took their name
from Amfdorf their leader. They maintained, that
good works were not only unprofitable, but were ob-
llacles to ialvation.
AMSTERDAM, the capital city of the province
of Holland and of the United Netherlands, is feated
on the river Amftel and an arm of the fea called the
IVye. The air is but indifferent, on account of the
marfhes that furround it, and render the city almoft in-
acceflible : but this inconvenience is abundantly re-
eompenfed by the utility of its commerce, which the
port ferves greatly t® promote ; for it will contain
above x 000 large fhips.
In 1 204, it was nothing but a fmall calhle, called
Ainjlel from the name of the river, which its lords
made a retreat for fifhermen, who at firlt lived in huts
covered with thatch : but it foon became confiderable,
and had a bridge and towers built about it, infomuch
that it rofe to a fmall city \ though, till the year 1490,
it was furrounded with nothing but a weak pallifado.
The walls were then built with brick, to defend it
from the incurfions of the inhabitants of Utrecht, with
whom the Hollanders were often quarrelling j but fome
months afterwards it was almoft reduced to afhes. In
1512, it was befieged by the people of Guelderland ;
who not being able to take it, fet fire to the fhips in
the harbour. In 1525, an Anabaptift leader, with 600
of his followers, got into the city in the night-time, at¬
tacked the townhoufe, and defeated thofe that made
any refiftance. At length they barricaded, with wool
and hop facks, the avenues to the market place, where
theie enthufiafts were polled ; and fo put a ftop to their
fury till day appeared, at which time the citizens fell
upon them on all fides, and forced them to retire into
the townhoufe, where moll of them were cut to pieces.
About ten years after, there was another tumult raifed
by a parcel ol fanatics, canlifting of men and women,
who ran about the ftreets Hark naked, and had a de-
iign of making themfelves mailers of the townhoufe.
1 Heir fhrieks and cries, which w'ere dreadful enough,
foon alarmed the inhabitants, who feized the greateft
part of them, and gave them the chaftifement they de-
ferved.
Amfterdam was one of the laft cities that embraced
the reformed religion. It was befieged by the Holland¬
ers in 15785 and fubmitted after a liege of ten months.
One article of the capitulation was, a free exercife
of the Roman Catholic religion : but this was not ob-
lerved by the Proteftants \ for they foon drove the ec-
clefiaitics, monks, and nuns, out of the city, broke the
images, and demolilhed the altars. From this time it
became the general rendezvous of all nations and of
every fedl, which raifed it to that degree of grandeur
and opulence it now enjoys. The inhabitants were of¬
ten obliged to enlarge the bounds of their city, and in
1675 it was increafed to its prefent extent. It wTas fur-
rounded with a brick wall, and a large ditch 80 feet
broad full of running water. The walls were fortified
ed, except to great men and phylicians, who pay a tax
for that privilege ; and all kinds of goods are drawn on
fledges. It Hands fo low, that they would be expofed
to inundations, if they did not fecure themfelves by
dykes and lluices. The fineft ftreets are, the Keyfar’s
Graft, or Emperor’s Canal; the Fleer Graft, or Lords
Canal ; the Cingel; and the ftreet of Haerlerru The
principal canal is remarkable for its houfes, which are.
magnificent ftru&ures of an equal height. Here are
three prodigious fluices, and a great number of canals
which crofs the city in many parts, and render the
ftreets clean and pleafant. 1 he canals are deep, their
fides are lined with hewn ftonc, they have generally
rows ol trees planted on each fide, and many ftone-
bridges over different parts of them.
I he fineft is that called the Amarrack, which is
formed by the w aters of the Amftel, into which the
tide comes up, and on the fides of wdiich are two large
quays. - This canal has feveral bridges. The principal
is that next the fea, called Pont Nei/f, or the New
Bridge : it is 600 feet long, and 70 broad, w ith iron
baluftrades on each fide ; it has 36 arches, of which 11
are very high, and eight are Ihut up to enclofe the
yachts. From this bridge there is a moft charming
profpecl of the city, port, and fea. The port is a
mile and a half in length, and above 1000 paces in
breadth. It is aftvays filled with a multitude of vef-
fels, wdiich look like a foreft, or rather a floating city.
The ftreets in general are w-ell paved, and the houfes
built of brick or ftone. Towards the fides of the ha¬
ven, the city is enciofed with great poles driven into
the ground, which are joined by large beams placed
horizontally. There are openings to let the fliips in
and out, which are Ihut every night at the ringing of
a bell.
Amfterdam is computed to be half as big as Lon¬
don, including the fortifications, and almoft as popu¬
lous in proportion. There are people here of almoft;
every nation and religion in Europe, who are all tole¬
rated in their refpeclive perfuafions ; but none admit--
ted to any ftiare in the government except the Calvi-
nifts. There are 11 churches for the Dutch of the efta-
bliftied or Calviniftical religion, with two French and
one High Dutch. The Englifti have alfo three church¬
es in this city : one for the Preflayterians, whofe mini-
fters are paid by the magiftrates ; a fecond for thofe of
the church of England, whofe minifter is paid by his
Britannic Majefty ; and a third for the Brownifts, who
maintain their own minifters. None but the Calvinifts
are allowed to have bells, and their minifters are main¬
tained by the magiftrates. All thefe churches or con¬
gregations make up only a third part of the inhabi¬
tants of the city. The Roman Catholics, who have
27 houfes or chapels for their w'orlhip, form another
third part. Here they have a long fquare of houfes,
for their beguines (a kind of nuns) to live in ; wdio are
not fliut up in cloifters as other nuns in Roman Catho¬
lic countries, but have liberty to walk abroad, and may
even marry when they are tired of this kind of life..
Thefe chapels of the Roman Catholics have no bells al-
lowed’.
Amfler-
dam.
AMS r ] AMS
Amfter. lowed them, being looked upon ns conventicles, and
dam, may |jg Up an(j opened according as the govern’
*^v~rW ment pleafes. The other third part of the city is
made up of Jews, Lutherans, Arminians, Anabaptifts,
&c. none of whom, as was laid of the Roman Catho¬
lics, are allowed to have bells in their churches. Thofe
who marry, and are not of the eftablilhed religion, are
obliged to be joined firft by the magiftrates, and then
they may perform the ceremony in their own affem-
blies. The Jews, who are very confiderable in this
place, have two fynagogues j one of which, namely
the Portuguefe, is the larged; in Europe. Within the
court yard, where their lynagogue Hands, they have
feveral rooms or fchools, where their children are
-taught Hebrew, and very carefully inftrufted in the
Jewifh religion.
The mofl remarkable of the religious buildings is
the New Church, dedicated to St Catharine. It was
begun in the year 1408, others fay 1414'j and was
r 00 years of building. It had the misfortune of being
burnt in the year 1645, but was in a (hort time af¬
ter built in a more magnificent manner. The foun¬
dation of a fleeple is laid before this church, which
was defigned to be very high. The piles on which it
was to be ere&ed are not above TOO feet fquare, and
yet they are 6334 in number, and thofe very large,
Neverthelefs it was thought that thefe vaft piles, or
rather the ground, were not able to fupport the pro¬
digious weight they intended to lay upon it j for which
reafon the ileeple remains unfinifhed. The pulpit is a
mafterpiece of the kind, where the four evangelifts and
many other curious pieces of fculpture are reprefented.
The glafs windows are adorned with paintings, among
which the emperor Maximilian is deferibed, prefenting
an imperial crown to the burgomafters of Amfterdam
for the creft of the arms of this city. The organ is
very large, and reckoned one of the beft in the world.
It has a fet of pipes that counterfeit a chorus of voices,
and has 52 whole Hops befides half Hops, with two
rows of keys for the feet, and three rows of keys for
the hands. Thofe who hear it play for the firft time
imagine they hear a human voice. The grate dividing
the chancel from the body of the church is all of Co¬
rinthian brafs. The branches of candlefticks are the
richeft in the Seven Provinces. There is a very fine
marble monument erected to Admiral Ruyter, who was
killed at Meflina.
The public buildings of a civil nature are very mag¬
nificent. The ftadthoufe was founded in 1648. It is
built upon 14,000 wooden piles ; and its front is 282
feet long, its fides 255 feet, and its height to the roof
116. There is a marble pediment in the front, whereon
p woman is carved in relievo, holding the arms of the
city •, (he is feated in a chair, fupponed by two lions,
with an olive branch in her right hand 5 on each fide
are four Naiads who prefent her with a crown of palm
a'nd laurel, and two other marine goddefles prefent her
with different forts of fruit y befides, there is Neptune
with his trident, accompanied with Tritons, a fea-uni-
xorn, and a fea-horfe. On the top ftand three ftatues
in bronze, reprefenting Juftice, Strength, and Plenty.
On the top of the ftru&ure is a round tower, 50 feet
above the roof, adorned with ftatues, and an harmoni¬
ous chime of bells, the biggeft of which weighs about
^oco pounds, and the next 6000. They are made to
2
piny different tunes every month, It hai not one AmiHr
handfome gate, but only feven doors to anfwer to the ^
number of the United Provinces. On the ftoor of the y—~
great hall arc two globes, the celeftial and terreftrial,
which are 22 feet in diameter and 69 in circumference.
They are made of black and white marble, and are in¬
laid with jafper and copper. In general, all the cham¬
bers are enriched with paintings, carvings, and gild¬
ings. While this ftadthoufe was building, the old one
was fet on fire, and coniumed with all the archives and
regifters.
Under the ftadthoufe is a prodigious vault, wherein
is kept the bank of Amfterdam, where there is a vaft
quantity of ingots both of gold and filver, as alfo bags
which are fuppofed to be full of money. The doors
are proof againft petards, and are never opened but in
the prefence of one of the burgomafters. The prifons
for debtors and criminals are likewife under the ftadt¬
houfe j as alfo the guard-room for the citizens, wherein
the keys of the city are locked every night. At the
end of the great hall is the fchepens or aldermen’s cham¬
ber, where civil caufes are tried. Befides thefe, there
are the chambers of the fenate and council, the burgo-
mafters chamber, the chambers of accounts, Jkc. In
the fecond ftory is a large magazine of arms 5 and on.
the top of the building are fix large cifterns of water,
which may be conveyed to any room in the houfe in
cafe of fire ; to prevent which the chimneys are lined
with copper.
The bourfe, or exchange, where the merchants af*
femble, is all of free-ftone, and built upon 2000
wooden piles. Its length is about 250 feet, and its
breadth 140. The galleries are fupported by 26 mar¬
ble columns, upon each of which are the names of the
people that are to meet there. They are all numbered j
and there is a place fixed for every merchandife under
fome one of thefe numbers. On the right hand of
the gate is a fuperb ftaircafc which leads to the gal¬
leries 5 on one fide of which there are feveral Ihops,
and on the other a place to fell clothes. It is not un¬
like the royal exchange in London.
The admiralty office is in a houfe which belonged
formerly to the princes of Orange. The arfenal for
their men of war is in the harbour. This is a very
handfome building, 200 feet long and 22 broad. The
ground floor is filled with bullets; the fecond floor
contains the arms and cordage ; the third their fails,
pulleys, flags, &c. This arfenal contains a great many
curiofities $ among the reft an Indian canoe brought
from the ftraits of Davis, and a confervatory of water,
on the top of the houfe that holds 1600 tuns of water,
which may be diftributed in cale of fire into 16 differ¬
ent parts by leaden pipes. Hard by this edifice you
fee the dock or yard where they build their men of war.
This dock is 508 feet long, and contiguous to it are
houfes for lodging the fhip carpenters. The dock is
plentifully fupplied with every thing neceffary for the
eonftruclion of ihips.
The Eaft India Company occupy a large building
divided into feveral offices or apartments. In fome
of thofe they have great ftores of packed goods, and
likewife a room with all forts of drugs, tea, wax,
ambergris, and mufk. Here they have a magazine
full of medicaments for furgeons chefts, to furnifh the
Company’s ihips and garrifons in the Indies; as alfo.
Airffter-
dam.
AMS [ i
large magazines of nutmegs, cloves, mace, and cinna¬
mon. In the court-yard there is a guard chamber,
where every night the houfekeeper has a watch j and
on the other fide of the gate there is a chemift, who
with his men prepares medicines for the Indies ; and
adjoining to this court-yard is their warehoufe and
packhoufe for pepper and grofs goods. In the new
part of this city they have a magazine or palace, which
may properly be called an arfenal. The ground on
which this building Hands is 2000 feet, and fquare
every way, reckoning the moats or burgwall about it.
The two rope-alleys are 1800 feet long, on the back-
fide of which is a (lore of 500 large anchors befides
fmall ones. In this arfenal they build the (hips be¬
longing to the India chamber of Amfterdam j for which
reafon they have all forts of workhoufes here for the
artificers that ferve the Company.
The academy called the lllujlrious School, is likewife
a very fine building. It was formerly a convent be¬
longing to the nuns of St Agnes. Here they teach
Latin, the oriental languages, theology, philofophy,
hiftory, &c. The lawyers and phyfieians have like¬
wife their fchools.
Befides thefe, there are feveral hofpitals, or houfes
for orphans, for poor widows, for fick perfons, and for
mad people ; all which are regulated with much pru¬
dence. The Rafp-houfe, which was formerly a nun¬
nery, is now a fort of a workhoufe for men that be¬
have ill. They are commonly fet to faw or rafp Brafil
wood ; and if they will not perform their talk, they are
put into a cellar which the water runs into, where if
they do not almoft conftantly ply the pump, they run
the rilk of being drowned. There is likewife a fpin-
houfe for debauched women, where they are obliged to
fpin wool, ilax, and hemp, and do other work. All
the hofpitals are extremely neat, and richly adorned
with pidfures. They are maintained partly by volun¬
tary contributions, which are railed by. putting money
into the poor’s boxes fixed up all over the city 5 and
partly by taxing all public ’diverfions, as well at fairs
as elfewhere. Likewife every perfon that pafies through
any of the gates at candle-light pays a penny for the
fame ufes. Thefe charities are taken care of by cer¬
tain officers called deacons. The governors are nomi¬
nated by the magiftrates out of the moll confiderable
men in the city.
The common fort have places of diverfion called
Spiel-houfes, where there are mufic and dancing. They
are much of the fame kind as the hops which were io
frequent about London. If Itrangers go there, they
mult take care not to make their addreffes to a woman
that is engaged to any other man.
There are two fuburbs to this city j one at the gate
of the regulars j and the other goes as far as Overtoon,
a village a little way from Amiterdam, where boats
which come from Leyden are rolled over land upon
wooden rollers. There is likewife in this city an hof-
pital for thofe that are infedled with the plague) which
was built in the year 1630, and has 360 windows.
This city is governed by a fenate or council, which
confifts of 36 perfons called a Vroedjhap, who enjoy
their places for life ; and when any of them dies, the
remainder choofe another in his Head. This fenate
clefts deputies to be lent to the States of Holland, and
appoints the chief magiftrates of the city called Burgo-
59 ] AMS
majlers or Echcvins, who are like our aldermen. The
number is twelve ; out of which four are chofen every
year to execute the office, and are called Burgomqflers- '
regent. Three of thefe are difcharged every year, to
make room for three others. One of the four is kept
in to inform the new ones of the ftate of affairs, and
alfo prefides the three firft months in the year, and the
others three months each $ fo that when they are in
this office, they may be compared to the lord mayor
of the city of London. Thefe alterations and appoint¬
ments are made by their own body. They difpofe of
all inferior offices which become vacant during their
regency. They have likewife the direftion of all pu¬
blic works, which regard the fafety, tranquillity, and
embellilhment of the city. The keys of the famous
bank of this city are in the hands of thefe magiftrates.
The college confifts of new burgomafters or echevins
who are judges in all criminal affairs, without appeal :
but in civil caufes they may appeal to the council of the
province. There are two treafurers, a bailiff, and a
penfionary. The bailiff continues in his office three
years j and fearches after criminals, takes care to pro-
fecute them, and fees their fentence executed. The
penfionary is the minifter of the magiftracy, is well
verfed in the laws, makes public harangues, and is
the defender of the interefts of the city. I he city of
Amfterdam contribute^ to the public income above
50,000 livres per day, befides the excife of beer, tleih,
and corn ; which in all amounts to above l ,6oo,oool.
a-year. This is more than is paid by all the reft of the
provinces put together ; and yet Amfterdam bears but
the fifth rank in the affembly of the ftates of Holland,
with this diftinftion, that whereas other cities fend twro
members, this fends four.
The militia of Amfterdam is very confiderable. They
have 60 companies, each of which has from 200 to
300 men. Jews and Anabaptifts are excluded from this
fervice, not being admitted to bear arms : But they are
obliged to contribute to the maintenance of the city--
guard, which confifts of 1400 foldiers ; as alfo to the
night-watch, who patrole about the ftreets and pro¬
claim the hour. Befides thefe, there are trumpeters
on every church fteeple, who found every half hour j
and if there happens a fire, they ring the fire-bell, and
(bow wffiere it is. The inhabitants have excellent con¬
trivances to extinguifh it fpeedily.
The trade of Amrterdam is prodigious: for almoft;
the whole trade of the Eaft India Company centres in
this city, which befides carries on a commerce with all
the reft of the world, infomuch that it may be called
tne magazine or ftorehoufe of Europe. They import
a vaft deal of corn from the Baltic, not fo much for
prefent confumption, as to lay up againft times of fcar-
city. The richeft fpices are entirely in the hands of
the Eaft India Company, who furnifh all Europe there¬
with. They have vaft quantities of military ftores,
with which they fupply feveral nations ; which is ow¬
ing to their engroffing moft of the iron-works on the
Rhine and other great rivers that run into Holland.
Such was the ftate of Amfterdam before the late re¬
volution. Since that period, it has probably undergone
confiderable changes, as well in its internal government,
as in its foreign connexions. The longitude of Am¬
fterdam is 4. 30. E. ; the latitude, 52. 25. N.
Amsterdam, or Tongaiaboo, is alfo the name of an
ifiand
Amfter-
dapi-
AMS [ 160 ] AMS
ifland in the South fea, faid to have been difcovered by
Tafman a Dutch navigator. It was alfo vifited by Cap¬
tain Cook. Its greatcit extent from eaft to weft is
about 2 1 miles, and from north to fouth about 13.
It is broad at the eaft end, and runs taper towards the
Weft, where it turns, and runs to a point due north. It
is about fix leagues to the weft of Middleburgh. The
ftiore is furrounded by a coral rock, and its moft ele¬
vated parts are not above fix or eight yards above the
level of the fea. S. Lat. 21. II. W. Long. 175. It
is wholly laid out in plantations, in which are cultivat¬
ed fome of the richeft produftions of nature.
* Here are bread-fruit, cocoa-nut trees, plantains,
bananas, (haddocks, yams, and fome other roots, fu-
gar-canes, and a fruit like a neftarine called by the
natives fighega. There did not appear an inch of
wafte ground : the roads decupled no more fpace than
was abfolutely neceffary : the fences did not take up
above four inches each •, and even thefe were not
wholly loft-, for in many grew fome ufeful trees or
plants : it was everywhere the fame, change of place
altered not the feene : nature, aftifted by a little art,
nowhere appeared with more fplendour than on this
iiland. Water is not fo plentiful here as at the Socie¬
ty iflands •, but the chief pointed out a pool of frefti
water unafked, to fupply the (hips with that neceffary
article. Cafuarinas, pandangs, and wild fago palms,
appear here with their various tints of green, and bar-
ringtonise as big as the loftieft oaks. The bread-fruit
does not, however, thrive here wdth the fame luxuri¬
ance as at the Society iflands •, the coral rock, which
compofes the bafis of this fpot, being much more thin¬
ly covered with mould.
Both men and women are of the common fize of
Europeans, and their colour is that of a lightilh cop¬
per ; they are well (haped, have regular features, are
active, brilk, and lively. They have fine eyes, and
in general good teeth, even to an advanced age. The
w'omen are the merrieft creatures imaginable, and in-
ceffant talkers. In general, they appear to be modeft;
although there was no want of thofe of a different
ftamp. Among the natives, who fwam about the (hip
'very vociferoufly, wrere a confiderable number of wro-
men, w’ho wantoned in the water like amphibious
creatures, and w7eie eafily perfuaded to come on board
perfectly naked •, but none of them ventured to (lay
there after funfet, but returned to the ftiore to pafs the
night, like the greater part of the inhabitants, under
the (hade of the wild wrood w7hich lined the coaft.
There they lighted great fires, and w’ere heard con-
verfing almoft the whole night. The hair of both
fexes in general is black, but efpecially that of the
women j both fexes wear it (hort, except a fingle lock
on the top of the head, and a fmall quantity on each
fide. The men cut or (have their beards quite clofe j
which operation they perform w ith two (hells. The
hair of many wras obferved to be burnt at the ends, and
ftrewed with a white powder, which was found, on
examining it, to be lime made of (hell or coral, which
had corroded or burnt the hair •, fome made ufe of a
blue powrder, and others, both men and wromen, of an
orange coloured powder made of turmeric.
* The drefs of both fexes confifts of a piece of cloth
i or matting wrapped round the waift, and hanging
' down below the knees. From the waift upwards they
i I
are generally naked ; and it feems to be a cuftom to An-.fteN
anoint thefe parts every morning. The practice of
tattowfng, or puncturing the (kin, likewiie prevails. 1 . --  *.
The men are tattowed from the middle of the thigh to
above the hips •, the women have it only on their arms
and fingers, and on thofe parts but very (lightly.
Their ornaments are amulets, necklaces, and bracelets,
the bone, (hells, and beads of mother-of-pearl, tortoife-
flrell, &c. which are worn by men as W'ell as women.
The women alfo w?ear on their fingers neat rings made
of tortoife-ftiell, and pieces in their ears about the fize
of a fmall quill : but here ornaments are not common¬
ly wmrn, though all have their ears pierced. They
have alfo a curious apron, made of the cocoa-nut (hell;
and compofed of a number of fmall pieces fewed to¬
gether in fuch a manner as to form liars, half-moons,
little fquares, &c.; it is ftudded with beads and (hells,
and covered with red feathers, fo as to have a pleafing
effedl. They make the fame kind of cloth, and of
the fame materials, as at Otaheite, though they have
not fuch a variety, nor do they make any fo fine ;
but as they have a method of glazing it, it is more
durable, and wall refill rain for fome time, which the
other cloth would not. Their colours are black,
brown, yellowq purple, and red ‘y all made from vege¬
tables. 1’hey make various forts of matting, fome of
a very fine texture, wkich is generally ufed for cloth¬
ing •, and the thick and llronger fort ferves to deep
upon, and to make fails for their canoes, See. Among
other ufeful utenfils, they have various forts of balkets,
fome made of the fame materials as their mats, and
others of the twifted fibres of cocoa-nuts. Thefe are
not only durable, but beautiful, being generally com¬
pofed of difterent colours, and ftudded with beads
made of (hells or bones. They have many little nick-
nacks among them, which (how that they neither
want tafte to defign, nor (kill to execute, whatever
they take in hand. Their fiihing implements are much
the fame as in other iflands : here w’as purchafed a
fifh-net made like our cafting nets, knit of very firm
though (lender threads.
Notwithftanding their friendly difpofition, thefe peo¬
ple have very formidable weapons j fome of their fpears
have many barbs, and muft be vefy dangerous weapons
when they take effeft. A large flat (hell or breaft-
plate wras purchafed, made of a roundilh bone, white
and polifhed like ivory, about 18 inches in diametei,
wThich appeared to have belonged to an' animal of the
whale tribe.
AMULET, a charm, or prefervative againft mif-
chief, witchcraft, or difeafes.
Amulets were made of (tone, metal, fimples, ani¬
mals, and in a word of every thing that imagination
fuggefted.
Sometimes they confided of words, charaflers, and
fentences, ranged in a particular order, and engraved
upon ■wood, ■ &.c. and worn about the neck, or fome
other part of the body. See Abracadabra.
At other times they were neither written nor engrav¬
ed ’-i but prepared with many iuperftitious ceremonies,
great regard being ufually paid to the influence of the
(tars. The Arabians have given to this fpecies of a-
mulet the name of talisman.
All nations have been fond of amulets : the Jews
were extremely iupeififticus in the ufe of them, to
drive
ArfWilet,
Amurat.
AMU [ j
drive away difeafes: and the Mifhna forbids them, un-
lefs received from an approved man who had cured at
lead: three perfons before by the fame means.
Among the Chriftians of the early times, amulets
wrere made of the wood of the crofs, or ribbands with
a text of Scripture written in them, as prefervatives
againft difeafes. Notwithftanding the progrefs of learn¬
ing and refinement, there is not any country in Eu¬
rope, even at this day, where they do not believe in Ibme
charm or other. The pope is fuppofed to have the vir¬
tue of making amulets, wrhich he exercifes in the con-
fecrating of Agnus Dn^Sy &tc. The fponge which has
wiped his table, was formerly in great veneration as a
prefervative from wounds, and from death itfelf: on
this account it was fent wdth great folemnity by Gre¬
gory II. to the duke of Aquitain.
Amulets are now much fallen from the repute they
Were anciently in •, yet the great Mr Boyle alleges them
as an inftance of the ingrefs of external effluvia into
the habit, in order to fhow the great porofity ol the
human body. He adds, that he is perfuaded fome of
thefe external medicines do anfwer j for that he him-
felf, having once been fubjedl to bleed at the nofe, and
reduced to ufe feveral remedies to check it, found the
mofs of a dead man’s Ikull, though only applied fo as
to touch the Ikin till the mofs was wTarm thereby, the
moll effectual of any. The fame Mr Boyle fhowrs how
the effluvia, even of cold amulets, may, in courfe of
time, pervade the pores of a living animal j by fuppof-
ing an agreement between the pores of the Ikin and
the figure of the corpufcles. Bellini has attempted to
demonftrate the poffibility of the thing in his laft pro-
pofitions De Febribus; and the like is done by Dr
Wainwright, Dr Keill, &c,
AMURAT, or Amurath I. the fourth emperor
of the Turks, and one of the greatell princes of the
Ottoman empire, fucceeded Solyman in 1360. He
took from the Greeks Gallipoli, Thrace, and Adriano-
ple, which laft he chofe for the place of his refidence.
He defeated the prince of Bulgaria, conquered Mifnia,
chaftifed his rebellious bafhaws, and is faid to have gain¬
ed 36 battles. This prince, in order to form a body
‘of devoted troops that might ferve as the immediate
guards of his perfon and dignity, appointed his offi¬
cers to fcize annually, as the imperial property, the
fifth part of the Chriftian youth taken in war. Thefe,
after being inftrufled in the Mahometan religion, inu¬
red to obedience by fevere difcipline, and trained to
warlike exercifes, were formed into a body diftinguiih-
vd by the name of Jani/Jaries, or New S-iIdlers. E-
very fentiment which enthufiafm can infpire, every
mark of diftinftion that the favour of the prince could
confer, were employed in order to animate this body
with martial ardour, and with a confcioufnefs of its own
pre-eminence. The Janiffaries foon became the chief
llrength and pride of the Ottoman armies, and were
diftinguifhed above all the troops whofe duty it was to
attend on the perfon of the fultan.—-At length the
death of Lazarus, defpot of Servia, who had endea¬
voured in vain to flop the progrefs of Amurath’s arms,
touched Milo, one of his lervants, in fo fenfible a man¬
ner, that, in revenge, he ftabbed the fultan in the
inidft of his troops, and killed him upon the fpot,
A. D. 1389, after he had reigned 23 years.
Am ur at 11, the 10th emoeror of the Turks, was
Vol. II. Part I.
61 ] AMU
the eldeft fon of Mahomet I. and fucceeded his fa- Amurrifl-i.,
ther in 1421. He befieged Conftantinople and Bel- J v
grade without fuccefsj but he took Theffalonica from
the Venetians, and compelled the prince of Bolnia
and John Caftriot prince of Albania to pay him tri¬
bute. He obliged the latter to fend his three 1’ons as
hoftages ; among whom was George, celebrated in hi-
ftory by the name of Scanderbeg. John Hunniades de¬
feated Amurat’s troops, and obliged him to make peace
with the Chriftian princes, in 1442. Thefe princes
afterwards breaking the peace, Amurat defeated them
in the famous battle of Varna, November 10th, 1444,
wfflich proved fo fatal to the Chriftians, and in which
Ladiflaus king of Hungary was killed. He after¬
wards defeated Hunniades, and killed above 20,000
of his men ; but George Caftriot, better known by
the name of Scanderbeg, being re-eftablilhed in the
eftates of his father, defeated the Turks feveral times,
and obliged Amurat to raife the fiege of Croia, the
capital of Albania. Amurat died, chagrined with
his ill fuccefs, and infirm with age, February iith,
1451, at Adrianople. It is obferved to this prince’s
honour, that he always kept his treaties with the great-
eft fidelity.
AMURATH IV. furnamed the Valiant, was the
fon of Achmet I. and in the year 1622, at the age of
13 fucceeded his uncle Muftapha. Bagdad fell into
the hands of the Perfians, and feveral other difaftrous
events clouded the commencement of his reign. The
pacha of Erzerum had raifed the ftandard of rebellion
in the former reign $ and, continuing his oppofition, he
overran many of the provinces of LelTer Alia. But
the military talents of the fultan were foon roufed to
exertion 5 and, making peace with Germany, he hatten
ed with a formidable army t6 regain Bagdad. But new
rebellions in his Afiatic dominions, and feveral other
caufes, prevented him from recovering the city. The
Spahis alfo rebelled at home, and feveral viziers were
{lain during the tumults of the Porte.
The natural difpofitions of the young monarch were
ill adapted to his fituation, and extremely deftruftive
to his people. It is reported, that a fiaflt of lightning
ruffling into his chamber during the darknefs of the
night, ftrongly impaired his reafon, and produced u
violence and intemperance of charafler which remain¬
ed to the end of his days. It was therefore nothing
more than reafonable to exped: that his policy lirould
be variable and inconftant j it appears, however, that
he adively refifted the foes wrho prelfed upon his do¬
minions from different quarters. The recovery of
Bagdad being ftill his favourite objed, in the year
1637, he again marched againft it; and after 30
days of unremitting affault, with the expence of much
blood, he took poffeflion of the city. By pufhing his
men forward to the attack by the point of the icimi-
tar; and, by flaughtering 30,000 Perfians in cold
blood after their furrender, he difplayed the brutal fe¬
rocity of his difpofition. One perfon alone is report¬
ed to have moved his obdurate heart on the prefent
occafion. A famous player upon the harp entreated
thole who were fent to maffacre him, to allow him to
fpeak to the fultan previous to his death. ■ Informed
who he was, the fultan requefted him to give a Ipeci-
men of his {kill in his profeftion : with this he readily
complied, and touched bis harp fo meludioufly, d
X hlllg
A M IT • [
Am'x'11'1’ Pat^e^c drains the lamentations on the tra-
■ ‘‘c~. gedy of Bagdad, intermixed with the praifes of Amu-
rath, that the hard heart ol the cruel monarch being at
length foftened, he melted into tears, and faved both
the mufician and the remaining inhabitants. The lofs
fuilained by the Perfians at this time, fo reduced their
military ftr^ngth, that they were unable for a long pe¬
riod to attach the Ottoman empire.
The violence of Amurath foon enfeebled his con-
ftitution ; and the fruits of his debaucheries and ex-
ceiles were obvious even in the prime of life. At
the age of 31, he fell a viftim to an excefs of revel¬
ling in the feaif of Bair am, in the year 1640. Be¬
holding his end approaching, he is reported to have
given orders to affaffinate his brother, in order to fecure
the throne ior his favourite Muftapha ; but the affec¬
tion of his mother prevented the cruel mandate from be¬
ing carried into effeff. The manners and amorous
adventures of this monarch have afforded materials
for numerous Turkiih defcriptions full of extrava¬
gance, Angularity, and cruelty. He furpaffed all his
predeceffors in the abominable vice of intoxication,
and even violated the eftablifhed law's of the country,
by iffuing an edi£t permitting the fale and ufe of wine.
But, as if it was not fufficient to violate the common
law, he alfo oppofed himfelf to the common ufage of
the country, by fhutting up the coffeehoufes, and pro¬
hibiting opium and tobacco upon the pain of death.
The wanton cruelty of this prince was almoft unex¬
ampled. During his hours of diffipation, he would
ruff forth into the ffreets with a drawn fword in his
hand, and cut in pieces all the unhappy peifons who
chanced to be in his way. Nay, even in his calmeff
moments, he often difcharged arrows from his upper
■windows at the innocent paffengers as they went
along. In ffort, to luch extravagance did his cruelty
extend, that the very name of Amurath carried ter¬
ror along with it, and the opium-chewers fell into
fits upon the Ample mention thereof. The number of
perfpns that fell vi&ims to his cruelty during a reign
of 1 7 years, amounted to no lefs than 14,000 ; among
whom were many officers of high power and diitinc-
tion in the Hate. The meannefs of his difpoAtions,
however, manifefted themlelves in his defcending to
familiarities with his favourites, and even joining in
the meaneft lervxces. He alfo difplayed a Angular hu¬
mour in making marriages between old men and girls,
and young men and women of fourfcore. It may,
however, on the whole, be affcrted, that if he had not
been intoxicated with wine and power, the qualities
of his mind and body might have rendered him a more
refpedlable member of fociety. He wras very remark¬
able for fwiftnefs of foot ancf dexterity in drawing the
bowr. The reverfes of fortune made fmall impreffion
on his mind, and he purfued with refolute Armnefs
any objeft in which he ferioufly engaged. Diffem-
bling, avaricious, and blafphemous, he gave full proof,
that his moral qualities were greatly depraved. I Mod.
Un. Hi/i. Gen. Bioq.)
AMYCLiE, a city of Laconia, diftant about 18
miles from the metropolis, founded by Amyclas the
for. of Lacedaemon, and famed afterw'aids for the birth
of CaAor and Pollux the fons of Tyndarus, eighth
king of Sparta. It wras afterwards famed for fending
a conAderable colony of its own inhabitants into Upper .
a m y
C alahria, who built there a city which they called by Amygdalus
the fame name. This lait city wTas Atuated between It
Cajeta and 1 erracina, and gave its name to the neigh., Ain)ot‘ *
bouring lea. According to’ Pliny and Solinus, the
territory of Amyclte was fo infefted with vipers and
other ferpents, that the inhabitants were obliged to
abandon their dwellings and fettle elfewhere. Among
the ancient poets, the Amycli, or inhabitants of this
city, obtained the epithet of tacit i, “ Aleut.” The rea-
fon of this was, either becaufe it was built by the La¬
cedaemonians, who, as they followed the doctrine of
Pythagoras, were always inculcating the precept of
Alence, and thence called taciti: or becaufe of a law
which obtained in this place, forbidding any one, un¬
der fevere penalties, to mention the approach of an
enemy. Before this law was made, the city was daily
alarmed by falle reports, as the enemy had been already
at the gates. From terrors of this kind the above-men¬
tioned law indeed delivered them ; but, in the end, it
proved the ruin of the city : for the Dorians appear¬
ing unexpectedly under the walls, no one ventured to *
tranfgrefs the law j fo that the city was eaAly taken.
1 hey reduced it to an inconAderable hamlet; in which,
however, were feen fome of the remains of its ancient
grandeur. One of the Aneft buildings that efcaped the
common ruin, was the temple and ffatue of Alexandra,
whom the inhabitants pretended to be the fame with
Caffandra the daughter of Priam.
AMYGDALUS, the Almond and Peach. See
Botany Index.
AMYLACEOUS, from amylum, 11 ftarch j” a term
applied to the Ane flour of farinaceous feeds, in which
conAfts their nutritive part. See Bread.
AMY NT A, in Literary Hi/lory, a beautiful paftoral
comedy, compofed by Taffo ; the model of all drama¬
tic pieces wherein fhepherds are aftors. The Fajior
Fidoy and Filli di Sciro, are only copies of this excel¬
lent piece.
AMYNTOR, e£44vvT<v£, formed of the verb xfivvai, I
defend or avenge, properly denotes a perfon who de¬
fends or vindicates a caufe, In this fenfe, Mr Toland
entitles his defence of Milton’s life, Aniyntor, as being
a vindication of that work againft Mr Blackball and
others, who had charged him w ith queftioning the au¬
thority of fome of the books of the New Tellament,
and declaring his doubt that feveral pieces under the
name of Chrift and his Apoltles, received now by the
whole Chriftian church, were fuppoAtitious.
AMYOT, James, bifliop of Auxerre and great al¬
moner of Frf.nce, was born of an obfcure family at Me-
lun, the 30th of OCIober 1514, and ftudied philolophy
at Paris, in the college of Cardinal Le Moine. He
was naturally dull and heavy •, but diligence and appli¬
cation made amends for thele natural defefts. He left
Paris at the age of 23 \ and went to Bourges with
the Sieur Colin, wffio had the abbey of St Ambrofe
in that city. At the recommendation of this abbot,
a fecretary of ftate took Amyot into his houfe to be
tutor to his children. The great improvements they
made under his direflion induced the fecx-etary to re¬
commend him to the Princefs Margaret duchefs of
Berry, only After of Fraxxcis I. and by means of this
recommendation Amyot w'as made public profeflor of
Greek and Latin ixx the univerAty of Bourges. It
was during tills time he tranflated into French the
1 “ Amours
!6a 1
/
Aaiyral.
difm
!!
Ana.
A N A r i53 ]
Amours of Theagines and Chanclea,” which Fran- title in Ana.
cis 1. was fo pleafed with, that he conferred upon him
the abbey of Bellofane, He alfo tranflated Plutarch’s
^ Lives, which he dedicated to the king ; and after¬
wards undertook that of Plutarch’s Morals which he
ended in the reign of Charles IX. and dedicated to
that prince. Charles conferred upon him the abbey of
St Cornelius de Compiegne, and made him great al¬
moner of France and bilhop of Auxerre. He died in
1593,aged 79.
AMYRALDISM, a name given by fome writers
to the doftrine of univerfal grace, as explained and af-
ferted by Amyraldus, or Moles Amyrault, and others
his followers, among the reformed in France, towards
the middle of the 17th century.
This dodlrine principally confifted of the following
particulars, viz. that God dejires the happinefs of all
men, and none are excluded by a divine decree ; that
none can obtain falvation without faith in Chrift ; that
God refufes to none the power of believing, though he
does not grant to all his affillance, that they may im¬
prove this power to laving purpofes ; and that many
perilh through their owm fault. Thofe who embraced
this doClrine were called Vniverfalijh; though it is
evident they rendered grace univerfal in w'ords, but
partial in reality, and are chargeable with -greater in-
confiliencies than the Supralapfarians.
AMYRAULT, Moses, an eminent French Pro-
teilant divine, born at Bourgueil in Touraine in T566.
He lludied at Saumur, where he was chofen profeiTbr
of theology ; and his learned works gained him the
efteem of Catholics as well as Proteftants, particularly
of Cardinal Richelieu, who confulted him on a plan of
reuniting their churches, which however, as may well
be fuppofed, came to nothing. He publifhed a piece in
which he attempted to explain the myftery of predef-
tination and grace, wdiich occafioned a controverfy
between him and 1’ome other divines. He alfo wrote,
An Apology for the Protellants; a Paraphrafe on the
New Teftamentj and feveral other books. This emi¬
nent divine died in 1664.
AMYRIS. See Botany Index.
ANA, among Phyjicians, denotes a quantity equal
to that of the preceding ingredient. It is abbreviated
thus, aa, or a.
Ana, in Matters of Literature, a Latin termination,
adopted into the titles of feveral books in other lan¬
guages.—or books in ana, are colle&ions of the
memorable fayings of perfons of learning and wut j
much the fame with what we otherwife call table-talk.
Wolfius has given the hillory of books in ana, in
the preface to the Cafauboniana. He there obferves,
that though fuch titles be new, the thing itfelf is very
old \ that Xenophon’s books of the deeds and fayings
of Socrates, as well as the dialogues of Plato, are So-
cratiana; that the apophthegms of the philofophers
collefted by Diogenes Laertius, the fentenccs of Py¬
thagoras and thofe of Epictetus, the works of Athe-
meus, Stobeus, and divers others, are fo many anas.
Even the Gemara of the Jews, with feveral other ori¬
ental writings, according to Wolfius, properly belong
to the fame clafs. To this head of ana may likewife
be referred the Orphica, the Pythagoraea, AEfopica,
Pyrrhonea, &c.
Scaligerana was the firlt piece that appeared with a
ANA
It was compofed by Ban de Vafian, a Armbag-
young Champanois, recommended to Jof. Scaliger by
Cataubon. Being much with Scaliger, who was daily
vifited by the men of learning at Leyden, De VafTan > —v—
wrote down whatever things of any moment he heard
Scaliger fay. And thus arofe the Scaligerana, which
was not printed till many years after, at Geneva in
1666. Patin. Let. 431.—Soon after came the Perro-
niana, Thuana, Naudaeana, Patineana, Sorberiana, Me-
nagiana, Anti-Menagiana, Furetiana, Chevraeana,
Leibnitziana, Arlequiniana, Poggiana, &c.
ANABAPTISTON, the fame v.ith Abaptifton.
ANABAPTISTS, a name winch has been indil-
criminately applied to Chriftians of very different prin¬
ciples and pra6Hees; though many of them object to
the denomination, and hold nothing in common, be-
fides the opinion that baptilm ought always to be per¬
formed by immerfion, and not adminiftered before the
age of diferetion.
The word Anabaptift is compounded of ttvet, “ new,”
and /SfiCTTTiFtfG, “ a baptiltand in this fenfe the Nova-
tians, the Cataphrygians, and the Donatifts, may be
confidered as a kind of Anabaptifts in the earlier ages,
though not then denoted by this name y for they con¬
tended, that thofe Chriftians of the Catholic church
who joined themfelves to their refpedlive parties ftiould
be rebaptized. But we muft not clafs under the fame
denomination thofe bifhops of Afia and Africa, who,
in the third century, maintained, that baptifm admi¬
niftered by thofe whom they called heretics was not
valid, and therefore that fuch of them as returned in¬
to their churches ought to be rebaptized. Nor do the
Englilh and Dutch Baptifts confider the denomination
as at all applicable to their fe£t: by whom the baptifm
appointed by Cbrift is held to be “ nothing Ihort of
immerfion upon a perfonal profeffon of faith ; of w hich
profeflion infants being incapable, and fprinkling be¬
ing no adequate fymbol of the thing intended, the
baptizing of profelytes to their communion, who in
their infancy had undergone the ceremony of fprink-
Hng, cannot, it is urged, be interpreted a repetition of
the baptifmal ordinance.
Anabaptifts, in a ftrift and proper fenfe, appear to
be thofe who not only rebaptxze, when they arrive at
an adult age, perfons that were baptized in their in¬
fancy, but alio, as often as any perfon comes from
one of their fefts to another, or as often as any one is
excluded from their communion and again received
into the bofom of their church, they baptize him.
And fuch were many of the German Baptifts. But
the fingle opinion common to all the fefts to which the
name of Anabaptijls has been indiferiminately applied,
is that of the invalidity of infant baptifm, in whatever
way adminiftered : And hence the general denomina¬
tion of Antipadobaptifs ; which includes Anabaptifts,
Baptifts, Mennonites, Waterlandians, &c. as diftin-
guilhed by their refpe&ive peculiarities; though Ana-
bap t if s teems to have been adopted by molt writers as
the general term.
To the above peculiar notion concerning the bap¬
tifmal facrament, the Anabaptifts added principles of
a different nature, depending upon certain ideas which
they entertained concerning a perfect church eftablifh-
ment, pipe in its members, and free from the inftitu-
tions of human policy.
X 2
The
ANA [ i
:ibap- The Anabaptifts appear to have made little noife,
, or to have been little noticed, before the time of the
reformation in Germany. The moft prudent and ra¬
tional part of them confidered it poflible, by human
wifdom, induftry, and vigilance, to purify the church
from the contagion of the wicked, provided the man¬
ners and fpirit of the primitive Chriflians could but
recover their loft dignity and luftre 5 and feeing the at¬
tempts of Luther, feconded by feveral perfons of emi¬
nent piety, prove fo fuccefsful, they hoped that the
happy period was arrived in which the reftoration of
the church to purity was to be accompliftied, under
the divine prote&ion, by the labours and counfels of
pious and eminent men. Others, far from being fatis-
fied with the plan of reformation propofed by Luther,
looked upon it as much beneath the fublimity of their
views 5 and confequently undertook a more perfecft re¬
formation, or, to exprefs more properly their vifionary
enterprife, they propofed to found a new church, en¬
tirely fpiritual, and truly divine.
This fe6f was loon joined by great numbers, and
(as ufually happens in hidden revolutions of this na¬
ture) by many perfons, whofe characters and capacities
were very different, though their views feemed to turn
upon the fame'objeft. Their progrefs was rapid j for,
in a very fhort fpace of time, their difcourfes, vifions,
and predictions, excited commotions in a great part of
Europe, and drew into their communion a prodigious
multitude, whofe ignorance rendered them eafy victims
to the illulions of enthufiaftn. The moft pernicious
faCtion of all thofe which compofed this motley mul¬
titude, was that which pretended that the founders of
the new and perfeEt church, already mentioned, were
under the direction of a divine impulfe, and were arm¬
ed again ft all oppofition by the power of working mi¬
racles. It was this faCtion that, in the year 1521,
began their fanatical work, under the guidance of
Munzer, Stubner, Storck, &c.
Thefe perlons were difciples of Luther; but well
knowing that their opinions were fuch as would receive
no fanCtion from him, they availed themfelves of his
abfence to diffeminate them in Wittenburg, and had
the addrefs to overreach the piety of MelanClhon.
Their principal purpofe was to gain over the populace,
and to form a conftderable party. To effeCt this, fays
Bayle, they were induftrious and aCtive, each in his
own way. Storck wanting knowledge, boafted of in-
Ipiration ; and Stubner, who had both genius and eru¬
dition, laboured at commodious explications of Scrip¬
ture. Not content with difcrediting the court of
Rome, and decrying the authority of conftftories, they
taught, That among Chriftians, who had the precepts
of the gofpel to direCf, and the Spirit of God to guide
them, the office of magiftracy was not only unnecef-
fary, but an unlawful encroachment on their fpiritual
f liberty : that the diftinftions occafioned by birth, or
rank, or wealth, being contrary to the fpirit of the
gofpel, which conffders all men as equal, ftiould be en¬
tirely abohfhed ; that all Chriftians, throwing their
poffeflions into one common ftock, ftiould live together
in that ftate of equality which becomes members of
the fame family ; that as neither the laws of nature
nor the precepts of the New Teftament had placed any
i*ftraint upon men with regard to the number of wives
64 ] ANA
which they might marry, they fliould ufe that liberty
which God himlelf had granted to the patriarchs.
'I hey employed at firft the various arts of perfuafion
in order to propagate their doftrine. They preached,
exhorted, admoniihed, and reafoned, in a manner that
feemed proper to imprefs the multitude ; and related a
great number of vifions and revelations with which
they pretended to have been favoured from above. But
when they faw that thefe methods of making profelytes
were not attended with fuch a rapid fuccefs as they
fondly expefted, and that the miniftry of Luther and
other eminent reformers w'as detrimental to their caufe,
they then had recourfe to more expeditious meafures,
and madly attempted to propagate their fanatical doc¬
trine by force of arms. Munzer and his affociates, in
the year 1525, put themfelves at the head of a numer¬
ous army, compofed for the moft part of the peafants
of Suabia, Thuringia, Franconia, and Saxony; and
declared war againli all larvs, government, and magi-
ftrates of every kind, under the chimerical pretext that
Chrift wTas now to take the reins of civil and ecclefiafti-
cal government into his own hands, and to rule alone
over the nations. But this feditious crowd was routed
and difperfed, without much difficulty, by the ele<ftor
of Saxony and other princes ; and Munzer their ring¬
leader ignominioufty put to death, and his factious
counfellors fcattered abroad in different places.
Many of his followers, however, furvived and pro¬
pagated their opinions through Germany, Switzerland,
and Holland. In the year 1533, a party of them fet¬
tled at Munfter under the direction of two Anabaptift
prophets, John Matthias a baker of Haerlem, and
John Bockholdt a journeyman taylor.of Leyden. Ha¬
ving made themfelves mafters of the city, they depofed
the magiftrates, confifcated the eftates of fuch as had
efcaped, and depofited the wealth they amaffed toge¬
ther in a public trealury for common ufe. They made
preparations of every kind for the defence of the city :
and fent out emiffaries to the Anabaptifts in the Low
Countries, inviting them to afiemble at Munfter, which
was now dignified with the name of Mount Sion, that
from hence they might be deputed to reduce all the
nations of the earth under their dominion. Matthias,
wdio was the firft in command, was foon cut oft in an aH
of frenzy by the biflrop of Munfter’s army ; and was
fucceeded by Bockholdt, who was proclaimed bv a
fpecial defignation of Heaven, as he pretended, king
of Sion, and invefted with legiflative powers like thole
of Mofes. The extravagancies of Bcckholdt were too
numerous to be recited : it will be lufticient to add,
that the city of Munfter was taken after a long liege
and an obftinate refiftance ; and Bockholdt, the mock
monarch, was punilhed with a moft painful and igno¬
minious death.
It muft, however, be acknowledged, that the true
rife of the numerous infurreftions of this period ought
not to be attributed to religious opinions. The firft
infurgents groaned under the moft grievous oppref-
fions; they took up arms principally in defence o£
their civil liberties ; and of the commotions that took
place, the Anabaptift leaders above mentioned feem
rather to have availed themfelves, than to have been
the prime movers. See the article Reformation.—-
That a great part of the main body, indeed, confifted
Anabap¬
tifts.
ANA [ 165 ] A N A
Anabap- of Anabaptlfls, feems indifputable j and whatever fana-
rifts ticiim exifted among them would naturally be called
An ibo f°rth or be inflamed by the fituations that occurred,
laeum. ar>d run riot in its wildeft fliapes. At the fame time
——V~ J it appears from hiftory, that a great part alfo con-
lifted of Roman Catholics, and a ftill greater of per-
fons who had fcarcely any religious principles at all.
Indeed, when we read of the vaft numbers that were
concerned in thofe infurredlions, of whom it is report¬
ed that 100,000 fell by the fword, it appears reafon-
able to conclude that a great majority of them were
not Anabaptifts.
Before concluding this article, it muft be remarked,
that the Baptifts or Mennonites in England and Hol¬
land are to be confidered in a very different light from
the enthufiafts w'e have been defcribing : And it ap¬
pears equally uncandid and invidious, to trace up their
diltinguilhing fentiment, as fome of their adverfaries
have done, to thofe obnoxious charafters, and there to
ftop, in order as it were to affociate with it the ideas
of turbulence and fanaticifm, with which it certainly
has no natural connexion. Their coincidence with
fome of thofe oppreffed and infatuated people in deny¬
ing baptifm to infants, is acknowledged by the Bap¬
tifts : but they difavow the pra&ice which the appella¬
tion of Anabaptijh implies; and their dodlrines feem
referable to a more ancient and refpeclable origin.
They appear fupported by hiftory in conftdering them-
felves as the defcendants of the Waldenfes, wdro were
fo grievoufly oppreffed and perfecuted by the defpotic
heads of the Romilh hierarchy ; and they profefs an
equal averflon to all principles of rebellion on one
hand, and to all fuggeftions of fanaticifm on the other.
See Baptists. The denomination of T/e«/yo«zV(?r, by
which they are diftinguiftied in Holland, they derive
from Menno, the famous man who latterly gave con-
fiftence and liability to their feet. See Mennonites.
ANABASII, in Antiquity, were couriers wrho were
feat on horfeback or in chariots, with defpatches of
importance.
ANABASIS. See Botany Index.
ANAB ATHRA, in Ancient Writers, denotes a
kind of flops or ladder whereby to afccnd to fome emi¬
nence. In this fenfe wre read of the anabathra of
theatres, pulpits, &c. Anabathra appears to have
been fometimes alfo applied to ranges of feats riling
gradually over each other.
Anabathra is more particularly applied to a kind
ot ftone blocks railed by the highway lides, to aflift
travellers in mounting or alighting, before the ufe. of
ftirrups was invented. The nrft author of this contri¬
vance among the Romans was C. Gracchus brother of
”1 iberius.
ANABLEPS, in Ichthyology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of cobitis. See Cobitis.
AN ABO A, a fmall ifland lituated near the coaft of
Loango in Africa, in E. Long. 90, N: Lat. i°. Here
are feveral fertile valleys, which produce plenty of ba¬
nanas, oranges, pine apples, lemons, citrons, tama¬
rinds, cocoa nuts, &c. together with vaft quantities of
cotton. In this illand are two high mountains, which,
being continually covered with clouds, occaiion fre¬
quent rains.
ANABOLiEUM, or Anabole, in Antiquity, a
kind of great or upper coat, wTorn over the tunica*
ANABOLEUS, in Antiquity, an appellation given Au
to grooms of the liable, or equerries, who aftifted their ^
mailers in mounting their horles. As the ancients had ^
no ftirrups, or inftruments that are nowT in ufe for
mounting a horfe, they either jumped upon his back,
or v’ere aided in mounting by anabolei.
ANACALYPTERIA, according to Suidas, wrere
prefents made to the bride by her hufband’s relations
and friends, when Ihe firft uncovered her face and lhowr-
ed herfelf to men. Thefe prefents were alfo called
imuvXouu, : for, among the Greeks, virgins before mar¬
riage were under ftridl confinement, being rarely per¬
mitted to appear in public, or converfe with the other
fex •, and when allowed that liberty, wrore a veil over
their faces, termed KxXvTfl^ov, or KxXvtUpx, which was
not left off in the prefence of men till the third day af¬
ter marriage j whence, according to Hefychius, this
day was alio called anacalypterion.
ANACAMPSEROS, in Botany, a fynonime of the
portulaca and feveral other plants.
ANACAMPTERIA, in Ecclejia/licat Antiquity, a
kind of little edifices adjacent to the churches, defigned
for the entertainment of ftrangers and poor perfons.
ANACAMPTIC, a name applied by the ancients
to that part of optics which treats of rtfledlion, being
the fame with wdrat is now called Catoptrics.
ANACARDIUM, or cashew-nut tree. See.
Botany Index.
ANACEPHAL/EOSIS, in Rhetoric, the fame
with Recapitulation. See Recapitulation.
ANACHARSIS, a Scythian philofopher, who liv¬
ed about 600 years before Chrift. His father wras one
of the chiefs of his nation, and married a woman of
Greece. Inftructed in the Greek language by his
mother, he caught the flame for Grecian literature,
and prevailed upon the king to intruft him with an
embaffy to Athens. Arrived in that renowned ci¬
ty, he was introduced to Solon by one of his own
countrymen, named Foxar 's ; and it is reported, that
wrhen he came to the door of Solon, he requefted a
fervant to inform his mafter, that Anacharfis a Scy-
tliian was at the door, and was defirous of being re¬
ceived as his friend and gueft. Solon is faid to have,
returned for anfwer, that “ friendlhips are beft formed
at home.” To this the Scythian philofopher replied,.
“ then let Solon who is at home, make me his friend
and receive me into his houfe.” Solon was fo afto-
niftied at the propriety of this reply, that he gave
him admittance 5 and, finding him upon farther ac¬
quaintance worthy of his confidence, he honoured him.
with his friendlhip. Fromfuch a well qualified mafter,
Anacharfis rapidly acquired a knowledge of the wif-
dom of Greece, and the literature then in circulation..
By the influence of Solon he was introduced to the
principal chara&ers of Athens, and was the firft ftran-
ger who was honoured with the title of citizen by the
Athenians.
After he had refided feveral years at Athens, he
travelled through different countries in queft of know¬
ledge, and then returned to his native country in¬
flamed with the defire of inftrudling them in the laws
and the religion of the Greeks. But his countrymen
were not prepared to profit by his inftruftions ; and
while he was performing facrifice to the goddefs Cy-
bele, correfpondent to a vow which he had made on
his-
A' N A
Anachoret his way home, he was ilain by an arrow, faid to have
3 proceeded from the king’s own hand. Thus fell the
u-, Scythian philofopher a vidim to the folly and igno¬
rance of his countrymen, who wantonly rejected the
wifdom and learning of Greece.
The energetic manner in which he was accuftomed
to exprefs himfelf, gave birth to the proverbial faying,
“ Scythian eloquence.” Although the potter’s wheel
was invented in the days of Homer, fome have inac¬
curately afcribed its invention to Anacharfis. The
following ingenious fayings maybe mentioned as a fpe-
cimen of his genius. “ The bert way of teaching a
youth fobriety, is to fet before his eyes a drunken
man. The vine bears three forts of fruit ; the fir ft
pleafure, the fecond intoxication, the third remorfe.
An ape is by nature ridiculous ; man by art and ttudy.
An Athenian of bad morals reproached him with be¬
ing a Scythian : to him he replied, “ My country may
be a difgrace to me, but you are a difgrace to your
country.” Some fuppofe, that the epiftles which bear
his name are fpurious, (Gen, Biog.)
ANACHORET, in Church Hjlory, denotes a her¬
mit, or folitary monk, who retires from the fociety of
mankind into fome defert, with a view' to avoid 4he
temptations of the rvorld, and to be more at leifure for
meditation and prayer. Such w^ere Paul, Anthony,
and Hilarion, the firft founders of monaftic life in E-
gypt and Paleftine.
Anachorets, among the Greeks, confift principally
of monks, who retire to caves or cells, with the leave of
the abbot, and an allowance from the monaftery j or
who, weary of the fatigues of the monaftery, purchafe a
fpot of ground, to which they retreat, never appear¬
ing again in the monaftery unlefs on folemn occafions.
ANACHRONISM, in Matters of Literature, an
error with refpeft to chronology, whereby an event is
placed earlier than it really happened.—-The word is
compounded of cmm, “ higher,” and “ time.”
Such is that of Virgil, who placed Dido in Africa at
the time of vEneas, though in reality flie did not come
there till 300 years after the taking of Troy.—An er¬
ror on the other fide, whereby a fa<5t is placed later
and lower than it Ihould be, is called a parachronifm,
ANACEASTIC glasses, a kind of fonorous
phials or glaffes, chiefly made in Germany, which have
the property of being flexible, and emitting a vehe¬
ment noife by the human breath.—They are alfo call¬
ed vexing glaffes by the Germans (vexier glafer), on
account of the fright and diffurbance they occaiion by
their refilition. The anaclaftic glafles are a low kind
of phials with flat bellies, refembling inverted funnels,
whofe bottoms are very thin, fcarce furpafling the
thicknefs of an onion peel: this bottom is not quite
flat, but a little convex. But upon applying the mouth
to the orifice, and gentling infpiring, or as it were
fucking out the air, the bottom gives way with a pro¬
digious crack* and of convex becomes concave. On
the contrary, upon exfpiring or breathing gently into
the orifice of the fame glafs, the bottom with no lefs
noife bounds back to its former place, and becomes
gibbous as before.—The anaclaftic glades firft taken
notice of wrere in the caftle of Gold bach \ where one
of the academifts Naturae Curioforum, having feen and
made experiments on them, published a piece expiefs
en their hiftory and phenomena. They are all made of
ANA
a fine white glafs. It is to be obl'erved, 1. That if Anadaftit*
the bottom be concave at the time of inspiration, it II
rvill bur ft * and the likp will happen if it be convex at ^riacreon-
the time of exipiration. 2. A itrong breath w ill have
the fame effect even under the contrary circumllances.
ANACLASTICS, that part of optics which con-
fiders the refraction of light, and is commonly called
Dioptrics. See Dioptrics.
ANACLL l RRJA, in Antiquity, a folemn feftival
celebrated by the ancients when their kings or princes-
came of age, and ailumed the x'eins of government. It
is fo called, becaui’e proclamation being made of this
event to the people, they went to falute their prince
during the anacleteria, and to congratulate him upon
his newr dignity,
ANACLETICUM, in the Ancient Art of War, a
particular blaft of the trumpet, whereby the fearful
and flying foldiers were rallied, and recalled to com¬
bat.
_ ANACLINOPALE, in Antiquity, a
kind of wreftbng, wherein the champions threw them-
fefves voluntarily on the ground, and continued the
combat by pinching, biting, fcratching, and other me¬
thods of offence. The Anachnopale were contradiftin-
guiftted from the Grthapale, wdierein the champions
itood erefl. In the Anachnopale, the weaker comba¬
tants fometimes gained the viftory.
ANACLINTERIA, in Antiquity, a kind of pil¬
lows on the dining bed, whereon the guefts ufed to
lean. The ancient tricliniery beds had four pillows,
eme at the head, another at the feet, a thud at the
back, and fourth at the breaft. That on which the
head lay, was properly called by the Greeks
or by the Romans jfi/ATw/z, fometimes p/u~
texts,
ANACOLLEMA, a compofition of aftringent
powders, applied by the ancients to the head, to pre¬
vent defluxions on the eyes.
ANACONDO, in Natural Hifory, is a name gi¬
ven in the ifle of Ceylon to a very large and terrible
fnake, which often devours the unfortunate traveller
alive, and is itfelf accounted excellent and delicious
fare. It is probably the Boa ConfriClor,
ANACREON, a Greek poet, born at Teos, a citv
of Ionia, flourifhed about 532 years before the Chri-
ftian era. Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, invited him
to his court, and made him ftiare with him in his buft-
ncl’s and his pleafures. He had a delicate w it, as may
be judged from the inexpreilible beauties and graces
that lliine in his works: but he w?as fond of pleafure,
was of an amorous difpofition, and sddi&ed to drunk-
ennefs: yet, notwithftanding his debaucheries, he liv¬
ed to the age of 85 3 when, w e are told, he was chok¬
ed by a grapeftone which ftuck in his throat as he was
.regaling on fome new wine.
There is but a Imall part of Anacreon’s works that
remain : for, befides his odes and epigrams, he com-
pofed elegies, hymns, and iambics. His poems which
are extant were refeued from oblivion by Henry Ste¬
phens, and are unrverfally admired. The verfes of A-
nacreon are fweeter, fays Scaliger, than Indian fugar*
His beauty and chief excellence, fays Madame Dacier,
lay in imitating nature, and in following reafon j fo
that he prefentedto the mind no images but wdiat were
noble and natural. The odes of Anacreon, lays Ra-
pin,
[ «6<5 ]
ANA
[ i
Anacreon- pin, are flowers, beauties, and perpetual graces ; it is
tIC familiar to him to write what is natural, and to the
Anaduo- an a*r delicate, lo eafy, and graceful,
mene. that among all the ancients there is nothing compara-
l——v——' ble to the method he took, nor to that kind of writing
he followed, lie flows foft and eafy, everywhere dif-
fufing the joy and indolence of his mind through his
verfe, and tuning his harp to the fmooth and pleafant
temper of his foul, But none has given a jufter cha¬
racter of his writings than the God of Love, as taught
Jto Ipeak by IVIr Cowley :
All thy verfe is fofter far
Than the downy feathers are
Of my wings, or of my arrow s,
Of my mother’s doves and fparrows :
Graceful, cleanly, fmooth, or round,
All with Venus’ girdle bound.
ANACREONTIC verse, in Ancient Poetry, a
kind of verfe, fo called from its being much ufed by
the poet Anacreon. It confifls of three feet and a
half, ufually fpondees and iambufes, and fometimes
anapefts : Such is that of Horace,
Lydia, die per ornnes.
ANACRISIS, among the Ancient Greeks, was ufed
for a kind of trial or examination, which the archons
or chief magiflrates of Athens, were to undergo before
their admiffion into that office. The anacrijis Hands
diltinguiflied from the docimajia, which was a fecond
examination in the forum. The anacrifis was per¬
formed in the fenate-houfe. The queftions here pro-
pofed to them were concerning their family, kindred,
behaviour, eftate, &c. Some will have it that all ma-
giilrates underwent the anacrifis.
Anacrisis, among Civilians, an inveftigation of
truth, interrogation of witnefles, and inquiry made in¬
to any fact, efpecially by torture.
ANACROSIS, in Antiquity, denotes a part of the
Pythian fong, wherein the combat of Apollo and Py¬
thon are deferibed.—The anacrofis was the firfl; part,
and contained the preparation to the fight.
ANACYCLUS. See Botany Index.
AN AHA V AHfEA, in Ornithology, a barbarous
name of a ipecies of alauda. See Alauda, Orni¬
thology Index.
AN AD EM A, among the Ancients, denotes an or¬
nament of the head, wherewith victors at the facred
games had their temples bound.
. ANADIALOSJS, in Rhetoric and Poetry, a repe¬
tition of tne iafl: word of a line, or claufe of a fentence,
in the beginning of the next: Thus,
Pierides, vos ha-c facietis maxima Gallo ;
Gallo, cujus amor, &.c.
El matutmis accredula vocihus in flat,
I ocibus viflat, ct afliduas jacit ore querelas.
4 ANADROMOUS, among Ichthyologifls., a name
given to fuch fillies as go from the lea to the frefli wa¬
ters at Hated feafons, and return back again; fuch as
the falmon, &C; See Salmo.
ANADUOMENE \ enus, in the Grecian Mytho¬
logy, anfwered to the Sea Venus in the Roman, and
was the appellation given to one of the chief deities of
the fea. The moft celebrated piflure in ail antiquity
67 ] ANA
was that of this goddefs by Apelles j and the famous Anadagia
Venus of Medicis is a Sea Venus. ||
AN/ED El A, in Antiquity, a denomination given ,Ana&rarn*
to a filver flool placed in the Areopagus, on which the H J
defendant, or perfon accufed, was feated for examina¬
tion. I he word is Greek, Avcflihiy., which imports
imprudence 5 but according to Junius’s corrediion, it
fliould rather be AvaiJix, q. d. innocence. The plaintiff
or accufer, was placed on an oppolite ftool called hy-
It is, or injury ; here he propofed three queltions to the
party accufed, to which pofitive anfwers were to be
given. The firft, Are you guilty of this fa& ? The
fecond, How did you commit the fad >. The third
Who were your accomplices ?
ANfESI PIESIA, fignifies a privation of the
fenfes.
ANAGALIS, pimpernel. See Botany Index.
ANAGNIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of La-
tium, capital of the Hernici ; which, after a faint re-
flltance, iubmitting to the Romans, was admitted to
the freedom of the city, yet without the right of fuf-
frage, (Livy). It was afterwards a colony of Drufus
Caffar, and walled round, and its territory afligned to
the veterans, (Frontinus). Here Antony married
Cleopatra, and divorced Oclavia. Now Anagni, 36
miles to the call of Rome. Long. i}. 15. N. Lat.
42- 44 * * * 8-
ANAGNOSTA, or Anagnostes, in Antiquity,
a kind of literary fervant, retained in the families of
perlons of diflmdlion, whole chief bufinefs was to read
to them during meals, or at any other time when they
were at leifure. Cornelius Nepos relates of Atticus,
that he had always an agnoftes at his meals. He ne¬
ver flipped without reading j fo that the minds of his
guefts were^ no lefs agreeably entertained than their
appetites. The fame cuflom, Eginhard obferves, was
kept up by Charlemagne, who at table had the hillo-
ries and a&s of ancient kings read to him. This cuf-
tom feeros to have been a relick of that of the ancient;
Greeks, who had the praifes of great men and heroes
fang to them while at table. The ancient monks and
cleigy kept up the like ufage, as we are informed by
St Augulfin.
ANAGOGICAL, fignifies myllerious, tranfport-
ing •, and is ufed to exprefs whatever elevates the mind,
not only to the knowledge of divine things, but of di¬
vine things iu the next life. This word is feldom ufed,
but with regard to the different fenfes of Scripture.
The anagogical fenfe is, when the facred text is ex¬
plained with regard to eternal life, the point which
Chriftians ihould have in view : for example, the reft
of the Sabbath, in the anagogical fenfe, fignifies the
repofe of everlafting happinefs.
ANAGOGY, or Anagoge, among Ecclejiajlical
Writers, the elevation of the mind to things celeftial
and eternal. It is particularly ufed, where words, in
their natural or primary meaning, denote fomething
feniible, but have a further view to fomething fpiritual
or invifible.
Anagogy, in a more particular fenfe, denotes the
application of the types and allegories of the Old Te-
ftament to fubjeefs of the New ; thus called, becaufe
the veil being here drawn, what before was hidden is
expofed to open fight.
ANAGRAM (fromthe Greek backwards, and
yippee,
ANA r 1
Magi'atn letter), in matters of literature, a tranfpofition
^ of the letters of fome name, whereby a new w7ord is
. ' . formed, either to the advantage or difadvantage of the
perfon or thing to which the name belongs. Thus, the
anagram of Galenus is angelus ; that of Logica, cah-
go ; that of .Alftedius, fedulitas ; that of Loraine is
alerion, on which account it was that the family of Lo¬
raine took alet'ions for their armoury.—Calvin, in the
title of his Injlitutions, printed at Strafburg in I539»
calls himfelf Alcuinas, which is the anagram of Calvi-
nus, and the name of an eminently learned perfoh in
the time of Charlemagne, who contributed greatly to
the reftoration of learning in that age.
Thofe who adhere ftriftly to the definition of ah
anagram, take no other liberty than that of omitting
or retaining the letter h, at pleafure •, wdiereas others
make no fcruple to ufe e for v forw, s for z, and
c for k j and vice verfa.
Befides anagrams formed as above, we meet with
another kind in ancient writers, made by dividing a
fingle word into feveral; thus, fus tinea inus, are Turn¬
ed out of the word fuJliniamuSi
Anagrams are fometxmes alfo made out of feveral
words: fuch as that oh the queltion put by Pilate to
our Saviour, ^uid ejl ventas ? whereof we have this ad¬
mirable anagram, viz. KJl vir qm adejl.
The Cabbalifts among the Jews are profeffed ana-
grammatifts 5 the third part of their art, which they
call themuru, i. e. “ changing,” being nothing but the
art of making anagrams, or of finding hidden and my-
ftical meanings in names wdiich they do by changing,
tranfpofing, and differently combining, the letters of
thole names.—Thus, of rra the letters of Noah’s name,
they make irr grace; of rrttfft the Mejjiah, they make
rrair" he Jhall rejoice*.
ANAGRAMMATIST, a maker or compofer of
anagrams. Thomas Billon, a Provencal, was a cele¬
brated anagrammatift, and retained by Louis XIII.
with a penfidh of 1 loo livres, in quality of anagram-
matifi: to the king.
ANAGROS, in Commerce, a meafure for grain ufed
in fome cities of Spain, particularly at Seville 5 46 ana-
gros make about 10^ quarters of London.
ANAGYRIS, STINKING BEAN-TREFOIL. See Bo-
tany Index.
Anagyris, or Anagyrus, \n Ancient Geography,
the name of a place in Attica, of the tribe Lrechtheis,
where a fetid plant, called Anagyris, probably the
fame with the foregoing, grew in great plenty, (Diof-
corides, Pliny, Stephanus) \ and the more it was hand¬
led, the ilronger it firielled j hence comtnovere anagy-
rin or (anagyrum), is to bring a misfortune on one’s
felf, ( Ariftophanes).
ANAK, the father of the Anakims, was the fon of
Arba, who gave his name to Kirjath-arba, or Kebrori,
(Jofh. xiv. 15.) Anak had three fons, Shefhai, Ahi-
man, and Talmai, (chap. xv. 14. and Numb. xiii. 22.),
wrho, as well as their father, were giants, and w7ho,
writh their pofterity, all terrible for their fiercenefs and
“extraordinary ftature, were called the Anakims; in
comparifon of whom the Hebrew’s, who were fent to
view the land of Canaan, reported that they were but
as grafhoppers, Numb. xiii. n!t. Caleb, aflifled by
the tribe of Judah, took Kirjath-arba, and deftroyed
Analogy.
SS ] ANA
the Anakims (Judges i. 20. and Joftn.xv. 14.) in the An a left a
Year of the world 2559.
ANALECTA, or Analectes, in Antiquity, a fer- 
vant whofe employment it was to gather up the oftals
of tables.
Analecta, AnaleBs, in a literary fenfe, is ufed to
denote a colleftion of finall pieces j as, effays, remarks,
&c.
ANALEMMA, in Geometry, a proje£lion of the
fphere on the plane of the meridian, orthograpbically
made by ftraight lines and ellipfes, the eye being fup-
pofed at an infinite dillance, and in the eaft or welt
points of the horizon.
Analemma, denotes likewife an inftrumentof brafs
or w7ocd, upon which this kind of projedlion is drawn,
with a horizon and curfor fitted to it, wherein the
folftitial colure, and all circles parallel to it will be
concentric circles ; all circles oblique to the eye will
be ellipfes j and all circles whofe planes pafs through
the eye, will be right lines. The ufe of this initrm
inent is to ihorv the common allronomical problems;
which it will do, though not very exa&ly, unlefs it be
very large.
ANALEPSIS, the augmentation or nutrition of an
emaciated body.
ANALEPTICS, reftorative or .nourilhing medi¬
cines.
ANALOGY, in Philofophy, a certain relation and
agreement between tw7o or more things, which in other
refpedts are entirely different.
There is likewufe an analogy between beings that
have fome conformity or refemblance to one another j
for example, between animals and plants } but the ana-,
logy is {till ftronger between two different fpecies of
certain animals. .
Analogy enters much into all our reafonmg, and
ferves to explain and illuffrate. A great pait of out
philofophy, indeed, has no other foundation than ana-
logy.
It is natural to mankind to judge of things lefs
known, by fome fimilitude, real or imaginary, between
them and things more familiar or better known. And
where the things compated have really h great fimili¬
tude in their nature, when there is reafon to think that
they are fubjeft to the fame law7s, there may be a con-
fiderable degree of probability in conclufions draw7h
from analogy. Thus wm may obferve a very great
fimilitude between this earth w7hich w7e inhabit, and the
other planets, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, and Mer¬
cury. They all revolve round the fun, as the earth
does, although at different diftances, and in different
periods. They borrow all their light from the fun, aS
the earth does. Several of them are knowm to revolve
round their axis like the earth, and, by that means
muff have a like fuccefuon of day and night.. Some of
them have moons, that ferve to give them light 111 tne
abfence of the fun, as our moon does to us. They are
all in their motions, fubjeft to the fame law of gravi¬
tation as the earth is. From all this fimilitude, it is
not unreafonable to think, that thofe planets may,, like
our earth, be the habitation of various orders of living
creatures. There is fome probability in this conclufion
from analogy.
But it ought to be obferved, that, as this kind, of
repfonin?r
ANA [ i
Analogy, feafoning can afford only probable evidence at bell; fo
^ ^ " 11 unlefs great caution be ufed, we are apt to be led into
error by it. To give an inftance of this : Anatomiils,
in ancient ages, feldom diffeded human bodies ; but
very often the bodies of thofe quadrupeds whofe inter¬
nal ft met are was thought to approach neareft to that
Radon the of the human body. Modern anatomifts have difeover-
iWvvraa.ny miitakes the ancients were led into, by their
JEU’Ty I? conceiving a greater limilitude between the ftru&ure
ch. iv, men and of fome beafts than there is in reality.
Perhaps no author has made a more juft and a more
happy ufe of this mode of reafoning, than Bifhop But¬
ler in his Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed,
to the Conftitution and Courfe of Nature. In that ex¬
cellent work, the author does not ground any of the
truths, of religion upon analogy, as their proper evi¬
dence. He only makes ufe of analogy to anfwer ob-
jefUons againft them. When objections are made
againft the truths of religion, which may be made with
equal ftrength againft what we know to be true in the
courfe of nature, fuch objections can have no weight.
Analogical reafoning, therefore, may be of excellent
ufe in anfwering objeftions againft truths which have
other evidence. It may likewife give a greater or a
lefs degree of probability in cafes where wre can find no
other evidence. But all arguments drawn from ana¬
logy are ftill the weaker, the greater difparity there is
between the things compared ; and therefore muft be
weakeft of all when we compare body with mind, be¬
cause there are no twro things in nature more unlike.
There is no fubjeCt in which men have ahvays been
fo prone to form their notions by analogies of this kind,
as in wThat relates to the mind. We form an early ac¬
quaintance with material things by means of our fenfes,
and are bred up in a conftant familiarity with them.
Hence we are apt to meafure all things by them; and
to aferibe to things moft remote from matter the qua¬
lities that belong to material things. It is for this rea-
fon that mankind have, in all ages, been fo prone to
conceive the mind itfelf to be fome fubtle kind of
fc matter : That they have been difpofed to aferibe hu¬
man figure and human organs not only to angels, but
even to the Deity.
To illuftrate more fully that analogical reafoning
from a fuppofed fimilitude of mind to body, which ap¬
pears to be the moft fruitful fource of error wdth regard
to the operations of our minds, the following inftance
may be given. When a man is urged by contrary mo¬
tives, thofe on one hand inciting him to do fome ac¬
tion, thofe on the other to forbear it ; he deliberates
about it, and at laft refolves to do it, or not to do it.
1 he contrary motives are here compared to the weights
in the oppofite feales of a balance; and there is not
perhaps any inftance that can be named of a more
linking analogy between body and mind. Her j the
phrafes of weighing motives, of deliberating upon ac¬
tions, are common to all languages.
From this analogy, fame philofophers draw very im¬
portant conclufions. They fay, that as the balance
cannot incline to one fide more than the other when
the oppofite weights are equal, fo a man cannot pof-
fibly determine himfelf if the motives on both hands
are equal; and as the balance muft neceflarily turn to
that fide which has moft weight, fo the man muft ne-
ceftarily be determined to that hand wftiere the motive
k ftrongeft. And on this foundation fome of the fchool-
Vol. II. Part I.
Gg ] ANA
men maintained, that if a hungry afs tvere placed be- Analogy.
twreen two bundles of hay equally inviting, the beaft "v 1 ’
muft ft and ftill and ftarve to death, being unable to turn
to either, becaufe there are equal motives to both.
T his is an inftance of that analogical reafoning, which,
it is conceived, ought never to be trufted ; for the ana*
logy between a balance and a man deliberating, though
one of the ftrongeft that can be found betw-een matter
and mind, is too wTeak to fupport any argument. A
piece of dead inadlive matter, and an active intelligent
being, are things very unlike ; and becaufe the one
would remain at reft in a certain cafe, it does not fol¬
low that the other would be inactive in a cafe fome-
wdiat fimilar. The argument is no better than this,
that becaufe a dead animal moves only as it is puftied,
and if puftied wfith equal force in contrary diredlions,
muft remain at reft ; therefore the fame thing muft
happen to a living animal: for furely the fimilitude be¬
tween a dead animal and a living is as great as that be¬
tween a balance and a man.
The derivation of the wrord Analogy indicates, as
Profeffor Caftillon of Berlin * obferves, a refemblance * Hacrlcm
difcernible by reafon. This is confirmed by the fenfe Memoirs fax
in w'hich the term is ufed in geometry, wftiere it figni-1786» °r
fies an equality of ratios. In explaining this fubjedl, v0*‘ xx“*
it is obferved, there may be a refemblance between fen-
fations and a refemblance between perceptions : the
former is called phyjicalrefemblance, becaufe it adts upon
the phyfical or fenfitive faculty ; the latter moral re-
femblance, becaufe it affedts the moral or rational fa¬
culty of man.
Every refemblance may be reduced to an equality in
fenfations or perceptions; but this fuppofes fome equa-
% in their caufes : we fay fotne equality, becaufe the
difpofition of the organs, or of the foul, muft neceffa-
rily affedt the fenfations or perceptions ; but this can
influence only their degree, and not their nature.
The charadier of one perfon refembles that of ano¬
ther only when they both fpeak and ad fo as to excite
equal perceptions, or, to fpeak more ftridtly, the fame
perception ; when they both difplay vivacity or indif¬
ference, anger or meeknefs, on the fame occafions, and
both excite in the foul of the obferver identical percep¬
tions, or rather the fame perception of vivacity or in¬
difference, of anger or meeknefs. Thefe identical per¬
ceptions, the degree of which wall depend much on the
difpofition of the obferver’s mind, muft have identical
caufes, or, in other words, the fame caufe ; -which is
the vivacity or indifference, the anger or meeknefs, dif-
played by each ®f thefe charadters.'
Every phyfical refemblance may therefore be re¬
duced to one or more equalities, and every moral re¬
femblance to one or more identities. Wherever there
is moral refemblance there is analogy. Analogy may,
therefore be reduced to identity, and always iuppoles’
comparifon.
T. wo objedls are faid to have an analogy to each
other, or are called analogous, when fome identity is
difeovered upon comparing them. An analogical con- -
clufion is a conclufion deduced from fome identity.
The principles of analogy are a comparifon of two
objedls ; and one or more identities refulting from their
being thus compared. The charadiers of analogy are
—that two objedls be compared—that there be one or
more identities between thefe objedis'—and that this is
difcernible only by reafon or intelledl.
Y
Thy feat
ANA
[ i7° 1
ANA
Analogy,
Aiialyfis.
Phyficalrefcmblance is to the fenfes what analogy is to
r the underftanding. The former, when perfect, becomes
equality ; but the latter, identity.
Refemblance and analogy are the foundations both
of probability and of certainty. When we are not fa-
tisfied that the refemblance or the analogy is complete,
we flop at probability y which becomes certainty when
we are, or think we are, affured that the refemblance
or the analogy is perfect.
In reafoning by analogy, we fhould be careful not
to confound it with refemblance ; and alfo not to de¬
duce from the identity or identities, on which the ana¬
logy is founded, a conclusion which has either no rela¬
tion, or only a partial relation, to thefe identities.
The principal ufe of analogy in the investigation of
phyfical and moral truth, according to our author,
may be reduced to the four following : I. By means
of our fenfes to improve, firft our own judgment, and
afterwards that of others, with refpeft -to intelleftual
fabjeels. 2. To deduce a general from a particular
truth. Having difeovered and proved the truth of a
propofition with refpecl to any particular obje£l, exa¬
mine whether this truth flows from a quality peculiar
to this fingle objedt, or common to feveral objedls.
In the latter cafe all thefe objedls may be compre¬
hended under one general idea, founded on their com¬
mon quality. Subflitute this general idea inflead of
the particular objedl, and the propofition wall become
general, without ceafing to be true y becaufe whatever
evidently and folely refults from the identity on which
an analogy is founded, mull necefiarily be true with
refpecl to all thofe obje&s in which the analogy is the
fame. 3. To prove the truth or falfehood of propofi-
tions which cannot be otherwife demonilrated. 4. To
diicover new truths in both natural and moral philo-
fophy.
Analogy, among Grammarians, is the correfpond-
ence which a word or phrafe bears to the genius and
received forms of any language.
ANALYSIS, in a general fenfe, implies the refo-
lution of fomething compounded into its original and
Conftituent parts. 1 he word is Oreek, and derived
from ctvxXvfr, to refolve.
Analysis, in Mathematics, is properly the method
of refolving problems by means of algebraical equa¬
tions y whence we often find that thefe two words, ana-
lyjis and algebra, are ufed as fynonymous.
Analyfis, under its prefent improvements, mull be
allowed the apex or height of all human learning : it is
this method which furuifhes us with the molt perfed
examples of the art of reafoning j gives the mind an
uncommon readinefs at deducing and difeoyering, from
u few data, things unknown •, and, by ufing figns for
ideas, prefents things to the imagination, which other-
wife feemed out of its fphere : by this, geometrical
demonftrations may be greatly abridged, and a long
feries of argumentations, wherein the mind cannot with¬
out the utmoft effort and attention difeover the connec¬
tion of ideas, are hereby converted into fenfible figns,
and the feveral operations required therein eftefled by
the combination of thofe figns. But, what is more
extraordinary, by means of this art, a number of truths
are frequently expreffed by a fingle line, which in the
common way of explaining and demonllrating things
w ould fill whole volumes. Thus, by mere contempla¬
tion of one fingle line, whole fciences may be fometimes | Analyfis.
learned in a feiv minutes time, wdrich otherwife could y " '
fcarce be attained in many years.
Analysis is divided, with regard to its objedl, into
that of finites and infinites.
Analysis of Finite Quantities, is what we otherwife
call fpecious arithmetic or algebra. See Algebra.
Analysis of Infinites, called alfo the New Analyfis,
is particularly ufed for the method of fluxions, or the
differential calculus. See Fluxions.
Analysis, in Logic, fignifies the method of tracing
things backward to their fource, and of refolving know ¬
ledge into its original principles. This is alfo called
the method of refolution; and Hands oppofed to the
fynthetic method, or that of compqfition. The art of
logical analyfis confifts principally in combining our
perceptions, clafiing them together with addrefs, and
contriving proper expreflions for conveying our thoughts,
and reprefenting their feveral divifions, claffes, and re¬
lations.
Analysis, in Rhetoric, is that which examines the
connexions, tropes, figures, and the like, inquiring in¬
to the propofition, divifion, paflions, arguments, and
other apparatus of rhetoric.
Several authors, as Freigius and others, have given
analyfes of Cicero’s Orations, wherein they reduce
them to their grammatical and logical principles ; llrip
them of all the ornaments and additions of rhetoric
which otherwife difguife their true form, and conceal
the connexion between one part and another. 'I he
defign of thefe authors is to have thofe admired ha¬
rangues juft fuch as the judgment difpofed them, with¬
out the help of imagination ; fo that here we may
coolly view the force of each proof, and admire the
ufe Cicero made of rhetorical figures to conceal the
weak part of a caufe.
A colle&ion has been made of the analyfes formed
by the moft celebrated authors of the 16th century,
in 3 vols. folio.
Analysis is alfo ufed, in Chemiflry, for the decom¬
pounding of a mixed body, or the feparation of the
principles and conftituent parts of a compounded fub-
ftance.
To analyze bodies, or refolve them into their com¬
ponent parts, is indeed the chief objeft of the art of
chemiftry. Chemiftry furnifhes feveral means for the
decompofitron of bodies, which are all founded on the
differences of the properties belonging to the different
principles of which the body to be analyzed is compo-
fed. If, for example, a body be compofed of feveral
principles, fome of which have a great and others a
moderate degree of volatility, and, laftly, others are
fixed, its moft volatile parts may be firft feparated by
a gradual heat in diftilling veffels y and then the parts
which are next in volatility will pafs over in diftilla-
tion y and laftly, thofe parts which are fixed, and ca¬
pable of refilling the a&ion of fire, will remain at the
bottom of the veffel.
Analysis is alfo ufed for a kind of fyllabus, or
table of the principal heads or articles of a continued
difeourfe, difpofed* in their natural order and depen¬
dency. Analyfes are more fcientifical than alphabetical
indexes-, but they are lefs ufed, as being more intricate.
Analysis is likewife ufed for a brief, but methodi-
caL illuftration of the principles of a fcience j in which
' lenfc
Anamboa.
ANA [ i
Analytic fenfe It Is nearly fynonymous with what we otherwife
call z. fynopjh,
ANALY TIC, or Analytical, fomething that
belongs to, or partakes of, the nature of analyfis 
Thus we fay, an analytical deraonltration, analytical
procefs, analytical table or fcheme, analytical method
of inveitigation, &c.
The analytic method Hands oppofed to the fynthe-
tic. In natural philofophy, as in mathematics, the in¬
veitigation of difficult things by the analytic method
ought to precede the method of compofition. This
analyfis conilfts in making experiments and obferva-
tions, and in drawing general conclufions therefrom by
induction ; and admitting of no objections againft the
conelulions, but fuch as are drawn from experiments,
and other certain truths : and though the reafoning
from experiments and obfervations by induction be no
demonftration of general conclufions, yet it is the beft
method of reafoning which the nature of things admits
of;, and may be dteemed fo much the llronger, as the
induction is more general $ and, if no exception occur
from phenomena, the conclulion may be pronounced
general. By this way of analyfis, we may proceed
from compounds to their ingredients ; from motions to
the forces producing them •, and in general from effeCts
to their caufes, and from particular caufes to more ge¬
neral ones, until we arrive at thofe which are the molt
general. This is the analytic method, according to
the illultrious Newton.
The fynthetic method confifts in affuming the caufes
difeovered and received as principles: and by them ex¬
plaining the phenomena proceeding from them, and
proving the explanation. See Synthesis.
ANALYTICS, Analytica, the fcience and ufe of
analyfis. The great advantage of the modern niathe-
matics above the ancient is in point of analytics.
Pappus, in the preface to his feventh book of Mathe¬
matical Collections, enumerates the authors on the an¬
cient analytics j being Euclid, in his Bata and Parif-
mata; Apollonius, dc SeSiione Rationis, and in his Co-
nics; Arilla-us, de Loris Solidis; and Eratofthenes, de
Mediis Proportionalibus. But the ancient analytics
were very different from the modern.
To the modern analytics principally belongs algebra $
an hiltorical account of which, with the feveral authors
thereon, lee under the article Algesra.
ANAMABOA, a populous town in the kingdom
of Fantin, in Guinea. The natives are generally great
cheats, and muft be carefully looked after in dealing
with them, and their gold well examined, for it is
commonly adulterated. It lies under the cannon of
the Engliffi caftle. The landing is pretty difficult on
account of the rocks: and therefore thole that come
here to trade are forced to go alhore in canoes. The
earth here is very proper to make bricks j the oyfters,
when burnt, afford good lime •, and there is timber in
great abundance j fo that here are all the materials for
building. The countij at Anamaboa is full of hills,
beginning at a good diitance from the town, and af¬
fording. a very, pleafant profpeCt. Indian corn and
palm-wine are in great plenty. They have a green
fruit called papas, as big as a fmall melon, and which
has a tafte like cauliflower. Anamaboa is much fre¬
quented by the Englifh Ihips and others for corn and;
iiaves, which lalt are fometimes to be had in great
71 ] ANA
numbers. 1 he Engliffi fort is built on the foundation Anam^lecr?
of a large old houfe, which fublified entire in 1679. H
It is a large edifice, flanked by two towers, and forti-
fied towards the fea with two baftions: the whole of > .
brick and ftone cemented with lime. It Hands upon a
rock at the diflance of 30 paces from the fea. It is
mounted with 12 pieces of cannon and 12 patereroesj
and defended by a garrifon of 12 whites and 18 blacks,
under the command of the chief factor.
The natives treat the garrifon of this fort with great
infolence,. inforauch as often to block them up, and fre¬
quently, if they diflike the governor, fend him off in
a canoe to Cape CoaH with marks of the utmoff con¬
tempt. Far from being able to oppofe them, the Eng¬
liffi are glad to obtain their favour with prefents. In
1701, they declared war againfl the Engliflr j and hav¬
ing affembled in a tumultuous manner before the fort,
they let fire to the exterior buildings, and w'ent on
with their outrages, till they were difperfed by a dif-
charge of the cannon from the batteries. The night
following the Engliffi took their revenge, by fetting
fire to the town of Anamaboa : and thus hoHilities
continued for 20 days, till at laff the natives were ob¬
liged to fue for peace. This fort was abandoned in
x733 5 but has been refumed by the Engliffi, who have
continued in it ever fince,
ANAMELECH, an idol of the Sepharvaites, who
are faid in Scripture to have burned their children in
honour of Adrammelech and Anamelech.—Thefe idol»
probably fignified the fun and moon. Some of the
rabbms reprefent Anamelech under the figure of a
mule, others under that of a quail or pheafant.
ANAMIM, the fecond fon of Mizraim (Gen. x.
13.) Anamim, if we may credit the paraphraff Jona¬
than the .fon of Uzziel, peopled the Mareotis 5 or the
Pentapolis of Cyrene, according to the paraphrafl of
Jeruialem. Bocchart is of opinion, that thefe Ana-
mims were the people that dwelt in the parts adjacent
to the temple of Jupiter Ammon, and in the Nafamo-
nitis. Calmet thinks the Amanians and Garamantes
to be defeended from Anamim.
ANAMORPHOSIS, in Perjperiive Drawings, is '
a deformed or diHorted portrait or figure, generally
cqnfufed and unintelligible to the common unaffified
view 5 but when feen at a certain diftance and height,
or as refie£ted from a plain or curved mirror, will ap¬
pear regular and in right proportion. See Optics
(the Index) and Perspective.
^ ANANAS, in Botany, the trivial name of a fpecies
of bromelia. See Bromelia, Botany Index.
AN ANGITIS, in Antiquity, a kind of figured Hone,
otherwife called fynochitis, celebrated for its magical
virtue of railing the ffiadows of the infernal gods.
ANANIAS, a Sadducee, high-priefl of the Jews,
who put to death St James the brother of our Lord’
and was depofed by Agrippa. •
AN AN ISABT A, or Ananisapta, a magical
word frequently found inferibed on coins and other
amulets, iuppofed to have a virtue of preferving the
wearer from the plague.
ANAPA.ST, in Ancient Poetry, a foot confifling of
two ffiort fyllables and one long : Such is the word
fcopulos. It is juH the reverfe of the daffyl.
ANAP7ESI 1C verses, thofe confifling rvholly or
chiefly of anapaefls.
Y 2 ANAPHE,
Anas.
ANA [17
Anaphe ANAPHE, in Ancient Geography, an ifland fpon-
taneoufly emerging out of the Cretan fea, near Thera
, (Pliny, Strabo) j now called Nanjto. Its name is from
the fudden appearance of the new moon to the Argo¬
nauts in a ftorm (Apollonius). Anaphceus, an epithet
of Apollo, who was worlhipped there. Anaphcei, the
people.
ANAPHORA, in Rhetoric, the repetition of the
fame word or words in the beginning of a fentence or
verfe : Thus Virgil,
Pan etiam Arcadia me cum fe judice certet.
Pan etiam Arcadia dicat Je judice vitlum.
Anaphora, among Phyjicians, the throwing off pu¬
rulent matter by the mouth.
ANAPHRODISIA, fignifies impotence, or want
of. power to procreate. See Impotence.
ANAPLASIS, fignifies the replacing or fetting a
fraftured bone.
ANAPLORETICS, medicines that promote the
growth or granulation of the fleflr in wounds, ulcers,
otc.
ANARCHI, Avcttyii, in Antiquity, a name given
by the Athenians to four fupernumerary days in their
year, during which they had no magiftrates. The At¬
tic year was divided into 10 parts, according to the
number of tribes, to whom the precedency of the fe-
nate fell by turns. Each divifion confided of 35 days;
what remained after the expiration of thefe, to make
the lunar year complete, vrhich according to their com¬
putation confifted of 354 days, were employed in the
creation of magiftrates, and called etvu^ot and
ANARCHY, the wTant of government in a nation,
where no fupreme authority is lodged either in the
prince or other rulers ; but the people live at large,
and all things are in confufion. The word is derived
from the Greek privative a, and x^v), cojnmand, prin¬
cipality. Anarchy is fuppofed to have reigned after the
deluge, before the foundation of monarchies. We
{fill find it obtain in feveral parts, particularly of A-
frica and America.
Anarchy is alfo applied to certain troublefome and
diforderly periods, even in governments otherwife re¬
gular. In England, the period between the death of
Cromwell and King Charles’s reftoration is commonly
reprefented as an anarchy. Every month produced a
new fcheme or form of government. Enthufiafts talk¬
ed of nothing but annulling all the laws, aboliftiing all
writings, records, and regifters, and bringing all men
to the primitive level. No modern nation was more
fubjedt to anarchies than Poland; where every interval
between the death of one king and the eledlion of ano¬
ther was a fcene of great diforder, fo that it was a
proverb among that people, Poland is governed by con¬
fufion. The Jewilh hiftory prefents numerous inftances
of anarchies in that ftate, ufually denoted by this phrafe,
that in thofe days there was no king in Ifrael, but every
man did that which was right in his own eyes', which is
a juft pidfure of an anarchy.
ANARRHICAS. See Ichthyology Index.
ANARROPIA, among Phyficians, a tendency of
the humours to the head or fuperior parts.
ANAS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Spain,
xifing in the territory of Laminium in die Hither
Anas
2 ] ANA
Spain, and nowr fpreading into lakes, again reftraining
its waters, or, burrowing itfelf entirely in the earth, is J „
. r j VC 6 Ti. / A, a ’ • Anaftafius,
pleated often to reappear. It pours into the Atlantic ,
(Pliny). Now Guadiana, rifing in the fouth-eaft of
New Caftile, in a diftridt commonly called Campo de
Montiel, not far from the mountain Confuegra, from
the lakes called las Lagunas de Guadiana, and then it
is called Rio Roydera-, and, after a courfe of fix leagues,
burying itfelf in the earth for a league, it then rifes
up again from three lakes, called los Ojos de Guadiana,
near the village Villa Harta, five leagues to the north
of Calatrava, and diredts its courfe weftward through
New Caftile, by Medelin, Merida, and Badajox, where
it begins to bend its courfe fouthwards, between Por¬
tugal and Andalufia, falling into the bay of Cadiz
near Ayamonte.
Anas. See Ornithology Index.
ANASARCA, a fpecies of droply. See Medi¬
cine.
ANASSER. See Botany Index.
ANASSUS, or Anaxus, ‘va. Ancient Geography, a
river in the territory of Venice, (Pliny); now the
Piave, which rifing from the mountains of Tyrol, not
far from the borders of Carinthia, runs from north to
fouth, through the territories of Cadorina, Belluno,
Feltre, and, after running from weft to eaft, through
Trevigi, falls into the Adriatic, 13 miles to the ibuth-
eaft of Venice.
ANASTATICA. See Botany Index.
ANASTASIS, a term among ancient phyficians,
for a rifing up to go to ftool. It allb fignifies the paf-
fage of any humour, When expelled from one part, and
obliged to remove to another.
ANASTASIUS I. emperor of the eaft, fucceed-
ed Zeno in the year 491, and was inaugurated that
fame year on April the 11 th. The Manicheans and
Arians were greatly in hopes of being fupported by
the new emperor ; the former becaufe his mother was
their friend, and favoured their fed! ; the latter becaule
the emperor’s uncle was of their opinion : but if Ana-
ftafius did not perfecute them (as we do not find he
ever did), yet it does not appear that he fupported ei¬
ther of thefe fedts. But in order to maintain the peace
of the church, upon which the tranquillity ol the ftate
very much depends, he declared, that fuch bhhops or
other clergymen who ftiould difturb the public tran¬
quillity, by maintaining with too much heat either fide
of the queftion for or again!! the council of Chalcedon,
ftiould be deprived of their benefices. Accordingly
the difputes concerning Eutychianifm running to a
very great height, and Euphemius being deeply con¬
cerned in them, the emperor expelled him from his fee,
and chofe Macedonius in his ftead. The hatred which
the different parties entertained again!! one another oc-
cafioned often fuch tumults and feditions at Conftanti-
nople as threatened the life of the emperor himfelf;
who, to keep the people in awe, ordered that the go¬
vernor of the city ftrould be prefent at all church af-
femblies and public proceflions. This was fo much the
more neceffary, becaufe thefe tumults were chiefly oc-
cafioned by a kind of doxology or ihort hymn which
ufed to be fung at divine fervice. This doxology con¬
fifted only of the following words, 0 ©ees,
ccyics ctSxvxTo?, that is, “ Holy God, holy the
powerful, holy the immortalfor which reafon it was
called ■
ANA
[ *73 ]
Anaftafnis. called r^rxytag, Trifagius, “ three times holy be-
tr"' caule the word ho/y was therein three times repeated.
The orthodox ufed to fing that hymn without any ad¬
dition, or by adding only to it, uyix Owtrov ny.xg,
i. e. ‘hHoly Trinity, have mercy upon usBut Pe¬
ter the Fuller, bilhop of Antioch, pretended to add
thefe words to it, viz. o <rxvf>aSus at vyas, i. e. “ who
haft been crucified for us $” and as it was fuppofed
that the firft holy related to the Father, the fecond to
the Son, the third to the Holy Ghoft, the adding
thefe words, who has been crucified for us, feemed to
infinuate that the whole confubftantial Trinity had fuf-
fered} for which reafon the orthodox were refolved
not to admit this addition. Anaftalius defiring to
have thefe fatal words added to that hymn whenever it
fhould be fung at Conftantinople, this occafioned a
terrible fedition in the city, as though the very funda¬
mentals of Chriftianity had been overthrown. Mace-
donius and his clergy are faid to have raifed that fedi¬
tion, which came to fuch a height, that the emperor
himfelf was obliged to come, without his crown on his
head, and in a very humble manner, to the circus,
where he declared to the people that he was very will¬
ing to quit the imperial throne ; but he told them at
the fame time, that they could not all enjoy the fo-
vereign power, which does not admit of a partnerftiip 5
and that one perfon ftill muft govern them if he re-
figned the crown. This difcourfe had fuch a power
over the raging multitude, that, as if they had been
divinely infpired, they immediately requefted the em¬
peror to take up his crown, promifing that they would
be quiet and obedient for the future. Anaftafius is by
-the Popifh writers reprefented as a great perfecutor of
the orthodox, becaufe he banifhed and deprived Euphe-
mius and Macedonius \ but they Ihould prove that thefe
two prelates had been unjuftly banilhed, which is a
very hard talk. As to his civil government, it is con-
feffed that at the beginning of his reign he Ihowed him¬
felf a very good prince : he eafed the people of a very
heavy tax called Chryfargyrutn, under which they had
groaned for a long time ; he prohibited the fighting
with wild beafts ; he raifed feveral buildings j and avoid¬
ed being involved in dangerous wars as much as lay in
his power. Anaftafius reigned 27 years three months
and three days, or, according to F. Pagi, wanting
three days ; and died July the 10th, A. C. 518, in the
88th year of his age.
Anastasius II. whofe proper name was Artemius',
was in the year 713 elevated to the throne of Conftan¬
tinople, from the low ftation of a fecretary, by the free
voice of the fenate and Roman people. His natural
talents, improved by education and daily exertion, ena¬
bled him to manage with great prudence the affairs of the
empire during the time that he was fecretary to his pre-
deceffor Philippicus. The Saracens had made inroads
upon Alia Minor, in the beginning of his reign •, but
he fent a ftrong army to the frontiers of Syria for its
proteftion, under the command of Leo the Ifaurian, a
man of great military experience. Thefe enemies of
the empire alfo meditated the defign of taking Conftan¬
tinople ; but the vigilance of Anaftafius defeated their
purpofe, by providing a formidable naval force, repair¬
ing and ftrengthening the walls of the city, and by
forcing all the inhabitants either to provide themfelves
with provifions for three years, or inftantly to depart
ANA
Difappointed in their deffgn,
from the city. Difappointed in their deffgn, the Anaftafius
enemy’s fleet failed to Phoenicia, and the imperial fleet ^ f ,ma
affembled at Rhodes to watch the motions of the ene- 1
my. But the meafures of the emperor received a le-
vere check from the conduit of the failors, who raifed
a mutiny and flew their admiral for no other caufe but
his honourable endeavours to maintain proper difcipline
in the fleet. Juftly dreading fevere punifhment, the
feamen raifed the ftandard of rebellion, declared Anaf¬
tafius unworthy to reign, and conferred the purple upon
one Theodolius, a perfon of mean birth.
Informed of this fedition, Anaftafius fled from his
tottering throne to Nice. The new emperor haftened
to befiege Conftantinople, which, after a feeble defence
of fix months, he reduced to his fubjeifion. The late
emperor being affured of his life, abandoned his claim
to the crown, affumed the chara&er of a monk, and
was baniftied to Theffalonica, having worn the purple
only during the fpace of two years. Having, however,,
prevailed upon the Bulgarians to efpoufe his caufe, he
laid afide the habit of the monk for that of the warrior,
and in the year 719, in the time of the emperor Leo,
he refumed his claim to the throne. A numerous
army of thefe barbarians haftened to the capital; but,
being unable to reduce it, they delivered up the un¬
happy Anaftafius to the emperor, who put him to death
along with his principal affociates. [Anc. Un, Hififi
Anastasius, furnamed Bibliothecarius, a Roman
abbot, library-keeper of the Vatican, and one of
the moft learned men of the ninth century, affifted
in 869 at the fourth general council, the adds and
canons of which he tranflated from the Greek into
Latin. He alfo compofed the lives of feveral popes,
and other works ; the beft edition of which is that of
the Vatican.
ANASTATICA, the rose of Jericho. See Bo¬
tany Index.
ANASTOMOSIS* in Anatomy, the opening of the
mouths of veffels, in order to difcharge their contained
fluids. It is likewife ufed for the communication of
two veffels at their extremities ; as the inofculation of
a vein with a vein, of an artery with an artery, or of an
artery with a vein.
ANASTOMATICS, medicines fuppofed to have
the power of opening the mouths of the veffels, and
promoting the circulation ; fuch as deobftruent, ca¬
thartic, and fudorific medicines.
ANASTROPHE, in Rhetoric and Grammar, de¬
notes the inverfion of the natural order of the words :
fuch \$,faxa per et fcopulos, for per fiaxa et fcopulos.
ANASUS, or Anisus, in Ancient Geography, now
the Ens, a river of Germany, which riling on the bor¬
ders of the territory of Saltzburg j then feparating
Upper Stiria from Upper Auftria, and walking the
town of Ens, falls, at the diftance of a mile below
it, into the Danube, in a courle from fouth to north.
ANATHEMA, among Ecclefiafiical Wj-iters, \m-
ports whatever is fet apart, feparated, or divided •, but
is moft ufually meant to exprefs the cutting off a perlon
from the privileges of fociety and communion with the
faithful.
The anathema differs from excommunication in the
circumftances of being attended with curfes and exe¬
crations. It was praflifed in the primitive church
againft notorious offenders j and the form of that pro.-
nouncedi
ANA [ i
Atigfhema. nounced by Synecius ngainft one Andronicus is as
V*~”v ™_ follows: “ Let no church of God be open to Andro-
nicus, but let every faiicfuary be £hut againll hims I
adraonifh both private men and magxftrates to receive
him neither under their roof nor to their table ) and
priefts more efpecially, that they neither converfe with
him living, nor attend his funeral when dead.”
Several councils alfo have pronounced anathemas
again!! fuch as they thought corrupted the purity of the
following form ; £h quin dixerity anathema Jit.
There are two kinds of anathemas, the one judi¬
ciary and the other abjuratory. The former can only
-be denounced by a council, a pope, or a bidrop $ the
latter makes a part of the ceremony of abiuration, the
convert being obliged to anathematize tfie herefy he
abjures.
Anathema, in Heathen Antiquity% was an offering
or prefent made to fome deity, and hung .tip in the
temple. Whenever a perfon left off his employment,
it was ufuai to dedicate the tools to the patron deity of
the trade, Perfons too who had efcaped from immi¬
nent danger, as fhipwreck and the like, or had met
with any other remarkable inltance of good fortune,
A N A
74 ] ANA
feldom failed to teftify their gratitude by fome prefent Auuthoth
of this kind, ’ [)
ANATHOTH, a hamlet of PaMine, very near Anitto])a*
Jerafalem f jofephus), about three miles and a half to
the north \ the rains of which are (till to be feen. It
was the birthplace of the prophet Jeremiah, and one of
the Levitieal towns in the tribe of Benjamin.
AN ATI PER A con cha, the trivial name of a fpe»
cies of the lepas, a teftaceous animal. See Lepas.
ANATOCISM, Anatocismus, an ufurious con-
traff, wherein the interefts ariiing from the principal
fum are added to the principal itielf, and intereff e?c-
afted upon the whole. The word is originally Greek,
but ufed by Cicero in Latin j whence it is defeended
into molt other languages. It comes from the pre-
poiition which in compolition ffgnifies repetition
or duplication, and ro«o?, tj'vry. Anatocifm is what •
we properly call interejl upon interAl, or campound
interejl. This is the worlt kind of uiury, and has
been feverely condemned by the Roman law, as well
as by the common laws of moit other countries, face
Interest.
ANATOLIA. See Natoua,
o M Y,
Hiftory, i jsj Jts general fenfe, is the art of dilTe&ing, or
A artificially feparating and taking to pieces the dif¬
ferent parts of organized bodies, in order to an exa&
difeovery of their fituation, ftrufture, and economy $
but here xve limit its fignification to animal bodies.
The word is Greek, } derived from rtvaere.wyiy,
to difieft, or feparate by cutting.
I N T R O D U C T I O N.
§ I. Hijlory of Anatomy.
This art feems to have been very ancient; though,
for a long time, known only in an imperfeft manner.
—•The firft men who lived muff have foon acquired
fome notions of the ftrufture of their own bodies, par¬
ticularly of the external parts, and of fome even of
* the internal, fuch as bones, joints, and finews, which
are expofed to the examination of the fenfes in living
bodies.
This rude knowledge muft have been gradually im¬
proved, by the accidents to which the body is expofed,
by the neceflities of life, and by the various cuftoms,
ceremonies, and fuperftitions, of different nations. Thus,
the obfervance of bodies killed by violence, attention
to wounded men, and to many difeafes, the various
ways of putting criminals to death, the funeral cere¬
monies, and a variety of fuch things, muft have fhown
men every day more and more of themfelves; efpecial¬
ly as curiofity and felf-love would here urge them
powerfully to obfervation and reflection.
The brute creation having fuch an affinity to man
in outward form, motion, fenfes, and ways of life ;
the generation of the fpecies, and the effieft of death
upon the body, being obferved to be fo nearly the
fame in both j the conclufion was not only obvious, but HiftoiY.
unavoidable, that their bodies wrere formed nearly upon v—y—
the fame model. And the opportunities of examining
the bodies of brutes were fo eafily procured, indeed fo
neceffarily occurred in the common bufinefs of life, that
the huntunan in making ufe of his prey, the prieft in fa-
crificing, the augur in divination, and above all, the
butcher, or thole who might out of curiofity attend up¬
on his operations, muft have been daily adding to the
little ftock of anatomical knowledge. Accordingly we
find, in faft, that the South fea ifianders, who have
been left to their own obfervation and reafoning, with¬
out the affiftance of letters, have yet a confiderable
ftiare of rude or wild anatomical and phyfiological
knowledge. Dr Hunter informs us, that when Omai
was in his mufeuni with Mr Banks, though he could
not explain himfelf intelligibly, they plainly faw that
he knew the principal parts of the body, and fome-
thing likewife of their ufes; and nmnifefted a great
curiofity or defire of having the fun ft ions of the in¬
ternal parts of the body explained to him; particular¬
ly the relative funftions of the two fexes, which with
him leemed to be the moft interefting objeft of the hu¬
man mind.
We may further imagine, that the philofcphers of
the moft early ages, that is, the men of curiofity, ob¬
fervation, experience, and refieftion, could not over¬
look an inftance of natural organization, which was fo
interefting, and at the fame time fo wonderful, more
efpecially fuch of them as applied to the ftudy and
cure of difeafes. We known that phyfic was a branch
of philofophy till the age of Hippocrates.
Thus the art muft have been circumftanced in its
beginning. We fliall next fee from the teftimony of
hiftorians
Introd. ANA
t hiftorxans and otlier writers, how it a&ually appeared
v as an art, from the time that writing was introduced
among men; how it was improved, and conveyed
down to us through a long feries of ages.
Civilization, and improvements of every kind, would
naturally begin in fertile countries and healthful cli¬
mates, where there w7ould be leiiure for reflection, and
an appetite for amufement. Accordingly, writing,
and many other ufeful and ornamental inventions and
arts, appear to have been cultivated in the eaftern parts
ot Alia long before the earliell times that are treated
of by the Greek or other European writers ; and that
the arts and learning of thole eaflern people wrere in
lublequent times gradually communicated to adjacent
countries, efpecially by the medium of traffic. The
cuftoms, fuperftitions, and climate of eaftern countries,
however, appear to have been as unfavourable to prac¬
tical anatomy as they were inviting to the ftudy of
aftronomy, geometry, poetry, and ail the fofter arts
of peace.
Animal bodies there run fo quickly into naufeous
putrefaction, that the early inhabitants muft have
avoided luch offenfive employments as anatomical in¬
quiries, like their pofterity at this day. And in fad
it does not appear, by the waitings of the Grecians,
or Jews, or Phoenicians, or of other eaftern countries,
that anatomy was particularly cultivated by any of
thole eaftern nations. In tracing it backwards to its
infancy, we cannot go farther into antiquity than the
times of the Grecian philofophers. As an art in the
ftate of fome cultivation, it may be faid to have been
brought forth and bred up among them as a branch
of natural knowledge.
The era of philol'ophy, as it was called, began with
I hales the Milelian being declared, by a very general
confent of the people, the moft wife of all the Gre¬
cians, 480 years before Chrift. The philofophers of
his fchool, which was called the Ionian, cultivated
principally natural knowledge. Socrates, the feventh
in fucceffion of their great teachers, introduced the
ftudy ol morals, and w7as thence laid to bring down
philofophy from heaven, to make men truly wife and
happy.
In the writings of his fcholar and fucceffor Plato,
we fee that the philofophers had carefully confidered
the human body, both in its organization and ^func-
tions ; and though they had not arrived at the know¬
ledge of the more minute and intricate parts, which
required the fucceffive labour and attention of many
ages, they had made up very noble and comprehenfive
ideas of the fubjecl in general. The anatomical de-
feriptionsof Xenophon and Plato have had the honour
of being quoted by Longinus (§ xxxii.) as fpecimens
of fublime writing ; and the extract from Plato is ftiil
more remarkable for its containing the rudiments of
the circulation of the blood. “ The heart (fays PlatoJ
is the centre or knot of the blood veffels, the fpring
or fountain of the blood, which is carried impetuoufly
round ; the blood is the pabulum or food of the fteffi ;
and for the purpofe of nourhhment, the body is laid
out into canals, Kke thofe which are drawm through
gardens, that the blood may be conveyed, as from a
fountain, to every part of the pervious body.”
Hippocrates was nearly contemporary with the great
philofophers of whom we have been fpeaking, about
T O M Y.
400 years before the Chriftian era. He is faid to
have feparated the profeffion of philofophy and phyftc,
and to have been the firft who applied to phyfic alone
as the bufmefs of his life. He is likewife generally
fuppofed to be the firft who wrote upon anatomy. We
know of nothing that was written exprefsly upon the-
fubjeft before; and the firft anatomical dilfeftion which
has been recorded was made by his friend Democritus
of Abdera.
If, however, we read the wTorks of Hippocrates with
impartiality, and apply his accounts of the parts to
what wTe know of the human body, we muft allow his
deferiptions to be imperfeef, incorrecf, fometimes ex¬
travagant, and often unintelligible, that of the bones
only excepted. He feems to have ftudied thefe with
more fuccefs than the other parts, and tells us that he
had an opportunity of feeing a human fkeleton.
From Hippocrates to Galen, who ilouriftied tow-ards
the end of the fecond century, in the decline of the
Roman empire, that is, in the ipace of 600 years, ana¬
tomy was greatly improved; the philofophers ftiil con-
fidering it as a moft curious and interefting branch of
natural knowledge, and the phyficians as a principal
foundation of theis art. Both of them, in that inter¬
val of time, contributed daily to the common ftock, by
more accurate and extended obfervations, and by the
lights of improving philofophy.
As thefe two great men had applied very particular¬
ly to the ftudy of animal bodies, they not only made
great improvements, efpecially in phyfiology, but raif-
ed the credit of natural knowdedge, and Ipread it as
wide as Alexander’s empire.
Few of Ariftotle’s writings w-ere made public in his
lifetime. He afte&eu to fay that they would be unin¬
telligible to thofe who had not heard them explained at
his lecftures: and, except the ufe which Theophraftus
made of them, they were loft to the public for above
130 years after the death of Theophraftus ; and at laft
came out defective from bad prefervation, and corrupt¬
ed by men, who, without proper qualifications, pre¬
fumed to correct and to fupply what w-as loft.
hrom the time of Theophraftus, the ftudy of natural
knowledge at Athens was for ever on the decline j and
the reputation of the Lycaeum and Academy was al-
moft confined to the ftudies wffiich are fubfervient to
oratory and public fpeaking.
The other great inftitution for Grecian education
was at Alexandria in Egypt. The firft Ptolemies,
both from their love of literature, and to give true and
permanent dignity to their empire, and to Alexander’s
favourite city, fet up a grand fchool in the palace it-
felf, with a mufeum and a library,, which, we may
fay, has been the moft famed m the wTorld. Anatomy,
among other fciences, was publicly taught •, and the
two diftinguifhed anatomifts were Erafiftratus the pu¬
pil and friend of Theophraftus, and Herophilus. Their
voluminous works are all loft ; but they are quoted by
Galen almoft in every page. Thefe profeffors were pro¬
bably the firft wrho were authorized to difleft human
bodies ; a peculiarity which marks ftrongly the philo-
fophical magnanimity of the firft Ptolemy, and fixes a
great era in the hiftory of anatomy. And it was, no
doubt, from this particular advantage which the Alex¬
andrians had above all others, that their fchool not only
gained, hut . r many centuries preferved, the firft: repu¬
tation
A N A T
tation for medical education. Ammianus Marcellinus,
who lived about 650 years after the fchools were fet
up, fays, they were fo famous in his time, that it was
enough to fecure credit to any phyfician if he could
fay that he had ftudied at Alexandria.
Herophilus has been faid to have anatomized 700
bodies. We muft allow for exaggeration. Nay, it
was faid, that both he and Eraliftratus made it a com¬
mon praftice to open living bodies, that they might
difcover the more fecret fprings of life. But this, no
doubt, was only a vulgar opinion, rifing from the pre¬
judices of mankind; and accordingly, without any
good reafon, fuch tales have been told of modern ana-
tomifts, and have been believed by the vulgar.
Among the Romans, though it is probable they had
phyficians and furgeons from the foundation of the city,
yet we have no account of any of thefe applying'them-
felves to anatomy for a very long time. Archagathus
was the firft Greek phyfician eftablifhed in Rome, and
he was banifhed the city on account of the feverity of
his operations.— Afclepiades, who flourifhed in Rome
joi years after Archagathus, in the time of Pompey,
attained fuch a high reputation as to be ranked in the
fame clafs with Hiopocrates. He feemed to have fome
notion of the air in refpiration a61ing by its weight;
and in accounting for digeftion, he fuppofed khe food
to be no farther changed than by a comminution into
extremely fmall parts, which being diftributed to the
feveral parts of the body, is afiimilated to the nature of
each. One Caffius, commonly thought to be a dif-
ciple of Afclepiades, accounted for the right fide of the
body becoming paralytic on hurting the left fide of the
brain in the fame manner as has been done by the mo¬
derns, viz. from the crofling of the nerves from the
right to the left fide of the brain.
From the time of Afclepiades to the fecond century,
phyficians feem to have been greatly encouraged at
Rome ) and in the writings of Celfus, Rufus, Pliny,
■Coelius Aurelianus, and Araeteus, we find feveral ana¬
tomical obfervations, but moftly very fuperficial and in¬
accurate. Towards the end of the fecond century lived
Claudius Galenus Pergamus, whofe name is fo well
known in the medical world. He applied himfelf par¬
ticularly to the ftudy of anatomy, and did more in that
way than all that went before him. He feems, how¬
ever, to have been at a great lofs for human fubje&s to
operate upon : and therefore his defcriptions of the
parts are moflly taken from brute animals. His works
contain the fulleft hiftory of anatomifts, and the moft
complete fyftem of the fcience, to be met with any¬
where before him, or for feveral centuries after*, fo
that a number of paffages in them were reckoned abfo-
lutely unintelligible for many ages, until explained by
the difcoVeries of fucceeding anatomifts.
About the end of the fourth century, Nimefius bi-
fhop of Emifia wrote a treatife on the nature of man,
in which it is faid were contained two celebrated mo¬
dern difcoveries 5 the one, the ufes of the bile, boafted
of by .Sylvius de la Boe 5 and the other, the circula¬
tion of the blood. This laft, however, is proved by
Dr Freind, in his Hiftory of Phyfic, p. 229. to be
falfely afcribed to this author.
The Roman empire beginning now7 to be oppreffed
by the barbarians, and funk in grofs fuperftition, learn¬
ing of all kinds decreafedy and when the empire wTas
0 M Y,
Introd.
totally ovenvhelmed by thofe barbarous nations, every ‘
appearance of fcience was almoft extinguiihed in Eu¬
rope* The only remains of it were among the Ara¬
bians in Spain and in Afia.—The Saracens, who came
into Spain, deftroyed at firft all the Greek books which
the Vandals had fpared : but though their government
was in a conftatit ftruggle and fluctuation during 800
years before they were driven out, they received a tafte
for learning from their countrymen of the eaftj feveral
of their princes encouraged liberal ftudies ; public
fchools were fet up at Cordova, Toledo, and other
towns, and translations of the Greeks into the Arabic
were univerfally in the hands of their teachers.
Thus w*as the learning of the Grecians transferred to
the Arabians. But though they had fo good a founda¬
tion to build upon, this art was never improved while
they wfere mafters of the world: for they were fatisfied
with Commenting upon Galen j and feem to have made
no diffeClions of human bodies.
Abdollatiph, wdro w^as himfelf a teacher of anatomy,
a man eminent in his time (at and before 1202) for
his learning and curiofity; a great traveller, who had
been bred at Bagdad, and had fecn many of the great
cities and principal places for ftudy in the Saracen em¬
pire ; who had a favourable opinion of original obfer-
vation, in oppofition to book learning; who boldly
correfted fome of Galen’s errors, and w7as perfuaded
that many more might be detected *, this man, we fay,
never made or fawr, or feemed to think of a human dih
feClion. He difcovered Galen’s errors in the ofteology,
by going to burying grounds, wdth his ftudents and
others, w7here he examined and demonftrated the bones j
he earneftly recommended that method of ftudy, in
preference even to the reading of Galen, and thought,
that many farther improvements might be made *, yet
he feemed not to have an idea that a frefti fubjeft
might be diifeCted with that view.
Perhaps the Jewilh tenets which the Mahometans
adopted about uncleanlinefs and pollution, might pre¬
vent their handling dead bodies; or their opinion of
what was fuppofed to pafs between an angel and the
dead perfon, might make them think difturbing the
dead highly facrilegious. Such however* as Arabian
learning was, for many ages together there w*as hardly
any other in all the weftern countries of Eufope. It
was introduced by the eftablifhment of the Saracens in
Spain in 711, and kept its ground till the reftoration
of learning in the end of the 15th century. The ftate
of anatomy in Europe, in the times of Arabian influ¬
ence, may "be feen by reading a very ftiort fyftem of
anatomy drawm up by Mundinus, in the year 1315* ^
was extrafted principally from wdiat the Arabians had
preferved of Galen’s doftrine j and, rude as it is, in.
that age it was judged to be fo mafterly a performance,
that it was ordered by a public decree, that it fhould
be read in all the fchools of Italy; and it aClually con¬
tinued to be almoft the only book which was read up¬
on the fubjeCt for above loo years. Cortefius gives
him the credit of being the great reftorer of anatomy,
and the firft who differed human bodies among the
moderns.
A general prejudice againft difleftion, however, pre¬
vailed till the 16th century. The emperor Charles V.
ordered a confultation to be held by the divines of Sala¬
manca, in order to determine whether or not it was
lawful
Iirtrod. A A T O M Y.
Hiftory. laWi'ul in point ot confcience to JiiTeCt a dead body, aftonifhment, that Leonardo had been a yeneral and a
1 v ' In Mufcovy, till very lately, both anatomy and the ufe deep Undent. When I confider what pains he has ta-
°f flceletons were forbidden the hr ft as inhuman, and ken upon every part of the body, the funeriority of his
the latter as fubfervient to witchcraft. univerfal genius, his particular excellence in mechanics
. In the beginning of the 15th century, learning re- and hydraulics, and the attention with which fuch a
vived confiderably in Europe, and particularly phyfic, man would examine and fee objedls which he was to
by means of copies of the Greek authors brought from draw, I am fully perfuaded that Leonardo was the beft
the fack of Conftantinople 5 after which the number of anatomift at that time in the world. We muft give the
anatomifts and anatomical books increafed to a prodi- 15th century the credit of Leonardo’s anatomical ftu-
gious degree.—-The Europeans becoming thus poffef- dies, as he was 55 years of age at the clofe of that cen-
led or the ancient Greek lathers of medicine, were for tury.”
a long time fo much occupied in correfting the copies In the beginning of the 16th century, Achillinus and
they . could obtain, ftudying the meaning, and com- Benedidlus, but particularly Berengarius and Maffa fol-
menting upon them, that they attempted nothing of lowed out the improvement of anatomy in Italy where
their own, efpecially in anatomy. they taught it, and publiftied upon the fubjedt. ’ Thefe
And here the late Dr Hunter introduces into the firft improvers made fome dilhoveries from their own
annals of this art, a genius of the firft rate, Leonardo dilfedions : but it is not furprifing that they Ihculd
da Vmci, who had been formerly overlooked, becaufe have been diffident of themfelves, and have followed
he was of another profeffion, and becaufe he publiffied Galen almoft blindly, when his authority had been fo
nothing upon the fubjedt. He is confidered by the long eftabliffied, and when the enthufiafm for Greek
Dodfor as by far the beft .anatomift and phyfiologift of authors was rifing to fuch a pitch,
his time : and was certainly the firft man we know of Soon after this, we may fay about the vear 1 -40
who introduced the pradfice of making anatomical the great Vefalius appeared. He was ftudious, labo-
dra'V1"£S* . , . _ . , , „ . r rious’ and ambitious. From Bruffels, the place of his
vailare, in his Lives of the Painters, fpeaks of Leo- birth, he went to Louvain, and thence to Paris where'
nardo thus, after telling us that he had compofed a anatomy was not yet making a confiderable figure • and
book of the anatomy of a horfe, for his own ftudy : then to'Louvain to teach ; from which place very for-
“ afterwards applied himfelf with more diligence tunately for his reputation, he was called ? to Italy
to the human anatomy 5 in which ftudy he reciprocally where he met with every opportunity that fuch a <>4-
received and communicated affiftance to Marc. Anto- nius for anatomy could defire, that is, books, liibiedts"
nio della Torre, an excellent philofopher, who then and excellent draughtfmen. He was equally’laborious
read ledfures in Pavia, and wrote upon this fubjedl; and in reading the ancients, and in diffedting bodies. And
who was the firft, as I have heard, wdio began to illu- in making the comparifon, he could not but fee that
ftrate medicine from the doctrine of Galen, and to give there was great room for improvement, and that many
true light to anatomy, which till that time had been of Galen’s defcriptions were erroneous.’ When he was
involved in clouds of darknefs and ignorance. In this but a young man, he publiffied a noble fyftem of ana-
hc availed himfelf exceedingly of the genius and labour tomy, illuftrated with a great number of elegant fi"
of Leonardo, who made a book of ftudies, drawn with gures.—In this work he found fo many occafions of
red chalk, and touched with a pen, with great diligence, correaing Galen, that his contemporaries, partial to
of fuch fubje&s as he had himfelf diffefted ; where he antiquity, and jealous of his reputation, complained that
made all the bones, and to thofe he joined, in their or- he carried his turn for improvement and criticifms to
der, all the nerves, and covered them with the mufcles. licentioufnefs. The fpirit of oppofition and emulation
And concerning thofe, from part to part, he wrote re- was prefently roufed ; and Sylvius in France, Colum-
marks in letters of an ugly form, which are written by bus, Fallopius, and Euftachius in Italy, who’were all
tlie left hand, backwards, and not to be underftood but in high anatomical reputation about the middle of this
by thole who know the method of reading them ; for 16th century, endeavoured to defend Galen at'the ex-
they are not to be read without a looking-glafs. Of pence of Vefalius. In their difputes they made their
thefe papers *of the human anatomy, there is a great appeals to the human body: and thus in' a few years
part in the poffeffion of M. Francefco da Melzo, a Mi- the art was greatly improved. And Vefalius beiim de-
lanefe gentleman, who, in the time of Leonardo, was a te&ed in the very fault which he condemns in Galen'
moft beautiful boy, and much beloved by him, as he is to wit, defcribing from the diffedions of brutes and
now a beautiful and genteel old man, who reads thofe not of the human body, it expofed fo fully that bluu-
writings, and carefully preferves them, as precious re- der of the older anatomifts, that in fucceeding times
lies, together with the portrait of Leonardo of happy there has been little reafon for fuch complaint. Be-.
memory. It appears impoffible that that divine fpirit Tides the above, he publiffied feveral other anatomical
ftiould reafon fo well upon the arteries, and mufcles, treatifes. He has been particularly ferviceable by inl¬
and nerves, and veins j and with fuch diligence of every pofing names on the mufcles, moft of which are retain-
fthmg’”&c. &c. . , , . ed to this day. Formerly they were diftinguiffied by
I hole very drawings and the writings are happily numbers, which were differently applied by aimoft every
tound to be preferved in his majeffy’s great colle&ion author. y
of original drawings, where the Dodor was permitted In 1561, Gabriel Fallopius, profelTor of anatomy at
to examine them ; and his fentiments upon the occafion Padua, publiffied a treatife of anatomy under the title
he thus exprefles : “ I expeded to fee little more than of Obfervationes Anatomicce. This was defigned as a
inch defigns in anatomy as might be ufeful to a pain- fupplement to Vefalius ; many of. whofe defcriptions
ter in his own profeffion.j but I faw, and indeed with he correds, though he always makes mention of him
Vox.. II. Part I. 2
177
Hiftoiy,
in
378
Hiftory.
t
A N A T 'O M Y.
Introd,
in an honourable manner. Fallopius made many great
difcoveries, and his book is well worth the perufal of
every an atom! il.
In 1563, Bartholomaeus Euftachius publilhed his
Opufcula Anatomica at Venice, which have ever fince
been juftly admired for the exadlnefs of the defcrip-
tions, and the difcoveries contained in them. He
publilhed afterwards fome other pieces, in which there
is little of anatomy j but never publilhed the great
work he had promifed, which was to be adorned with
copperplates reprefentingf all the parts of the human
body. Thefe plates, after lying buried in an old ca¬
binet for upwards of 150 years, were at lalt difcover-
ed and publilhed in the year 1714, by Lancili the
pope’s phyfician \ who added a fhort explicatory text,
becaufe Eullachius’s own writing could not be found.
From this time the lludy of anatomy gradually dif-
fufed itfelf over Europe : infomuch that for the laft
hundred years it has been daily improving by the la¬
bour of a number of profeffed anatomifts almoft in
every country of Europe.
We may form a judgment about the Hate of anatomy
even in Italy, in the beginning of the 17th century,
from the information of Cortelius. He had been pro-
feffor of anatomy at Bologna, and was then profeffor of
medicine at Maffana $ where, though he had a great
defire to improve himfelf in the art, and to finilh a
treatife which he had begun on practical anatomy, in
24 years he could twice only procure an opportunity of
differing a human body, and then it was with diffi¬
culties and in hurry ; wffiereas he had expefled to have
done fo, he fay-s, once every year, according to the cujlom
in the famous academies of Italy.
In the very end of the 16t.ll century, our great Har¬
vey, as was the cuftom of the times, went to Italy to
lludy medicine $ for Italywas Hill the favourite feat of
the arts : And in the very beginning of the 17th cen¬
tury, foon after Harvey’s return to England, his mailer
in anatomy, Fabricius ab Aquapendente, publilhed an
account of the valves in the veins, which he had difco-
vered many years before, and no doubt taught in his
lectures when Harvey attended them.
This difcovery evidently affedled the ellablilhed doc¬
trine of all ages, that the veins carried the blood from
the liver to all parts of the body for nourilhment. It
fet Harvey to work upon the ufe of the heart and vaf-
oular fyltems in animals •, and in the courfe of fome
years he was fo happy as to difcover, and to prove be¬
yond all poffibility of doubt, the circulation of the blood.
He taught his new dodlrine in his ledlures about the
year 1616, and printed it in 1628.
It was by far the moll important Hep that has been
made in the knowledge of animal bodies in any age.
It not only relieved ufeful lights upon what had been
already found out in anatomy, but alfo pointed out the
means of further invelligation. And accordingly we
fee, that from Harvey to the prefent time, anatomy
has been fo much improved, that w7e may reafonably
^uellion if the ancients have been further outdone by
the moderns in any other branch of knowledge. From
one day to another there has been a conllant fucceffion
of difcoveries, relating either to the llrufture or func¬
tions of our bodies 5 and new anatomical proceffes, both
of invelligation and demonltration, havO been daily in¬
vented. Many parts of the body which were not
known in Harvey’s time have fince then been brought Hiftory.
to light : and of thofe ■which were known, the inter- 1 ■
nal compofition and functions remained unexplained j
and indeed mull have remained inexplicable without
the knowledge of the circulation.
Harvey’s doctrine at firlt met with confiderable op-*
pofition ; but in the fpace of about 20 years it was fo
generally and fo warmly embraced, that it was imagin¬
ed every thing in phyfic would be explained. But
time and experience have taught us, that we Hill are,
and probably mull long continue to be, very ignorant,
and that in the lludy of the human body, and of its
difeafes, there will always be an extenfive field for the
exercife of fagacity.
After the difcovery and knowledge of the circula¬
tion of the blood, the next quellion wrould naturally
have been about the paffage and route of the nutritious
part of the food or chyle from the bowels to the blood
velfels: And, , by good fortune, in a few years after
Harvey had made his difcovery, Afellius, an Italian
phyfician, found out the lacleals, or veflels which carry
the chyle from the inteltines; and printed his account
of them, with coloured prints, in the year 1627, the
very year before Harvey’s book came out.
For a number of years after thefe two publications,
the anatomills in all parts of Europe •were daily open¬
ing living dogs, either to fee the ladleals or to obferve-
the phenomena of the circulation. In making an ex¬
periment of this kind, Pecquet in France was fortunate
enough to difcover the thoracic duft, or common trunk
of all the lafleals, which conveys the chyle into the
fubclavian vein. He printed his dil’covery in the year
1651. And now the lafteals having been traced from
the inteltines to the thoracic du6t, and that du£t having
been traced to its termination in a blood veffel, the paf¬
fage of the chyle was completely made out.
The fame pra£lice of opening living animals furnilh-
ed occafions of difcovering the lymphatic veffels. This
good fortune fell to the lot of Rudbec firlt, a young
Swedilh anatomilt 5 and then to Thomas Bartholine, a
Danilh anatomilt, who was the firlt who appeared in
print upon the lymphatics. His book came out in the
year 1653, that is, two years after that of Pecquet.
And then it was very evident that they had been feen
before by Dr Highmore and others, who had miltaken
them for ladteals. But none of the anatomills of thofe
times could make out the origin of the lymphatics, and
none of the phyfiologilts could give a fatisfaftory ac¬
count of their ufe.
The circulation of the blood and the paflage of the
chyle having been fatisfaftorily traced out in full grown
animals, the anatomills were naturally led next to con-
fider how thefe animal proceffes were carried on in the
child while in the womb of the mother. Accordingly
the male and female organs, the appearances and con¬
tents of the pregnant uterus, the incubated egg, and
every phenomenon which could illultrate generation,
became the favourite fubjedl for about 30 years with
the principal anatomills of Europe.
Thus it would appear to have been in theory 5 but
Dr Hunter believes, that in fa£t, as Harvey’s mailer
Fabricius laid the foundation for the difcovery of the
circulation of the blood by teaching him the valves of
the veins, and thereby inviting him to confider that
fubje£t } fo Fabricius, by his lectures, and by his ele-
gax*
Introd. ANA
Htftory- | gant work De Formato Fcetu, et de Furtnationc Ovi et
puM, probably made that likewife a favourite fubjeft
with Dr Harvey. But whether he took up the fubjeft
of generation in confequence of his difcovery of the
circulation, or was led to it by his honoured mafter Fa-
bricius, he fpent a great deal of his time in the in¬
quiry ; and publifhed his obfervations in a book De
Generations slnimalium, in the year 1651, that is, fix
years before his death.
In a few years after this, Swammerdam, Van Horn,
Steno, and De Graaf, excited great attention to the
Irlbjed of generation, by their fuppofed difcovery that
the females of viviparous animals have ovaria, that is,
clufters of eggs in their loins, like oviparous animals ;
which, when impregnated by the male, are conveyed
into the uterus: fo that a. child is produced from an
egg as well as a chick ; with this difference, that one
is hatched within, and the other without, the body of
the mother.
Malpighi, a great Italian genius, fome time after,
made coniiderable advances upon the fubjeft of gene¬
ration. He had the good fortune to be the firft wdio
ufed magnifying glaffes with addrefs in tracing the firft
appearances in the formation of animals. He likewdfe
made many other obtervations and improvements in
the minutia: of anatomy by his microfcopical labours,
and by cultivating comparative anatomy.
This diftinguilhed anatomift gave the firft public
Ipecimen of his abilities by printing a diflertation on
the lungs, anno 1661, a period fo remarkable for the
ftudy of nature, that it would be injuftice to pafs it
without particular notice.
At the fame time flourifhed Laurentius Bellinus at
I* lorence, and was the firft who introduced mathema¬
tical reafoning in phyfic. In 1662, Simon Pauli pub¬
lifhed a treatile De albandis OJfibus, He had long been
admired for the white Ikeletons he prepared $ and at
laft difcovered his method, which was by expofing the
bones all winter to the weather.
Johannes Swammerdam of Amfterdam alfo publifh¬
ed fome anatomical treatifes ; but w^as moft remarkable
for his knowledge of preferving the parts of bodies en¬
tire for many years, by inje£!ing their veffels. He
alfo publifhed a treatife on refpiration $ wherein he
mentioned his having figures of all the parts of the bo¬
dy, as big as the life, cut in copper, which he defign-
ed to publifh, with a complete fyftem of anatomy.
Thefe, however, were never made public by Swam¬
merdam j but, in 1683, Gothofridus Bidloo, profeflbr
of anatomy at Leyden, publifhed a work entitled Ana-
tomia Corporis Humani, where all the parts were deli¬
neated in very large plates almoft as big as the life.
Mr Cowper, an Englifh furgeon, bought 300 copies
of thefe figures -, and in 1698, publifhed them, with
an Englifh text, quite different from Bidloo’s Latin
one ; to which were added letters in Bidloo’s figures,
and fome few figures of Mr Cow'per’s own. To this
work Cow'per’s name wTas prefixed, without the leaft
mention of Bidloo, except on purpofe to confute him.
Bidloo immediately publifhed a very ill-natured pam¬
phlet, called Gu/ielmus Couperus citatus coram tribu-
nali; appealing to the Royal Society, how far Cow'per
ought to be punifhed as a plagiary of the worft kind,
and endeavouring to prove him an ignorant deceitful
fellow. Cowper anfwered him in his owm ftyle, in a
T O M Y. x 7,
pamphlet called his Vindicne; endeavouring to prove,. Hiftory.
either that Bidjoo did not uuderftand his own tables, or '•““'-v “
that they were none of his> It wTas even alleged that
thofe were the tables promifed by Swammerdam, and
which Bidloo had got from his widow. This, however,
appears to have been only an invidious furmife, there
being unqueftionable evidence that they were really
the performance of Bidloo.
Soon after, Ifbrandus Diembroeck, profeffor of ana¬
tomy at Utrecht, began to appear as an author. His
work contained very little original; but he was at
great pains to colle£t from others whatever was valu¬
able in their writings, and his fyftem was thc commqn
ftandard among anatomical fludents for many years.
About the lame time, Antonius Leeuwenhoek of
Delft improved confiderably on Malpighi’s ufe of
microfcopes. Thefe two authors took up anatomy
where others had dropt it} and, by this new art, they
brought a number of amazing things to light. They
difcovered the red globules of the blood 5 they were
enabled to fee the aftual circulation of the blood in
the tranfparent parts of living animals, and could mea-
fure the velocity of its motion j they difcovcred that
the arteries and veins had no intermediate cells or
fpongy fubftance, as Harvey and all the preceding ana-
tomifts had fuppofed, but communicated one with the
other by a continuation of the fame tube.
Leeuwenhoek w>as in great fame likewife for his dif¬
covery of the animalcula in the femen. Indeed there
was fcarcely a part of the body, folid or fluid, which
efcaped his examination $ and he almoft everywhere
found, that what appeared to the naked eye to be
rude indigefted matter, was in reality a beautiful and
regular compound.
After this period, Nuck added to our knowledge of
the abforbent fyftem already mentioned by his injec¬
tions of the lymphatic glands $ Ruyfch, by his defcrip-
tion of the valves of the lymphatic veffels ; and Dr
Meckel, by his accurate account of the whole fyftem,
and by tracing thofe veffels in many parts where they
had not before been defcribed.
Befides thefe authors, Drs Hunter and Monro have
called the attention of the public to this part of anato¬
my, in their controverfy concerning the difcovery of
the office of the lymphatics.
When the lymphatic veffels were firft: feen and tra¬
ced into the thoracic du<ft, it was natural for anato-
mifts to fufpeft, that as the la&eals abforbed from the
cavity of the inteftines, the lymphatics, which are fi-
milar in figure and ftrufture, might poflibly do. the
fame office with refpeft to other parts of the body ;
and accordingly, Dr Gliffon, who wrote in 1654, fup-
pofes thefe veffels arofe from cavities, and that their
ufe was to abforb j and Frederic Hoffman has very ex¬
plicitly laid down the dodfrine of the lymphatic veffels
being a fyftem of abforbents. But anatomifts in gene¬
ral have been of a contrary opinion : for from experi¬
ments, particularly fuch as were made by injedlions,
they have been perfuaded that the lymphatic veffels did
not arife from cavities, and did not abforb, but were
merely continuations from fmall arteries. The doc¬
trine, therefore, that the lymphatics, like the ladeals,
were abforbents, as had been fuggefted by Gliffon and
by Hoffman, has been revived by Dr Hunter and Dr
Monro, who have controverted the experiments of
Z 2 their
i8o ' ANA
Hiilory.^ tlieir predeceflbi'S in anatomy, and have endeavoured
to prove that the lymphatic veflels are not continued
from arteries, but are abforbents.
T o this doftrine, however, feveral objections have
been Itarted, particularly by Haller {Elem. Phyf. 1. 24.
§ _2> 3’) » anc^ ^ has been found, that before the doc¬
trine of the lymphatics being a fyftem of abforbents
can be eftablifhed, it mult firit be determined whether
this fyftem is to be found in other animals befides man
and quadrupeds. Mr Hewfon claims the merit of ha¬
ving proved the affirmative of this queftion, by difco-
vering the lymphatic fyftem in birds, fifti, and amphi¬
bious animals. See Phil. Pranf. vol. Iviii. and Ixix. 
.And latterly, Mr Cruikffiank has traced the ramifica¬
tions of that fyftem in almoft every part of the body ;
and from his difleCtions, figures have been made and
lately publiftied to the world. To Mr Sheldon alfo
we are much indebted for his illuftration of this fyftem,
which promifes to give great fatisfaftion, but of which
only a part has been yet publiftied.
The gravid uterus is a fubjetft likewife which has
received confiderable improvements, particularly relat¬
ing to one very important difcovery *, viz. that the in¬
ternal membrane of the uterus, which .Dr Hunter has
named decidua, conftitutes the exterior part of the fe-
cundines or after-birth, and feparates from the reft of the
uterus every time that a woman either bears a child or
fuffers a mifcarriage. This difcovery includes another,
to wit, that the placenta is partly made up of an ex-
crefcence or efflorefcence from the uterus itfelf.
Thefe difcoveries are of the utmoft confequence,
both in the phyfiological queftion about the connexion
between the mother and child, and likewife in explain¬
ing the phenomena of births and abortions, as ivell as
in regulating obftetrical praCtice.
I he anatomifts of this century have improved ana-
tomy? and have made the ftudy of it much more eafy,
by giving us more correct as well as more numerous
figures. . It is amazing to think of what has been done
in that time. We have had four large folio books of
figures of the bones, viz. Chefelden’s, Albinus’s, Sue’s
and 1 few’s. Of the mufcles, we have had two large
folios ; one from Cowper, which is elegant 5 and one
from Albums, which, from the accuracy and labour of
the work, we may fuppofe will never be outdone. Of
the blood veftels we have a large folio from Dr Hal¬
ler. We have had one upon the nerves from Dr
Meckel, and another by Dr Monro junior. We have
had Albinus’s, Roederer’s, Jenty’s, and Hunter’s works
upon the pregnant uterus j Weitbrecht and Leber on
the joints and freih bones 5 Soemerring on the brain •,
Zinn on the eye 5 Cotunnius, Meckel junior, &c. on
the ear 5 Walter on the nerves of the thorax and ab¬
domen ; Dr Monro on the burfae mucofse, &c.
It would be endlefs to mention the anatomical fi¬
gures tnat have been publiffied in this century of par¬
ticular and fmaller parts of the body, by Morgagni,
Ruyfch, Valfalva, Sanftorini, Heifter, Vater, Cant,
Zimmeripan, Walterus, and others.
Thofe elegant plates of the brain, however, juft pub-
Ihhed by M. Vicq. d’Azyr, muft not pafs without no¬
tice, efpecially as they form part of an univerfal fyftem
of anatomy and phyfiology, both human and compara¬
tive, propofed to be executed in the fame fplendid ftyle.
Upon the brain alone 19 folio plates are employed ;
of which feveral are coloured*. The figures are deli-
T O M Y.
neated with accuracy and clearnefs j but the colouring
is rather beautiful than correct. Such parts of this
work as may be publilhed, cannot fail to be equally
acceptable to the anatomift and the philofopher : but
the entire defign is apparently too extenfive to be ac-
complifhed within the period of a fingle life. In our
own country, alfo, a very great anatomical work is
carrying on by Andrew' Bell, F. S. A. S. engraver to
his Royal Highnefs the Prince of Wales, with the ap¬
probation of Dr Monro, and under the inipeftion of
his very ingenious affiftant Mr Fyfe. It is to compofe
a complete illuftration, both general and particular, of
the human body, by a feleflion from the beft plates of
all the greateft anatomifts, as w^ell foreign as of this
country, exhibiting the lateft difcoveries in the fcience,
and accompanied with copious explanations. The
whole number of plates mentioned in the Profpeflus is
240, of which 152 are already done 5 all in royal folio.
To the foreign treatifes already mentioned may be
added thofe recently publiffied by Sabbatier and Plenck
on anatomy in general. Among ourfelves, the writ¬
ings of Keil, Douglas, Chefelden, the firft Monro,
Winflow, &c. are too wTell known to need defcription.
The laft of thefe ufied to be recommended as a ftandard
for the Undents of anatomy 5 but it has of late given
place to a more accurate and comprehenfive fyftem, in
three volumes, publiftied by Mr Elliot of Edinburgh
upon a plan approved of by Dr Monro, and executed
by Mr Fyfe. Dr Simmons of London has alfo obliged
the world with an excellent fyftem of anatomy ; and
another wrork, under the title of “ Elements of Ana¬
tomy and the Animal Economy in which the
fubje£ts are treated with uncommon elegance and per-
fpicuity.
In the latter part of the laft century, anatomy made
two great fteps, by the invention of injetftions, and the
method of making what rve commonly call preparations.
Thefe two modern arts have really keen of infinite ufe
to anatomy ; and befides have introduced an elegance
into our adminiftrations, which in former times could
not have been fuppofed to be poffible. They arofe in
Holland under Swammerdam and Ruyfch, and after¬
wards in England under Cowrper, St Andre, and others,
where they have been greatly improved.
The anatomifts of former ages had no other know¬
ledge of the blood vefiels than what they were able to-
collect from laborious diffedfions, and from examining
the Imaller branches of them, upon fome lucky occa-
fion, when they were found more than commonly load¬
ed with red blood. But filling the vafcular fyftem w ith
a bright coloured wax, enables us to trace the large
vefiels with great eafe, renders the fmaller much more
confpicuous, and makes thoufands of the very minute
ones vifible, w hich from their delicacy, and the tranfpa-
rency of their natural contents, are otherwife imper¬
ceptible.
The modern art of corroding the fleftiy parts with a*
menftruum, and of leaving the moulded wrax entire, is
fo exceedingly ufeful, and at the fame time fo orna¬
mental, that it does great honour to the ingenious in¬
ventor Dr Nicholls.
The wax-work art of the moderns might deferve no¬
tice in any hiftory of anatomy, if the mafters in that
way had not been fo carelefs in their imitation. Many
of the wax figures are fo tawdry, with a ftiow of unna¬
tural colours, and fo very inconedi in the circumftances
Introd-
Hiftory.
Jntrod.
General of figure, fituation, and the like, that though they
I1fVK’t>A a vu^gar eye with admiration, they mult appear
! ^ ridiculous to an anatomilt. But thofe figures which
are call in wax, plalter, or lead, from the real fubjeft,
and which of late years have been frequently made
here, are, of courfe, very correct in all the principal
parts, and may be confidered as no infignificant acqui-
fition to modern anatomy. The proper, or principal,
ufe of this art is, to preferve a very perfedt likenefs of
fuch fubjedts as we but feldom can meet with, or can¬
not well preferve in a natural Hate; a fubjedt in preg¬
nancy, for example.
The modern improved methods of preferving animal
bodies, or parts of them, has been of the greateft fer-
vice to anatomy ; efpecially in faving the time and la¬
bour of the anatomiil in the nicer diiledlions of the
fmall parts of the body. For now, whatever he has
prepared with care, he can preferve ; and the objedt is
ready to be feen at any time. And in the fame man¬
ner he can preferve anatomical curiofities, or rarities of
every kind ; iuch as, parts that are uncommonly form¬
ed > parts that are difeafed ^ the parts of the pregnant
*t,erus and its contents. Large colledlions of fuch cu-
^iofities, which modern anatomifts are ftriving sdmoft
everywhere to procure, are of infinite fervice to the
art, efpecially in the hands of teachers. They [give
ftudents clear ideas about many things w'hich it is very
eflential to know, and yet which it is impofiible that a
teacher Ihould be able to fhow otherwife, wrere he ever
fo well fupplied with frefh fubjedls.
§ 2. View of the SuhjeB in general, and Plan of the
following Prealife.
The etymology of the word anatomy, as above gi¬
ven, implies fimply dfcliion ; but by this term fome-
thing more is ufually underftood.
It is every day made ufe of to exprefs a knowledge
of the human body; and a perfon who is laid to un-
derftand anatomy, is fuppofed to be converfant with the
itrudfure and arrangement of the diilerent folid parts
of the body.
It is commonly divided into Anatomy, properly fo
called ; and Comparative Anatomy : the rirll of thefie
is confined i’clely to the human body 5 the latter in¬
cludes all animals, fo far as a knowledge of their ftruc-
ture may tend to perfedl our ideas of the human body.
The term.-anatomy may alfo have another and more
extenfive fignification: it may be employed to exprefs
not only a knowledge of the ftrudlure and difpofition of
the parts, but likewife of their economy and ufe. Con¬
fidered in this light, it will feldom fail to excite the
curiofity of people of tafte, as a branch of philofo-
phy 5 fince, if it is pleafing to be acquainted wdth the
flruflure of the body, it is certainly more fo todifeover
all the fprings wdrich give life and motion to the ma¬
chine, and to obferve the admirable mechanifm by
which fo many different fun ft ions are executed.
Aftronomy and anatomy, as Dr Hunter, after Fon-
tenelle, obferves, are the ttudies which prefent us with
the mod linking vie# of the two greated attributes of
the Supreme Being. The fird of thefe fills the mind
with the idea of his immenfity, in the largenefs, di-
llances, and number of the heavenly bodies ; the lad
adonidies with his intelligence and art in the variety
^nd delicacy of animal mechaniim.
i Si
I he human body has been commonly enough known General1
by the name of rnicrocofmus, or the little world ; as, if it vie’'v ,ot
did not differ fo much from the univerfal fydem of lia- fub-ie<a;
ture in the fymmetry and number 'of its parts as in ~v
their fize.
Galen’s excellent treatife De Ufa Partium, was com-
pofed as a profe hymn to the Creator ; and abounds
with as irrefidible proofs of a fupreme Caufe and go¬
verning Providence, as we find in modern phyfico-
theology. And Cicero dwells more on the drudlure
and economy of animals than on all the produdtions of
nature befides, when he wants to prove the exidence of
the gods from the order and beauty of the univerfe.
He there takes a furvey of the body of man in a mod
elegant fynopfis of anatomy, and concludes thus :
“ Quibus rebus expofitis, fatis docuiffe videor, hominis
natura, quanto omnes anteiret animantes. Ex quo de¬
bet intelligi, nec figuram litumque membrorum, nec in¬
genii mentifque vim talem effici potuiffe fortuna.”
^ The iatisfa&ion of mind wdiich arifes from the dudv
of anatomy, and the influence which it mud naturally
have upon our minds as philofophers, cannot be better
conveyed than by the following paffage from the fame
author : “ Quae contuens animus, accepit ab his coa-
nitionem deorum, ex qua oritur pietas : cui conjunbtu
juditia ed, reliquaeque virtutes: ex quibus vita beata
exfidit, par et fimilis deorum, nulla alia re nifi immor-
talitate, quae nihil ad bene vivendum pertinet, cedens
cadedibus.”
It would be endlefs to quote the animated paffages
of this fort which are to be found in the phyficians,
philofophers, and theologids, who have confidered the
drufture and fundlions of animals with a view towards
the Creator. It is a view which mud ftrike one with
a mod awful convi&ion. Who can know and conlider
the thoufand evident proofs of the adonidiing art of
the Creator, in forming and fudaining an animal body N
fuch as ours, without feeling the mod pleafant enthu -
fiafm ? Can we ferioufly refledl upon this awful fub-
jefly without being almod lod in adoration ? without
longing for another life after this, in which we may be
gratified with the higheft enjoyment which our facul¬
ties and. nature feem capable of, the feeing and com¬
prehending the whole plan of the Creator, "in forming
the univerfe, and in direfting all.its operations ?
But the more immediate purpofes of anatomy con--
cern thofe who are to be the guardians of health as-
this ftudy is neceffary to lay a foundation for all ’the
branches of medicine. The more we know of our fa¬
bric, the more reafon we have to believe, that if our
fenfes were more acute, and cur judgment more enlar¬
ged, we diould be able to trace many fprings of life
which are now hidden from us : by the fame fagacity
we diould difeover the true caufes and nature of dif-
eafes 5 and thereby be enabled to redore the health of
many, who are now, from our more confined know¬
ledge, faid to labour under incurable diforders. Br
fiich an intimate acquaintance with the economy of
our bodies, we fhould difeover even the feeds of dif-
eafes, and dedroy them before they had taken root in
the conditution.
1 hat anatomy is the very bafis of furgery every body
allows. It is difleftron alone that can teach us, "where
we may cut the living body with freedom and defpatch y.
and where we may venture with great circunifpeflion
amL
ANATOMY.
1-8 2
A N A T
General
view of
the fubjecl.
\
and delicacy and wliere we muft not upon any ac¬
count attempt it. This informs the head, gives dex¬
terity to the band, and familiarizes the heart with a
fort of neceffary inhumanity, the ufe of cutting inllru-
ments upon our fellow-creatures.
Bcfides the knowledge of our body, through all the
variety of its JlruBure and operations in a found hate,
it is by anatomy only that we can arrive at the know¬
ledge of the true nature of moft of the difeafes which
afflift humanity. The fymptoms of many diforders
arc often equivocal 5 and difeafes themfelves are thence
frequently miftalcen, even by feniible, experienced, and
attentive phyficians. But by anatomical examination
after death, we caawith certainty find out the mif-
take, and learn to avoid it in any fimilar cafe.
This ufe of anatomy has been fo generally adopted
by the moderns, that the cafes already publilhed are
almoft innumerable : Mangetus, Morgagni, indeed ma¬
ny of the beft modern writings in phyfic, are full of
them. And if we look among the phyficians of the
beft character, and obferve thole who have the art it-
felf, rather than the craft of the profeffion at heart;
we {hall find them conftantly taking pains to procure
leave to examine the bodies of their patients after death.
After having confidered the rife and progrefs of ana¬
tomy *, the various difeoveries that have been made in
it, from time to time *, the great number of diligent
obfervers who have applied themfelves to this art; and
the importance of the ftudy, not only for the preven¬
tion and cure of difeafes, but in furnilhing the livelieft
proofs of divine wifdom the following queftions feem
naturally to arife: For what purpofe is there fuch a
variety of parts in the human body ? Why fuch a com¬
plication of nice and tender machinery ? Why was
there not rather a more fimple, lefs delicate, and lefs
expenfive frame (a) ?
In order to acquire a fatisfa&ory general idea of this
fubjett, and find a folution of all fuch queftions, let
us, in our imagination, make a man : in other words,
let us fuppofe that the mind, or immaterial part, is to be
placed in a corporeal fabric, in order to hold a corre-
fpondence with other material beings by the interven¬
tion of the body •, and then confider, a priori, what will
be wanted for her accommodation. In this inquiry, we
lhall plainly fee the neceflity or advantage, and there¬
fore the final caufe, of moft of the parts which we ac¬
tually find in the human body. And if we confider
that, in order to anfwer fome of the requifites, human
wit and invention would be very infufficientwe need
not be furprifed if we meet with fome parts of the bo¬
dy whofe ufe we cannot yet perceive, and with fome
operations or functions which wt cannot explain. We
can fee that the whole bears the moft ftriking charac¬
ters of excelling wifdom and ingenuity : but the im-
perfeift fenfes and capacity of man cannot pretend to
reach every part of a machine, which nothing lefs than
the intelligence and power of the Supreme Being could
contrive and execute.
Firft, then, The mind, the^thinking immaterial agent,
muft be provided with a place of immediate refidence,
O M Y.
In trod
which {hall have all the requifites for the union of fpirlt General
and body ; accordingly ftie is provided with the brain, fff, ^
where {he dwells as governor and fuperintendant of the ■16
whole fabric.
In the next place, As {he is to hold a correfpondence
with all the material beings around her, Ihe muft he
fupplied with organs fitted to receive the different kinds
of impreffions which they will make. In faff, there¬
fore, we fee that the is provided with the organs of
fenfe, as we call them} the eye is adapted to light j
the ear to found; the nofe to fmell j the mouth to
tafte ; and the {kin to touch.
Further : She muft be furniflied with organs of com¬
munication between herfelf in the brain and thofe or¬
gans of fenfe, to give her information of all the im-
prefiions that are made upon them : and {he muft have
organs between herfelf in the brain and every other
part of the body, fitted to convey her commands and
influence over the whole. For thefe purpofes the nerves
are affually given. They are chords, which rife from
the brain, the immediate refidence of the mind, and
difperfe themfelves in branches through all parts of the
body. They convey all the different kinds of fenfa*
tions to the mind, in the brain ; and likewife carry out
from thence all her commands or influence to the other
parts of the body. They are intended to be occafional
monitors againft all fuch impreflions as might endanger
the wellbeing of the whole, or of any particular part j
which vindicates the Creator of all things, in having
aflually fnbjefled us to thofe many difagreeable and
painful fenfations which we are expofed to from a thou-
fand accidents in life.
Moreover, the mind, in this corporeal fyftem, muft
be endued with the power of moving from place to
place, that Ihe may have intercourfe with a variety of
objefts •, that fire may fly from fuch as are difagreeable,
dangerous, or hurtful, and purfue fuch as are pleafant
or ufeful to her. And accordingly Ihe is furniftied
with limbs, and with mufcles and tendons, the inftru-
ments of motion, which are found in every part of the
fabric where motion is neceffary.
But to fupport, to give firmnefs and {hape to the
fabric ; to keep the fofter parts in their proper places j
to give fixed points for, and the proper dire6lion to
its motions, as well as to proteft fome of the more
important and tender organs from external injuries j
there muft be fome firm prop-worK interwoven through
the whole. And in faft, for fuch purpofes the bones
are given.
The prop-work muft not be made into one rigid fa¬
bric, for that would prevent motion. Therefore there
are a number of bones.
Thefe pieces muft all be firmly bound together, to
prevent their diflocation. And this end is perfe&ly
well anfwered by the ligaments.
The extremities of thefe bony pieces, where they
move and rub upon one another, muft have fmooth
and llippery furfaces for eafy motion. This is moft
happily provided for by the cartilages and mucus of
the joints.
The
(a) The following beautiful reprefentation is taken horn th- .ate Dr Hunter’s Introductory Ltftnre in Jlna-
tomy. 2
Introd. A N A T
General The interftices of all thefe parts mult be filled up
rTil^e T ^°me an^ matter, which fliall keep
tie lyjecr-tpiem jn t]ie-r piaces> UR;te them, and at ifce fame time
allow them to move a little upon one another. And
thefe purpofes are anfwered by the cellular membrane
or adipofe fubftancfe.
There muft be an outward covering over the whole
apparatus, both to give it compactnefs and to defend
it from a thoufand injuries ; which, in fadt, are the very
purpofes of the fkin and other integuments.
Laftly, The mind being formed for fociety and in-
tercourfe with beings of her own kind, (lie muft be en¬
dued with powrers of exprefling and communicating her
thoughts by fome fenfible marks or figns •, which ftiall
be both eafy to herfelf, and admit of great variety : and
accordingly ftie is provided with the organs and faculty
of fpeech, by which (he can throw out figns with ama¬
zing facility, and vary them without end.
Thus we have built up an animal body w'hich would
feem to be pretty complete: but as it is the nature of
matter to be altered and worked upon by matter; fo
in a very little time fuch a living creature muft be de-
ftroyed, if there is no provifion for repairing the inju¬
ries which (he muft commit upon herfelf, and thofe
which ftie muft be expofed to from without. There¬
fore a treafure of blood is a&ually provided in the heart
and vafcular fyftem, full of nutritious and healing par¬
ticles, fluid enough to penetrate into the minuteft parts
of the animal; impelled by the heart, and conveyed by
the arteries, it wadies every part, builds up w'hat was
broken down, and fweeps awray the old and ufelefs ma¬
terials. Hence we fee the neceflity or advantage of the
heart and arterial fyftem.
What more there wras of this blood than enough to
repair the prefent damages of the machine, muft not be
loft, but flhould be returned again to the heart •, and
for this purpofe the venous fyftem is a&ually provided.
Thefe requifites in the animal explain, a priori, the
circulation of the blood.
The old materials which w^ere become ufelefs, and are
fwept off by the current of blood, muft be feparated
and throwm out of the fyftem. Therefore glands, the
organs of fecretion, are given for ftraining whatever is
redundant, vapid, or noxious, from the mafs of blood 5
and wdren drained, they are thrown out by emunclories,
called organs of excretion.
But now, as the machine muft be conftantly wear¬
ing, the reparation muft be carried on without inter-
miflion, and the ftrainers muft always be employed.
Therefore there is actually a perpetual circulation of
the blood, and the fecretions are always going on.
Even all this provifion, however, would not be fuffi-
cient *, for that ftore of blood wrould foon be confumed,
and the fabric would break down, if there were not a
provifion made for frelh fupplies. Thefe w^e obferve,
in fadft, are profufely fcattered round her in the ani¬
mal and vegetable kingdoms \ and (he is furniftied with
hands, the fitted inftruments that could have been con¬
trived, for gathering them, and for preparing them in
a. variety of ways for the mouth.
But thefe fupplies, which we call food, muft be con-
fiderably changed j they muft be converted into blood.
Therefore (he is provided with teeth for cutting and
bruifing the food, and with a ftomach for melting it
jlown : In (hort, with all the organs fubfervient to di-
O M Y. 183;
geftion. The finer parts of the aliments only can be General
ufeful in the conftitution : thefe muft be taken up and
conveyed into the blood, and the dregs muft be thrown .u u \
off. With this view the inteftinal canal is actually gi¬
ven. It feparates the nutritious part, which we call
chyle, to be conveyed into the blood by the fyftem of
abiorbent veffels ; and the faeces pafs downwards, to be
condufted out of the body.
Now we have got our animal not only furnifhed with
what is wanted for its immediate exiftence, but alfo
with the powers of protrafting that exiftence to an in¬
definite length of time. But its duration, wre may pre¬
fume, muft nfecefiarily be limited : for as it is nourifli-
ed, grows, and is raifed up to its full ftrength and ut-
moft perffdlion ; fo it muft in time, in common with
all material beings, begin to decay, and then hurry on
to final ruin. Hence we fee the neceflity of a fcheme
for renovation. Accordingly wife Providence, to per¬
petuate as well as preferve his work, befides giving a
ftrong appetite for life and felf-prefervation, has made
animals male and female, and given them fuch organs
and paffions as will fecure the propagation of the fpe-
cies to the end of time.
Thus w’e fee, that by the very imperfedl furvey
which human reafon is able to take of this fubjeft, the
animal man muft neceffarily be complex in his corporeal
fyftem, and in its operations.
He muft have one great and general fyftem, the vaf-
cular, branching through the whole for circulation ;
Another, the nervous, with its appendages the organs
of fenfe, for every kind of feeling : And a third, for
the union and connexion of all thofe parts.
Befides thefe primary and general fyftems, he re--
quires Others which may be more local or confined :
One for ftrength, fupport, and prote&ion ; the bony
compages : Another for the requifite motions of the
parts among themfelves, as well as for moving from
place to place \ the mufcular part of the body: An¬
other to prepare nourifhment for the daily recruit of
the body; the digeftive organs: And one for propa¬
gating the fpecies ; the organs of generation.
And in taking this general furvey of wdiat wTould
appear, a priori, to be neceffary for adapting an animak
to the fituations of life, we obferve, with great fatisfac-
tion, that man is accordingly made of fuch fyftems,
and for fuch purpofes. He has them all; and he has
nothing more except the organs of refpiration. Breath¬
ing it feemed difficult to account for a priori: wre
only knew it to be in fa£l effential and neceffary to
life. Notwithftanding this, when wre faw all the other
parts of the body, and their fun&ions, fo well ac¬
counted for, and fo wifely adapted to their feveral pur¬
pofes, there could be no doubt that refpiration v'as fo
liketvife : And accordingly, the difcoveries of Dr
Prieftley have lately thrown light upon this funclion
alfo, as will be fliowm in its proper place.
Of all the different fyftems in the human body, the
ufe and neceflity are not more apparent, than the wif-
dom and contrivance which has been exerted in putting
them all into the moft compaft and convenient form: in
difpofing them fo, that they (hall mutually receive and
give helps to one another; and that all, or many of the
parts, (hall not only anfwer their principal end or pur¬
pofe, but operate fuccefsfully and ufefullyin a a variety
of fecondary wnys.
It
184
ANATOMY.
Part I*
General It we conlider the whole animal machine in this
thf'1 tub■ e11 an<^ comPare it with any machine in which hu-
»—f-J ’ man art has exerted its utmoft; fuppofe the bell con-
Urufted Ihip that ever was built, we lhall be convinced
beyond the poffibility of doubt, that there are intel¬
ligence and power lar furpafling what humanity can
boaft of.
One fuperiority in the natural machine is peculiarly
Hriking. In machines of human contrivance or art,
there is no internal power, no principle in the machine
itfelf, by which it can alter and accommodate itfelf to
any injury which it may fuffer, or make up any injury
which admits of repair. But in the natural machine,
the animal body, this is moll wonderfully provided for,
by internal powers in the machine itfelf; many of
which are not more certain and obvious in their ef-
fedls, than they are above all human comprehenlion as
to the manner and means of their operation. Thus, a
wound heals up of itfelf; a broken bone is made firm
again by a callus; a dead part is feparated and thrown
off; noxious juices are driven out by fome of the
emundlories; a redundancy is removed by fome fpon-
taneous bleeding; a bleeding naturally Hops of itfelf;
and a great lofs of blood, from any caufe, is in fome
meafure compenfated by a contradling power in the
vafcular fyltem, which accommodates the capacity of
the veffels to the quantity contained. The llomach
giwes information when the fupplies have been expend¬
ed ; reprefents, with great exadlnefs, the quantity and
the quality of what is wanted in the prefent Hate of the
machine ; and in proportion as Ihe meets with negleft,
rifes in her demand, urges her petition in a louder tone,
and with more forcible arguments. For its protection,
an animal body refills heat and cold in a very wonderful
manner, and preferves an equal temperature in a burning
and in a freezing atmofphere.
A further excellence and fuperiority in the natural
machine, if poffible, ftill more aftonilhing, more beyond
all human comprehenfion, than what we have been
fpeaking of, is the following: Befides thofe internal
powers of felf-prefervation in each individual, when two
of them co-operate, or aft in concert, they are endued
with powders of making other animals, or machines, like
themfelves, which again are poffeffed of the fame powers
of producing others, and lb of multiplying the i'pecies
without end.
Thefe are powers which mock all human invention
or imitation. They are charafteriltics of the divine
Architeft.
Having premifed this general account of the fubjeft,
we lhall next confider the method to be obferved in
treating it.
Anatomy, it has been already obferved is divided
into two parts ; Anatomy, properly fo called, or the
anatomy of the human body, and Comparative Ana¬
tomy. In the following treatife we lhall adopt the
fame arrangement. In the firft part we lhall treat of
the Anatomy of the Human Body, and in the fecond of
Comparative Anatomy.
General
view ot
the fubject.
PART I.
ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY.
PHE ffudy of the human body, as already noticed,
is commonly divided into two parts. The firft,
■which is called Anatomy, relates to the matter and
ftrufture of its parts; the fecond, called Phj/tology
and animal (Economy, relates to the principles and laws
of its internal operations and funftions.
As the body is a compound of folids and fluids, Ana¬
tomy is divided into,
1. The Anatomy of the folids, and
2. The Anatomy of the fluids.
I. The solids, by which we mean all parts of our
body which are not fluid, are generally divided into
two claffes, viz.
1. The hard folids or bones. This part of anatomy
is called OJlco/ogy; u’hich fignifies the doftrine of the
bones.
2. The fofter folids; which part is called Sarco/ogy,
viz. the doftrine of flelh.
This divifion of the folids, we may obferve, has pro¬
bably taken its origin from the vulgar obfervation, that
the body is made of bone and flefti. And as there are
many different kinds of what are called foft er fiefhy
parts, Sarcology is fubdivided into,
(1.) Angeiology, or the doftrine of veffels; by which
is commonly underftood blood vejfels ;
(2.) Adenology, of glands :
Neurology, of nerves:
I
(4.) Myology, of mufcles : and,
(5.) Splanchnology, of the vifeera or bowels. There
is, befides, that part which treats of the organs of fenfe
and of the integuments.
This divifion of the felids has been here mentioned,
rather for the fake of explaining fo many words, w'hich
are conftantly ufed by anatomifts, than for its import¬
ance or accuracy. For befides many other objeftions
that might be urged, there are in the body three fpe-
cies of folids, viz. griftle or cartilage, hair, and nails ;
w'hich are of an intermediate nature between bone and
flefh; and therefore cannot fo properly be brought into
the ofteology or the farcology. The cartilages were
claffed with the bones: becaufe the greateft number of
them are appendages to bones: and for the like reafon
the hair and the nails were claffed with the integu¬
ments.
II. The fluids of the human body may be divided
into three kinds, wflfich Dr Hunter calls the crude, the
general or perfeB, and the local or fecretedfluid.
1. By the crude fluid is meant the chyle, and what¬
ever is abforbed at the furfaces of the body ; in other
words, what is recently taken into the body, and is not
yet mixed with or converted into blood.
2. The general or perfeB fluid is the blood itfelf; viz.
what is contained in the heart, arteries, and veins, and
is going on in the round of the circulation.
^3. The
Chap, T. A N A T
Ofteology. 3. The local or fecreted, are thofe fluids peculiar to
particular parts of the body, which are {trained off from
the blood, and yet are very different in their properties
from the blood. They are commonly called fecretions;
and fome are ufeful, others excrementitious.
In treating of the Phyjiology, it is very difficult to fay
what plan Ihould be followed; for every method which
has been yet propofed is attended with manifeft in¬
convenience. The powers and operations of the ma¬
chine have luch a dependence upon one another, fuch
connexions apd reciprocal influence, that they cannot
well be underffood or explained feparately. In this
fenfe our body may be compared to a circular chain
of powers, in which nothing is full or laft, nothing fo-
° M Y. Ig.
litary or independent j fo that wherever we begin, we Ofteology.
find that there is fomething preceding which we ought v—-\r—
to have known. If we begin with the brain and the
nerves, for example, we (hall find that thefe cannot ex-
ift, even in idea, without the heart: if we fet out with
the heart and vafcular fyffem, we (hall prefently be fen-
fible that the brain and nerves muff be fuppofed : or,
fhould we take up the mouth, and follow the courfe of
the aliment, we fliould fee that the very firft organ
which prefented itfelf, fuppofed the exiftence both of
the heart and brain: Wherefore we {hall incorporate
the Phyfiology with the Anatomy, by attempting to
explain the functions after we have demonftrated the
organs.
CHAP. I. OSTEOLOGY.
WE begin with the bones, which may be confider-
ed as the great fupport of the body, tending to give it
fhape and firmnefs.—-But before we enter into the de¬
tail of each particular bone, it will be neceffary to de-
feribe their compofition and connexions, and to explain
the nature of the different parts which have an imme¬
diate relation to them : as the cartilages, ligaments,
periofteum, marrow, and fynovial glands.
Sect. I. Of the Bones in general^ •with their Ap~
pendagesy &c.
1
Of the com- The bones are of a firm and hard (b) fubftance,
pofmon of Qf a whJte colour, and perfe&ly infenfible. They are
ic ones* mofl. compaft arui f0]id pai-ts of the body, and
ferve for the attachment or fupport of all the other
parts.
Three different fubffances are ufually diftinguiffied
in them 5 their exterior or bony part, properly ?o call¬
ed : their fpongy cells *, and their reticular fubftance.
The firft of thefe is formed of many laminae or plates,
compofing a firm hard fubftance.—The fpongy or cel¬
lular part is fo called on account of its refemblance to
a fponge, from the little cells which compofe it. This
fubftance forms almoft the whole of the extremities of
cylindrical bones. The reticular part is compofed of
fibres, which crofs each other in different direftions.
This net-work forms the internal furface of th®fe bones
.which have cavities.
The flat bones, as thofe of the head, are compofed
only of the laminae and the cellular fubftance. This
Jaft is ufually found in the middle of the bone, dividing
it into two plates, and is there called diploe.
Gagliardi, who pretended to have difeovered an in¬
finite number of claviculi (c) or bony proceffes, which
he deferibes as traverling the laminae to unite them to¬
gether, has endeavoured to fupport this pretended dif-
covery by the analogy of bones to the bark of trees, in
which certain woody nails have been remarked \ but
4his opinion feems to be altogether fanciful.
Vol. II. Part I.
Some writers have fuppofed, that the bones are
formed by layers of the periofteum, which gradually
offify in the fame manner as the timber is formed in
trees by the hardening of the white fubftance that is
found between the inner bark and the wood. M. Du-
hamel, who has adopted this opinion, fed different
animals with madder and their ordinary food alternate¬
ly during a certain time; and he afferts, that in dif¬
fering their bones, he conftantly obferved diftin& lay¬
ers of red and white, which correfponded with the
length of time they had lived on madder or their ulual
aliment. But it has fince been proved by Detleff
that M. Duhamel’s experiments were inaccurate, and*
that neither the periofteum nor the cartilages are tin¬
ged by the ufe of madder, which is known to after the
bones only.
We ufually confider in a bone, its body and its ex¬
tremities. The ancients gave the name of diaphyfis
to the body or middle part, and divided the extremi¬
ties into apophyfis and epiphyfis. An apophyfis, or
procefs, as it is more commonly called, is an eminence
continued from the' body of the bone, whereas an epi¬
phyfis is at firft a fort of an appendage to the bone,
by means of an intermediate cartilage. Many epiphyfes,
which appear as diftinr bones in the foetus,” afterwards*
become apophyfes 5 for they are at length fo complete¬
ly united to the body of the bone as not to be diftin-
guiftiable from it in the adult ftate. It is not unufual
however, at the age of 18 and even 20 years, to find
the extremities of bones ftill in the ftate "of epiphyfes.
The names given to the proceffes of bones are ex-
preffive of their ftiape, fize, or ufe j thus if a procefs is
large and of a fpherical form, it is called caput, or head^
if the head is flatted, it is termed condyle. Some pro¬
ceffes, from their refemblance to a ftiletto, a breaft or
the beak of a crow, are called Jlyloid, mqftoid, or cora¬
coid ; others are ftyled ridges or /pines. The two pro-
cefles of the os femoris derive their name of trochanters
from their ufe.
A bone has its cavities as well as proceffes. Thefe
•A a cavities
_(b) Mr Scheele difeovered that bones contain the phofphoric acid united with calcareous earth ; and that to
this combination they owe their firmnefs.
(c) In his Anat. ojium nov. invent, illujlrat. he deferibes four kinds of thefe claviculi or nails, vise, the per¬
pendicular, oblique, headed, and crooked.
/
186
Ofteology. cavities either extendi quite through its fubftance, or
appear only as depreffions. The former are called fo¬
ramina or holes, and thefe foramina are fometimes term¬
ed canals or conduits, according to their form and ex¬
tent. Of the deprefhons fome are ufeful in articula¬
tion. Thefe are called cotyloid when they are deep,
as is the cafe with the os innominatum, where it re¬
ceives the head of the os femoris *, or glenoid when they
are fuperficial, as in the fcapula, where it receives the
os humeri. Of the depreffions that are not defigned
for articulation, thofe wffiich have fmall apertures are
called Jtnufes ; others that are large, and not equally
furrounded by high brims, are flyled fojpe ; fuch as are
long and narrow, furrows ; or if broad and fuperfi¬
cial without brims, finuofitics. Some are called digital
imprcjjions, from their relemblance to the traces of a
2 finger on foft bodies.
^Te bridge this article, which is exceedingly
]j0neS diffufe in the generality of anatomical books, and will
endeavour to defcribe it with all the clearnefs it will
allowx
The bones compofing the Ikeleton are fo confirudled,
that the end of every bone is perfeftly adapted to the
extremity of that with which it is connefted, and this
connexion forms what is called their articulation.
Articulation is divided into diarthrofs, fynarthrofs,
and amphiarthrofs, or moveable, immoveable, and mix¬
ed articulation. Each of the two firfl has its fubdivi-
fions. Thus the diarthrofs, or moveable articulation,
includes, I. The enarthrofis, as it is called, when a large
head is admitted into a deep cavity, as in the articula¬
tion of the os femoris w-ith the os innominatum.
2. Arthrodia, when a round head is articulated with
a fuperficial cavity, as is the cafe of the os humeri and
fcapula. 3. Ginglimus, or hinge-like articulation, as
in the connexion of the thigh-bone with the tibia.
The enarthrofis and arthrodia allow of motion to all
fides \ the ginglimus only of flexion and extenfion.
The fynarthrofs, or immoveable articulation, in¬
cludes, 1. The future, when the two bones are indent¬
ed into each other, as is the cafe with the parietal
bones. 2. Gomphofis, when one bone is fixed into
another, in .the manner the teeth are placed in their
fockets.
The term amphiarthrofs is applied to thofe articula¬
tions which partake both of the fynarthrofis and diar-
throfis, as is the cafe with the bones of the vertebrae,
which are capable of motion in a certain degree, al¬
though they are firmly connected together by interme¬
diate cartilages.
What is called fymphyfs is the union of twro bones
into one j as in the lower jaw, for inftance, wffiich in
the foetus confifts of two diftindt bones, but becomes
one in a more advanced age, by the offification of the
uniting cartilage.
When bones are thus joined by the means of car¬
tilages, the union is fly led fynchondrofs ; when by li-
3 gaments, fyneurofs. ,
Of the car- Cartilages are white, folid, fmooth, and elaflic fub-
tilages. fiances, between the hardnefs of bones, and ligaments,
and feemingly of a fibrous texture. We are not able
to trace any veffels into their fubftance by injection,
nor are they ever found tinged in animals that have
been fed wfith madder.
They may be diftinguifhed into, ift, Thofe which
I
Part I.
are connected with the bones; and 2dly, Thofe which Ofteology.
belong to other parts of the body. The firft ferve—v—
either to cover the ends and cavities of bones intended
for motion, as in the articulations, where by their
fmoothnefs they facilitate motions, which the bones
alone could not execute with fo much freedom ; or,
they ferve to unite bones together, as in the fymphy-
iis pubis, or to lengthen them as in the ribs.
Many of them offifying as rve advance in life, their
number is lefs in the adult than in the fetus, and of
courfe there are few7er bones in the ol4 than in the
young fubjecl,
Of the fecond clafs of cartilages, or thofe belong¬
ing to the foft parts, wre have inftances in the larynx,
where we find them ufeful in the formation of the
voice, and for the attachment of mufcles. ^
The periolleum is a fine membrane of a compadl cel- Of the pe-
lular texture, reflefted from one joint to another, and riofteum.
ferving as a common covering to the bones. It has
fanguiferous and lymphatic vellels, and is fupplied with
nerves from the neighbouring parts. It adheres very
firmly to their furface, and by its fmoothnefs facilitates
the motion of mufcles. It likewife fupports the vef¬
fels that go to be diftributed through the fubllance of
the bones, and may ferve to ftrengthen the articula¬
tions. At the extremities of bones, where it is found
covering a cartilage, it has by fome been improperly
conlidered as a diilinc! membrane, and named peri¬
chondrium. This, in its ufe and flrudlure, refemblts
the periofleum. Where it covers the bones of the
fkull, it has gotten the name of pericranium.
The periofleum is not a produdlion of the dura ma¬
ter, as the ancients, and after them Havers, imagined ;
nor are the bones formed by the offification of this
membrane, at leaf! when it is in a found Hate, as
fome late writers have fuppofed.
The periofteum is deficient in the teeth above the
fockets, and in thofe parts of bones to which ligaments
or tendons are attached.
The marrow is a fat oily fubftance, filling the cavi-Ofthe
ties of bone's. In the great cavities of long bones it marrow,
is of a much firmer conliftence than in tire cells of
their fpongy part. In the former it inclines fomewhat
to a yellowilh tinge, and is of the confiftence of fat ;
in the latter it is more fluid, and of a red colour.
This difference in colour and confiftence is owing to
accidental caufes; both kinds are of the fame nature,
and may both be defcribed under the common name of
marrow, though fome writers give this name only to
the fat-like fubftance, and call the other the medullary
juice.
The marrow is contained in a very fine and tranfpa-
rent membrane, which is fupplied with a great num¬
ber of blood velfels, chiefly from the periofteum. This
membrana medullaris adheres to the inner furface of
the bones, and fumilhes an infinite number of minute
bags or veficles for enclofing the marrow, which is like-
wife fupported in the cavities of the bones by the long
filaments of their reticular fubftance.
Befides the veflels from the periofteum, the mem¬
brana medullaris is finilhed with others, which in the
long bones may be feen palling in near the extremities
of the bone, and fending off numerous branches that
ramify through all the veficles of this membrane.
The bones, and the cells containing the marrow,
, are
ANATOM Y.
Chap. L
Olteology. are like wife
ANA
lymphatics. By their
6
Synovial
glands.
Of the li-
'gaments.
furnilhed with
' means, the marrow, like the fat, may be taken up in
a greater quantity than it is fecreted ; and hence it is
that fo little is found in the bones of thofe who die of
lingering difeafes.
It is ftill a matter of controverfy, Whether the mar¬
row is fenfible or not ? We are certainly not able to
trace any nerves to it; and from this circumftance,
and its analogy to fat, Haller has ventured to confider
it as infenfible. On the other hand, Duverney afferts,
that an injury done to this fubftance in a living animal
w’as attended with great pain. In this difpute phyfi-
ologxlts do not feem to have fufficiently diferiminated
between the marrow itfelf and the membranous cells
in which it is contained. The former, like the fat,
being nothing more than a fecreted, and of courfe an
inorganized matter, may with propriety be ranked
among the infenfible parts, as much as infpiffated mu¬
cus or any other fecreted matter in the body ; where¬
as the membrana medullaris being vafcular, though it
pofieHes but an obfeure degree of feeling in a found
Bate, is not perfectly infenfible.
The marrow was formerly fuppofed to be intended
for the nourifhment and renewal of the bones; but
this dodlrine is now pretty generally and defervedly
exploded. It feems probable that the marrow is to
the bones what fat is to the foft parts. They both
ferve for fome important purpofes in the animal eco¬
nomy 5 but their particular ufe has never yet been
clearly afeertained. The marrow, from the tranfuda-
tion of the oil through the bones of a Ikeleton, is fup¬
pofed to diminilli their brittleneis ; and Havers, who
has written profeiTedly on the bones, deferibes the ca¬
nals by which the marrow’ is conveyed through every
part of their fubftance, and divides them into longi¬
tudinal and tranfverfe ones. He fpeaks of the firft
as extending through the whole length of the bone j
and of the latter, as the paffages by which the longi¬
tudinal ones communicate with each other. The fimi-
larity of thefe to the large cancelli in burnt bones, and
the tranfudation of the oil through the bones of the
ikeleton, feems to prove that feme fifth pafiages do
adftually exift.
The fynovial glands are fmall bodies (d), fuppofed
to be of a glandular ftruebure, and exceedingly vafeu-
Jar, fecreting a fluid of a clear mucilaginous nature,
which ferves to lubricate the joints. They are placed
in fmall cavities in the articulations, fo as to be ca^
pable of being gently compreffed by the motion of
the joint, which expreiTes their juice in proportion to
the degree of fri&ion. When the fynovia is wanting,
or is of too thick a confiftence, the joint becomes ftiff
and incapable of flexion or extenfion. This is what
is termed anchylofis.
Ligaments are white, gliftening, inelaftic bands,
of a compaft fubftance, more or lefs broad or thick,
and ferving to connect the bones together. They are
diftinguifhed by different names adapted to their differ¬
ent forms and ufes. Thole of the joints are called
TOM"?. 187
either round or burfal. The round ligaments are white, Ofteology.
tendinous, and inelaftic. They are ftrong and flexible,
and are found only in the joint of the knee, and in
the articulation of the os femoris with the os innomi-
natum. The burfal, or capfular ligaments, furrouiyd
the whole joint like a purfe, and are to be found in
the articulations which allow motion every way, as in
the articulation of the arm with the fcapifla. s
Of thofe facs called Burfcv Mucofee, a few were Of the
known to former anatomifts, but by much the greater k111^ mu_
number have been fince difeovered by Dr Munro (E),cola;'
who obferves, that they are to be met with in the
extremities of the body only ; that many of them are
placed entirely on the iniier fides of the tendons, be¬
tween thefe and the bones. Many others cover not
only the inner, but the outer fides of the tendons, or
are interpofed between the tendons and external parts,
as well as between thole and the bones.
Some are fituated between the tendons and external
parts only or chiefly, fome between contiguous ten¬
dons, or between the tendons or the ligaments and the
joints. A few fuch facs are obferved where the procef-
fes of bones play upon the ligaments, or where one
bone plays upon another. Where two or more tendons
are contiguous, and afterwards feparate from each other,
we generally find a common burfa divided into branch¬
es, with which it communicates p and a few burke of
contiguous tendons communicate with each other.—•
Some, in healthy children, communicate with the ca¬
vities of the joints; and in many old people he ha*
feen fuch communications formed by ufe or worn by
friflion, independent of difeafe.
Their proper membrane is thin and tranfparent, but
very denfe, and capable of confining air or any other
fluid. It is joined to the neighbouring parts by the
common cellular fubftance. Between the burfa and
the hard fubftance of bone a thin layer of cartilage or
of tough membrane is very generally interpofed. To
the cellular fubftance on the outlide of the burfa, the
adipofe fubftance is connefted : except where the bur¬
fa covers a tendon, cartilage, or bone, much expofed
to preffure or friftion.
In feveral places a mafs of fat, covered with the
continuation of the membrane of the burfa, projefts
into its cavity. The edges of this are divided into
fringes. 9
The inner fide of the membrane is fmooth, and is Their itruc-
extremely flippery from the liquor fecreted in it. ture ^onk
The ftrufture of the burke bears a ftrong refemblance thV
to the capfular ligaments of the joints. 1. The inner capfular h'-
layer of the ligament, like that of the burke, is thin gamer.ts of
and denfe. 2. It is conne&ed to the external ligamentstlic j°^ntJ‘
by the common cellular fubftance. 3. Between it and
the bones, layers of cartilage, or the articular carti¬
lages, are interpofed. 4. At the fides of the joints,
where it is not fubjeft to violent preffure and fridftion,
the adipofe fubftance is connefted with the cellular
membrane. 5. Within the cavities of the joints we
obferve maffes of fat projefting, covered with fimilar
A a 2 blood
(d) It is now much doubted, however, whether the appearances in the joints, which are ufually called
glands, are any thing more than affemblages of fat.
(e) See Defcription of the Burfa; Mucofe, &c.
i83 ANA
Ofteeiogy blood veffels, and with fimilar fimbriae hanging from
^ ~ _ their edges. 6. In the knee the upper part of fuch a
m.ifs of fat forms what has been called the mucilagi¬
nous gland of the joint, and the under part projedls in¬
to the burfa behind the ligament which ties the patel¬
la to the tibia. 7. The liquor which lubricates the
burfae has the fame colour, confiftence, and properties,
as that of the joints, and both are affected in the fame
manner by heat, mineral acids, and ardent fpirits. 8. In
fome places the burfoe conftantly communicate with
the cavities of the joints, in others they generally do
fo ; from which we may infer a famenefs of ftrufture.
When we examine the fimbriae common to the fatty
bodies of the joints and burfae, and which have been
fuppofed to be the duffs of glands lodged within the
maffes of fat, we are not able to difcover any glandular
appearance within them. And although we obferve
many veffcls difperfed upon the membranes of the fatty
bodies and fimbriae *, and that we cannot doubt that
thefe fimbriae confift cff duffs which contain a lubri¬
cating liquor, and can even prefs fuch a liquor from
them ; yet their cavities and orifices are fo minute,
that they are not difcoverable even by the afliftance of
magnifying glaffes. Thefe fimbriae appear, therefore,
to be duffs like thofe of the urethra, which prepare a
mucilaginous liquor without the affiftance of any knot¬
ty or glandular organ.
Upon the whole, the fynovia feems to be furnilhed
by iiivifible exhalent arteries by the duffs of the fim¬
briae, and by oil exuding from the adipofe follicles by
IO paflages not yet difcovered.
Of the fke- The word jheleton, -which by its etymology implies
let°n. fimply a dry preparation, is ufually applied to an af-
femblage of all the bones of an animal united toge¬
ther in their natural order. It is faid to be a natural
skeleton, when the bones are conneffed together by
their own proper ligaments 5 and an artificial one,
w hen they are joined by any other fubftance, as wire,
&c.
The fkeleton is generally divided into the head,
trunk, and extremities. The firff divifion includes the
bones of the cranium and face. The bones of the
trunk are the fpine, ribs, fternum, and bones of the
pelvis.
The upper extremity on each fide confifts of the
two bones of the Ihoulder, viz. the fcapula and cla¬
vicle •, the bone of the arm or os humeriy the bones
of the"fbre-arm, and thofe of the hand.
The lov/er extremity on each fide of the trunk con-
fills of the thigh-bone and the bones of the leg and
foot.
Sect. II. Of the Bones of the Head.
The head is of a roundilh figure, and fomewhat
oval ( f). Its greatell diameter is from the forehead
to the occiput; its upper part is called vertex, or
c]rown of the head ; its anterior or fore part the face;
T O M Y. Parti.
and the upper part of this fncipnl, or forehead ; its Ofteology.
fides the temples ; its pollerior, or hind part, the occi- —v-—
put ; and its inferior part the hafs.
1 he bones of the head may be divided into thofe
of the cranium and face.
\ I. Bones of the Cranium and Face.
There are eight bones of the cranium, viz. the co¬
ronal bone, or os frontis ; the two parietal bones or
offa bregmatis ; the os occipitis ; the two temporal
bones ; the fphenoid bone ; and the os ethmoides or
cribriforme.
Of thefe, only the os occipitis and offa bregmatis ir
are confidered as proper to the cranium ; the reft be¬
ing common both to the cranium and face.
Thefe bones are all harder at their furface than in
their middle : and on this account they are divided
into two tables, and a middle fpongy fubftance called
diploc.
In this, as in all the other bones, we Ihall confider of the o*
its figure, ftruffure, proceffes, depreflions, and cavi-frontis,
ties ; and the manner in which it is articulated with
the other bones.
The os frontis has fome refemblance in lhape to the
fhell of the cockle. Externally it is convex, its con¬
cave fide being turned towards the brain. This bone,
in the places where it is united to the temporal bones,
is very thin, and has there no diploe. It is likewife
exceedingly thin in that part of the orbit of the eye
which is neareft to the nofe. Hence it is, that a
wound in the eye, by a fword, or any other pointed in-
ftrument, is fometimes produffive of immediate death.
In thefe cafes, the fword paffmg through the weak
part of the bone, penetrates the brain, and divides the
nerves at their origin ; or perhaps opens fome blood-
veffel, the confequences of which are foon fatal.
We obferve on the exterior furface of this bone five
apophyfes or proceffes, which are eafily to be diftin-
guiftied. One of thefe ’is placed at the bottom and
narrow-eft part of the bone, and is called the nafal
procefs, from its fupporting the upper end of the
bones of the nofe. The four others are called angu¬
lar or orbitar proceffes. They aflift to form the orbits,
which are the cavities on which the eyes are placed.
In each of thefe orbits there are tw;o proceffes,' one at
the interior or great angle, and the other at the exte¬
rior or little angle of the orbit. They are called the
angular proceffes. Betwreen thefe a ridge is extended
in form of an arch, and on this the eyebrows are
placed. It is called the orbitar or fuperciliary ridge,
and in fome meafure covers and defends the globe of
the eye. There is a hole in this for the paffage of the
frontal veflels and nerves. This arch is interrupted
near the nofe by a fmall pit, in w7hich the tendon of
the mufculus obliquus major of the eye is fixed. From
the under part of each fuperciliary ridge a thin plate
runs a confiderable way backwards, and has the name
of orbitar; the external and fore part of this plate
forms
(f) The bones of the foetus being perfeffly diftinff, and the mufcles in young perfons not affing much, the,
fhape of the head has been fuppofed to depend much on the management of children w-hen very young. Ve-
falius,^ who has remarked the difference in people of different nations, obferves for inftance, that the head of
a Turk is conical, from the early ufe of the turban ; W'hilft that of an Englilhman is flattened by the chin-ftay.
Some of the lateft phyfiologifts fuppofe, with good reafon, that this difference is chiefly owing to certain na¬
tural caufes with which we are as yet unacquainted*
Chap. I. ANA'
Ofteology. forms a finuofity for lodging the lachrymal gland. Be-
tween the orbitar plates there is a large difcontinuation
of the bone, which is filled up by the cribriform part
of the os ethmoides.
On examining the inner furface of this bone at its
under and middle part, we obferve an elevation in form
of a ridge, which has been called the fpinousprocefs ;
it afcends 4for fome way, dividing the bone into* two
confiderable foflae, in which the anterior lobes of the
brain are placed. To a narrow furrow in this ridge
is attached the extremity of the falx, as the membrane
is called, which divides the brain into two hemifpheres.
The furrow becoming gradually wider, is continued to
the upper and back part of the bone. It has the falx
fixed to it, and part of the longitudinal finus lodged
in it. Befides the two foffbe, there are many depref-
fions, which appear like digital impreffions, and owe
their formation to the prominent circumvolutions of
the brain.'
In the foetus, the forehead is compofed of two di-
ftindt bones ; fo that in them the fagittal future reaches
from the os occipitis to the nofe. This bone is al-
moft everywhere compofed of two tables and a diploe.
Thele two tables feparating from each other under
the eyes, form two cavities, one on each fide of the
face, called the frontal finufes. Thefe finufes are lined
with a foft membrane, called mcmhrana pituitaria. In
thefe finufes a mucus is fecreted, which is conftantly
paffing through two fmall holes into the noftrils, which
it ferves to moiilen.
The os frontis is joined by futures to many of the
bones of the head, viz. to the parietal, maxillary, and
temporal bones ; to the os ethmoides ; os fphenoides ;
os unguis ; and offa nafi. The future which cohnefts
13 it with the parietal bones is called the coronalfuture.
detail)©ires Pariet:i1 bones are two in number ; they are
'’'very thin, and even tranfparent in fome places. The
particular figure of each of thefe bones is that of an
, irregular fquare, bordered with indentations through
its ivhole circumference, except at its lower part. It
will be eafily conceived, that thefe bones which com-
pofe the fuperior and lateral parts of the cranium, and
cover the greateft part of the brain, form a kind of
vault. On their inner furface we obferve the marks
of the veflels of the dura mater ; and at their upper
edge the groove for the fuperior longitudinal finus.
_ The ofla parietalia are joined to each other by the fa¬
gittal future ; to the os fphenoides and offa temporum
by the. fquamous future; to the os occipitis by the
lambdoidal future (gJ), fo called from its refemblance
to the Greek letter lambda ; and to the os frontis by
the coronal future.
In the foetus, the parietal bones are feparated from
the middle of the divided os frontis by a portion of the
14 cranium then unoffified.
Piulb0^" The occiPital bo.ne f01'*118 the pofterior and inferior
parts of the fkull ; it approaches nearly to the fliape of
a lozenge, and is indented throughout three parts of its
circumference.
There is a confiderable hole in the inferior portion
' O M Y. 189
of this bone, called the foramen magnum, through which Ofteology.
the medulla oblongata paffes into the fpine.—The —v——'
nervi accefibrii, and vertebral arteries, likewife pafs
through it. Behind the condyles are two holes for the
paffage of cervical veins into the lateral finufes ; and
above them are two others for the paffage of the eighth
pair and accefibry nerves out of the head. At the
fides, and a little on the anterior part of the foramen
magnum, are two proceffes, called the condyles, one
on each fide ; they are of an oval figure, and are co¬
vered wdth cartilage.
The external furface of this bone has a large tranf-
verfe arched ridge, under which the bone is very irre¬
gular, where it affords attachment to feveral mufcles.
On examining its inner Turface, we may obferve two
ridges in form of a crofs ; one afeending from near the
foramen magnum to the top of the bone } the upper
end of this, in which the falx is fixed, is hollow, for
lodging the fuperior longitudinal finus; and the under
end has the third procefs of the dura mater fixed to it.
1 he other ridge, which runs horizontally, is likewife
hollow for containing the lateral finufes. Four foffm
are formed by the crofs, two above and twro below. In
the former are placed the pofterior lobes of the brain,
and in the latter the lobes of the cerebellum.
At the bafis of the cranium, wre obferve the cunei¬
form procefs, (which is the name given to the great
apophyfis at the fore part of this bone) ; it ferves for
the reception of the medulla oblongata.
The os occipitis is of greater ftrength and thicknefs
than either of the other bones of the head, though ir¬
regularly fo 5 at its inferior part, where it is thinneft,
it is covered by a great number of mufcles.
This bone, from its fituation, being more liable to
be injured by falls than any other bone of the head,
nature has wifely given it the greateft ftrength at its
upper part, where it is moft expofed to danger.
It is joined to the parietal bones by the lambdoidal
future, and to the offa temporum by the additamen-
tum of the temporal future. It is likewife conne&ed
to the os fphenoides by the cuneiform procefs. It is
by means of the os occipitis that the head is united to
the trunk, the two condyles of this bone being con-
nedled to the fuperior oblique proceffes of the firft ver¬
tebra of the neck.
There are two temporal bones, one on each fide.— Ofthetem-
We may diftinguiih in them two parts j one of which P9ralbone3,
is called the fquamous or fcaly part, and .other pars
petrofa' from its hardnefs. This laft is ftiaped like a
pyramid.
Each of thefe divifions affords proceffes and cavities:
externally there are three proceffes ; one anterior, call¬
ed the ’zygomatic procefs; one pofterior, called the
viafoid mamillary procefs, from its refemblance to a
nipple j and one inferior, called the fyloidprocefs, be-
caufe it is fhaped like a ftiletto, or dagger.
I he cavities are, 1. The meatus auditorius exter-
nus. 2. A large foffa which ferves for the articulation
of the lower jaw ; it is before the meatus auditorius,
and immediately under the zygomatic procefs. 3. The
ftylo-maftoid
(c) The lambdoidal future is fometimes very irregular, being compofed of many fmall futures, which furround
o many little cones called offa tnquetra, though perhaps improperly, as they are not always triangular.
tC)0
Ofteology.
t6
Of the os
'tphenoides.
A N A T
ftylo-maftoid liole, To called from its fituation between
’ the ftyioid and maftoid proceffes ; it is likcwnfe ftyled
the aqueduft of Fallopius, and affords a paffage to the
portio dura of the auditory, or feventh part of nerves.
4. Below, and on the fore part of the laft foramen, we
obferve part of the jugular foffa, in which the begin¬
ning of the internal iugular vein is lodged. Anterior
and luperior to this loifa is the orifice of a foramen,
through which paffes the carotid artery. This foramen
runs firft upwards and then forwards, forming a kind of
elbow, and terminates at the end of the os petrofum  
At this part of each temporal bone, we may obferve the
opening of the Euftachian tube, a canal which paffes
from the ear to the back part of the nofe.
In examining the internal furface of thefe bones, we
may remark the triangular figure of their petrous part
which feparates two fofiie •, one fuperior and anterior ;
the other inferior and pollerior : the latter of thefe
eompofe-s part of the foffa, in which the cerebellum is
placed ; and the former, a portion of the leaf! foffa for
the bafis of the brain. On the poflerior fide of the pars
petrofa, we obferve the meatus auditorius internus, into
which enters the double nerve of the feventh pair. On
the under fide of this procefs, part of a hole appears,
which is common to the temporal and occipital bones $
through it the lateral finus, the eighth pair, and accef-
fory nerves, pafs out of the head.
The pars petr'ofa contains feveral little bones called
the bones of the ear; which, as they do not enter into
the formation of the cranium, (hall be defcribed when
■we are treating of the organs of hearing,
The offa temporum are joined to the offa malarum,
by the zygomatic futures 5 to the parietal bones by the
fquamous futures; to the os occipitis, by the lambdoi •
dal future •, and to the fphenoid bone, by the future of
tiiat name.
This bone, from its fituation amidll. the other bones
of the head, has been fometimes caX\.z& ameiforme. It
is of a very irregular figure, and has been compared to
a bat with its wings extended.
It is commonly divided into its middle part or body,
and its fides or wings.
The fore part of the body has a fpine or ridge, wdiich
makes part of the feptum narium. The upper part of
each wing forms a fhare of the temple. The fore part
of this belongs to the orbit *, while the under and back
part, termed fplnous procefs, is lodged in the bafe of
the Ikull at the point of the pars petrofa. But two of
the moil remarkable proceffes are the pterygoid or ali¬
form, one on each fide of the body of the bone, and
at no great diftance from it. Each of thefe proceffes
is divided into two wings, and of thefe the exterior
one is the wideft. The other terminates in a hook-like
procefs.
The internal fiirface of this bone affords three foffe.
Two of thefe are formed by the wings of the bone,
and make part of the leffer foffe of the bafis of the
cranium. The third, which is fmaller, is on the top
of the body of the bone ; and is called fella turcica,
from its refemblance to a Turkiih faddle. This foffa,
in which the pituitary gland is placed, has pofteriorly
.and anteriorly proceffes called the clinoidproceffes.
There are twrelve holes in this bone, viz. fix on each
fide. The firft is the pafiage of the optic nerve and
ocular artery j the fecond, or large flit, tranfmits the
o "M Y.
Part X.
third, fourth, fixth, and firft part of the fifth pair of Ofteology.
nerves with the ocular vein ; the third hole gives
paffage to the fecond branch of the fifth pair 5 and
the fourth hole to the third branch of the fifth pair
of nerves. The fifth hole is the pafiage of the artery
of the dura mater. The fixth hole is fituated above
the pterygoid procefs of the fphenoid bone : through
it a reflected branch of the fecond part of the fifth pair
paffes.
Within the lubftance of the os fphenoides there are
two finufes feparated by a bony plate. 1'hey are lined
with the pituitary membrane •, and, like the frontal fi¬
nufes, feparate a mucus which paffes into the notlrils.
The os fphenoides is joined to all the bones of the
cranium •, and likewife to the offa maxillaiia, ofia ma¬
larum, offa palati, and vomer.
This bone makes part of the bafis of the Ikull, affifts
in forming the orbits, and affords attachment to feve¬
ral mufcles.
The os ethmoides is fituated at the fore part of the
bafis of the cranium, and is of a very irregular figure.
From the great number of holes with which it is
pierced, it is foxnetimes called os cribriforme, or fieve-
like bone. ty
It confifts of a middle part and two fides. The °fthy08
middle part is formed of a thin bony plate, in which ^monies
are an infinite number of holes that afford a paffage to f0TnH.
filaments of the olfa&ory nerve. From the middle of
this plate, both on the outfide, and from within, there
rifes up a procefs, which may be eafily diltinguiflied.
The inner one is called cri/fa galli, from its fuppofed
refemblance to a cock’s comb. To this procefs the
falx of the dura mater is attached. The exterior prc-
cefs, wdnch has the fame common bafis as the criila
galli, is a fine lamella which is united to the vomer j
and divides the cavity of the noftrils, though unequally,
it being generally a little inclined to one fide.
The lateral parts of this bone are compofed of a
cellular fubftance 5 and thefe cells are fo very intri¬
cate, that their figure or number cannot be defcribed.
Many writers have on this account called this part of
the bone the labyrinth. Thefe cells are externally
covered with a very thin bony lamella. This part of
the bone is called the os planum, and forms part of the
orbit.
The different cells of this bone, which are nume¬
rous, and which are everywhere lined with the pitui¬
tary membrane, evidently ferve to enlarge the cavity
of the nofe, in which the organ of fmelling refides.
This bone is joined to the os fphenoides,’ os frontis,
offa maxillaria, offa palati, ofla naff, offa unguis, and
vomer.
The ancients, who confidered the brain as the feat
of all the humours, imagined that this vifcus difchar-
ged its redundant moifture through the holes of the
ethmoid bone. And the vulgar ftill think, that ab-
fceffes of the brain difcharge themfelves through the
mouth and ears, and that fnuff is liable to get into the
head ; but neither fnuff nor the matter of an abfcefs
are more capable of palling through the cribriform
bone, than the ferofity which they fuppofed was dif-
charged through it in a common cold. All the holes
of the ethmoid bone are filled up wfith the branches of
the olfa&ory nerve. Its inner part is likewife covered
with the dura mater, and its cells are everywhere lined
with
Chap. I. ANA
Ofteology. w;th the pituitary membrane ; fo that neither matter
' nor any other iluid can poffibly pafs through this bone
either externally or internally. Matter is indeed fome-
times difcharged through the noftrils j but the feat of
the difeafe is in the finufes of the nofe, and not in the
brain j and impofthumations are obferved to take place
in the ear, which fuppurate and difcharge themfelves
externally.
Before rve leave the bones of the head, we wifh to
make Come general obfervations on its flruiflure and fi¬
gure. As the cranium might have been compofed of
a fingle bone, the articulation of its feveral bones
being abfolutely without motion, it may be alked per¬
haps, Why fuch a multiplicity of bones, and fo great
a number of futures ? Many advantages may pofiibly
arife from this plurality of bones and futures, which
may not yet have been obferved. We are able, how¬
ever, to point out many ufeful ends, which could only
be accomplifhed by this peculiarity of ftrufture. In
this, as in all the other works of nature, the great wil-
dom of the Creator is evinced, and cannot fail to ex¬
cite our admiration and gratitude.
The cranium, by being divided into feveral bones,
grows much fafter and with greater facility, than if it
was compofed of one piece only. In the fcetus, the
bones, as we have before obferved, are perfe&ly diftina
from each other. The offification begins in the middle
of each bone, and proceeds gradually to the circumfe¬
rence. Hence the offification, and of courfe the in-
creafe of the head, is carried on from an infinite num¬
ber of points at the fame time, and the bones confe-
quently approach each other in the fame proportion.
To illuftrate this doctrine more clearly, if it can wrant
further illufiration, fuppofe it neceffary for the parietal
bones which compofe the upper part of the head, to
extend their offification, and form the fore part of the
head likewsfe.—Is it not evident, that this procefs
wmuld be much more tedious than it is now, when the
os frontis and the parietal bones are both growing at
the fame time Hence it happens, that the heads of
young people, in which the bones begin to touch each
other, increafe ilowly j and that the proportionate Jn-
creale of the volume of the head is greater in three
months in the fetus, than it is perhaps in twenty-four
months at the age of fourteen or fifteen years.
I he lutures, exclufive of their advantages in fu-
fpending the proceffes of the dura mater, are evidently
of great utility in preventing the too great extent of
fraftures of the fkull.—Suppofe, for inftance, that by
a fall or blow, one of the bones of the cranium be¬
comes frScfured. The Mure, which in a head com-
poled of only one bone, would be liable to extend it-
ielf through the whole of it, is checked and fometimes
perhaps flopped by the firft future it meets, and the
Meets of the injury are confined to the bone on which
the blou w as received. Ruyfch indeed, and iome others,
vvill not allow the lutures to be of any fuch ufe ; but
cafes have been met with where they feemed to have
had this effe£t, and in young fubje&s their utility in
this refpeft mult be flill more obvious.
The fpherical lhape of the head feems likewife to
render it more capable of refilling external violence
than any other lhape would do. In a vault, the parts
mutually fupport and ftrengthen each other, and this
happens in the cranium..
T
O
M Y.
J 2. Proper Bones of the Pace.
I9I
Ofteolog;.
The face, which confifts of a great number of bones, lS
is commonly divided into the upper and lower jaws,
The upper jaw confifts of thirteen bones, exclufive of the face,
the teeth. Of thefe, fix are placed on each fide of
the maxilla fuperior, and one in the middle.
The bones, which are in pairs, are the ofla mala-
rum, offa maxillaria, offa nafi, ofla unguis, ofla palati,
and ofla fpongiofa inferiora. The fingle bone is the
vomer. ^
Thefe are the prominent fquare bones which are Of the ofla
placed under the eyes, forming part of the orbits and magnum
the upper part of the cheeks. Each of them affords
three furfaces 5 one exterior and a little convex ; a fe-
cond fuperior and concave, forming the inferior part
and lides of the orbit ; and a third pofterior, irregular,
and hollowed for the lodgment of the lower part of
the temporal mufcle.
The angles of each bone form four procefles, two
of which may be called orbitar procejj'es ; of thefe the
upper one is joined by future to the os frontis, and
that below to the maxillary bone. The third is con-
nedted with the os fphenoides by means of the tranf-
verfe future; and the fourth is joined to the zygoma¬
tic procefs of the temporal bone, with which it forms
the zygoma. 20
Thefe bones, which are of a very irregular figure, Of the ofla.
are fo called becaufe they form the moft confiderable maxiftaria
portion of the upper jaw. They are two in number, f'uPenora*
and generally remain diftintt through life.
Of the many procefles which are to be feen on thefe
bones, and which are connected with the bones of the
face and fkull, we fhall deferibe only the moft remark¬
able.
One of thefe procefies is at the upper and fore part
of the bone, making part of the fide of the nofe, and
called the twfalprocefs. Another forms a kind of cir¬
cular fweep at the inferior part of the bone, in which
are the alveoli or fockets for the teeth : this is called
the alveolar procefs. A third procefs is united to the
os malm on each fide. Between this and the nafal pro¬
cefs there is a thin plate, which forms a ftiare of the
orbit, and lies over a paflage for the fuperior maxillary
veflels and nerves.—The alveolar procefs lias polterior-
ly a confiderable tuberofity on its internal furface, call¬
ed the maxillary tuberofty.
Behind the alveolar procefs we obferve two hori¬
zontal lamellae, which uniting together, form part of
the roof of the mouth, and divide it from the nofe.
The hollownefs of the roof of the mouth is owing to
this partition’s being feated fomewhat higher than the
alveolar procefs.—At the fore part of the horizontal
lamellae there is a hole called foramen incifvum,
through which fmall blood veflels and nerves go be¬
tween the mouth and nofe.
In viewing thefe bones internally, we obferve a fofla
in the inferior portion of the nafal procefs, which,
with the os unguis and os fpongiofum inferius, forms
a paflage for the lachrymal duct.
Where thefe two bones are united to each other,
they projedt fomewhat upwards and forwards, leaving
between them a furrow, into which the lower portion
of the feptum nafi is admitted.
Each of thefe bones being hollow, a confiderable fi-
nus
21
Of the offa
Rail.
22
Of the offa
unguis.
192. /
Ofteology. nus is formed under its orbitar part
1 v '■ which is ufually named after Highmore, though it tvas
defcribed by Fallopius and others before his time, is
lined with the pituitary membrane. It is intended for
the fame purpofes as the other finufes of the nofe, and
opens into the noftrils.
The offa maxillaria are connefted with the greater
part of the bones of the face and cranium, and aflift in
forming not only the cheeks, but likewife the palate,
nofe, and orbits.
The offa nah form two irregular fquares. They are
thicker and narrower above than below. Externally
they are fomewhat convex, and internally {lightly con¬
cave. Thefe bones conftitute the upper part of the
nofe. At their fore part they are united to each other,
above to the os frontis, by their lides to the offa maxil¬
laria fuperiora, pofteriorly and interiorly to the feptum
narium, and below to the cartilages that compofe the
reft of the noftrils.
Thefe little tranfparent bones owe their name to
their fuppofed refemblance to a finger nail. Sometimes
they are called ojfa lachrymalia, from their concurring
with the nafal procefs of each maxillary bone in form¬
ing a lodgment for the lachrymal fac and duel.
The olfa unguis are of an irregular figure. Their
external furface confifts of two fmooth parts, divided
by a middle ridge. One of thefe parts, which is con¬
cave and neareft to the nofe, ferves to fupport the la¬
chrymal fac and part of the lachrymal du6l. The
other, which is flat, forms a fmall part of the orbit.
Each of thefe bones is conne&ed with the os fronr
tis, os ethmoides, and os maxillare fuperius.
Thefe bones, which are fituated at the back part of
the roof of the mouth, between the os fphenoides and
the offa maxillaria fuperiora, are of a very irregular
lhape, and ferve to form the nafal and maxillary foffa,
and a fmall portion of the orbit. Where they are unit¬
ed to each other, they rife up into a fpine on theii? in¬
ternal furface. This fpine appears to be a continua¬
tion of that of the fuperior maxillary bones, and helps
to form the feptum narium.
Thefe bones are joined to the offa maxillaria fupe¬
riora, os ethmoides, os fphenoides, and vomer.
This bone derives its name from its refemblance to
a ploughfhare. It is a long and flat bone, fomewhat
thicker at its back than at its fore part. At its upper-
part we obferve a furrow extending through its whole
length. The pofterior and largeft part of this furrow
receives a procefs of the fphenoid bone. From this
the furrow advances forwards, and becoming narrower
and (hallower, receives fome part of the nafal lamella
ethmoidea •, the reft ferves to fupport the middle car¬
tilage of the nofe.
The inferior portion of this bone is placed on the
nafal fpine of the maxillary and palate bones, which
we mentioned in our defer!ption of the ofla palati.
The vomer is united to the os fphenoides, os eth¬
moides, offa maxillaria fuperiora, and ofla palati. It
forms part of the feptum narium, by dividing the back
part of the nofe into two noftrils.
The parts which are ufually defcribed by this name,
do not feem to deferve to be diftinguifhed as diftindl
bones, except in young fubje6ls. They confift of a
fpongy lamella in each noftril, which is muted to the
. 2
N A T O M Y. Part I.
This cavity, fpongy lamina of the ethmoid bone, of which they are fteology.
23
Of the offa
palati.
24
Of the vo-
Of the offa
fpongiofa
tnferiora.
by fome confidered as a part.
Each of thefe lamellae is longeft from behind for¬
wards -, with its convex furface turned towards the fep¬
tum narium, and its concave part towards the maxil¬
lary bone, covering the opening of the lachrymal duel
into the nofe.
Thefe bones are covered with the pituitary memr
brane ; and befides their connexion with the ethmoid
bone, are joined to the offa maxillaria fuperiora,. offa
palati, and offa unguis. ,5
The maxilla inferior, or lower jaw-, which in its fliape Of themax-
refembles a horfe flioe, confifts of two diftinft bones inferi-
in the foetus-, but tbefe unite together foon after birth,01'1
fo as to form only one bone. The upper edge of this
bone, like the os maxillare fuperius, has an alveolar
procefs, furniihed with lockets for the teeth.
On each fide the pofterior part of the bone rifes al-
moft perpendicularly into two proceffes. The highelt
of thefe, called the coronoid procefs, is pointed and
thin, and ferves for the infertion of the temporal muf-
cle. The other, or condyloid procefs, as it is called,
is ftiorter and thicker, and ends in an oblong rounded
head, which is received into a foffa of the temporal
bone, and is formed for a moveable articulation with
the cranium. This joint is furniihed with a moveable
cartilage. At the bottom of each coronoid procefs,
on its inner part, we obferve a foramen extending un¬
der the roots of all the teeth, and terminating at the
outer furface of the bone near the chin. Each of thefe
canals tranfmits an artery, vein, and nerve, from which
branches are fent off to the teeth.
The lower jaw is capable of a great variety of mo¬
tion. By Aiding the condyles from the cavity towards
the eminences on each fide, we bring it horizontally
forwards, as in biting or we may bring the condyles
only forward, and tilt the reft of the jaw backward,
as in opening the mouth. We are likewife able to
Aide the condyles alternately backwards and forwards
from the cavity to the eminence, and vice verfa, as in
grinding the teeth. The cartilages, by adapting them-
lelves to the different inequalities in tbefe fever4I mo¬
tions of the jaw, ferve to fecure the articulation and
to prevent any injuries from fribtion.
The alveolar proceffes are compofed of an outer and
inner bony plate, united together by thin partitions,
which at the fore part of the jaw divide the proceffes
into as many fockets as there are teeth. But at the
back part of the jaw, where the teeth have more than
one root, we find a diftinft cell for each. .root. In both
jaws thefe proceffes begin to be formed with the teeth;
they likewife accompany them in their growth, and
gradually difappear when the teeth are removed.
§ 3. Of the ‘Teeth,
27
The teeth are bones of a particular ftru&ure, form- of the
ed for the purpofes of maftication and the articulation teeth,
of the voice. It will be neceffary to confider their
compofition and figure, their number and arrangement,
and the time and order in which they appear.
In each tooth we may diftinguifh a body, a neck,
and a root or fangs.
The body of the tooth is that part which appears
above
Chap. I.
Otology, above tbe gums. The root is fixed into the focket,
and the neck is the middle part between the two.
The teeth are compofed of two fubftances, viz. ena¬
mel and bone. The enamel, or the vitreous or corti¬
cal part of the tooth, is a white and very hard and
compaft fubfiance peculiar to the teeth, and appears
fibrous "or ftriated when broken. This fubttance is
thickeft on the grinding furface, and becoming gradu¬
ally thinner, terminates infenfibly at the neck of the
* Thefaur. tooth. Ruyfch * affirmed, that he could trace the ar-
io. N 27. terieS into the hardeft part of the teeth ; Leeuwen-
Natur'.'con- ^10e^ f hifpefted the fibres of the enamel to be fo
tinuat. Epi- many veffelsij and Monro J fays, he has frequently in-
Jiol. jedfed the vefiels of the teeth in children, fo as to make
| Anat. of the infide of the cortex appear perfedlly red. But it
1EonesUman certa^b that it is not tinged by a madder diet, and
[1 Hunter on no hijeflion will ever reach it, fo that it has no ap-
rbt Teeth, pearance of being vafcular |j.
The bony part, which compofes the inner fubftance
ol the body, neclc, and root of the tooth, refembles
other bones in its ftru&ure, but it is much harder than
the moft compadfi part of bones in general. As a
tooth when once formed receives no tinge from a mad¬
der diet, and as the minuteft injedtions do not pene¬
trate into its fubftance, this part of a tooth has, like
the enamel, been fuppofed not to be vafcular. But
when we confider that the fangs of. a tooth are inveft-
ed by a periofieum, and that the fwellings of thefe fangs
are analogous to the fwellings of other bones, we may
reafonably conclude, that there is a fimilarity of ftruc-
ture ; and that this bony part has a circulation through
its fubftance, although from its hardnefs we are unable
to demonftrate its veflels.
In each tooth we find an inner cavity, into which
enter an artery, vein, and nerve. This cavity begins
by a fmall opening, and becoming larger, terminates
in the body of the tooth. In advanced life this hole
ibmetimes clofes, and the tooth is of courfe rendered
infenfible.
The periofteum furrounds the teeth from their fangs
to a little beyond their bony fockets, where we find it
adhering to the gums. This membrane, while it en-
clofes the teeth, ferVes at the fame time to line the
fockets 5 fo that it may be confidered as common to
both.
I he teeth are likewife fecured in their fockets by
means of the gums ; a red, vafcular, firm, and elaftic
lubftance, that poflefies but little fenfibility. In the
gums of infants we find a hard ridge extending through
their whole length, but no fuch ridge is to be feen in
old people who have loft their teeth.
The number of the teeth in both jaws at full matu¬
rity, ufually varies from twenty-eight to thirty-two.
They are commonly divided into three claffes, viz. in-
cifores, canini, and grinders or molares (h). The in-
Vo l. II. Part I.
cifores are the four teeth in the fore part of each jaw. Ofteology.
They have each of them two furfaces ; one anterior and —'
convex, the other pofterior and (lightly concave, both
of which terminate in a (harp edge. They are called
incifores from their ufe in dividing the food. They
are ufually broader and thicker in the upper than in the
under jaw; and, by being placed fomewhat obliquely,
generally fall over the latter.
The canini derive their name from their refe mblance
to a dog’s tufks, being the longeft of all the teeth.
We find one on each fide of the incifores, fo that there
are twm canini in each jaw. Their fang refembles that
of the incifores, but is much larger ; and in their (hape
they appear like an incifor with its edge worn off, fo
as to terminate in a narrow" point.
Thefe teeth not being calculated for cutting and di¬
viding the food like the incifores, or for grinding it
like the molares, feem to be intended for laying hold
of fubftances (1).
The molares or grinders, of wffiich there are ten in
each jaw, are fo called, becaufe from their (hape and
fize they are fitted for grinding the food. Each of
the incifores and canini is furniftied only with one
fang ; but in the molares of the under jaw we conftant-
ly find tw"o fangs, and in thofe of the upper jaw' three
fangs. Thefe fangs are fometimes feparated into twro
points, and each of thefe points has fometimes been de-
feribed as a diftindl fang.
The two firft of the molares, or thofe neareft to the
canine teeth on each fide, differ from the other three,
and are with great propriety named bicvfpides by Mr
Hunter. They have fometimes only one root, and
feem to be of a middle nature between the incifores
and the larger molares. The two next are much larger.
The fifth or laft grinder on each fide is fmaller and
(horter than the reft ; and from its not cutting the
gum till after the age of twenty, and fometimes not
till much later in life, it is called detis fapientice.
There is in the ftrudture and arrangement of all
thefe teeth an art which cannot be fufficiently admired.
To underftand it properly, it wall be neceffary to con¬
fider the under jaw as a kind of lever, with its fixed
points at its articulations with the temporal bones : it
will be right to obferve, too, that its powers arife from
its different mufcles, but in elevation chiefly from the
temporalis and maffeter ; and that the aliment confti-
tutes the objeft of refiftance. It ryill appear, then,
that the molares, by being placed neareft the centre of
motion, are calculated to prefs with a much greater
force than the other teeth, independent of their grind¬
ing powers which they poffefs by means of the ptery¬
goid mufcles; and that it is for this reafon w"e put be¬
tween them any hard body wre wi(h to break.
The canini and incifores are placed farther from this
point, and of courfe cannot exert fo much force ; but
B b they
ANATOMY,
( h) ^fr Hunter has thought proper to vary this divifion. He retains the old name of incifores to the four
foie teeth, but he diftinguifties the canine teeth by the name of the cufpidati. The twTo teeth wffiich are next
to thefe, and which have been ufually ranked wath the molares, he calls the bicifpides ; and he gives the name
of grinders only to the three laft teeth on each fide.
( 0 Mr Hunter remarks ol theie teeth, that we may trace in them a fimilarity in (hape, fituation, and ufe,
from the moft imperfe6tly carnivorous animal, which we believe to be the human fpecies, to the lion, which is
the moft perfedlly carnivorous.
194
ANATOM Y.
Part I.
Oiteology. they are made for cutting and tearing the food, and
"*~v this form ieems to make amends for their deficiency in
ilrength.
1 here are examples of children who have come into
the world with two, three, and even four teeth : but
thefe examples are very rare ; and it is feldom before
the feventh, eighth, or ninth month after birth, that
the incifores, which are the firll formed, begin to pafs
tlwough the gum. The fymptoms of dentition, how¬
ever, in confequence of irritation from the teeth, fre¬
quently take place in the fourth or fifth month. A-
bout the twentieth or twenty-fourth month, the canini
and two molares make their appearance.
The dangerous fymptoms that fometimes accompany
dentition, are owing to the preffure of the teeth on the
gum, which they irritate fo as to excite pain and in-
tlammation. This irritation feems to occafion a gra¬
dual wailing of the gum at the part, till at length the
tooth makes its appearance.
I he fymptoms-are more or lefs alarming, in propor¬
tion to the refiilance which the gum affords to the
teeth, and according to the number of teeth which
may chance to leek a paffage at the fame time. Were
they all to appear at once, children would fall victims
to the pain and exceffive irritation ; but Nature has fo
very wifely difpofed them, that they ufually appear
one after the other, with fome diftance of time be¬
tween each. The firft incifor that appears is generally
in the lower jaw, and is followed by one in the up¬
per jaw. Sometimes the canini, but more commonly
one of the molares, begins to pafs through the gum
fir ft.
Thefe 20 teeth, viz. eight incifores, four canini, and
eight molares, are called temporary or milk teeth, be-
caufe they are all Hied between the age of feven and
14, and are fucceeded by what are called the permanent
or adult teeth. The latter are of a firmer texture, and
have larger fangs.
Theie adult teeth being placed in a diftinft fet of
alveoli, the upper fockets gradually difappear, as the
under ones increafe in fize, till at length the tempora¬
ry, or upper teeth, having no longer any fupport, con-
fequently fall out.
To thefe 20 teeth which fucceed the temporary
ones, 12 others are afterwards added, viz, three mo¬
lares on each fide in both jaws : and in order to make
room for this addition, we find that the jaws gradually
lengthen in proportion to the growth of the teeth } fo
that with 20 teeth, they feem to be as completely fill¬
ed as they are afterwards with 32. This is the reafon
w hy the face is rounder and Hatter in children than in
adults.
With regard to the formation of the teeth, wre may
obferve, that in a foetus of four months, the alveolar
procefs appears only as a fhallowr longitudinal groove,
divided by minute ridges into a number of intermediate
depreflions *, in each of which wre find a fmall pulfy
fubftance, furrounded by a vafcular membrane. This
pulp gradually ofiifies, and its lower part is lengthened Olteology.
out to form the fang. When the bony part of the v" -1
tooth is formed, its lurface begins to be incruited with
the enamel. How the latter is formed and depofited,
we are not yet able to determine.
The rudiments of fome of the adult teeth begin to
be formed at a very early period, for the pulp of one of
the incifores may generally be perceived in a foetus of
eight months, and the offification begins in it loon af¬
ter birth. The firft bicufpis begins to oftify about the
fifth or fixth, and the fecond about the feventh year.
The firft adult grinder cuts the gum about the 12th,
the fecond about the 18th, and the third, or dens J'a-
pientice, ufually between the 20th and 30th year.
The teeth, like other bones, are liable to be affecled
by dileafe. Their removal is likewdfe the natural con¬
fequence of old age •, for as we advance in life, the al¬
veoli fill up, and the teeth, efpecially the incifores, fall
out. When this happens, the chin projedls forward,
and the face is much fnortened.
j 4. Of the Os Hy aides (k).
The os hyoides, which is placed at the root of the 28
tongue, was fo called by the ancients on account of its
fuppofed refemblance to the Greek letter v.
It will be neceflary to diftinguilh in it, its body,
horns, and appendices.
The body, which is the middle and broadeft part of
the bone, is fo placed that it may be eafily felt at the
fore part of the throat. Anteriorly it is irregularly
convex, and its inner furface is unequally concave. Its
cornua, or horns, which are Hat and a little bent, be¬
ing much longer than the body part, may be deferibed
as forming the fides of the v. The appendices, or little
horns, as they are called by M. Window and fome
other writers, are twTo proceffes which rife up from the
articulations of the cornua w ith the body, and are ufu¬
ally connefted with the ftyloid procefs on each fide by
means of a ligament.
The ufes of this bone are to fupport the tongue, and
afford attachment to a great number of muicles ; fome
of which perform the motions of the tongue, while
others a<ft on the larynx andTauces.
Sect. III. Of the Bones of the Trunk.
The trunk of the Ikeleton confifts of the fpine, the .,9
thorax, and the pelvis.
§ 1. Of the Spine.
The fpine is compofed of a great number of bones
called vertebree, forming a long bony column, in figure
not much unlike the letter f. This column, which ex¬
tends from the head to the lowrer part of the body, may
be faid to confift of two irregular and unequal pyramids,
united to each other in that part of th# loins where
the laft lumbar vertebra joins the os facrum.
The vertebrre of the upper and longeft pyramid are
called
(k) This bone is very feldom preferved with the fkeleton, and cannot be included amongft the bones of the
head or in any other divifion of the Ikeleton. Thomas Bartholin has perhaps very properly deferibed it among
the parts contained in the mouth 3 but the generality of anatomical writers have placed it, as it is here, alter the
bones of the face.
Chap. T. A N A T
Ofteoiogy. called true vetebr#, in contradiftindlion to tliofe of
; the lowermoft pyramid, which, from their being im¬
moveable in the adult, are ftyled falfe vertebrce. It is
upon the bones of the fpine that the body turns j and
it is to this circumftance they owe their name, which
is derived from the Latin verb vertere, to turn.
The true vertebrae are divided into three clafies of
cervical, dorfal, and lumbar vertebra;.—•The falfe ver¬
tebrae confift of the os facrum and os coccygis.
In each vertebra, as in other bones, it will be necef-
fary to remark the body of the bone, its proceffes, and
cavities.
The body, which is convex before, and concave be¬
hind, where it affills in forming the cavity of the
fpine, may be compared to part of a cylinder cut off
tranfverfely.
Each vertebra affords feven proceffes. The firft is
at the back part of the vertebra, and from its fhape and
direction is named the fpinous procefs. On each lide of
this are two others, which, from their fituation with
refpefl: to the fpine, are called tranfverfe proceffes. The
four others are ftyled oblique or articularprocejjis. They
are much fmaller than the fpinous or tranfverfe ones.
Two of them are placed on the upper, and two on the
lower part of each vertebra, riftng from near the bafis
oi each tranfverfe procefs. They have gotten the name
of oblique procejfes, from their fituation with refpeil to
the procfeffes with which they are articulated •, and they
are fometimes ftyled articular procejfes, from the man¬
ner in which they are articulated with each other \ the
two fuperior proceffes of one vertebra being articulated
with the two inferior proceffes of the vertebra above it.
Each of thefe proceffes is covered with cartilage at its
articulation, and their articulations with each other are
by a Ipecies of ginglimus.
In each vertebra, between its body and its proceffes,
we find a hole large enough to admit a finger. Thefe
holes are foramina, correfpond with each other through
all the vertebrae, and form the long bony channel in
which the fpinal marrow is placed. We may likewife
obferve four notches in each vertebra. Two of thefe
notches are at the upper, and two at the lower part of
the bone, between the oblique proceffes and the body
of the vertebra. Each of thefe notches meeting with
a fimilar opening in the vertebra above or below it,
forms a foramen for the paffage of blood veffels, and of
the nerves out of the fpine.
The bones of the fpine are united together by means
of a fubftance, which in young fubjefts appears to be
of a ligamentous, but in adults more of a cartilaginous
nature. This intervertebral fubftance, which forms a
kind of partition between the feveral vertebrae, is thicker
and more flexible between the lumbar vertebrae than in
the other parts of the fpine, the moft confiderable mo¬
tions of the trunk being performed on thofe vertebrae.
This fubftance being very elaftic, the extenfion and
flexion of the body, and its motion backwards and for¬
wards, or to either fide, are performed with great fa¬
cility. This elafticity feems to be the reafon why people
who have been long Handing, or have carried a confi¬
derable weight, are found to be ftiorter than when they
have been long in bed. In the two firft inftances the
Intervertebral cartilages (as they are ufually called) are
evidently more expofed to compreflion than when we
are in bed in a horizontal pollute.
O M Y. 195
In advanced life thefe cartilages become ftirivelled, Oheology.
and of courfe lofe much of their elafticity. This may *
ferve to account for the decreafe in ftature and the
Hooping fortvard which are ufually to be obferved in
old people.
Befides the connexion of the feveral vertebrae by
means of this intervertebral fubftance, there are likewife
many ftrong ligaments, both external and internal,
which unite the bones of the fpine to each other. Their
union is alfo ftrengthened by a variety of ftrong mufcles
that cover and furround the fpine.
The bones of the fpine are found to diminilh in den-
fity, and to be lefs firm in their texture in proportion
as they increafe in bulk; fo that the lowermoft verte¬
bra;, though the largeft, are not fo heavy in proportion
as the upper ones. By this means the fize of thefe
bones is increafed without adding to their weight ; a
circumftance of no little importance in a part like the
fpine, which, befides flexibility and fupplenefs, feems to
require lightnefs as one of its effential properties.
In very young children, each vertebra confifts of
three bony pieces united by cartilages which afterwards
oflify. 3I
There are feven vertebra; of the neck—they are of a Vertebrae
firmer texture than the other bones of the fpine. Their dic neck.
tranfverfe proceffes are forked for the lodgment of
mufcles, and at the bottom of each we obferve a fora¬
men, through which pafs the cervical artery and vein.
The firft and fecond of thefe vertebrae muft be defcrib-
ecTmore particularly. The firft approaches almoft to
an oval lhape.—On its fuperior furface it has two cavi¬
ties which admit the condyles of the occipital bone
with which it is articulated. This vertebra, which is
called atlas from its fupporting the head, cannot wTell
be defcribed as having either body or fpinous procefs,
being a kind of bony ring. Anteriorly, wfliere it is ar¬
ticulated to the odontoid procefs of the fecond verte¬
bra, it. is very thin. On its upper furface it has twro
cavities which admit the condyles of the occipital bone.
By this connexion the head is allow'ed to move for¬
wards and backwards, but has very little motion in any
other direflion.
The fecond vertebra has gotten the name of dentata,
from its having, at its upper and anterior part, a pro¬
cefs called the odontoid os tooth-likeprocejs, which is ar¬
ticulated with the atlas, to which this lecond vertebra
may be faid to ferve as an axis. This odontoid procefs
is of a cylindrical ftrape, fomewhat flattened, however,
anteriorly and pofteriorly. At its fore part where it
is received byr the atlas, wre may obferve a fmooth, con¬
vex, articulating furface. It is by means of this arti¬
culation that the head performs its rotatory motion,
the atlas in that cafe moving upon this odontoid pro¬
cefs as upon a pivot. But when this motion is in any
confiderable degree, or, in other wrords, when the head
moves much either to the right or left, all the cervical
vertebra; feem to aflift, otherwfife the fpinal marrow
would be in danger of being divided tranfverfely by the
firft vertebra. ^
The fpinous procefs of each of the cervical vertebrte Vertebra
is (hotter, and their articular procefies more oblique, °f the kack>
than in the other bones of the fpine.
Thefe 1 2 vertebrae are of a middle fize between thofe
of the neck and loins. At their fides we may obferve
two depreflions, one at the upper and the other at the
B b 2 . lower
ANA
Oitcolo^.^ lower part of toe body ot each vertebra j which uniting
with iimdar depredions in the vertebraj above and be¬
low, form articulating iurfaces, covered with cartilages,
for receiving the heads of the ribs ; and at the fore part
ot their tranfverfe procefs (excepting the two lalt) we
find an articulating furface for receiving the tuberofity
33 of the ribs.
Lumbar _ Thefe five vertebrae differ only from thofe of the back
vertebras. in their being larger, and in having their fpinous pro-
ceffes at a greater diftance from each other. The moft
confiderable motions of the trunk are made on thefe
vertebrae 5 and thefe motions could not be performed
with fo much eafe, were the procelfes placed nearer to
each other.
Os facrum. khe os facrum, which is compofed of five or fix
pieces in young iubjedls, becomes one bone in more
advanced age.
It is nearly of a triangular figure, its inferior portion
being bent a little forwards. Its fuperior part has two
oblique proceffes, which are articulated with the lalf
of the lumbar vertebrae 5 and it has likewife commonly
three fmall fpinous procelfes, which gradually become
fhorter, fo that the lowermolt is not fo long as the fe-
cond, nor the fecond as the uppermoft. Its tranfverfe
proceifes are formed into one oblong procefs, which be¬
comes gradually fmaller as it defcends. Its concave or
anterior fide is ufually fmooth, but its pofterior convex
fide has many prominences (the moft remarkable of
which are the fpinous procelfes juft now mentioned),
which are filled up and covered with the mufcular and
tendinous parts behind.
This bone has five pair of holes, which afford a paf-
fage to blood velfels, and likewife to the nerves that are
derived from the fpinal marrowy which is continued
even here, being lodged in a triangular cavity, that be¬
comes fmaller as it defcends, and at length terminates
obliquely at the lowTer part of this bone. Below the
third divifion of the os facrum, this canal is not com¬
pletely bony as the reft of the fpine, being fecured
at its back part only by a very ftrong membrane, fo
that a wound at this part mult be extremely dange¬
rous.
The os facrum is united laterally to the olfa innomi-
35 nata or hip-bones, and below to the coccyx.
Oi coccyx. The coccyx, which, like the os facrum, is in young
people made up of three or four diltinft parts, ufually
becomes one bone in the adult ftate.
It lerves to fupport the inteftinum reftum ; and, by
its being capable of fome degree of motion at its arti¬
culation with the facrum, and being like that bone
bent forwards, we are enabled to fit with eafe.
This bone is nearly of a triangular fhape, being
broadeft as its upper part, and from thence grownng
narrower to its apex, wdiere it is not bigger than the
little finger.
It has got its name from its fuppofed refemblance to
a cuckow’s beak. It differs greatly from the vertebrae,
being commonly without any procelfes, and having no
cavity for the fpinal marrowy or foramina for the tranf-
miffion of nerves.
The fpine, of which we have now finilhed the ana¬
tomical defcription, is deftined for many great and im¬
portant ufes. The medulla fpinalis is lodged in its
bony canal fecure from external injury. It ferves as a
defence to ijhe abdominal and thoracic vilcera, and at
T ° M Y. Pai-tT.
the fame time fupports the head, and gives a general.Ofteology.
firmnefs to the whole trunk. ° ——J
_ We have before compared it to the letter yj and its
different turns will be found to render it not very unlike
the figure of that letter.—In the neck we fee it projedl-
ing fomewdiat forward to fupport the head, which, with¬
out this affiftance, would require a greater number of
mufcles. Low'er down, in the thorax, we find it tak¬
ing a curved diredion backwards, and of courfe in-
creafing the cavity of the cheft. After this, in the loins,
it agains projeds forwards in a diredion with the cen¬
tre of gravity, by which means we are eafily enabled
to keep the body in an ered pofture, for otherwife we
Ihould be liable to fall forwards. Towards its inferior
extremity, however, it again recedes backward, and
thus afiilts in forming the pelvis, the name given to the
cavity in which the urinary bladder, inteftinum redum,
and other vifeera are placed.
If this bony column had been formed only of one
piece, it would have been much more eafily fradured
than it is now': and by confining the trunk to a ftiff fi-
tuation, a variety of motions would have been altogether
prevented, which are now' performed with eafe by the
great number of bones of which it is compofed.
It is firm, and yet to this firmnefs there is added a
perfehl flexibility. It it be required to carry a load
upon the head, the neck becomes ftiff with the affift¬
ance of its mufcles, and accommodates itfelf to the
load, as if it was compofed only of one bone.—In
ftooping likewdfe, or in turning to either fide, the fpine
turns itfelf in every diredion, as if all its bones were
feparated from each other.
In a part of the body like the fpine, that is made iq>
of fo great a number of bones, and intended for fuch a
variety of motion, there muff be a greater danger of
diflocation than fra dure •, but we fhail find, that this,
is very wifely guarded againft in every direction bv the
proceffes belonging to each vertebra, and by the liga¬
ments, cartilages, &.c. by which thefe bones are con-
neded with each other.
§ 2. Of the Bones of the Thorax.
The thorax, or cheft, is compofed of many bones, 35
viz. the fternum which is placed at its anterior part,
tw'elve ribs on each fide which make up its lateral parts,
and the dorfal vertebrae w'hich conftitute its pofterior
part. Thefe laft have been already deferibed.
The fternum is the long bone which extends itfelf of thJ fter-
from the upper to the lowrer part of the breaft ante-num.
riorly, and to which the ribs and the clavicles are arti¬
culated.
In children it is compofed of feveral bones united by
cartilages; but as we advance in life, moft of thefe
cartilages offify, and the fternum in the adult ftate is
found to confift only of three pieces, and fometimes
becomes one bone. It is however generally deferibed
as being compofed of three parts—one fuperior, which
is broad, thick, and Ihort 5 and one in the middle,
which is thinner, narrower, and longer than the
other.
It terminates at its lower part by a third piece, which
is called the xyphoid, or fvoorcl-hke cartilage, from its
fuppofed refemblance to the blade of a fword, and be-
caufe in young fubjefts it is commonly in a cartila¬
ginous ftate.
We
Chap. I.
Olteology,
38 .
Of the ribs
We Have already obferved
lated with the clavicle on each fide. It is likewife
joined to the fourteen true ribs, viz. feven on its right
and feven on its left fide.
The ribs are bones fhaped like a bow, forming the
tides of the cheft. There are twelve on each fide.
They are diftinguilhed into true and falfe ribs : The
feven upper ribs which are articulated to the fler-
num are called true ribs, and the five lower ones that
are not immediately attached to that bone are called
falfe ribs.
On the inferior and interior furface of each rib, we
obferve a finuofity for the lodgment of an artery, vein,
and nerve.
The ribs are not bony through their whole length,
their anterior part being cartilaginous. They are ar¬
ticulated with the vertebrae and fternum. Every rib
(or at lead: the greater number of them) has at its pofte-
rior part, two proceffes j one at its extremity, called the
head of the rib, by means of which it is articulated
with the body of two vertebrse ; and another, called its
tuberofity, by which it is articulated with the tranfverfe
procefs of the lowed of thefe two vertebrae. The fird
rib is not articulated by its extremitv to two vertebrae,
being fimply attached to the upper part of the fird ver¬
tebra of the back. The feven fuperior or true ribs are
articulated anteriorly with the dernum by their carti¬
lages ; but the falfe ribs are fupported in a different
manner—the eighth, which is the fird of thefe ribs,
being attached by its cartilages to the feventh ; the
ninth to the eighth, &c.
The two lowermod ribs differ likewife from all the
red in the following particulars : They are articulated
only with the body of a vertebra, and not with a
tranfverfe procefs ; and anteriorly, their cartilage is
loofe, not being attached to the cartilages of the other
ribs 5 and this feems to be, becaufe the mod confider-
able motions of the trunk are not performed on the
lumbar vertebrae alone, but likewife on the two lad
vertebrae of the back : fo that if thefe two ribs had been
confined at the fore part like the other ribs, and had
been likewife articulated with the bodies of two ver-
tebrae, and with the tranfverfe precedes, the motion of
the two lad vertebrse, and confequently of the whole
trunk, would have been impeded.
The ribs help to form the cavity of the thorax j
they afford attachment to different mufcles ; they are
ufeful in refpiration ; and they ferve as a fecurity to
the heart and lungs.
§ 3. Of the Bones of the Pelvis.
The pelvis is compofed of the os facrum, os coccy-
gis, and two offa innominata. The two fird of thefe
bones were included in the account of the fpine, to
which they more p'roperly belong.
In children, each os innominatum is compofed of
three didinft bones ; but as we advance in life the in¬
termediate cartilages gradually odify, and the marks
of the original feparation difappear, fo that they be¬
come one irregular bone } dill, however, continuing to
retain the names of ilium, ifehium, and pubis, by which
their divifions were originally didinguifhed, and to be
deferibed as three different bones by the generality of
anatomids. The os ilium forms the upper and mod
ANATOMY. 197
that this bone is articu- ccnfiderable part of the bone, the os ifehium its lower Ofteology.
and poderior portion, and the os pubis its fore part. * -v—
The os ilium or haunch-bone, is articulated pode- q5
riorly to the os facrum by a firm cartilaginous fubdanee,
and is united to the os pubis before and to the os if¬
ehium below. Its fuperior portion is thin, and ter¬
minates in a ridge called the crida or fpine of the ili¬
um, and more commonly known by the name of the
haunch. This crida rifes up like an arch, being turn¬
ed fomewhat outwards, fo as to refemble the wings of
a phaeton.
Externally this bone is unequally prominent and hol¬
lowed for the lodgment of mufcles 5 internally we find
it fmooth and concave. i\t its lower part there is a
confiderable ridge on its inner furface. This ridge
extends from the os facrum, and correfponds with a
limilar prominence both on that bone and the ifehium 5
forms with the inner part of the offa pubis what in
midwifery is termed the brim of the pelvis.
The crida, or fpine, which at fird is an epiphyfis,
has two confiderable tuberofities ; one anteriorly, and
the other poderiorly, which is the larged of the two :
Thefe, from their projecting more than the parts of
the bone below them, have gotten the name of fpinat
proceffes. From the anterior fpinous procefs, the far-
torius and tenfor vaginas femoris rnufcles have their
origin j and below the poderior procefs we obferve a
confiderable niche in the bone, which, in the recent
fubjeft, is formed into a large foramen, by means of a
drong ligament that is dretched over its lower part
from fhe os facrum to the {harp-pointed procefs of the
ifehium. This hole adords a paffage to the great fei-
atic nerve, and to the poderior crural veffels under
the pyriform mufcle, part of which likewife paffes out
here.
The os ifehium, or hip-bone, which is of a very ir- os lithium-..
regular figure, conditutes the lower lateral parts of the
pelvis, and is commonly divided into its body, tubero¬
fity, and ramus. The body forms the lower and mod
confiderable portion of the acetabulum, and fends a
drarp-pointed procefs backwards, called the fpine of
the ifehium. To this procefs the ligament adheres,
which wras jud now fpoken of, as forming a foramen for
the paffage of the fciatic nerve. The tuberofity, which
is the lowred part of the trunk, and fupports us when
we fit, is large and irregular, affording origin to feve-
ral mufcles. From this tuberofity we find the bone
becoming thinner and narrower. This part, which has
the name of ramus or branch, paffes forwards arid up¬
wards, and concurs with the ramus of the os pubis, to
form a large hole called the foramen magnum ifehii, or
thyroideum, as it is fometimes named from its refem-
blance to a door or fhield. This hole, which in the
recent fubjeft is clofed by a drong membrane called
the obturator ligament, affords through its whole cir¬
cumference attachment to mufcles. At its upper part
where wre obferve a niche in the bone, it gives paffage
to the obturator veffels and nerves, which go to the in¬
ner part of the thigh. Nature feems everywhere to
avoid an unneceffary weight of bone, and this foramen,
no doubt, ferves to lighten the bones of the pelvis.
The os pubis or {hare-bone, which with its fellow Os pubi^>
forms the fore part of the pelvis, is the fmalled di-
vifion of the os innominatum. It is united to its fellow
bv
198
ANATOMY.
Part I.
Oiteology. by means of a ftrong cartilage, which forms what is
~ v called the fyraphyfis pubis.
In each os pubis we may diftinguifh the body of
the bone, its angle, and ramus. The body or outer
part is united to the os ilium. The angle comes for¬
wards to form the fymphyfis, and the ramus is a thin
procefs which unites with the ramus of the ifchium, to
form the foramen thyroideum.
The three bones we have defcribed as compofing
each os innominatum, all aflift in forming the ace¬
tabulum, in which the head of the os femoris is re¬
ceived.
This cavity is everywhere lined with a fmooth car-
tilage, excepting at its inner part, were we may ob-
ierve a little fofla, in which are lodged the mucilagi¬
nous glands of the joint. We may likewife notice the
pit or depreflion made by the round ligament, as it is
improperly called, which, by adhering to this cavity
and to the head of the thigh-bone, helps to fecure the
latter in the focket.
Thefe bones, which are united to each other and to
the fpine, by many very ftrong ligaments, ferve to fup-
port the trunk, and to conned it with the low^er extre¬
mities ; and at the fame time to form the pelvis or ba-
fon, in which are lodged the inteftines and urinary
bladder, and in wmmen the uterus j fo that the ftudy of
this part of ofteology is of the utmolt importance in
midwifery.
It is wrorthy of obfervation, that in women the os
facrum is ufually Ihorter, broader, and more hollowed,
the ofla ilia more expanded, and the inferior opening
of the pelvis larger, than in men.
Sect. IV. Of the Extremities.
43 The parts of the Ikeleton confill of the upper ex¬
tremity and the lower.
§ 1. Of the Upper Extremities.
44 This conlifts of the fhoulder, the arm, and the
hand.
45 1. Of the Shoulder.
46
Of the cla-
'vicula.
The ihoulder conlifl: of two bones, the clavicula and
the fcapula.
The former, which is fo named from its refemblance
to the key in ufe among the ancients, is a little cur¬
ved at both its extremities like an Italic f. It is like-
udfe called juguium, or collar bone, from its fituation.
It is about the fize of the little finger, but longer, and
being of a very fpongy fubftance, is very liable to be
fractured. In this, as in other long bones, we may
diftinguiih a body and two extremities. The body is
rather flattened than rounded. The anterior extremi¬
ty is formed into a ilightly convex head, which is
nearly of a triangular fhape. The inferior furface of
the head is articulated with the fternum. The pofte-
rior extremity, which is flatter and broader than the
other, is conne&ed to a procefs of the fcapula, called
acromion. Both thefe articulations are fecured by li¬
gaments, and in that with the llernum we meet wdth
a moveable cartilage, to prevent any injury from fric¬
tion.
The clavicle ferves to regulate the motions of the
fcapula, by preventing it from being brought too much
2
forwards, or carried too far backwards. It affords ori- Ofteology.
gin to feveral mufcles, and helps to cover and protect v -
the fubclavian veffels, which derive their name from
their lituation under this bone. ^
The fcapula, or fhoulder-blade, which is nearly of Of the fca*
a triangular fhape, is fixed to the pofterior part of thepu^-
true ribs, fomewhat in the manner of a buckler. It
is of a very unequal thicknefs, and like all other broad
flat bones, is fomewhat cellular. Exteriorly it is con¬
vex, and interiorly concave, to accommodate itfelf to
the convexity of the ribs. We obferve in this bone
three unequal fides, which are thicker and ftronger than
the body of the bone, and are therefore termed its
cofee. The largeft of the three, called alfo the bafis,
is turned towards the vertebrae. Another, which is
lefs than the former, is below this ; and the third,
which is the leaf! of the three, is at the upper part of
the bone. Externally the bone is elevated into a con-
fiderable fpine, which rifing fmall at the bafis of the
fcapula, becomes gradually higher and broader, and
divides the outer furface of the bone into two foffte.
The fuperior of thefe, which is the fmalleft, ferves to
lodge the fupra fpinatus mufcle $ and the inferior fof-
fa, which is much larger than the other, gives origin
to the infra fpinatus. This fpine terminates in a broad
and flat procefs at the top of the fhoulder, called the
procefus acromion, to .which the clavicle is articulated.
This procefs is hollowed at its lower part to allow a
paffage to the fupra and infra fpinati mufcles. The
fcapula has likewife another confiderable procefs at its
upper part, which, from its refemblance to the beak
of a bird, is called the coracoid procefs. From the out¬
er fide of this coracoid procefs, a ftrong ligament paf-
fes to the proceffus acromion, w’hich prevents a luxa¬
tion of the os humeri upwards. A third procefs be¬
gins by a narrow neck, and ends in a cavity called
glenoid, for the connexion of the os humeri.
The fcapula is articulated with the clavicle and os
humeri, to which laft it ferves as a fulcrum ; and by-
varying its pofition it affords a greater fcope to the
bones of the arm in their different motions. It like¬
wife gives origin to feveral mufcles, and pofteriorly
ferves as a defence to the trunk.
2. Bones of the Arm.
The arm is commonly divided into twro parts, which 48
are articulated to each other at the elbows The up¬
per part retains the name of arm, properly fo called,
and the kwer part is ufually call^l the fore-arm.
The arm is compofed of a fingle bone called os hu-
meri. This bone, w-hich is almoft of a cylindrical
ftiape, may be divided into its body and its extremi¬
ties.
The upper extremity begins by a large, round fmooth
head, w-hich is admitted into the glenoid cavity of the
fcapula. On the upper and fore part of the bone there
is a groove for lodging the long head of the biceps
mufcle of the arm ; and on each fide of the groove, at
the upper end of the bone, there is a tubercle to which
the fpinati mufcles are fixed.
The lower extremity has feveral proceffes and cavi¬
ties. The principal proceffes are its tw-o condyles, one
exterior and the other interior, and of thefe the laft is
the largeft. Between thefe two we obferve tw-o late¬
ral protuberances, which, together with a middle ca-
vity,
Chap. I. ANA
vity, form as it were a kind ot pulley upon which the
motions of the fore-arm are chiefly performed. At
eacn fide of the condyles, as well exteriorly as mterior-
ly> there is another eminence which gives origin to fe-
veral mufcles of the hand and fingers. Pofteriorly and
fuperiorly, fpeaking with refpeft to the condyles, ive
obferve a deep foffa which receives a confiderable pro-
cefs of the ulna ; and anteriorly and oppofite to this
foiTa, we obferve another, which is much lei's, and re¬
ceives another procefs of the fame bone.
i he body of the bone has at its upper and anterior
part a furrow which begins from behind the head of
the bone, and ferves to lodge the tendon of a mui'cle.
J he body of the os humeri is hollow through its whole
length, and like all other long bones has its marrow.
I his bone is articulated at its upper part to the fca-
pula. I his articulation, which allows motion every
way, is furrounded by a capfular ligament that is fome-
times torn in luxation, and becomes an obitacle to the
ealy reduction of the bone. Its lower extremity is
50 articulated with the bones of the fore-arm.
Of the fore- The fore-arm is compofed of two bones, the ulna
airn' ^ and radius.
Of the ul- u^na or elbow bone is much lefs than the os
®a- humeri, and becomes gradually fmalkr as it defcends
to the wrift. At its upper part it has two proceffes
and two cavities. Of the two proceffes, the largeft,
which is fituated pofteriorly, and called the olecranon,
is admitted into the polterior folia of the os humeri!
The other procefs is placed anteriorly, and is called
the coronoidprocefs. In bending the arm it enters in¬
to the anterior foffa of the os humeri. This procefs
being much fmaller than the other, permits the fore¬
arm to bend inwards 5 whereas the olecranon, which
is fiiaped like a hook, reaches the bottom of its foffa
in tne os humeri as loon as the arm becomes ftraight,
and will not permit the fore-arm to be bent backwards.
I he ligaments likewife oppofe this motion.
Between the two proceffes we have defcribed, there
is a confiderable cavity called the figmoid cavity, di¬
vided into two foffbe by a fmall eminence, which paffes
from one procefs to the other $ it is by means, of this
cavity and the two procefles, that the ulna is articu¬
lated with the os humeri by ginglimus.
At the bottom of the coronoid procefs interiorly
there is a fmall figmoid cavity, which ferves for the
articulation of the ulna with the radius.
I he body of the ulna is of a triangular (hape : Its
lower extremity terminates by a fmall head and a little
ftyloid procefs. The ulna is articulated above to the
os humeri—both above and below to the radius, and to
the wrift at its lower extremity. All thefe articula¬
tions are Secured by means of ligaments. The chief
uie of this bone feems to be to fupport and regulate
the motions of the radius.
Of the ra- i fe radius, which is fo named from its fuppofed re-
dius. femblance to the fpoke of a wheel, is placed at the in-
fide of the fore-arm. It is fomewhat larger than the
ulna, but not quite fo long as that bone. Its upper
T O M Y.
part is cylindrical, hollowed fupenorly to receive the
outer condyle of the os humeri. Laterally it is ad¬
mitted -into, the little figmoid cavity of the ulna, and
the cylindrical part of the bone turns in this cavity in
the motions of pronation" and fupination (l). This
bone follows the ulna in llexion and extenfion, and may
likewife be moved round its axis in any diredlion. The
lower extremity of the radius is much larger and
ftronger than its upper part ; the ulna, on the con¬
trary, is fmaller and weaker below than above j fo that
they ferve to fupply each other’s deficiencies in both
thole parts.
On the.external fide of this bone, we obferve a fmall
cavity which is deftined to receive the lower end of the
ulna ; and its lower extremity is formed into a large
cavity, by means of which it is articulated with the
bones of the wrift, and on this account it is fometimes
called manubrium manus. It fupports the two firft
bones of the wrift on the fide of the thumb, whereas
the ulna is articulated with that bone of the wrift which
coirefponds with the little finger.
Through the whole length both of this bone and the
ulna, a ridge is obferved which affords attachment to
an interofleous ligament. This ligament fills up the
ipace between the two bones.
*99
Ofteology.
The carpus or wrift confifts of eight fmall bones ofOf the4car-
an irregular fhape, and difpofed in two unequal rows.P113-
1 hofe of the upper row are articulated with the bones
01 the fore-arm, and thofe oft the lower one wdth the
metacarpus.
. The ancient anatomifts defcribed thefe bones nume¬
rically ; Lyferus feems to have been the firft who gave
to each of them a particular name. The names he adopt¬
ed are found on the figure of the bones, and are now
pretty generally received, except the firft, which in-
itead ot xolv*os($ss (the name given to it by Lyferus on
account of its finus, that admits a part of the os mag-
num), has by later writers, been named Scapboides or
Isaviculare. 1 his, which is the outermoft of the up¬
per row (confidering the thumb as the outer fide of
the hand), is articulated with the radius ; on its inner
fide it is connected with the os lunare, and below to
the trapezium and trapezoides. Next to this is a fmall¬
er _b°ne, called the os lunare ; becaufe its outer fide
tvhich is connedled with the fcaphoides, is fhaped like’
a creicent. I his is likewdfe articulated with the radi
us. On its inner fide it joins the os cuneiforme ; and
anteriorly, the os magnum and os unciforme.
The os cuneiforme, which is the third bone in the
upper row, is compared to a wedge, from its beinw
broader above, at the back of the hand, than it is be
low. . Poftenorly it is articulated with the ulna and
anteriorly with the os unciforme.
Thefe three bones form an oblong articulating fur-
face, covered by cartilage, by which the hand is con¬
nected with the fore-arm.
The os pififorme, or pea-like bone, which is fmaller
than
(l) The motions of pronation and fupination may be eafilv defcribed If th^ -i u sc • „
“ T“1 °n ",C ““ “f * *»««. hand .nav /e laid to L In a ftat'e of prLS/ta ifTh ’
the hand is turned towards the table, the hand will be then in a ftate of fupination. ? " h k pai 1 o£
200
A N A T O M Y.
Part I4
ss
Of the me¬
tacarpus.
Ofteology. than the three juft now deferibed, though generally
J' claifed with the bones of the upper row, does not pro¬
perly belong to either feries, being placed on the un¬
der furface of the os cuneiforme, io as to projeft into
the palm of the hand. The four bones of the fecond
row correfpond with the bones of the thumb and fing¬
ers the firft, fecond, and fourth, are from their finipes
named trope-ziurn, trapeftoidex, and uneforme; the third,
from its being the largelt bone of the carpus, is llyled
os magnum.
All thefe bones are convex towards the back, and
fightly concave towards the palm of the hand ; their
articulating furfaces are covered with cartilages, and
fecured by many itrong ligaments, particularly by two
ligamentous expaniions, called the external and inter¬
nal annular ligaments of the wrift. The former ex¬
tends in an oblique direction from the os pififorme to
the ityloid procefs of the radius, and is an inch and a
half in breadth ; the latter or internal annular ligament
is ftretched from the os piliforme and os unciforme, to
the os fcaphoides and trapezium. Thefe annular liga¬
ments like wife ferve to bend down the tendons of the
wrift and fingers.
The metacarpus confifts of four bones, which fup-
port the fingers *, externally they are a little convex,
and internally fomewhat concave, wTere they form the
palm of the hand. They are hollow* and of a cylin¬
drical lhape.
At each extremity they are a little hollowed for
their articulation * fuperiorly with the bones of the car¬
pus, and inferiorly with the firft phalanx of the fingers*
in the fame manner as the feveral phalanges of the fing¬
ers are articulated with each other.
The five fingers of each hand are compofed of fifteen
bones, difpofed in three ranks called phalanges : The
bones of the firft phalafix, which are articulated with
the metacarpus, are the largeft, and thofe of the laft
phalanx the fmalleft. All thefe bones are larger at
their extremities than in their middle part.
We obferve at the extremities of the bones of the
carpus, metacarpus, and fingers, feveral inequalities that
ferve for their articulation with each other ; and thefe
articulations are ftrengthened by means of the liga¬
ments which furround them.
It will be eafily underftood that this multiplicity of
bones in the hand (for there are 27 in each hand) is
eiTential to the different motions wre with to perform.
If each finger was compofed only of one bone inftead
of three, it would be impoflible for us to grafp any
thing.
A 2. Of the Lower Extremities.
Each lowrer extremity is divided into four parts, viz.
the os femoris, or thigh-bone j the rotula, or knee-pan 5
the leg 5 and the foot.
r 56
Of the
fingers.
I. Of the Thigh.
Of tl e^os r^^ie is compofed only of this bone, which is
femoris. the largeft and ftrongeft we have. It will be neceffary
to diftinguilh its body and extremities: Its body, which
is of a cylindrical ftiape, is convex before and concave
behind, wdiere it ferves to lodge feveral mufcles.
Throughout two-thirds of its length we obferve a ridge
called linea afpera, which originates from the trochan¬
ters, and after running for fome way downwards,
1
divides into two branches, that terminate in the tubero- Ofteologyi
fities at the lower extremity of the bone. _
At its upper extremity we muft deferibe the neck
and fmooth head of the bone, and likewife two confi-
derable procefles : The head, which forms the greater
portion of a fphere unequally divided, is turned inwards*
and received into the great cotyloid cavity of the os in-
nominatum. At this part of the bone there is a little
foffa to be obferved, to which the round ligament is
attached, and which we have already deferibed as tend¬
ing to fecure the head of this bone in the great aceta¬
bulum. The neck is almoft horizontal, confidered with
refpedft to its fituation with the body of the bone. Of
the two proceffes, the external one, which is the largeft,
is called trochanter major •, and the other, which is
placed on the inftde of the bone, trochanter minor.
They both afford attachment to mulcles. The articu¬
lation of the os femoris with the trunk is ftrengthened
by means of a capfular ligament, which adheres every¬
where round the edge of the great cotyloid cavity of
the os innominatum, and lurreunds the head of the
bohe.
The os femoris moves upon the trunk in every di-
redlion.
At the lower extremity of the bone are twm proceffes
called the condyles, and an intermediate fmooth cavi¬
ty, by means of which it is articulated with the leg by
ginglimus.
All round the under end of the bone there is an ir¬
regular furface where the capfular ligament of the joint
has its origin, and where blood veffels go into the fub-
ftance of the bone.
Between the condyles there is a cavity pofteriorly,
in which the blood veffels and nerves are placed, fecure
from the compreftion to which they wmuld otherwife be
expofed in the a61 ion of bending the leg, and which
would not fail to be hurtful.
At the fide of each condyle externally, there is a
tuberofixty, from whence the lateral ligaments originate,
which are extended down to the tibia.
A ligament likewife arifes from each condyle pofte¬
riorly. One of thefe ligaments paffes from the right
to the left, and the other from the left to the right, fo
that they interfedl each other, and for that reafon are
called the crofs ligaments.
The lateral ligaments prevent the motion of the leg
upon the thigh to the right or left; and the crofs liga¬
ments, which are alfo attached to the tibia, prevent the
latter from being brought fomards.
In new born children all the proceffes of this bone
are cartilaginous.
2. The Rotula, or Knee-pan.
The rotula, patella, or knee-pan, as it is differently of the ro
called, is a fiat bone about four or five inches in cir-tula.
cumference, and is placed at the fore part of the joint
of the knee. In its ftiape it is fomewdiat like the com¬
mon figure of the heart, with its point downw ards.
It is thinner at its edge than in its middle part j at
its fore part it is fmooth and fomewhat convex ; its
pofterior furface, which is more unequal, affords an ele¬
vation in the middle which is admitted between the
two condyles of the os femoris.
This bone is retained in its ^proper fituation by a
ftrong ligament which everywhere furrounds it, and
adheres
I
Chap. I. A N A T
Oiteology. adheres both to the tibia and os femoris; it is likewife
^irmly cojme^ed with the tibia by means of a ftrong
tendinous ligament of an inch in breadth, and upwards
of two inches in length, which adheres to the lower
part of the patella, and to the tuberofity at the upper
end of the tibia. On account of this connexion, it is
very properly conhdered as an appendage to the tibia,
which it follows in all its motions, fo as to be to it
vvhat the olecranon is to the ulna. There is this dif*
ference, however, that the olecranon is a fixed pro-
cefs j whereas the patella is moveable, being capable
of fading from above downwards and from below up-
w»rds. This mobility is eflential to the rotatory mo-
tion of the leg,
^ In Very young children this bone is entirely cartila¬
ginous,
1 he principal ufe of the patella feems to be to de¬
fend the articulation of the knee from external in¬
jury 5 it likewife tends to increafe the power of the
extenfor mufcles of the leg, by removing their direc¬
tion farther from the centre of motion in the manner
of a pulley.
6v
3. Of the Leg,
The leg is compofed of two bones; Of thefe the in¬
ner one, which is the largeft, is called tibia j the other
^ is much fmaller, and named fibula.
Of the ti- The tibia, which is fo called from its refemblance to
*ia> the mufical pipe of the ancients, has three furfaces, and
*s not very unlike a triangular prifm. Its pofterior
furface is the broadeft 5 anteriorly it has a confiderable
ridge called the (bin, between which and the Ikin there
are no mufcles. At the upper extremity of this bone
are two furfaces, a little concave, and feparated from
each other by an intermediate elevation. The two little
cavities receive the condyles of the os femoris, and the
eminence between them is admitted into the cavity
which we fpoke of as being between the two condyles j
lo that this articulation affords a fpecimen of the com-
plete ginglimus. Under the external edge of the up¬
per end of this bone is a circular flat furface, which re-
■ ceives the head of the fibula,
. At the lower and inner portion of the tibia, we ob¬
serve a confiderable procefs called malleolus internus.
'i he bafis of the bone terminates in a large tranfverfe
cavity, by which it is articulated with the uppermoft
bone of the foot. It has hkcwife another cavity at its
lower end and outer fide, which is fomcwhat oblong,
and receives the kwer end of the fibula.
C,z The tibia is hollow- through its whole length,
pf the ti- The fibula is a final! long bone lituated on the out-
Wia, fide of the tibia. Its fuperior extremity does not reach
jjuite fo high as the upper part of the tibia, but its
lower end defeends fomewhat lower. Both above and
below, it is articulated with the tibia by means of the
lateral cavities we noticed m our defeription of that
bone.
Its lower extremity is ftretched out into a coronoid
procefi, which is flattened at its infide, and is convex
externally, forming what is called the malleolus exter-
rlas> or outer ankle. This is rather lower than the
malleolus internus of the tibia.
Voi,, 11, Part I,
o m y.
The body of this bone, w hich is irregularly triangu¬
lar, is a little hollow at its internal furface,* which is
turned towards the tibia •, and it affords like that bone,
through its whole length, attachment to a ligament*
which from its fituation is called the interoffeous liga¬
ment.
Ofteoldgy,
4, Of the Foot, ^
The foot confifts of the tarfus, metatarfus, and toes, 6
The tarfus is compofed of feven bones, viz. the Of the tar*
aftragalus, os calcis, os naviculare, os cuboides, and fas.
three others called cuneiform bones. ^
The aftragalus is a large bone with which both theOfthea-
tibia and fibula are articulated. It is the uppermoft ftragalus'
bone of the foot; it has feveral furfaces to be confider-
ed j its upper, and fomewhat pofterior part,' which is
fmooth and convex, is admitted into the cavity of the
tibia. Its lateral parts are connefted with the malleoli
of the two bones of the leg ; below, it is articulated
with the os calcis, and its anterior furface is received
by the os naviculare. All thefe articulations are fecur*
ed by means of ligaments,
The os calcis, or ealcaneum, w-hich is of a very irre- Of the os
gular figure, is the largeft bone of the foot. Behind,c8lcis'
it is formed into a confiderable tuberofity called the
heel *, without this tuberofity, which fupports us in an
ereft pofture, and when we walk, we ihould be liable
to fall backwards.
On the internal furface of this bone, we obferve a
confiderable finuofity, which affords a paffage to the
tendon ot a mufcle : and to the pofterior part of the
os calcis, a ftrong tendinous cord called tendo achillis
(«)» »s attached, which is formed by the tendons of
feyeral mufcles united together. The articulation of
this with the other bones is fecured by means of lma.
ments, 0
The os naviculare, or feaphoides (for thefe two terms of the os
hti\e the fame figniftcation), is fo called on account of naviculare.
its refemblance to a little bark. At its pofterior part,
which is concave, it receives the aftragalus ; anteriorly
it Is articulated w-ith the cuneiform bones, and lateral-
ly it is conne&ed with the os cuboides. ^
The os cuboides forms an irregular cube. Pofteri- of the os
oily it is articulated with the os calcis, anteriorly it cuboides.
fupports the two laft bones of the metatarfus, and la¬
terally it joins the third cuneiform bone and the os na¬
viculare,
Lach of the offa cuneiformia, which are three inoftt^ <y,
number, refembles a wedge, and from this fimilitude cuneifor-
their name is derived, I hey are placed next to the !nfa*
metatarfus by the fides of each other, and are ufually
diftinguiflied into os enneiforme externum, tnediutn or
minimum, and internum or maximum. The fuperior
iurrace of theie bones, from their wedge-like (hape, is
broader than that which is below, w-here they heln to
lorm the lole of the foot j pofteriorly they are united
to the os naviculare, and anteriorly they fupport the
three firit metatarfal bones.
t When thefe feven bones compofing the tarfus are
viewed together in the fkeleton, they appear convex
above, where they help to form the upper part of the
foot $ and concave underneath, where they form the
C c hollow
(m) This tendon is fometimes ruptured by jumping, dancing, or other violent efforts.
'^02 ANA
Ofteoiogy. hollow ot the toot, in which the veffels, tendons, and
v nerves of the foot, are placed fecure from preffure.
They are united to each other by very flrong liga¬
ments, and their articulation with the foot is fecured
by a capfular and two lateral ligaments 5 each of the
latter is covered by an annular ligament of confiderable
breadth and thicknefs, which ferves to bind down the
tendons of the foot, and at the fame time to ftrengthen
the articulation.
The os cuneiforme externum is joined laterally to the
os cuboides.
Thefe bones complete our account of the tarfus.
Though what we have faid of this part of the oileolo-
gy has been very ftmple and concife, yet many readers
may not clearly underhand it : but if they will be
pleafed to view thefe bones in their proper fituation in
the Ikeleton, all that we have faid of them will be ea-
fily underftood.
The metatarfus is made up of five bones, whereas
the metacarpus confifts only of four. The caufe of
this difference is, that in the hand the laft bone of the
thumb is not included among the metacarpal bones 5
whereas in the foot the great toe has only two bones.
The firfl: of thefe bones fupports the great toe, and is
much larger than the rert, which nearly refemble each
other in fize.
Thefe bones are articulated by one extremity wffth
the cuneiform bones and the os cuboides, and by their
other end with the toes.
Each of the toes, like the fingers, confifts of three
bones, except the great toe, which is formed of two
bones. Thofe of the other four are diftinguifhed into
three phalanges. Although the toes are more con¬
fined in their motion than the fingers, yet they appear
to be perfectly fitted for the purpofes they are defign-
70
Of the me¬
tatarfus.
Of the toes.
73
T O M Y. Parti.
ed for. In walking, the toes bring the centre of gra-[Ofteology.
vity perpendicular to the advanced foot 5 and as the
foies of the foot are naturally concave, we can at plea-
lure increafe this concavity, and form a kind of vault,
which adjufts itfelf to the different inequalities that oc¬
cur to us in walking ; and wdiich, wffthout this mode
of arrangement, would incommode us exceedingly,
efpecially when bare-footed.
§ 4. Of the OJfa Sesamoidea.
Befides the bones we have already defcribed, there
are feveral fmall ones that are met wdth only in the
adult Ikeleton, and in perfons who are advanced in
life ; which, from their fuppofed general refemblance
to the feeds of the fefamum, are called offa fefamoidea.
They are commonly to be feen at the firft joint of the
great toe, and fometimes at the joints of the thumb \
they are likewife now and then to be found at the
lower extremity of the fibula, upon the condyles ot
the thigh-bone, under the os cuboides of the tarfus,
and in other parts of the body. Their fize and num¬
ber feem iconftantly to be increafed by age and hard
labour ; and as they are generally found in fituations
wffiere tendons and ligaments are moft expofed to the.
adlion of mufcles, they are now generally confidered
as offified portions of ligaments or tendons.
The upper furface of thefe bones is ufually convex,
and adherent to the tendon that covers it j the fide
which is next to the joint is fmooth and flat. Though
their formation is accidental, yet they feem to be of
fome ufe, by railing the tendons farther from the centre
of motion, and conlequently increafing the pow er of the
mufcles. In the great toe and thumb they are like¬
wife ufeful, by forming a groove for the flexor ten¬
dons.
EXPLANATION of the PLATES of OSTEOLOGY.
Plate XXL
Fig. I. A Front View of the Male Skeleton.
A, The os frontis. B, The os parietale. C, The
coronal future. D, The fquamous part of the tempo¬
ral bones. E, The fquamous future. F, The zygoma.
G, The maftoid procefs. H, The temporal procefs of
the fphenoid bone. I, The orbit. K, The os malae. L,
The os maxillare fuperius. M, Its nafal procefs. N,
The offa nafi. O, The os unguis. P, the maxilla in¬
ferior. Q^The teeth, which are fixteen in number in
each jaw. R, The feven cervical vertebrae, with their
intermediate cartilages. S, Their tranfverfe proceffes.
T, The twelve dorfal vertebrae, with their interme¬
diate cartilages. U, The five lumbar vertebrae. V,
Their tranfverfe proceffes. W, The upper part of the
os facrum. X, Its lateral parts. The holes feen on
its fore part are the paffages of the undermoft fpinal
nerves and fmall veffels. Oppofite to the holes, the
marks of the original divifions of the bone are feen.
Y, The os ilium. Z, Its creft or fpine. a, The an¬
terior fpinous procefles. b, The brim of the pelvis,
c, The ifchiatic niche. d, The os ifehium. e, Its
tuberofity. f, Its fpinous proeefs. g, Its crus, h, The
foramen thyroideum. i, the os pubis, k, The fym-
phyffs pubis. 1, The crus pubis, m, The acetabulum.
n, The feventh or laft true rib. o, The twelfth or lalV
falfe rib. p, The upper end of the ftermim. q, The^
middle piece, r, The under end, or cartilage enli-
formis. s, The clavicle, t, The internal furface of
the fcapula. u, Its acromion, v, Its coracoid pro¬
cefs. wt, Its cervix, x, The glenoid cavity, y, The
os humeri, z, Its head, which is connected to the-
glenoid cavity. 1, Its external tubercle. 2, Its in¬
ternal tubercle. 3, The groove for lodging the long
head of the biceps mufcle of the arm. 4, The inter¬
nal condyle. 5, The external condyle. Between 4
and 5, the trochlea. 6, The radius. 7, Its head.
8, Its tubercle. 9. The ulna. 10, Its coronoid pro¬
cefs. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, The carpus^,
compofed of os naviculare, os lunare, os cuneiforme,
os pififorme, os trapezium, os trapezoides* os magnum,
os unciforme. 19, The five bones of the metacarpus.
20, The twro bones of the thumb. 21, The three1
bones of each of the fingers. 22, The os femoris.
23, Its head. 24, Its cervix. 25, The trochanter
major. 26, The trochanter minor. 27, The inter¬
nal condyle. 28, The external condyle. 29, The
rotula. 30, The tibia. 31, Its head. 32, Its tu¬
bercle. 33, Its fpine. 34, The malleolus internus.
35, The fibula. 36, Its head. 37, The malleolus
externus. The tarfus is compofed of, 38, The aftraga-
Chap. I.
ANATOMY.
20 j
Ofteology. lus; ^9, tlie or calcls; 40, tlie os naviculare-, 41, three
v"' 1 oiTa cuneiformia, and the os cuboides, which is not feen
in this figure. 42, The five bones of the metatarfus.
43, The two bones of the great toe. 44, The three
bones of each of the fmall toes.
FiG. 2. A Front View of the Skuli,.
A, The os frontis. B, The lateral part of the os
frontis, which gives -origin to part of the temporal
mufcle. C, The fuperciliary ridge. D, The fuper-
ciliary hole through which the frontal Veffels and nerves
pafs. EE, the orbitar ptocefTes. F, The middle of
the tranfverfe future. G, The upper part of the or¬
bit. H, The foramen opticum. I, The foramen
lacerum. K, The inferior otbitar fiffure. L, The os
unguis-. M, The oflh nafi. N, The os maxillare fu-
perius. -0* Its nafal procefs. P, The external orbi¬
tar hole through which the fuperior maxillary veffels
and nerves pafs. Q^The os mal*. R, A pafiage for
fmall veffels into, or out of, the orbit. S, The under
part of the left noftril. T, The fentum narium. U,
The os fpongiofum fuperius. V, The os fpongiofum
inferius. W, The edge of the alveoli, or fpongy fock-
ets, for the teeth. X, The maxilla inferior. Y, The
paffage for the inferior maxillary veffels and nerves.
Fig. 3. A Side View of the Skull.
A, The os frontis. B, The coronal future. C, The
os parietale. D, An arched ridge which gives origin
to the temporal mufcle. E, The fquamous future.
F, The fquamous part of the temporal bone ; and,
farther forward^ the temporal proceft of the fphenoid
bone. G, The zygomatic procefs of the temporal
bone. H, The zygomatic future. I, The maftoid
procefs of the temporal bone. K, The meatus audi-
torius externus. L, The orbitar plate of the frontal
bone, under which is feen the tranfverfe future.
M, Hie pars plana of the ethmoid bone. N, The os
unguis. O, The right os nafi. P, The fuperior max¬
illary bone. CE,Its nafal procefs. R, The two den¬
tes incifores. S, The dens caninus. T, The two
'final! molares, U, the three large molares. V, The
os malae. W, The lower jaw. X, Its angle. Y, The
coronoid procefs. Z, The condyloid procefs, by which
the jaw is articulated with the temporal bone.
Fig. 4. The Pofferior and Right fide of the Skull.
A, The os frontis. BB, The offa parietalia.
C, The fagittal future. D, The parietal hole, through
which a fmall vein runs to the fuperior longitudinal
firms. E, The lambdoid future. FF, Offa triquetra,
G, The os occipitis. H, The fquamous part of the
temporal bone. I, The martoid procefs. K, The
zygoma. L, The os malae. M, The temporal part
of the fphenoid bone. N, The fuperior maxillary
bone and teeth.
Fig. 5. The External furface of the Os frontis.
A, The convex part. B, Part of the temporal
fioffa. C, The external angular procefs. D, The in¬
ternal angular procefs. E, The nafal procefs. F, The
fuperciliary arch. G, The fuperciliary hole. H, The
orbitar plate.
Fig. 6. The Internal Surface of the Os Frontis.
A A, The ferrated edge which affitts to form the co¬
ronal future. B, The external angular procefs. C,
The internal angular .procefs. D, The nafal procefs.
E, The orbitar plate. F, The cells which correfpond Ofteology.
with thofe of the ethmoid bone. G, The paffage from v-”—'
the frontal finus. H, the opening which receives the
cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. I, The cavity
which lodges the fore part of the brain. K, The fpine
to which the falx is fixed. L, The groove which
lodges the fuperior longitudinal linus.
Plate XXII.
Fig. 1. A Back View of the Skeleton.
AA, The ofla parietalia. B, The fagittal future.
C, The lambdoid future,, D, The occipital bone.
E, The fquamous future. F, the maftoid procefs of
the temporal bone. G, The os malae. H, The pa¬
late plates of the fuperior maxillary bones, I, The
maxilla inferior. K, The teeth of both jaws. L, The
feven cervical vertebrae. M, Their fpinous proceffes.
N, Their tranfverfe and oblique proceffes, O, The
laft of the twelve dorfal vertebrae. P, The fifth or laft
lumbar vertebra, Q^, The tranfverfe proceffes. R, The
oblique proceffes. S, The fpinous proceffes. T, The
upper part of the os facrum. U, The pofterior holes
which tranfmit fmall blood veffels and nerves. V, The
under part of the os facrum which is covered by a
membrane. W, The os coccygis. 1 X, The os ilium.
Y, Its fpine or creft. Z, The ifchiatic niche, a, The
os ifchium. b, Its tuberofity. c, Its fpine. d, The
os pubis, e, The foramen hydroideum. f, The fe-
venth or laft true rib. g, The twelfth or laft falfe rib.
h, The clavicle, i, The fcapula, k, Its fpine. 1, Its
acromion, m, Its cervix, n, Its fuperior cofta. o, Its
pofterior cofta. p, Its inferior cofta. q, The os hu¬
meri. r, The radius, s, The ulna, t, Its olecranon,
u, All the bones of the carpus, excepting the os pifi-
forme, which is feen in Plate XXI. fig. 1. v, The
five bones of the metacarpus, w, The two bones of
the thumb, x, The three bones of each of the fingers,
y, The two fefamoid bones at the root of the left
thumb, z, The os femoris, 1, The trochanter ma¬
jor. 2, The trochanter minor. 3, The linea afpera.
4, The internal condyle. 3, The external condyle.
6 6, The femilunar cartilages. 7, The tibia. 8, The
malleolus internus. 9, The fibula. 10, The malleo¬
lus externus. ix, The tarfus. 12, The metatarfus.
13, The toes.
Fig. 2. The External Surface of the Left Os Parie¬
tale.
A, The convex fmooth furface. B, The parietal
hole. C, An arch made by the beginning of the tem¬
poral mufcle.
Fig. 3. The Internal Surface of the fame Bone.
A, Its fuperior edge, which, joined with the other,
forms the fagittal future. B, the anterior edge, which
aftifts in the formation of the coronal future. C, The
inferior edge for the fquamous future. D, The pofte¬
rior edge for the lambdoid future. E, A depreflion
made by the lateral finus. FF, The prints of the arte¬
ries of the dura mater.
Fig. 4. The External Surface of the Left Os Tem-
porum.
A, The fquamous part. B, The maftoid procefs.
C, The zygomatic procefs. D, The ftyloid procefs.
E, The petrofal procefs. F, The meatus auditorius
^ c 2, externus.
204 ANA"
Ofteology.^ externus. G, "Hie gfenoid cavity for the articulation
* of the lower jaw. H, The foramen ftylo-maltoideum
for the portio dura of the feventh pair of nerves.
I, Palfages for blood velfels into the bone. K, The
foramen maftoideum through which a vein goes to the
lateral finus. »
Fig. 5. The Internal Surface of the Left Os Tem-
FORUM.
A, The fquamous part; the upper edge of which
ailifts in forming the fquamous future. B, The ma-
ifoid procefs. C, The ftyloid procefs. I), The pars
petrofa. E, The entry of the feventh pair, or audi¬
tory nerve. F, The folia, which lodges a part of the
lateral linus. G, The foramen maftoideum.
Fig. 6. The External Surface of the Osse ous Circle-,
which terminates the meatus auditorius externus.
A, The anterior part. B, A fmall part of the
groove in which the membrana tympani is fixed.
N. B. This, with the fubfequent bones of the ear,
are here delineated as large as the life.
Fig. 7. The Internal Surface of the Osseous Circle.
A, The anterior part. B, The groove in which
the membrana tympani is fixed.
Fig. 8. The Situation and Connexion of the Small
Bones of the Ear.
A, The malleus. B, The incus. C, The os or-
biculare. D, The ftapes.
Fig. 9. The Malleus, with its Head, Handle, and
Small Proceffes.
Fig. 10. The Incus, with its Body, Superior and In¬
ferior Branches.
Fig. 11. The Os Orbiculare.
Fig. 12. The Stapes, with its Head, Bafe, and two
Crura.
Fig. 13. An Internal ViewT of the Labyrinth of
the Ear.
A, The hollow part of the cochlea, which forms a
fliare of the meatus auditoidus internus. B, The vefti-
bulum. CCC, The femicircular canals.
Fig. 14. An External View of the Labyrinth.
A, The femicircular canals. B, The feneftra ovalis
which leads into the veflibulum. C, The feneftra ro¬
tunda which opens into the cochlea. D, The different
turns of the cochlea.
Fig. 15. The Internal Surface of the Os Sphenoides.
AA, The temporal procefles. BB, The ptery¬
goid procefles. CC, The fpinous proceffes. DD, The
anterior clinoid proceffes. E, The pofterior clinoid
procefs. F, The anterior procefs" which joins the
ethmoid bone, G, the fella turcica for lodging
the glandula pituitaria. H, The foramen opticum.
K, The foramen lacerum. L, The foramen rotun-
dum. M, The foramen ovale. N, The foramen fpi-
nale.
Fig. 16. The External Surface of the Os Sphenoides.
AA, The temporal proceffes. BB, The pterygoid
proceffes. CC, The fpinous proceffes. H, The pro-
ceffus azygos. E, The fmall triangular proceffes w’hich
grow from the body of the bone. FF, The orifices
1 O M Y.
cd the fphenoidal finufes. G, The foramen laceium.
The foramen rotundum. I, The foramen ovale.
K, The foramen pterygoideum.
Fig. 17. 1 he External View of the Os Ethmoides.
A, i ne naf il lamella. BB, The grooves between
the nafal lamella and offa fpongiofa fuperiora. CC, The
oifa Ipongioia luperiora. HI), The fphenoidal cor¬
nua. See Fig. 16. E.
Fig. 18. The Internal View of the Os Ethmoides.
A, The crifta galli. B, The cribriform plate, with
the different paflages of the olfaftory nerves. CC,
Some of the ethmoidal cells. H, The right os planning
EE, The fphenoidal cornua.
Fig. 19. The Right Sphenoidal Cornu.
Fig. 20. The Left Spheno idal Cornu.
Fig. 21. The External Surface of the Os Occipitis.
A, The upper part of the b'one. B, The fuperior
arched ridge. C, The inferior arched ridge. Under
the arches are prints made by mufcles of the neck.
HD, The two condyloid proceffes which articulate
the head with the fpine. E, The cuneiform procefs,
F, The foramen magnum through which the fpinal
marrow paffes. GG, The pofterior condyloid fora¬
mina which tranfmit veins into the lateral finufes.
HH, The foramina lingualia for the paffage of the
ninth pair of nerves.
Fi G. 22. The Internal Surface of the Os Occipitis.
AA, The two fides which aflift to form the lamb-
doid future. B, The point of the cuneiform procefs
wrhere it joins the fphenoid bone. CC, The prints
made by the pofterior lobes of the brain. DH, Prints
made by the lobes of the cerebellum. E, The cruci¬
form ridge for the attachment of the proceffes of the
dura mater. F, The courfe of the fuperior longitudi¬
nal finufes. GG, The courfe of the twx> lateral fi¬
nufes. N, The foramen magnum. II, The pofterior
condyloid foramina.
Plate XXIII.
Fig. 1. A Side View of the Skeleton.
AA, The offa parietalia. B, The fagittal future,
C, The os occipitis. DH, The lambdoid future.
E, The fquamous part of the temporal bone. F, The
maftoid procefs. G, The meatus auditorius externus.
H, The os frontis. I, The os malae. K, The os max-
illare fuperius. L, The maxilla inferior. M, The
teeth of both jaws. N, The feventh or laft cervical
vertebra. O, The fpinous proceffes. P, Their tranf-
verfe and oblique proceffes. Cb The twelfth or laft
dorfal vertebra. R, The fifth or laft lumbar vertebra,
S, The fpinous procefles. T, Openings between the
vertebrae for the paffage of the fpinal nerves. U, The
under end of the os facrum. V, The os coccygis.
W, The os ilium. X, The anterior fpinous procefles.
Y, The pofterior fpinous proceffes. Z, The ifchiatic
niche, a, The right os ilium, b, The offa pubis,
c, The tuberofity of the left os ifchium. d, The fca-
pula. e, Its fpine. f, The os humeri, g, The ra¬
dius. h, The ulna, i, The carpus, k, The meta¬
carpal bone of the thumb. 1, The metacarpal bones
of the fingers. m, The twTo bones of the thumb,
n, The three bones of each of the fingers, o, The os
femoris.
Part 7,
Ofteology..
Chap. I. A N A r
Ofteolopry. femorls. p, It'- bead, q, The trochanter major, r, The
v externai condyle, s, The rotula. t. The tibia, u, The
fibula, v, The malleolus externus. w, The artraga-
lus. x, The os calcis. y, The os naviculare, z, The
three ofla cuneiformia. i, The os cuboides. 2, The
five metatarfal bones. 3, The two bones of the great
toe. 4, The three bones of each of the fmall toes.
Fig. 2. A View of the Internal Surface of the Bafe of
the Skull.
AAA, The two tables of the fkull with the diplbe.
BB, The orbitar plates of the frontal bone. C, The
orilla galli, with cribriform plate of the ethmoidal
bone on each fide of it, through which the firft pair
of nerves pafs. D, The cuneiform procefs of the oc¬
cipital bone. E, The cruciform ridge. F, The fo¬
ramen magnum for the paffage of the fpinal marrow.
G, The zygoma, made by the joining of the zygo¬
matic procefles of the os temporum and os mala;.
H, The pars fquamofa of the os temporum. I, The
pars mammillaris. K, The pars petrofa. L, The
temporal procefs of the fphenoid bone. MM, The
anterior clinoid procefles. N, The pofterior clinoid
procefs. O, The fella turcica. P, The foramen op-
ticum, for the paflage of the optic nerve and ocular
artery of the left fide. The foramen lacerum, for
the third, fourth, fixth, and firft of the fifth pair of
nerves and ocular vein. R, The foramen rotundum
for the fecond of the fifth pair. S, The foramen
ovale, for the third of the fifth pair. T, The foramen
fpinale, for the principal artery of the dura mater.
U, The entry of the auditory nerve. V, The paffage
for the lateral finus. W, The paffage of the eighth
pair of nerves. X, The paflage of the ninth pair.
Fig. 3. A View of the External Surface of the Bafe
of the Skull.
A, The two dentes incifores of the right fide. B,
The dens caninus. C, The two fmall molares. D, The
three, large molares, E. The foramen incifivum, which
gives paflage to fmall blood veffels and nerves. F, The
palate plates of the offa maxillaria and palati, joined
by the longitudinal and tranfverfe palate futures. G,
The foramen palatinum pofterius, for the palatine vef¬
fels and nerves. H, The os maxillare fuperius of the right
fide. I, The os malte. K, The zygomatic procefs of the
temporal bone. L, The pofterior extremity of the offa
fpongiofa. M, The pofterior extremity of the vomer,
which forms the back part of the feptum nafi. N, The
pterygoid procefs of the right fide of the fphenoid bone.
OO, The foramina ovalia. PP, The foramina fpi-
nalia. QCT^The paffages of the internal carotid ar¬
teries. R, A hole between the point of each pars pe¬
trofa and cuneiform procefs of the occipital bone, which
is filled up with a ligamentous fubftance in the recent
fubjeft. S, The paffage of the left lateral finus. T,
The pofterior condyloid foramen of the left fide. U,
The foramen maftoideum. V, The foramen magnum.
W, The inferior orbitar fiflure. X, The glenoid ca¬
vity, for the articulation of the lower jaw. Y, The
fquamous part of the temporal bone. Z, The maftoid
procefs, at the inner fide of which is a fofl'a for the
pofterior belly of the digaftric mufcle. a, The ftyloid
procefs. b, The meatus auditor!us externus. c, The
1 O M Y. I9i
left condyle of the occipital bone, d, The perpendi- Ofteology.
cular occipital fpine. ee, The inferior horizontal ridge ” y
of the occipital bone. ff, The fupenor horizontal
ridge, which is oppofite to the crucial ridge where the
longitudinal finus divides to form the lateral finufes.
ggg> I he lambdoid future. h, The left fquamous
future, i, The parietal bone.
Fig. 4. The anterior furface of the Ossa Nasi.
A, The upper part which joins the os frontis. B,
The under end, which joins the cartilage of the nofe
C, Their inner edge where they join each other.
Fig. 5. The pofterior furface of the Ossa Nasi.
AA, Their cavity, which forms part of the arch of
the nofe. BB, Their ridge or fpine, which projects
a little to be fixed to the fore part of the feptum na~
rium.
Fig. 6. The external furface of the Os Maxillare
Suferius of the left fide.
A, the nafal procefs. B, The orbitar plate. C,
The unequal furface which joins the os mala;. D, The
external orbitar hole. E, The opening into the noftril.
F j Fhe palate plate. G, ft he maxillary tuberofity,
H, Part of the os palati. I, The two dentes incifores.
K, The dens caninus. L, The twro fmall dentes mo¬
lares. M, The three large dentes molares.
Fig. 7. The internal furface of the Os Maxillare
Superius and Os Palati.
A, The nafal procefs. BB, Eminences for the con¬
nexion of the os fpongiofum inferius. D, The under
end of the lachrymal groove. E, The antrum maxillare.
F, The nafal fpine, between which and B is the cavity
of the noftril. G, The palate plate. H, The 'orbitar
part of the os palati. I, The nafal plate. K, The
future which unites the maxillary and palate bones.
L, The pterygoid procefs of the palate bone.
Frc. 8. The external furfaee of the right Os Unguis.
A, The orbitar part. B, The lachrymal part. C,
The ridge between them.
Fig. 9. The internal furface of the right Os Unguis.
This fide of the bone has a furrowr oppofite to the
external ridge *, all behind this is irregular, where it
covers part of the ethmoidal cells.-
Fig. 10. The external furface of the left Os Malje.
A, The fuperio|^orbitar procefs. B, The inferior
orbitar procefs. C, The malar procefs. D, The zy¬
gomatic procefs. E, The orbitar plate. F, A paf¬
fage for fmall veffels into or out of the orbit.
Fig. 11. The internal furface of the left Os Mala:.
A, The fuperior orbitar procefs. B, The inferior
orbitar procefs. C, The malar procefs. D, The zy¬
gomatic procefs. E, The internal orbitar plate or
procefs.
Fig. 12. The external furface of the right Os Spon¬
giosum Inferius.
A, The anterior part. B, The hook-like procefs
for covering part of the antrum maxillare. C, A
fmall procefs which covers part of the under end of
the lachrymal groove. D, The inferior edge turned a
little outwards.
Fig,
2c6 A N A 1
Ofteoiogy, Fig. 13. The internal fiiriace of the Os Spongiosum
Inferius.
A, The anterior extremity. B, The upper edge
which joins the fuperior maxillary and palate bones.
lie. 14. The pofterior and external furface of the
tight Os Palati.
A, The orbitar procel’s. B, The nafal lamella. C,
1 he pterygoid procefs. 1), The palate procefs.
hiG. 15. The anterior and external furface of the right
Os Palati.
A, The orbitar procefs. B, An opening through
which the lateral nafal veflels and nerves pals; C, The
nafal lamella. D, The pterygoid procefs. E, The
pofterior edge of the palate procels for the connexion
ot the velum palati. F, The inner edge by w hich the
two olfa palati are connedled*
Fig. 16. The right fide of the Vomer.
A, The upper edge which joins the nafal lamella of
the ethmoid bone and'the middle cartilage of the nofe.
B, The inferior edge w'hich is connefted to the fupe¬
rior maxillary and palate bones. C, The fuperior and
pofterior part which receives the proceflus azygos of
the fphenoid bone.
Fig. 17. The Maxilla Inferior.
A, The chin. B, The bafe and left fide. C, The
angle. D, The coronoid procefs. E, The condyloid
|5rocefs. F, The beginning of the inferior maxillary
canal of the right fide, for the entry of the nerve and
blood veffels. G, 'The termination of the left canal.
H, The two dentes incifores. I, The dens caninus.
K, The two fmall molares. L, The three large mo- t
lares.
Fig. 18. The different claffes of the Teeth.
x, 2* A fore and back view of the two anterior
dentes incifores of the lower jaw. 3, 4, Similar teeth
of the upper jaw. 5, 6, A fore and back view of the
dentes canini. 7, 8, The anterior dentes molares.
t), 10, 11, The poftefior dentes molares. 12, 13, 14,
15, 16, Unufual appearances in the fliape and fize of
the teeth.
Fig. 19. The external furface of the Os Hyoides.
A, The body. BB, The cornua. CC, The ap-
•pendices.
Plate XXIV.
Fig. 1. A Pofterior View of the Sternum and Cla¬
vicles, with the ligament connecting the clavicles
to each other.
a, The pofterior furface of the fternum. bb, The
broken ends of the clavicles, cccc, The tubercles near
the extremity of each clavicle, d, The ligament com
vieCting the clavicles.
Fig. 2. A Fore view of the Left Scapula, and of
a half of the Clavicle, with their Ligaments,
a, The fpine of the fcapula. b, The acromion,
c, The inferior angle, d, Inferior cofta. e, Cervix,
f, Glenoid cavity, covered with cartilage for the arm
bone, gg, The capfular ligament of the joint, h, Co¬
racoid procefs. i, The broken end of the clavicle,
k, Its extremity joined to the acromion. 1, A liga-
1
O M Y. Parti,
ment coming out fingle from the acromion to the co- Ofteoiogy.
racoid procefs. m, A ligament coming out fingle from i '" y
the acromion, and dividing into two, which are fixed
to the coracoid procefs.
Fig. 3. The Joint of the Elbow of the Left Arm,
with the Ligaments.
a, The os humeri, b, Its internal condyle, cc, The
two prominent parts of its trochlea appearing through
the capfular ligament, d, The ulna. " e, The radius,
f, The part of the ligament including the head of the
radius.
Fig. 4. The Bones of the Right Hand, with the
Palm in view.
a, The radius, b, The ulna, c, The fcaphoid bone
of the carpus, d, The os lunare. e, The os cunei-
forme. f, The os pififorme. g, Trapezium, h, Tra-
pezeides. i, CapitatUm. k, Unciforme. 1, The four
metacarpal bones of the fingers, m, The firft phalanx*
n, The fecond phalanx, o, The third phalanx, p, The
metacarpal bone of the thumb. q, The firft joint,
r, The fecond joint.
Fig. 5. The Pofterior View of the Bones of the LEFf
Hand.
The explication of Fig. 4. ferves for this figure ; the
fame letters pointing out the fame bones, though in a
different view.
Fig. 6. The Upper Extremity of the Tibia, with the
Semilunar Cartilages of the Joint of the Knee, and
fome Ligaments.
a, The ftrong ligament which conne&s the rotula to
the tubercle of the tibia, bb, The parts of the extre¬
mity of the tibia, covered with cartilage, which appear
within the femilunar cartilages, cc, The femilunar
cartilages, d, The two parts of what is called the
crofs ligament.
Fig. 7. The Pofterior View of the Joint of the Right
Knee.
a, The os femoris cut. b. Its internal condyle.
C, Its external condyle, d, The back part of the tibia,
e, The fuperior extremity of the fibula, f, The edge
of the internal femiluhar tartilage. g. An oblique li¬
gament. h, A larger perpendicular ligament, i, A
ligament Connfe&ing the femur and fibula.
Fig. 8. The Anterior View of the Joint of the Right
Knee,
b, The internal condyle, c, Its external condyle,
d, The part of the os femoris, on which the patella
moves, e, A perpendicular ligament, ff, The two
parts of the crucial ligaments, gg, The edges of the
two moveable femilunar cartilages. h, The tibia,
i, The ftrong ligament of the patella, k, The back part
of it where the fat has been differed away. 1, The
external depreftion. m, The internal one. n, The cut
tibia
hio. 9. A View of the Inferior Part of the Bones of
the Right Foot.
a, I he great knob of the os calcis. b, A promi¬
nence on its outfide. c, The hollow for the tendons,
nerves, and blood veffels. d, The anterior extretnity
of the os calcis. e, Part of the aftragalus. f, Its
head covered witji cartilage, g, The internal promi¬
nence
Chap. IT. ANATOMY. 207
(Meology. nence of the os naviculare. h, The os cuboides.
'  1 The os cuneiforme internum j k,-^—Medium j 1,—
Externum, m, The metatarfal bones of the four lef-
fer toes, n, The firif—o, 1'he fecond—p, The third
phalanx of the four Idler toes. q, The metatarfal
bones of the great toe. |T, Its firll—s, Its fecond
joint.
Fig. 10. The Inferior furface of the two large Sesa¬
moid Bones at the firft joint of the Great Toe.
Fig. II. The Superior View of the Bones of the
Right Foot.
a, b, as in Fig. 9. c, The fuperior head of the attra-
galus. d, &c. as in fig. 9.
Fig. i 2. The View of the Sole of the Foot, with its
Ligaments.
a, The great knob of the os calcis. b, The hollow
for the tendons, nerves, and blood veffels. c, The'
fheaths of the fiexores pollicis and digitorum longi
opened, d, The ftrong cartilaginous ligament fupport-
ing the head of the aftragalus. e, h. Two ligaments
which unite into one, and are fixed to the metatarfal
bone of the great toe. f, A ligament from the knob
of the os calcis to the metatarfal bone of the little toe.
g, A ftrong triangular ligament, which fupports the
bones of the tarfus. i, The ligaments of the joints of Ofteology.
the five metatarfal bones. ’ l#
Fjg. 13, a, The head of the thigh bone of a child,
b, The ligamentum rotundum connefting it to the
acetabulum, c, The capfular ligament of the joint
with its arteries injeded. d, The numerous vefiels
of the mucilaginous gland injeded.
Fig. 14. The Back View of the Cartilages of the
Larynx, with the Os Hyoides.
a, The pofterior part of the bafe of the os hyoides.
bb, Its cornua, c, The appendix of the right fide,
d, A ligament fent out from the appendix of the left
fide, to the ftyloid procefs of the temporal bone.
C, The union of the bafe with the left cornua, ff, The
pofterior fides of (g) the thyroid cartilage, hh, Its
fuperior cornua, ii, Its inferior cornua, k, the cricoid
cartilage. 11, The arytenoid cartilages, m, The entry
into the lungs, named glottis, n, The epiglottis.
00, The fuperior cartilages of the trachea, p, Its li¬
gamentous back part.
Fig. 15. The Superior Concave furface of the Sesa¬
moid Bones at the firft joint of the Great Toe,
with their Ligaments.
a. Three fefamoid bones, b, The ligamentous fub*
fiance in which they are formed.
CHAP. II. OF THE SOFT PARTS IN GENERAL.
OF THE COMMON INTEGUMENTS, WITH THEIR APPENDAGES
AND OF THE MUSCLES.
ANATOMICAL waiters ufually proceed to a de-
fcription of the mufcles after having finiftied the ofteo-
logy } but wTe (hall deviate a little from the common
method, with a view to defcribe every thing clearly
and diftindly, and to avoid a tautology which would
otherwife be unavoidable. All the parts of the body
are fo intimately conneded wuth each other, that it
feems impofiible to convey a juft idea of any one of
them, wdtbout being in fome meafure obliged to fay
fomething of others 5 and on this account we wiflr to
mention in this place the names and fituation of the
principal vifcera of the body, that when mention is
hereafter made of any one of them in the courfe of the
work, the reader may at leaft know where they are
placed.
After this little digreftion, the common integuments,
and after them the mufcles, -will be deferibed ; wTe then
propofe to enter into an examination of the feveral viL
cera, and their different fundions. In deferibing the
brain, occafion will be taken to fpeak of the nerves and
animal fpirits. The circulation of the blood will fol¬
low the anatomy of the heart, and the fecretions and
other matters will be introduced in their proper places.
The body is divided into three great cavities. Of
thefe the uppermoft is formed by the bones of the cra¬
nium, and enclofes the brain and cerebellum.
The fecond is compofed of the vertebne of the back,
the fternum, and true ribs, with the additional aflift-
ance of mufcles, membranes, and common integuments,
and is called the thorax.—It contains the heart and
lungs.
The third, and inferior cavity, is the abdomen. It
is feparated from the thorax by means of the diaphragm,
and is formed by the lumbar vertebrae, the os facrum,
the offa innominata, and the falfe ribs, to which we may
add the peritonaeum, and a variety of mufcles. This
cavity enclofes the ftomach, inteftines, omentum or
cawl, liver, pancreas, fpleen, kidneys, urinary bladder,
and parts of generation.
Under the divifion of common integuments are ufu¬
ally included the epidermis, or fcarf-fkin, the reticulum
mucofum of Malpighi, the cutis, or true ikin, and the
membrana adipofa. The hair and nails, as well as the
lebaceous glands, may be confidered as appendages to
the fldn.
Sect. I. Of the Skin.
§ 1. Of the Scarf fin.
The epidermis, cuticula, or fcarf-lkin, is a fine, tranf- Cuf'cuia
parent, and inlenfible pellicle, deftitute of nerves and
blood veffels, which invefts the body, and everyw'here
covers the true Ikin. This fcarf-lkin, which feems to be
very fimple, appears, when examined with a microfcope,
to be compofed of leveral laminaj or feales which are in-
creafed by preffure, as we may obferve in the hands and
feet, where it is frequently much thickened, and be¬
comes perfe&ly callous. It feems to adhere to the cu¬
tis by a number of very minute filaments, but may ea-
fily be feparated from it by heat, or by maceration in
water. Some anatomical writers have fuppofed that it
is
so8 A N A T
Inttp-u 1:’ ^ormct^ hy a moifturc exhaled from the whole furface
meats,°3cc. t^e body, which gradually hardens when it comes
mto contact with the air. They were perhaps induced
to adopt this opinion, by obferving the fpecdy regene¬
ration of this part of the body when it has been by
any means deftroyed, it appearing to be renewed on all
parts of the furface at the fame time j whereas other
parts which have been injured, are found to dire# their
growth from their circumference only towards their
centre. But a demonftrative proof that the epidermis
is not a fluid hardened by means-of the external air, is,
that the foetus in utero is found to have this covering,
Leeuwenhoek fuppofed its formation to be owing to
uie expanhon of the extremities of the excretory vef-
lels, which are found everywhere upon the furface of
tne true ikin, Ruyfch attributed its origin to the ner¬
vous papillce of the fkin; and Heifter thinks it pro¬
bable, that it may be owing both to the papilke and
the excretory velfels. The celebrated Morgagni, on
Aiverfar. the other hand, contends *, that it is nothing more
Anim*d~ *han the furface.of the cutis, hardened and rendered
.iwr. a, infenfible by the liquor amnii in utero, and by the pref-
fure of the air. This is a fubje#, however, on which
we can advance nothing with certainty,
J he cuticle is pierced with an infinite number of
pores, or little holes, which afford a paffage to the
hairs, fweat, and infenfible perfpiration, and likewfife
to warm water, mercury, and whatever elfe is capable
of being taken in by the abforbents of the fkin. The
lines which we obferve on the epidermis belong to the
true fkin. The cuticle adjufts itfelf to them, hut does
not form -them.
75
Rete mu-
cofum.
§ 2. Of the Rete Mucofmru
Between the epidermis and cutis we meet with an
appearance to which Malpighi, who firft defcribed it,
gave the name of rete mucafum, fuppofing it to be of a
membranous ftruclure, and pierced with an infinite
number of pores •, but the fa# is, that it feems to be
nothing more than a mucous fubftance which may be
diffolved by macerating it in water, while the cuticle
and cutis preferve their texture.
The colour of the body is found to depend on the
colour of this rete mucofum t for in negroes it is ob-
ferved to be perfe#ly black, whilft the true fkin is of
the ordinary colour.
The blifters which raife the fkin when burnt or fcald-
ed, have been fuppofed by fome to be owing to a rare-
fa#ion of this mucus; but they are more probably oc-
cafioned by an increafed a#ion of the veffels of the
part, together with an afflux and effufion of the thin¬
ner parts of the blood.
, § 3. Of the Cutis, or True Skin,
Cutis. 1 he cutis is compofed of fibres clofely compa#ed
together, as we may obferve in leather which is the
prepared fkin of animals. Thefe fibres form a thick
network, which everywhere admits the filaments of
nerves, and an infinite number of blood veffels and
lymphatics.
The cutis, when the epidermis is taken off, is found
to have, throughout its whole iurface, innumerable pa¬
pillae, which appear like very minute granulations, and
fe,em to be calculated to receive the imprefflons of the
o M Y,
Fart
T
4.,
touch, being the moff eafily observed where the fenfe Of the
oi feeling is the molt delicate, as in the palms of the bitegu-
hands and on the fingers, meats, &c.
hele papillae are fuppofed by many anatomical
writers to be continuations of the pulpy fubftance of
nerves, whefe coats have terminated in the cellular tex¬
ture of the fkin, The great fenfibility of thefe papilla
evidently proves them to be exceedingly nervous 5 but
furely the nervous fibvillae of the fkin are of themfelves
fcarcely equal to the formation of thefe papillag and it
feems to be more probable that they are formed like
the reft of the cutis.
Thefe papillae being defcribed, the ufes of the epi¬
dermis and the reticulum mucofum will be more eafi¬
ly underftood ; tbe latter ferving to keep them eon-
ftantly moift, while the former prote#s them from the
external air, and modifies their too great fenfibility.
$ 4, Of (he GtANDS of the Skin,
fn different parts of the body we meet, within the Tiie
fubftance of the tkin, with certain glands or follicles,CjOU!
which difeharge a fat and oily humour that ferves tog lU1'rt3''
lubricate and foften the fkin. When the fluid they
fecrete has acquired a certain degree of thicknefs, it
approaches to the colour and confiftence of fuet $ and
from this appearance they have derived their name of
febflcems glands. They are found in the greateft num¬
ber in the nofe, ear, nipple, axilla, groin, ferotum, va¬
gina, and prepuce.
Befides thefe febaceous glands, we read, in anato.
mical books, of others that are deferibed as fmall fphe*
deal bodies placed in all parts of the Ikin, in much
greater abundance than thofe juft now mentioned, and
named miliaryy from their fuppofed refemblance to mil¬
let feed. Steno, who nrfLdefcribed thefe glands, and
Malpighi, Ruyfch, Verheyen, Winfiow, and others,
who have adopted his opinions on this fubje#, fpeak
of them as having excretory du#s, that open on the
fiirfaee of the cuticle, and diftil the fweat and matter
of infenfible perfpiration : and yet, notwithftanding the
pofitive manner in which thefe pretended glands have
been fpoken of, we are now fufficiently convinced that
their exiftence is altogether imaginary,
§ $. Of the Insensibue Rcrfbiratkn and Sweat. a
The matter of infenfible perfpiration, or in otherMenflble
words, the fubtle vapour that is continually exhaling fter^Pira*
from the iluface of the body, is not fecreted by anyUon’ "
particular glands, but feems to be derived wholly from
the extremities of the minute arteries that are every¬
where difperfed through the {kin, Thefe exhaling vef¬
fels are eafily demonftrated in the dead fubje#, by
throwing water into the arteries for then fmall drops
exude from all parts of the tkin, and raife up the cu¬
ticle, the pores of which are clofed by death | and in
the living fubje#, a looking-glafs placed agaiuft the
fkin, is foon obfeured by the vapour, Bidloo fancied
he had discovered du#s leading from the cutis to the
cuticle, and tranfmitting this fluid $ but in this he was
miftaken.
When the perfpiration is by any means increafed,
and feveral drops that were infenfible when feparatc,
arc united together and condenfcd by the external air,
they form upon the Ikin frnall but vifible drops called
fweat
Chap. IT.
ANA
79
Whether
thefe are
one
cretions.
So
Their ufes
Of the /went (k). This particularly happens after much ex-
tntegu- ercife, or whatever occafions an increafed determina-
ren. c', tion of ^fluids to the furface of the body ; a greater
quantity of perfpirable matter being in fuch cafes car¬
ried through the pafiages that are deftined to convey
it off.
e are It has been difputed, indeed, whether the infenfible
unc and the P^fpiration and fweat are to be confidered as one and
fame or dif- the lame excretion, differing only in degree ; or whe-
fercnt ex- ther they are two diftindt excretions derived from dif¬
ferent fources. In fupport of the latter opinion, it has
been alleged, that the infenfible perfpiration is agree¬
able to nature, and effential to health, whereas fweat
may be confidered as a fpecies of difeafe. But this ar¬
gument proves nothing j and it feems probable, that
both the infenfible vapour and the fweat are exhaled in
a flmilar manner, though they differ in quantity, and
probably in their qualities ; the former being more lim¬
pid, and feemingly lefs impregnated with falls than
the latter ; at any rate we may confider the ikin as an
emun&ory through which the redundant water, and
fometimes the other more falinc parts of the blood; are
carried off. But the infenfible perfpiration is not con¬
fined to the fkin only—a great part of what we are
conftantly throwing off in this way is from the lungs.
rI’he quantity of fluid exhaled from the human body by
this infenfible perfpiration is very confiderable. Sanc-
torius (o) an Italian phyfician, who indefatigably paf-
fed a great many years in a feries of ftatical- experi¬
ments, demonftrated long ago what has been confirm¬
ed by later cbfervations, that the quantity of vapour
exhaled from the fkin and from the furface of the lungs,
amounts nearly to j-Sths of the aliment we take in.
So that if in the warm climate of Italy a perfon eats
and drinks the quantity of eight pounds in the courfe
of a day, five pounds of it will pafs off by infenfible
perfpiration, w'hile three pounds only will be evacuated
by itool, urine, faliva, &c. But in countries where
the degree of cold is greater than in Italy, the quan¬
tity of perfpired matter is lefs : in fome of the more
northern climates, it being found not to equal the dif-
charge by urine. It is likewife obferved to vary ac¬
cording to the feafon of the year, and according to the
conftitution, age, fex, difeafes, diet, exercife, paflions,
&c. of different people.
Vol. II. Part I.
T O M Y. 209
From what has been faid on this fubjecl, it will be Of the
eafily conceived, that this evacuation cannot be either Inte8u-
much increafed or diminilhed in quantity without af- *Tient^ &c<,
fe&ing the health. y—■-
The perfpirable matter and the fweat are in fome
meafure analogous to the urine, as appears from their
tafte and faline nature (p ). And it is worthy of ob-
fervation, that when either of thefe fecretions is in¬
creafed in quantity, the other is diminilhed ; fo that
they who perfpire the leaft, ufually pafs the greateft
quantity of urine, and vice verja,
§ 6. Of the Nails. ^
The nails are of a compadf texture, hard and tranf-The naiLv
parent like horn. Their origin is ftill a fubject of dif-
pute. Malpighi fuppofed them to be formed by a con¬
tinuation of the papillce of the Ikin : Ludwig, on the
other hand, maintained, that they were compofed of
the extremities of blood veffels and nerves. Both thefe
opinions are now defervedly rejeffed.
They feem to poffefs many properties in common
wfith the cuticle y like it they are neither vafcular nor
fenfible, and when the cuticle is feparated from the
true Ikin by maceration or other means, the nails come
away with it.
They appear to be compofed of different layers, of
unequal fize, applied one over the other. Each layer
feems to be formed of longitudinal fibres.
In each nail we may difdnguifh three parts, viz. the
root,, the body or middle, and the extremity. The
root is a foft, thin, and w'hite fubftance, terminating in
the form of a crefcent} the epidermis adheres very
ftrongly to this part; the body of the nail is broader,
redder, and thicker, and the extremity is of ftill great¬
er firmnefs.
I he nails increafe from their roots, and not from
their upper extremity.
Their principal ufe is to cover and defend the ends
of the fingers and toes from external injury.
§>]. Of the Hair.
a The hairs, which from their being generally known The ^
do not feem to require any definition, arife from di-
ftimft capfules or bulbs feated in the cellular membrane
under the Ikin (q_). Some of thefe bulbs enclofe fe-
D d veral
^ (n) Leeuwenhoek affcrts, that one drop of fweat is formed by the conflux of ry drops of perfpirable va-
(o) The infenfible .perfpiration is fometimes diftinguifhed by the name of this phyfician, who was born in
t e territories of Venice, and was afterwards a profeffor in the univerfity of Padua. After eftiroatin®-the p-li-
ment he took in, and the fenfible fecretions and difcharges, he was enabled to afcertain with great accuracy the"
weight or quantity.of mfenfible perfpiration by means of a ftatical chair which he contrived for this nurooif-
*T!d ,hlS rX?erumenr’ winch were.condufted with great induftry and patience, he was led to determine
\ ,k/nds jol’d or hflu)d aliment mcreafed or diminilhed it. From thefe experiments he formed a fyftenf
“ ^M^hhfhedat A emce m j6x4, m the form of aphorifms, under the title of Ars de Medicim Static a. ’
’A//- py[™te Cry^a S mVe been r^jicrved to ffoot upon the clothes of men who work in glafs-houfes. Haller.
(O Malpighi, and.after him the celebrated Ruyfch, fuppofed the hairs to be continuations of nerves beW
of opinion that they originated from the papillae of the Ikin, which they confidered as nervous ; and as a cofrl
berating proof of what they advanced, they argued the pain we feel in plucking them out; but later anatomifts
ieem to have re]e£bd this doarine, and confider the hairs as particular bodies, not arifing from the papillae f for
Z ttr8 e the papill9e ab0Und moft there are ^ h^), but from bulbs or capfules, which are peculi""
2 10
Of the veral hairs. They may be obferved at the roots of the
lr,-teg«- hairs which form the beard or whifkers of a cat.
ment.s, - c.^ ]lajrs> }jjie t}le nails? grow only from below by
a regular propulfion from their root, where they re¬
ceive their nourxfhment. Their bulbs, when viewed
with a microfcope, are found to be of various drapes.
In the head and fcrotum they are roundilh ; in the
eyebrows they are oval ; in the other parts of the bo¬
dy they are nearly of a cylindrical lhape. Each bulb
feems to conlift of two membranes, between which
there is a certain quantity of moifture. Within the
bulb the hair feparates into three or four fibrillar; the
bodies of the hairs, which are the parts without the
fkin, vary in foftnefs and colour according to the dif¬
ference of climate, age, or temperament of body (r).
Their general ufe in the body does not feem to be
abfolutely determined ; but hairs in particular parts, as
on the eyebrows and eyelids, are deftined for particu¬
lar ufes, which will be mentioned when thofe parts
are defcribed.
§ 8. Of the Cellular Membrane andY^T.
83
Cellular The cellular membrane is found to inveft the moffc
membrane, minute fibres we are able to trace ; fo that, by modern
phyfiologifts, it is very properly confidered as the
univerfal connefling medium of every part of the
body.
It is compofed of an infinite number of minute cells
united together, and communicating with each other.
The two difeafes peculiar to this membrane are proofs
of fuch a communication ; for in the emphyfetna all its
cells are filled wuth air, and in the anafarca they are
univerfally diftended with water. Befides thefe proofs
of communication from dileafe, a familiar inflance of it
may be obferved amonglt butchers, who ufually punc¬
ture this membrane, and by inflating it with air add
to the good appearance of their meat.
84 The cells of this membrane ferve as refervoirs to the
Fat. oily part of the blood or fbr, which feems to be depo-
fited in them, either by tranfudation through the coats
of the arteries that ramify through thefe cells, or by
particular vefi'els,* continued from the ends of arteries.
Thefe cells are not of a glandular ftruclure, as Malpig¬
hi and others after him have fuppofed. The fat is ab-
forbed and carried back into the fyftem by the lympha¬
tics. The great wafte of it in many difeafes, particu-
lary in the confumption, is a fufficient proof that fuch
an abforption takes place.
The fulnefs and fize of the body are in a great mea-
fure proportioned to the quantity of fat contained in
the cells of this membrane.
In the living body it feems to be a fluid oil, which
concretes after death. In graminivorous animals, it is
found to be of a firmer confiftence than in man.
The fat is not confined to the Ikin alone, being met
with everywhere in the interftices of mufcles, in the
omentum, about the kidneys, at the bafis of the heart,
in the orbits, &c.
Part I.
The chief ufes of the fat feem to be to afford moi- Of the
fture to all the parts with which it is connected 5 to, Mufcles.
facilitate the adfion of the mufcles j and to add to the '
beauty of the body, by making it everywhere fmooth
and equal.
Sect. II. Of the Mufcles.
The mufcles are the organs of motion. The parts 85
that are ufually included under this name confift of di-
ftinft portions of fiefti, fufcepticle of contraction and
relaxation ; the motions of which, in a natural and
healthy ftate, are fubjeft to the will, and for this rea-
fon they are called voluntary mufcles. But befides
thefe, there are other parts of the body that owTe their,
power of contraction to their mufcular fibres ; thus the
heart is of a mufcular texture, forming what is called
a hollow mufcle \ and the urinary bladder, ftomach,
inteftines, &c. are enabled to aCt upon their contents,
merely becaufe they are provided with mulcular fibres.
Thefe are called involuntary mulcles, becaule their mo¬
tions are not dependent on the will. The mufcles of
refpiration being in fome meafure influenced by the
will, are faid to have a mixed motion.
The names by which the voluntary mufcles are di-
ftinguiftied, are founded on their fize, figure, fituation,
ufe, or the arrangement of their fibres, or their origin
and infertion. But befides thefe particular diftinClions,
there arer certain general ones that require to be noti¬
ced. Thus, if the fibres of a mufcle are placed parallel
to each other in a ftraight direction, they form what
is ftyled a rectilinear mufcle } if the fibres crofs and in-
terfecf each other, they conftitute a compound mufcle ;
a radiated one, if the fibres are difpofed in the manner
of rays 5 or a penniform mufcle, if, like the plume of
a pen, they are placed obliquely with refpeCt to the
tendon.
Mufcles that aft in oppofition to each other, are
called antagonifce ; thus every extenfor or mufcle
has a. flexor for its antagonift, and vice verfa. Muf¬
cles that concur in the fame action are ftyled con-
generes.
The mufcles being attached to the bones, the latter
may be confidered as levers that are moved in different
direftions by the contraftion of thofe organs.
That end of a mufcle wdiich adheres to the moft
fixed part is ufually called the origin, and that which
adheres to the more moveable part, the ihferfion of the
mufcle.
In every mufcle w7e may diftingufth two kinds of
fibres ; the one foft, of a red colour, fenfible, and irri¬
table, called flefliy fibres ; the other of a firmer tex¬
ture, of a white gliftening colour, infenfible, without
irritability or the power of contrafting, and named ten¬
dinous fibres. They are occafionally intermixed, but
the flelhy fibres generally prevail in the belly or middle
part of a mufcle, and the tendinous ones in the extre¬
mities. If thefe tendinous fibres are formed into a
round
ANATOMY.
3 
fn) The hairs likewife differ from each other, and may not' be improperly divided into two claffes-, one ot
which may include the hair of the head, chin, pubes, and axillte } and the other, the lofter hairs, which are to
' be, obferved almoft everywhere on the furface of the body.
Chap,
Of the
Milfclesi
86 '
Of the vis
in lit a.
Ih -A N A
found (lender Cord, they form what is called the ten-
jdon of the mufcle j on the other hand, if they are
fpread into a broad flat furface, the extremity of the
mulcle is ftyled aponeurofts.
The tendons of many mufcles, efpecially when thev
are long and expoled to preffure or friftion in the
grooves formed for them in the bones, are furrounded
by a tendinous (heath or fojeto^ m which we (ometimes
find a (mall mucous fac or btirfa mucofa, which obviates
any inconvenience from friction, Sometimes we find
whole mufcles, and even ieveral mufcles, covered by a
fafeia of the fame kind, that affords origin to many of
their fibres, dipping down between them, adhering to
the ridges 'of bones, and thus preventing them from
fwelling too much when in aCtion. The molt remark*
able inftance of Inch a covering is the fafeia lata of the
thigh.
Each mufcle is enclofed by a thin covering of cellular
membrane, which has been fometimes improperly con-
(idered as peculiar to the mufcles, and deferibed"under
the name of propria memhrana mufculofa. This cellular
covering dips down into the fubftance of the mufcle,
connecting and furrounding the mo(t minute fibres we
are able to demonltrate, and affording a fupport to
their veffels and nerves.
Leeuwenhoek fancied he had difeovered, by means
of his microfcope, the ultimate divinon of a'mufcle,
and that he could point out the fimple fibre, which ap¬
peared to him to be a hundred times lefs than a hair •
but he rvas afterwards convinced how much he was
miftaken on this fubjeCt, and candidly acknowledged,
that what he had taken for a (imple fibre was in faCt a
bundle of fibres.
^ It is eafyto obferve feveral ofthefe fafeiculi or bun¬
dles in a piece of beef, in which, from the coarfenefs
of its texture, they are very evident.
The red colour which lb particularly diftinguiflies
the mufcular or flefiiy parts of animals, is owing1 to an
infinite number of blood-veffels, that are difperfed
through their fubftance. When we macerate the fibres
of a mufcle in water, it becomes of a white colour like
all other parts of the body diverted of their blood. The
blood-veffels are accompanied by nerves, and they are
both diftributed in fuch abundance to thefe parts, that
in endeavouring to trace the courfe of the blood-veffels
in a mufcle, it would appear to be formed altogether
by their ramifications; and in an attempt to follow the
branches of its nerves, they would be found to be
equal in proportion.
It a mufcle is pricked or irritated, it immediately
contfafts. 1 his is called its irritable principle 5 and
this irritability is to be confidered as the charafleriftic
of mufcular fibres ; and may ferve to prove their exifl>
once in parts that are too minute to be examined by
the eye. This power, which difpofes the mufcles to
contract when ftimulated, independent of the will, is
fuppofed to be inherent in them; and is therefore na¬
med vis injit a. This property is not to be confound¬
ed with elafticity, which the membranes and other
parts of the body poffefs in a greater or lefs degree
m common with the mufcles 5 nor with fenfibility,
for the heart, though the mod irritable, feems to*
be the lead fenfiblc of any of the mufcular parts of the
body.
TOM -Y. 211
After a mufcular fibre has contradled, it fdon returns Of the
to a date of relaxation, till it is excited afrelh, and Mufcles'
then it contrafts and relaxes again. We may likewife w—*
produce fuch a cantradlion, by irritating the nerve '
leading to a mufcle, although the nerve' itlelf is not
affedted.
This principle is found to be greater in finall than
in large, and in young than in old, animals.
In the voluntary mufcles thefe effedts of contradiion
and relaxation of the deftly fibres are produced in obe--
dienee to the will, by what may be called the vis ner-
vofa, a property that is not to be confounded with the
vis inf to. As the exiftence of a vis infta different from
a vis nervea, was the dodtrine taught by Dr Haller in
his El cm. Pbyf but is at prelent called in queftion by
feveral, particularly Dr Monro, we think it neceffary
to give a few objedfions, as dated in his Obfcrvations
on the Nervous Sydem.
“ The chief experiment (fays the Dodfor) which The vis
feems to have led Dr Haller to this opinion, is the weHnervea*
known one, that the heart and other mufcles, after
being detached from the brain, continue to adf fpon-
taneoufly, or by ftimuli may be routed into action
for a confiderable length of time 5 and when it can¬
not be alleged, lays Dr Haller, that the nervous
fluid is by the mind, or otherwife, impelled into the
mufcle.
“ I hat in this inftance, we cannot comprehend by
what power the nervous ftuid or energy can be put in
inotion, mud perhaps be granted : But has Dr Haller ‘
given a better explanation of the manner in which his
fuppofed vis infita becomes active ?
“ It it be as difficult to point out the caufe of the
adtion of the vis infita as that of the adtion of the vis
nervea, the admiffion of that new power, inltead of re¬
lieving, would add to our perplexity.
44 ^Te Ihould then have admitted, that two caufes of
a different nature were capable of producing exadtly the
fame eftedt ; which is not in general agreeable to the
laws of nature.
“We Ihould find other confequences arife from fuch
a hypothefis, which tend to weaken the credibility of
it. lor inftance, if in a found animal the vis nerve a
alone produces the contraction of the mufcles, we will
a(k what purpofe the vis infita ferves ? If both operate,
are we to iuppofe that the vis nervea, impelled by the
mind or living principle, gives the order, which the
vis infita executes, and that the nerves are the inter-
nuntii 5 and fo admit two wi(e agents employed in every
the mod fimple adtion ? But initead of {peculating far¬
ther, let us learn the effedt of experiments, and endea¬
vour from thefe to draw plain conclufions.
“ 1. When I poured a dilution of opium in water
under the fkin of the leg of a frog, the mufcles, to the
fui face of which it was applied, were very foon depri¬
ved of the power of contradtion. In like manner, when
I poured this folution into the cavity of the heart, by
opening the vena cava, the heart was almoft inftantly
deprived of its power of motion, whether the experi¬
ment was performed on it fixed in its place, or cut out
of the body.
2.1 opened the thorax of a living frog 5 and then
tied or cut its aorta, fo as to put a ftop to the circula¬
tion of its bloodi*
D d 2
I
2i2 . ANA
Of the “ I then opened the vena cava, and poured the folu-
^Muiaes. t;on 0f 0pium into the heart; and found,'not only that
this organ was inftantly deprived of its powers of ac¬
tion, but that in a few minutes the rnoft diftant muf-
cles of the limbs were extremely weakened. Yet this
weaknefs was not owing to the want of circulation, for
the frog could jump about for more than an hour after
the heart w as cut out.
“ In the firft of thefe two experiments, we obferve
the fuppoied vis infita deftroyed by the opium j in the
latter, the vis nervea : for it is evident that the limbs
were alfecled by the fympathy of the brain, and of the
nervous fyftem in general, with the nerves of the heart.
“ 3. When the nerve of any mufcle is firft divided by
a tranfverfe ledlion, and then burnt with a hot iron,
or punctured with a needle, the mufcle in which it
terminates contrails violently, exactly in the fame man¬
ner as when the irritation is applied to the fibres of the
mufcle. Eut when the hot iron or needle is confined
to the nerve, Dr Haller himfelf muft have admitted,
that the vis nervea, and not the vis infita, was excited.
But here I would alk twro queftions.
“ Fir ft, Whether we do not as well underftand how
the vis nervea is excited wrhen irritation is applied to
the mufcle as when it is applied to the trunk of the
nerve, the impelling powTer of the mind feeming to be
equally wanting in both cafes ?
“ Secondly, If it appears that irritation applied to
the trunk of a nerve excites the vis nervea, why fhould
we doubt that it can equally well excite it when ap¬
plied to the fmall and very fenfible branches and ter¬
minations of the nerve in the mufcle ?
“ As, therefore, it appears that the fuppofed vis in¬
fita is deftroyed or excited by the fame means as the
vis nervea •, nay, that when, by the application of
opium to the heart of a frog, after the aorta is cut and
tae circulation interfupted, we have deftroyed the vis
infita, the vis nervea is fo much extinguifhed, that the
animal cannot aft with the diftant mufcles of the
limb ; and that thefe afterwards grow' very torpid, or
lofc much of their fuppofed vis infita j it feems clearly
to follow, that there is no juft ground for fuppofing
that any other principle produces the contraction of a
muicle.”
The vis netvofa, or operation of the mind, if we
may fo call it, by which a mufcle is brought into con-
r raft ion, is not inherent in the mufcle like the vis in-
jita, neither is it perpetual, like this latter property.
After long continued or violent exercife, for example,
the voluntary mufcles become painful, and at length
incapable cf further aftion ; wdiereas the heart and
other involuntary mufcles, the motions of wdiich de¬
fend folely on the vis injita, continue through life in a
f O M Y. Part I.
conftant ftate of aftion, without any inconvenience or Of the
wafte of this inherent principle. Mufcles.
The aflion of the vis nervofa on the voluntary ^ v
mufcles conftitutes wThat is called mufcular motion j
a fubjeft that has given rife to a variety of hypo-
thefes, many of them ingenious, but none of them fatis-
faftory.
Borelii and fome others have undertaken to explain
the caufe of contraflion, by luppofing that every muf¬
cular fibre forms as it were a chain of very minute blad¬
ders, while the nerves which are diitributed through
the mufcle, bring with them a fupply of animal fpirits,
which at our will fill thefe bladders, and by increaiirg
their diameter in width, fhorten them, and of courle
the whole fibre.
Borelii fuppofes thefe bladders to be of a rhomboidal
ftiape 5 Bernouilli, on the other hand, contends that
they are oval. Our countryman, Cowper, fancied he
had filled them with mercury •, the caufe of this miftake
was probably owing to the mercury’s infinuating itfelf
into fome of the lymphatic vefieis. The late ingeni¬
ous Mr Elliot undertook to account for the phenomena
of mufcular motion on principles very different from
thofe juft now mentioned. He fuppofed that a dephlo-
gifticated ftate of the blood is requifite for mufcular
abtion, and that a communication of phlogifton to the
blood is a neceffary efteft of Inch adftion.
We know that the mufcular fibre is fhortened, and
that the mufcle itfelf fwells when in aftion; but how'
thefe phenomena are produced, we are unable to de¬
termine. We likew'ife know that the nerves are efTen-‘
tial to mufcular motion ; for upon dividing or making
a ligature round the nerve leading to a mufcle, the lat¬
ter becomes incapable of motion. A ligature made
on the artery of a mufcle produces a fimilar effeft : a
proof this, that a regular fupply of blood is allb equal¬
ly neceiTary to mufcular motion. The caufe of palfy
is ufually not to be fought for in the mufcle affected,
but in the nerve leading to that mufcle, or in that part
of the brain or fpinal marrow from which the nerve de¬
rives its origin.
Of the particular Mufcles.
1
As the enumeration and defeription of the particular
mufcles muft be dry and unentertaining to the genera¬
lity of readers, yet cannot be altogether omitted in a
work of this nature, it appeared eligible to throw this
part of the fubjeft into the form of a table ; in which
the name, origin, infertion, and principal ufe of each
mufcle will be found deferibed in few' words, and oc-
cafionally its etymology when it is of Greek derivation
or difficult to be underftood.
A TABLE.
Chap. II. ' ANATOMY.
Of the
Mufcles.
A TABLE of the MUSCLES, arranged according to their Situation.
U'f- ^'s t^e c^es not include all the mufcles of the body; thofe belonging to the eyes, internal ear, inteftinum re&um, and
the male and female organs of generation, being defcribed in other parts of the work. The reader will be pleafed to obferve like-
wile, that although all the mulcles (a few only excepted) are in pairs, mention is here made only of the mufcles of one fide.]
213
Of the
Mufcles.
M u s c l e s fituated
under the integu¬
ments of the cra¬
nium.
Name.
Origin.
Infertion.
Ufe.
Occipito-frontalis. From the tranfverfe Into the Ikin of the
ridge of the os oc- eyebrows,
cipitis.
eyelids,
of the
To pull the {kin of
the head back¬
wards, and to raife
the eyebrows and
Ikin of the fore¬
head.
. Corrugator fuper- From above the join- Into the inner part of To draw the eye-
cdii* ing of the os fron- the occipito-fron- brows towards each
tis, os nali, and os talis. other, and to wrin»
maxillare. k]e the forehead.
. Orbicularis palpe- From around the edge Into the nafal procefs To Ihut the eye.
brarum. of the orbit. of the os maxillare.
of the
2. Levator palpebrse From the bottom of
fuperioris. the orbit, near the
optic foramen.
external ear, - 1. Attollens auricu- From the tendon of
lam* the occipito-fron¬
talis near the os
temporis.
2. Anterior auriculae. From near the back
Into the cartilage of To open the eye.
the upper eyelid.
Into the upper part To raife the ear.
of the ear.
Into an eminence be- To raife this emi-
pait of the zygoma. hind the helix. nence, and to pull
. it forwards.
3. Ketrahentes (s) au- From the outer and Into the convex part To ftretch the con-
of the concha. cha, and pull the
ear backwards.
ricuke.
cartilages
ear.
of the
of the
back part of the
root of the maftoid
procefs.
1. Tragicus.
From the outer and
middle part of the
concha, near the
tragus.
2 Anti-tragicus. From the root of the
inner part of the
helix.
3. Tranfverfus auricu- From the upper part
1*’ of the concha.
4. Helicis major.
5. Helicis minor.
From the upper, an¬
terior, and acute
part of the helix.
From the lower and
fore part of the he¬
lix.
Into the upper part To deprefs the con-
of the tragus. cha, and pull the
point of the tragus
a little outwards.
Into the upper part To dilate the mouth
of the anti-tragus. of the concha.
Into the inner part To flretch the concha
of the helix. and fcapha, and
likewife to pull the
parts it is conneft-
ed with towards
each other.
Into the cartilage of To deprefs the upper
the helix, a little part of the helix,
above the tragus.
Into the helix, near To contract the fif-
the fiffure in its fure.
cartilage.
Muscles
(s) FLefe are three {mail {lender mufcles. The inferior one is foraetijnes wanting.
214
Of the
Mufcles.
, Mu s C l e s of the nofe,
A
Name.
ComprdTor
naris.
NATO M Y.
Origin. Infer tion.
(t) From the outer part Into the nafal
of the root of the
ahe nafi.
of the
pro-
cefs of the os max-
illare, and anterior
extremity of the os
nafi.
mouth and lips,
I. Levator labii fupe-
rioris, alaeque nafi.
Into the upper lip
and alte of the nofe.
From the outer part
of the orbitar pro-
cefs of the os max-
illare, and from the \
nafal procefs of that
bone, where it joins
the os frontis.
Levator anguli oris. From the os maxil- Into the orbicularis
lare fuperius, be- oris at the angle of
tween the orbitar the mouth,
foramen and the
firft dens molaris.
3- Zygomaticus ma- From the os malae, Into the angle of the
near the zygoma- mouth,
tic future.
^ n .ty¬
ro ftraighten the nof-
trils, and likewife
to corrugate the
Ikin of the nofe.
To draw the upper lip
and fkin of the nofe
upwards and out¬
wards.
To raife the corner of
the mouth.
4. Zygomaticus mi¬
nor.
Immediately above
the origin of the
5. Buccinator.
6. Depreffbr labii fu-
perioris, alaeque
nafi.
zyg. major.
From the alveoli of
the dentes molares
in the upper and
lower jaws*
From the os maxill.
fuper. immediately
above the gums of
the dentes incifores.
7. Depfeflbr anguli At the fide of the
oris. chin from the low¬
er edge of the max¬
illa inferior.
From the lower and an¬
terior part of the
maxilla inferior.
From near the gums
of the incifores and
caninus of the max¬
illa inferior.
8. Depreffbr labii in-
ferioris.
9. Levator labii infe-
rioris.
Into the angle of the
mouth.
Into the angle of the
mouth.
Into the root of the
alae nafi and upper
lip.
Into the angle of the
mouth.
Into the under lip.
Into the under lip and
Ikin of the chin.
IO. Orbicularis o-
rxs (u).
 of the low¬
er jaw, - 1. Temporalis.
Part I.
Of the
Mufcles.
To raife the angle of
the mouth, and
make the cheek
prominent as in
laughing.
To raife the angle of
the mouth oblique¬
ly outwards.
Tocontradl the mouth
and draw the angle
of it outwards and
backwards.
To draw the aim nafi
and upper lip down¬
wards.
To draw the corner
of the mouth down¬
wards.
To draw the under
lip downwards and
fomewhat outw'ards.
To raife the under
lip and {kin of the
chin.
To {hut the mouth by
conftringingthelips*
From part of the os Into the coronoid pro- To move the lower
bregmatis and os cefs of the lower jaw upwards*
frontis 5 fquamous jaw.
part of the os tem-
poris; back part of -
the os malm, and
the temporal pro¬
cefs of the os fphe-
noides (r).
2. IVfalfeter
(t ) The nofe is affefted by fibres of the occipito-frontalis, and hy feveral mufcles of the face; but this pair,
the compreflbres, is the only one that is proper to it.
(u) This mufcle is in a great meafure, if not wholly, formed by the buccinator, zygomatici, depreffbres, and
other mufcles that move the lips. Its fibres furround the mouth like a ring.
(v) Some of its fibres likewife have their origin from a flrong fafcia that covers the mufcle and adheres to the
t bom.
ANATOMY.
Name. Origin. Inferl ion
1. Maffeter (w). From the malar pro- Into the balls of the
cefs of the os maxil- coronoid procefs,
lare, and the lower and that part of the
edges of the os ma- jaw which fupports
Ife, Snd of the zygo- that and the condy-
matic procefs of the loid procefs.
os temporis.
3.. Pterygoideus inter- From the inner furface Into the lower jaw on
mis. of the outer wing of its inner fide and
the pterygoid pro- near its angle,
cefs of the os fphe-
noides, and from
the procefs of the
os palati that helps
to form the ptery¬
goid folia.
4. Pterygoideus exter- From the external ala Into the fore part of
mis. of the pterygoid the condyloid pro-
procefs, a fmall part cefs of the lower
of the adjacent os jaw, and likewife
maxillare, and a of the capfular li-
ridge in the tempo- gament.
ral procefs of the os
fphenoides.
Muscles lituated at
the fore part of the
neck, * - - 1. Latiflimus colli (y). From the cellular Into the fide of the
membrane covering chin and integu-
the pedtoral, del- ments of the check,
toid, and trapezius-
mufcles.
2. Maftoideus (z) From the upper part Into the mafioid pro¬
of the fternum, and cefs, and as far back
from the upper and as the lambdoidal
fore part of the future,
clavicle.
  — lituated
between the trunk
and the os hyoides, 1. Omo-hyoideus (a). From the upper cofta Into the balls of the
of the fcapula near os hyoides.
its niche j from part
of a ligament that
extends acrofs this
niche, and fome-
times by a few fi¬
bres, from the co¬
racoid procefs..
Chap. IT.
Of the
Mufcles.
i ■'
V
2Ii'
Ife. Of the
To raife and likewife , ^‘:^clcs-
to move the jaw a
little forwards and
backwards.
To raife the lower jaw,
and draw it a little
to one fide.
To move the jaw for¬
wards and to the
oppofite fide (x);
and at the fame time
to prevent the liga¬
ment of the joint
from being pinch¬
ed.
To draw the cheeks
and Ikin of the face
downwards 5 and
wrhen the mouth is
Hurt, to draw all
that part of the Ikin
to wdiich it is con¬
nected below the
lower jaw upw-ards.
To move the head to
one fide, or when
both mufcles a£t, to
bend it forwards.
To draw the os hyoi¬
des in an oblique di¬
rection downwards.
2. Sterno-
bone round the whole circumference of its origin. When we remove this covering, wre find the mufcle of a femi-
circular lhape with its radiated fibres, converging and forming a Itrong middle tendon.
(w) So called iiom its ufe in chewing, its derivation being from /xxovcto/axi, inanduco, ti to eat.”
(x) This happens when the mufcle afts fingly. When both aft, the jaw is brought horizontally forwards.
(O broad and thin mulcular expanfion, which is fituated immediately under the common integuments
is ’bv \\ inflow named mufculus cutaneus. Galen gave it the name of TrXxTvrfxx /xvadts, {Platyfma myoides); the
etymology of which is from nXctlvc/xas, di/atatio, and mufculus, and forma.
(z) This, on account of its two origins, is by Albinus deferibed as two diftina mufcles, which he names/?«•-
jio-mafoideus and cleido-maf oldens.
(a) As this mufcle does not always arife from the coracoid procefs, it feems to have been improperly named
coraco-
A
Name.
2. Sterno-hyoideus,
3. Hyo-thyroideus.
4, Sterno-thyroideus.
5. Crico-thyroideus,
N <A T O M Y*
Origin.
From the cartilage of
the firft rib, the in¬
ner and upper part
of the fternum, and
a fmali part of the
clavicle.
From part of the ba¬
lls and horn of the
os hyoides.
Infer t ion. I’fe.
Into the bafis of the To draw the os hyoi-
os hyoides. des downwards.
From between the
cartilages of the ill
and ad ribs, at the
upper and inner part
of the fternum.
From the anterior part
and fide of the cri¬
coid cartilage.
the thyroid carti¬
lage.
Muscles fttuated
between the os
hyoides and low¬
er jaw,
I. Digaftricus (b).
2. Stylo-hyoideus (c).
From a fofla at the
root of the maftoid
procefs, and like-
wife from the os
hyoides.
From the bafis of the
ftyloid procefs.
3. Mylo-hyoideus
(D).
From the infide of
the lower jaw, be¬
tween the laft dens
molaris and the
chin.
4. (e) Genio-hyoide- From the infide of the
us. chin.
From the infide of the
chin.
From the horn, bafis,
and appendix of the
os hyoides.
Laterally from the
root of the tongue.
Part I*
Of the
Mufcles.
Into a rough oblique To raife the thyroid
line at the fide of cartilage, or deprefs
the thyroid card- the os hyoides.
lage.
Immediately under To pull the thyroid
the hyo-thyroideus. cartilage down¬
wards.
Into the lower part To pull the cricoid
and inferior horn of cartilage upwards
and backwards, or
the thyroid for¬
wards and down¬
wards.
Into the lower and To draw the lower jaw
anterior part of the downwards,
chin.
Into the fide and To draw the os hyoi-
fore part of the des obliquely up-
os hyoides near its wards,
bafe.
Into the bafis of the To move the os hyoi-
os hyoides. des to either fide,
forwards or up¬
wards.
5. Genio-gloffus.
6. Hyo-glofius (f).
7. Lingualis.
Into the bafe of the
os hyoides.
Into the tongue and
bafis of the os hy¬
oides.
Into the tongue late¬
rally.
Into the extremity of
the tongue.
To move the os hy¬
oides forwards or
upwards.
To move the tongue
in various direc¬
tions.
To draw the tongue
downwards and in¬
wards.
To Ihorten the tongue
and draw it back¬
wards.
8. Stylo-gloffus.
coraco-hyoides by Douglas and Albinus. Window calls it omo-hyaides, on account of its general origin from the
fcapula.
(b) From 2/y and (biventer), becaufe it has two fleftiy bellies with a middle tendon. This tendon paf-
fes through the ftylo-hyoideus.
(c) In fome fubjefls wre meet with another mufcle, which, from its having nearly the fame origin, infertiou,
and ufe as this, has been named Jiylo-hyoideus alter.
(n) So named from its arifing near the dentes molares (u.vXci) and its being inferted into the os hyoides.
(e) From ymiov, mentum, “ the chin.”
(f) From xeg*?, cornu, and lingua, “ the tongue.”
2
Ckap. II,
Of the
Mufcles.
A
Name.
8. Stylo-gloffus.
N A T O M Y.
Origin.
From the flyloid pro- Into
Infertion.
the fide of the
tongue from the
root to near its tip.
Muscles fituated a-
bout the fauces,
cefs, and fometimes
alfo from a liga¬
ment that extends
from thence to the
angle of the lower
jaw.
Stylo-pharyngaeus. From the bafis of the Into the fide of the
ftyloid procefs. pharynx and pofte-
rior part of the thy¬
roid cartilage.
From near the bony Into the femilunar
part of the Eufta- edge of the os palati
chian tube, and and the velum pen-
from the fpinous
procefs of the os
fphenoides.
From the membra¬
nous part of the
Eullachian tube,
and the extremity
of the os petrofum.
10. Circumflexus pa
lati.
l x, Levator palatx.
dulum palati (g).
Into the velum
dulum palati.
pen-
■ Palato-pharyngae-
us.
Into the upper and
pofterior part of the
thyroid cartilage.
From the lower and
anterior part of the
cartilaginous extre¬
mity of the Eufta-
chian tube (h) j the
tendinous expan-
fion of the circum¬
flexus palati $ and
the velum pendu¬
lum palati near the
! ' bafis and back part
of the uvula.
ponftriftor illhmx From near the bafis Into the velum
2 17
XJfe. Of the
To move the tongue Mufcles.
backwards and to v
one fide.
To raife the thyroid
cartilage and pha¬
rynx, and like wife
to dilate the latter.
To dilate and draw
the velum obliquely
downwards.
To pull the velum
backwards.
To raxle the pharynx
and thyroid carti¬
lage, or to pull the
velum and uvula
backwards and
downwards.
faucium.
3. Azygos uvulae.
pen-
near
fore
of the tongue late- dulum palati,
rally. the bafis and
part of the uvula.
From the end of the Into the extremity of
future that unites the uvula,
the ofla palati.
To raife the tongue
and draw the velum
towards it (i).
To flxorten the uvula,
and bring it for¬
wards and upwards.
back
pharynx,
at the
part of the
Vol. II. Part I.
I. Conftn&or pharyn- From the cuneiform Into the middle of the To move the pharynx
gis fupcrxor. procefs of the oc- pharynx. upwards and for-
cipital bone ; the wards, and to com-
ptexygoid procefs of prefs its upper part,
the os fphenoides,
and from each jaw
near the laft dens
molaris (k).
F e 3. Confiridlor
inner pWofth'e^tl.11 ^ •CfUrre * r°u"d tendon, which, after pafling over a kind of hook formed by the
inner plate of the pterygoxd procefs of the fphenoid bone, expands into a tendinous membrane. 7
the name oef ^Lw^Athat ^ fro^ therEuft^hian tube are deferibed as a dilM mufcle by Albinus, under
\^™mzo\ faipingo-pharyng«us. They ferve to dilate the mouth of the tube.
the food intoThe p'haTynx palat0'phar-YnS*us> likewife f^e to clofe the paffage into the fauces, and to carry
fion'to Dou^k^tn^r^-k^ ^t reS a few others derived from the tongue, have given occa-
mi'rCleS’ U''der "ameS aicetlhal°-Phary’’S‘™*, mylo-pharyn-
2l8
A N A T O xM Y.
Part I.
Of the
Mufcles.
Muscles about the
glottis,
 at the fore
part of the neck
clofe to the verte¬
brae,
Name. Origin.
2. Conftri£lor pbaryn- From the horn and
gis medius (l). appendix of the os
hyoides, and from
the ligament that
unites it with the
thyroid cartilage.
Into
Infertion.
the middle
the proceffus cunei-
formis of the occi¬
pital bone, about
its middle and be¬
fore the great fora-
, Ufe.
of To draw the os hyoi-
Of the
Mufcles.
des and pharynx
upwards, and to
comprefs the latter.
3. Confhi&or pharyn-
gis inferior ( m ).
1. Crico-arytaenoideus
lateralis.
2. Crico-arytaenoideus
polticus.
3. Arytaenoideus ob-
liquus.
4. Arytaenoideus
tranfverfus.
5. Thyreo-arytaenoi-
deus.
6. Arytaeno-epiglotti-
deus.
7. Thyreo-epiglotti-
deus.
From the cricoid and
thyroid cartilages.
From the lide of the
cricoid cartilage.
From the cricoid car¬
tilage pofteriorly.
From the bafis of one
of the arytaenoid
cartilages.
From one of the ary-
taenoid cartilages la¬
terally.
From the pofterior
and under part of
the thyroid carti-
lage.
From the upper part
of the arytaenoid
cartilage laterally.
From the thyroid car¬
tilage.
Into the middle of the To comprefs part of
pharynx. the pharynx.
Into the balls of the
arytaenoid cartilage
laterally.
Into the bafis of the
arytsenoid cartilage
pofteriorly.
Near the extremity of
the other arytaenoid
cartilage.
Into the other arytse-
noid cartilage late¬
rally.
Into the arytaenoid
cartilage.
To open the glottis.
To open the glottis*
To draw the parts it
is connected with
towards each other.
To Ihut the glottis.
To draw the arytae¬
noid cartilage for¬
wards.
Into the fide of the To move the epiglot-
epiglottis. tis outwards.
Into the fide of the To pull the epiglot-
epiglottis. tis obliquely down¬
wards (n).
I. Reftus capitis
ternus major.
2. Reftus capitis
ternus minor.
3. Reflus capitis
teralis.
4. Longus colli.
in- From the anterior ex¬
tremities of the
tranfverfe proceffes
of the five lower-
mod; cervical ver¬
tebrae.
in- From the anterior
and upper part of
the firfl cervical
vertebra.
la- From the anterior
and upper part of
the tranfverfe pro-
cefs of the firft cer¬
vical vertebra.
. Within the thorax,
laterally from the
bodies of the three
uppermoft dorfal
vertebra j from the
bafis and fore part
Into the fore part of To bend the head
the cuneiform pro- forwards,
cefs of the os occi-
pitis.
Near the bafis of the To affift the lafl: dc-
condyloid procefs, fcribed mufcle.
of the os occipitis.
Into the os occipi- To move the head to
tis, oppofite to the one fide,
flylo-maftoid fora-
Into the fecond cer- To pull the neck to
vical vertebra ante- one fide (o)*
riorly.
of
t ( l ) Douglas makes two mufcles of this, the hyo-pharyngceus and fyndefmo-pharyngccus.
(m) The crico-pharyngseus and thyro-pharyngaeus of Douglas.
(n) When either this or the preceding mufcle afts with its fellow, the epiglottis is drawn dire&ly downwards
upon the glottis.
(o) When both mufcles aft, the neck is drawn direftly forwards.
■*4
Chap. II.
ANATOMY.
Of the
Mufcles.
Name.
Origin.
of the tranfverfe
procefies of the firft
and fecond dorfal
vertebrae, and of the
lalt cervical ver¬
tebra ; and laftly,
from the anterior
extremities of the
tranfverfe procefies
of the 6th, 5th, 4th,
and 3d cervical ver¬
tebra;.
Infer lion.
Ufe.
2X9
Of the
Mufcles.
Muscles at the for
part of the abdo
men.
X
1. Obliquus externus. From the loxver edges Into thelineaalba(p),
of the eight infe- offa pubis (q^), and
rior ribs near their fpine of the ilium
cartilages. (r).
To comprefe and fup-
port the vifcera, af-
fift in evacuating
the fteces and urine,
draw down the
ribs, and bend the
trunk forwards or
obliquely to one
fide.
2. Obliquus internus. From the fpinous pro- Into the cartilages of To aflift the obliquus
externus.
all the falfe ribs,
linea alba (s), and
fore part of the pu¬
bis.
3. Tranfverfalls.
cefs of the three
lowermofl: lumbar
vertebrae, the back
part of the os fa-
crum, the fpine of
the ilium, and back
part of Fallopius’s
ligament (r).
From the cartilages Into the linea alba
of the feven inferi¬
or ribs; the tranf¬
verfe procefies of
the laft dorfal, and
four upper lumbar
vertebrae ; the in¬
ner part of Fallo¬
pius’s ligament and
the fpine of the i-
lium.
and cartilago enfi-
formis.
To comprefs the ab¬
dominal vifcera.
E e 2
4. Reclus
( p) The linea aloa is that tendinous expanfion which reaches from the cartilago enfiformis to the os pubis.
It is formed by the interlacement ol the tendinous fibres of the oblique and tranfverfe mufcles, and on this ac¬
count feme anatomifts have confidered thefe as three digaftric mufcles.
(x) A little above the pubis the tendinous fibres of this mufcle feparate from each other, fo as to form an
opening called the ring of the obliquus externus, and commonly, though improperly, the ring of the abdominal
mufcles, there being no fuch aperture either in the tranfverfalis or obliquus internus. This ring in the male fub-
jebt afiords a pafiage to the Ipermatic vefiels, and in the female to the round ligament of the uterus.
(r) 110m the anterior and upper fpinous procefs of the ilium, this mufcle is ftretched tendinous to the os pu¬
bis, and thus forms what is called by fome Fal/opius'ls, and by others Pouparfs ligament. The blood vefiels oafs
under it to the thigh.
The tendon formed by the upper part of this mufcle in its way to the linea alba is divided into two layers,
i he poftenor layer runs under, and the anterior one over, the redhis mufcle.
■ (T-^ .■fro.m t^1s Part detaches fome fibres which extend downwards upon the fpermatic chord, and form what
is deicnbed as the cremafter mufcle.
220
Ol the
Muscles.
Name.
Re6lus abdominis.
5. Pyramidalis ( v).
ANATOMY. Parti.
Infertion. life. Of the
Into the cartilages of To comprefs the fore Mufcks.
the 5th, 6th, and part of the abdo-
7th ribs, and the men, and to bend
edge of the caftila- the trunk forwards,
go enfiformis (u).
Into the linea alba To affift the lower por-
and inner edge of tion of the redlus.
Origin.
From the upper edge
of the pubis and
the fymphylis pu¬
bis.
From the anterior and
upper part of the
pubis.
MusCfcEs at the fore
part of the thorax, 1. Pe&oralis major.
2. Subclavius.
From the cartilagi¬
nous ends of the
5th and 6th ribs j
the llernum, and
anterior part of the
clavicle.
From the cartilage of
the firft rib.
Pe£!oralis minor From the upper edges
(x). of the 3d, 4th, and
5th ribs.
4. Serratus magnus.
that
From the eight fupe-
rior ribs.
cur in forming the
thorax,
1. Diaphragma (y). '
2. Levatores cefta- From the tranfverfe
rum. procefles of the laft
cervical, and the
eleven upper dof-
fal vertebrae.
3. Intercoftales exter- From the lower edge
ni. of each upper rib.
4. Intercoftales inter-
ni (a).
the re&us, com¬
monly about two
inches above the
pubis.
Into the upper and To draw the arm for-
inner part of the wards, or oblique-
os humeri (w). ly forwards.
Into the under fur- To move the clavicle
face of the cla- forwards and dowm-
vicle. wrards, and to aflift
in raifing the firft:
. rib.
Into the coracoid pro- To move the fcapula
cefs of the fca- forwards and down-
pula. wards, or to elevate
the ribs.
Into the bafis of the To bring the fcapula
fcapula. fomards.
Into the upper fide of To move the ribs up-
each rib, near its wards and outwards^
tuberofity.
Into the fuperior edge To elevate the ribs,
of each lower rib.
5. Sterno-coftalea
(u) The fibres of the reftus are generally divided by three tendinous interfeftions. The two upper thirds of
this mufcle pafling between the tendinous layers of the obliquus internus, are enclofed as it were in a Iheath •, but
at its lower part we find it immediately contiguous to the peritonaeum, the inferior portion of the tendon of the
tranfverfalis palling over the redfus, and adhering to the interior layer of the obliquus internus.
(v) This mufcle is fometimes wanting.
(w) The fibres of this mufcle pafs towards the axilla in a folding manner, alid with thofe of the latiflimus
dorfi form the arm-pit.
(x) This and fome other mufcles derive their name offerratus, from their arifing by a number of tendinous
or flefhy digltations, refembling the teeth of a faw (ferra').
(y) For a defcription of the diaphragm, fee Chap. IV. Se6f. IV.
(a) The origin, infertion, and ufe of the internal intercoftals, are fimilar to thofe of the external. The read¬
er, however, will be pleafed to oblerve, that the intercoftales extern! occupy the fpaces between the r’bs only
from the fpine to their cartilages ; from thence to the fternum, there being only a thin membrane, which is
fpread over the intercoftales intern! j and that the latter, on the contrary, extend only from the fternum to the
angles of each rib.
The fibres of the external mufcles run obliquely forwards \ thofe of the internal obliquely backwards. This
difference in the direftion of their fibi'es induced Galen to fuppofe that they were intended for different ufes j
that the external intercoftals, for inftance, ferve to elevate, and the internal ones to deprefs the ribs. Fallopius
feems to have been the firft who ventured to difpute the truth of this doftrine, w7hich has fince been revived by
Boyle
Chap. II.
Ot the
Mufcles,
ANATOMY.
Name. Origin. Infertion. XJfe.
5. Sterno-coftales (b). From the cartilage en- Into the cartilages of To deprefs the carti-
fiformis, and lower the 2d, 3d, 4th, lages of the ribs,
and middle part of 5th, and 6th ribs,
the fternum.
Muscles at theback
part of the neck
and trunk, . .
3. Latiflimus dorfi.
1. Trapezius (c), or From the middle of
cucullaris. the os occipitis, and
the fpinous procef-
fes of the two in¬
ferior cervical, and
of all the dorfal
vertebrae (d).
2. Rhomboideus (e). From the fpinous pro-
cefles of the three
lowermoft cervical,
and of all the dor¬
fal vertebrae.
From part of the fpine
of the os ilium, the
fpinous procelfes of
the os facrum and
lumbar vertebrae,
and of fix or eight
of the dorfal ver¬
tebrae ;■ alfo from
the four inferior
falfe ribs near their
cartilages.
inferior From the fpinous pro-
cefles of the two
lowermoft dorfal,
and of three of
the lumbar verte¬
brae.
From the tranfverfe
proceiTes of the four
uppermoft vertebrae
colli.
fuperior From the lower part
of the ligamentum
colli, the fpinous
procefs of the low¬
ermoft cervical ver¬
tebra, and of the
two fuperior dorfal
vertebrae.
Into the pofterior half To move the fcapula.
of the clavicle, part
of the acromion, /
and the fpine of
the fcapula.
Into the bafis of the
fcapula.
Into the os humeri,
at the inner edge of
the groove for lodg¬
ing the long head
of the biceps muf-
cle.
4. Serratus
pofticus.
5. Levator fcapulae.
6.
Serratus
pofticus.
Into the lower edges
of the three or four
lowermoft ribs near
their cartilages.
Into the upper angle
of the fcapula.
Into the 2d, 3d, and
4th ribs.
To draw the ribs out¬
wards, downwards,
and backwards.
To move the fcapula
forwards and up¬
wards.
To expand the tho¬
rax.
7. Splenius
&tJdVthe“xpLim“ms ofHal”nmberSe'’’ Wh°fe ttleore,kal arguments on tins fubjeft have been clearly «-
and’ilbb™ cmfffdet ttr™ *1* m e“h Me- . Vefalms, and after him Douglas
Verheyen Window and Hal' a ing rnuicle, which, on account of its ftiape, they name triangularis.
of thebm^V^T;^ they ^ ^ ^ « -count
h ^r^eSw^ &e™onk“sfhoodqMdrilateral C°hmb“ <>d'- ^
calletl ,ST °f tl,iS rnUfCle’ Un“d W“h th0fe 0f itS fcUoW “ th£ 0f ^ "cck, form what is
the1, names of d<:fcnbed as feParate mul’tles by Albinos, under
221
Of the
Mufcles.
To move the fcapula
upwards and back¬
wards.
To draw the os hu¬
meri downwards
and backwards, and
axis.
222
Of the
Mufcle<.
A
Name.
Splenius (f).
n a t o m y.
Origin.
From the fpinous pro- Into
ceffes of the four
or five uppermoft
vertebrae of the
back, and of the
lowermoft cervical
vertebra.
Part I.
Infertion.
the tranfverfe To
Ufe.
move the head
8. Complexus (g)«
'■ >
9. Trachelo-maftoide-
us (h).
10. Reftus capitis po-
llicus major*
11. Redlus capitis po-
fticus minor.
12. Obliquus fuperior
capitis.
13. Obliquus inferior
capitis.
From the tranfverfe
proceffes of the
four or five upper¬
moft dorfal, and
of the fix lower¬
moft cervical verte¬
brae.
From the tranfverfe
proceffes of the
firft dorfal vertebra,
and four or five of
the lowermoft cer¬
vical vertebrae.
From the fpinous pro-
cefs of the fecond
cervical vertebra.
From the firft verte¬
bra of the neck.
From the tranfverfe
procefs of the firft
cervical vertebra.
From the fpinous pro¬
cefs of the fecond
cervical vertebra.
procefles of the
two firft cervical
vertebrae, the upper
and back part of
the maftoid procefs,
and a ridge on the
os occipitxs.
Into the os occipitis.
backwards.
To draw the
backwards.
head
Into the maftoid pro- To draw the head
cefs. backwards.
Into the os occipitis.
Into the os occipitis.
Into the os occipitis.
Into the tranfverfe
procefs of the firft
cervical vertebra.
14. Sacro-lumbalis.
(0.
From the back part
of the os facrum,
fpine of the ilium,
fpinous procefles,
and roots of the
tranfverfe procefles
of the vertebrae of
the loins.
15. Longiflimus dorli The fame as that of
(k). the facro-lumbalis.
Into the lower
of each rib.
edge
Into the tranfverfe
procefles of the dor¬
fal vertebrae.
To extend the head
and draw it back¬
wards.
To aflift the re£lus
major.
To draw the head
backwards.
To draw the face to¬
wards the ihoulder,
and to move the
firft vertebra upon
the fecond.
To draw the ribs
downwards, move
the body upon its
axis, aflift in eredt-
ing the trunk, and
turn the neck back¬
wards, or to one
fide.
To ftretch the verte¬
brae of the back,
and keep the trunk
eredl.
16. Spinalis
(f) According to fome writers, this mufcle has gotten its name from its jrefemblance to the fpleen ; others
derive it from fplenium fplint.
(g) So named on account of its complicated ftrudlure*
(h) So named from its origin from the neck () and its infertion into the maftoid procefs.
(1) Sevefal thin fafciculi of fleftry fibres arife from the lower ribs, and terminate in the inner fide of this
mufcle. Steno names them mufculi adfacro-lumhalem accejforu. The facro-lumbalis likewife fends off a flefliy
flip from its upper part, which by Douglas and Albinus is defcribed as a diitindl mufcle, under the name of
cervicalis defcendens. Morgagni has very properly confidered it as a part of the facro-lumbalis.
(k) At the upper part of this mufcle a broad thin layer of flefliy fibres is found crofting, and intimately ad¬
hering to it. This portion, which is defcribed by Albinus under the name of tranfverfa/is cervicis, may very
properly be confidered as an appendage to the longiflimus dorfi. It arifes from the tranfverfe proceffes oi the
five or fix fuperior dorfal vertebrae, and is inferted into the tranfverfe proceffes of the fix inferior cervical ver¬
tebrae. By means of this appendage the longifflmus dorfi may ferve to move the neck to one fide, or obliquely
backwards. 1
Chap. II.
Of the
! Mufcles.
Muscles witliln the
cavity of the abo-
men, on the ante¬
rior and lateral
parts of the fpine,
ANATOMY.
223
Name.
16. Spinalis dorfi.
17. Semi-fpinalis dor¬
fi.
18. Multifidus fpi-
nae (lJ.
19. Semi-fpinalis col¬
li.
20. Scalenus (m).
21. Inter-fpinales(N).
- > ""of <■ 6H
2 2. Inter-tranfverfa-
les (o).
Origin.
From the fpinous pro-
ceffes of the upper-
moft lumbar and
lower moft dorfal
vertebrae.
From the tranfverfe
proceiTes of the 7th,
8th, 9th, and 10th
vertebrae of the
back.
From the os facrum,
ilium, oblique and
tranfverfe proceffes
of the lumbar ver¬
tebrae, tranfverfe
proceiTes of the dor¬
fal, and four of the
cervical vertebrae.
Fxom the tranfverfe
proceffes of the five
or fix uppermoft
dorfal vertebrae.
From the tranfverfe
proceflfes of the five
inferior cervicalver-
tebrae.
From the upper part
of each of the fpi¬
nous procefles of
the fix inferior cer¬
vical vertebrae.
From the upper part
of each of the tranf¬
verfe proceifes of
the vertebrae.
Infertion.
Into the fpinous pro¬
ceiTes of the nine
fuperior dorfal ver¬
tebrae.
Into the fpinous pro-
ceffes of the four
uppermoft dorfal,
and lowermoft of
the cervical verte¬
brae.
Into the fpinous pro¬
ceiTes of the lum¬
bar, dorfal, and fix
of the cervical ver¬
tebrae.
Into the fpinous pro¬
cefles of the 2d,
3d, 4th, 5th, and
6th cervical verte¬
brae.
Into the upper and
outer part of the
firftand fecond ribs.
Into the under part of
each of the fpinous
proceiTes of the ver¬
tebrae above.
Into the under part of
each of the tranf¬
verfe procefles of
the vertebrae above.
Ufe.
To extend the verte¬
brae.
To extend the fpine
obliquely back¬
wards.
To extend the back
and draw it back¬
wards, or to one
fide.
To ftretch the neck
obliquely back¬
wards.
To move the neck
forwards, or to one
fide.
To draw the fpinous
proceffes • towards
each other.
To draw the tranf¬
verfe procefles to¬
wards each other.
Of the
Mufcles.
1. Pfoas parvus (r). Irom the fides and Into the brim of the T’o bend the loins for-
tranfverfe procelfes pelvis, at the June- wrards.
of the uppermoft tion of the os pubis
lumbar vertebra, with the ilium,
and fometimes of
the lowermoft dor¬
fal vertebra. 2. Pfoas
(1.) Anatomifts in general have unneceffarily multiplied the mufcles of the fpine. Albinus has the merit of
having introduced greater fimplicity into this part of myology. Under the name of multifidus fpince, he has
very properly-included tho'e portions ol mufcular flelh intermixed with tendinous fibres, fituated clofe to the
back part of the ipine, and which are deferibed by Douglas under the names of tranfverfales colli, dorji, et
lurnborum.
(M) The indents gave it this name from its refemblance to an irregular triangle {'TKctMvcfi. It confifts of
tinee flefhy portions. The anterior one affords a paflage to the axillary artery, and between this and the middle
portion we find the nerves going to the upper extremities. I he middle is in part covered by the pofterior por¬
tion, which is the longeft and thinneft of the three.
^ (n) In the generality of anatomical books we find thefe mufcles divided into inter-fpinales cervicis, dorji, and
htmborum, but we do not find any fuch mufcles either in the loins or back.
(°) I hefe mufcles are to be found only in the neck and loins; wdrat have been deferibed as the inter-tranfver-
fates dorfi being rather fmall tendons than mufcles.
(p) I his and the following pair of mufcles derive their name oipfoas from lumbus, on account of their
iituation at the anterior part of the loins.
224
Of the
Mufcles.
2.
ANATOMY.
Infe7't ion.
Into the os femoris, a
little below the tro¬
chanter minor.
Name. Origin.
Pfoas magnus. From the bodies and
tranfverfe procefles
of the laft dorfal,
and all the lumbar
vertebrae.
From the inner lip,
hollow part, and
edge of the os ili¬
um.
Quadratus lumbo- From the pofterior
3. Iliacus internus.
rum (<}_).
5. Coccyg;eus.
part of the fpine of
the ilium.
From the pofterior
and inner edge of
the fpine of the if-
uhium.
In common with the
pfoas magnus.
Into the tranfverfe
procefles of the four
uppermoft lumbar
vertebrae, the infe¬
rior edge of the laft
rib, and the fide' of
the lowermoft dor¬
fal vertebra.
Into the lower part
of the os facrum,
and almoft the
whole length of the
os coccygis late¬
rally.
Ufe.
To bend the thigh
forwards.
Fo affift the pfoas
magnus.
To fupport the fpine,
or to draw it to one
fide.
1 o draw the os coccv-
gis forwards and in¬
wards (r).
Part I.
Of the
Mufcles,
Muscles on the
fcapula and upper
part of the os hu¬
meri, - - 1. Deltoides (*).
2. Supra-fpinatus.
3. Infra-fpinatus.
4. Teres minor (t).
5. Teres major.
6. Subfcapularis.
7. Coraco-brachia-
lis (u).
From the clavicle,
proceflus acromion,
and fpine of the
fcapula.
From the bafis, fpine,
and upper cofta of
the fcapula.
From the bafis and
fpine of the fcapula.
From the inferior co¬
fta of the fcapula.
From the inferior
angle, and inferior
cofta of the fcapu¬
la.
From the bafis, fupe-
rior and inferior co-
ftte of the fcapula.
From the coracoid
procefs of the fca¬
pula.
Into the anterior and
middle part of the
os humeri.
Into a large tuberofi-
ty at the head of
the os humeri.
Into the upper and
middle part of-the
tuberofity.
Into the lower part of
the tuberofity.
Into the ridge at the
inner fide of the
groove formed for
the long head of
the biceps.
Into the upper part
of a fmall tubero¬
fity at the head of
the os humeri.
Into the middle and
inner fide of the os
humeri.
To raife the arm.
To raife the arm.
To roll the os humeri
outwards.
To aflift the infra-fpi¬
natus.
To aflift in the rota¬
tory motion of the
arm.
To roll the arm in¬
wards.
To roll the arm for¬
wards and upwards.
Muscles
(O So called from its drape, ■which is that of an irregular fquare.
(r) Some of the fibres of this mufcle are united with thofe of the levator ani, fo that it aflifts in doling the
lower part of the pelvis.
(s) So named from its fuppofed refemblance to the Greek A reverfed.
(r) This and the following pair are called teres, from their being of a long and round fliape.
(u) This mufcle affords a pafiage to the mufculo-cutaneous nerve.
2
Chap.
Of the
Mufcles.
If,
Muscles on the os Name.
( humeri, - . i. Biceps flexor ctibi
ti.
ANATOMY. 22,-
Origin. Inferiiori. Ufe, Of the
By two heads, one Into the tuberofity at'To bend the fore-arm. Mufcles.
from the coracoid the upper end of
procefs, and the o-
ther, or long head,
the upper end
the radius.
— on the fore-
from the upper and
outer edge of the
glenoid cavity of
the fcapula.
s. Brachialis internus. From the os humeri, Into a fmall tubero-
below, and at each fity at the fore part
ilde of the tendon
of the deltoides.
3. Triceps extenfor By three heads : the
cubiti. firft, from the infe¬
rior cofta of the
fcapula 5 the fe-
cond, from the up¬
per and outer part
of the os humeri 5
and the third, from
the back part of
that bone.
To affift in bending
the fore-arm.
of the coronoid
procefs of the ulna.
Into the upper and To extend the
outer part of the arm,
olecranon.
fore
1. Supinator 1‘ongus,
2, Extenfor carpi ra-
dialis longus.
3. Extenfor carpi ra-
dialis brevis.
4. Extenfor digitorum
communis.
j. Extenfor minimi
digit!.
6. Extenfor carpi ui-
naris,
7. Anconaeus (r).
8. Flexor carpi ulna-
ris.
9. Palmaris longus.
From the outer ridge
and anterior fur-
face of the os hu¬
meri, a little above
its outer condyle.
Immediately below
the origin of the
fupinator longus.
From the outer and
loTver part of the
outer condyle of
the es humeri, and
the upper part of
the radius.
From the outer con¬
dyle of the os hu¬
meri.
From the outer con¬
dyle of the os hu¬
meri.
From the outer con¬
dyle of the os hu¬
meri.
From the outer con¬
dyle of the os hu¬
meri.
Into the radius near To afiift in turning
its flyloid procefs. the palm of the
hand upwards.
Into the upper part of To extend the wrift.
the metacarpal bone
of the fore-finger.
Into the upper part To aflift the extenfor
of the metacarpal longus.
bone of the middle
finger.
Into the back part of To extend the fingers,
all the bones of the
four fingers.
Into the bones of the To extend the little
little finger. finger.
Into the metacarpal To aflifl in extending
bone of the little the wrift,
finger.
Into tire outer edge of To extend the fore-
the ulna, arm.
Into the os pififorme. To aflifl; in bending
the hand.
From the inner con¬
dyle of the os hu¬
meri, and anterior
edge of the olecra¬
non (w).
From the inner con- Into the internal an- To bend the hand.
dyle of the os hu¬
meri.
Vol. II. Part I.
nular ligament, and
aponeurofis palma¬
ris (x).
F f
ro. Flexor
(v) So called from *fx«v, cubitus.
®etWCen the tW° 0ri8in.S ?fthIs inufcl<? we find the ulnar nerve g°!ng to the fore-arm.
t'O I he aponeurofis palmaris is a tendinous membrane that extends over the palm of the hand.
Some ana-
tomifts
226
Of the
Mufcles.
Muscles on
hand,
the
ANATOMY.
Part I.
Name.
10. Flexor carpi ra-
dialis.
11. Pronator radii
teres.
12. Flexor fublimis
perforatus (y).
13. Supinator radii
brevis.
14. Abdudlor pollicis
longus.
15. Extenfor minor
pollicis.
16. Extenfor major
pollicis.
17. Indicator.
18. Flexor profundus
perforans.
19. Flexor longus
pollicis.
20. Pronator radii
quadratus.
Origin.
From the inner con¬
dyle of the os hu¬
meri.
From the outer con¬
dyle of the os hu¬
meri, and coronoid
procefs of the ulna.
From the inner con¬
dyle of the os hu¬
meri, inner edge of
the coronoid pro¬
cefs of the ulna,
and upper and an¬
terior part of the
radius.
From the outer con¬
dyle of the os hu¬
meri, and pofterior
furface and outer
edge of the ulna.
From the middle and
back part of the
ulna, interolfeous
ligament, and ra¬
dius.
From the back part
of the ulna, and in-
teroffeous ligament
and radius.
From the back of the
ulna and interofle-
ous ligament.
From the middle of
the ulna.
From the upper and
fore part of the
ulna, and interof-
feous ligament.
From'the upper and
fore part of the ra¬
dius.
From the inner and
lower part of the
ulna.
Infertion.
Into the metacarpal
bone of the fore¬
finger.
Into the anterior and
convex edge of the
radius, near its
middle.
Into the fecond bone
of each finger.
Into the anterior, in¬
ner, and upper part
of the radius.
By two tendons into
the os trapezium,
and firft bone of
the thumb.
Into the convex part
of the fecond bone
of the thumb.
Into the third and
laft bone of the
thumb.
Into the metacarpal
bone of the fore¬
finger.
Into the fore part of
the laft bone of
each of the fingers.
Into the laft joint of
the thumb.
Into the radius, op-
pofite to its origin.
Ufe.
To bend the hand.
To roll the hand in¬
wards.
To bend the fecond
joint of the fingers.
To roll the radius
outwards.
To ftretch the firft:
bone of the thumb
outwards.
To extend the fecond
bone of the thumb
obliquely outwards.
To ftretch the thumb
obliquely back¬
wards.
To extend the fore¬
finger.
To bend the laft joint
of the fingers.
To bend the laft joint
of the thumb.
To roll the radius in¬
wards, and of courfe
to aftift in the pro¬
nation of the hand.
Of the
Mufcles.
I. Lumbricales (z). From the tendons of Into the tendons of To bend the firft, and
the perforans. the extenfor digi- to extend the two
torum communis. laft joints of the
fingers (a).
2. Abdu&or
tomifts have fuppofed it to be a produflion of the tendon of this mufcle, but without fufficient grounds ; for in
fome fubjefts we find the palmaris longus inferted wholly into the annular ligament, fo as to be perfedfly di-
ftindl from this aponeurofis 5 and it now and then happens, that no palmaris longus is to be found, whereas this
expanfion is never deficient.
(y) This mufcle is named perforatus, on account of the four tendons in which it terminates, being perforated
by thofe of another mufcle, the perforans.
(z) So named from their being fhaped fomewdiat like the lumbricus or earth-wTorm.
(a^) Fallopius wTas the firft who remarked the two oppofite ufes of this mufcle. Their extending powrer is
owing to their connexion with the extenfor communis.
Chap. II.
Of the
Mufcles.
Muscles at the back
part of the pelvis,
and upper part of
the thigh,
ANATOMY.
Name.
2. Abduftor brevis
pollicis.
3. Opponens pollic'is.
4. Flexor brevis pol¬
licis.
5. Addu&or pollicis.
6. Abduiftor indicis.
y. Palmaris brevis.
8. Abduflor minimi
digit!,
9. Flexor parvus mi¬
nimi digiti.
10. Adductor meta¬
carpi minimi digiti,
11. InterolTei interni.
Origin.
From the fore part
of the internal an¬
nular ligament, os
fcaphoides, and one
of the tendons of
the abduftor lon-
gus pollicis.
From the inner and
, anterior part of the
internal annular li¬
gament, and from
the os fcaphoides.
From the os trapezoi-
des, internal annu¬
lar ligament, os
magnum, and os
unciforme.
From the metacarpal
bone of the middle
finger.
From the inner fide
of the firft bone of
the thumb, and
from the os trape¬
zium.
From the internal an¬
nular ligament, and
aponeurofis palma¬
ris.
From the internal an¬
nular ligament, and
os pififorme.
From the os uncifor¬
me and internal an¬
nular ligament.
From the os uncifor¬
me, and internal an¬
nular ligament.
Situated between the
metacarpal bones.
Infertiori. Vfe.
Into the outer fide of To move the thumb
the 2d bone of the from the fingers,
thumb, near its
root.
Into the firft bone of To move the thumb
the thumb, inwards, and to turn
it upon its axis.
Into the oiTa fefamoi- To bend the fecond
dea and fecond joint of the thumb,
bone of the thumb.
Into the balls of the To move the thumb
fecond bone of the towards the fingers,
thumb.
Into the firft bone of To move the fore fin-
the fore finger po- ger towards the
fteriorly. thumb.
Into the os pififorme, To contraft the palm
and the {kin cover- of the hand,
ing the abductor
minimi digiti.
Into the fide of the To draw the little
firft bone of the finger from the reft,
little finger.
Into the firft bone of To bend the little fin-
the little finger. ger.
227
Of the
Mufcles,
Into the metacarpal
bone of the little
finger.
Into the roots of the
fingers.
12. Interoffei externi.
Situated between the
metacarpal bones
on the back of the
hand.
Into the roots of the
fingers.
To move that bone
towards the reft.
To extend the fingers
and move them to¬
wards the thumb
o).
To extend the fingers j
but the firft draws
the middle finger
inwards, the fe¬
cond draws it out¬
wards, and the third
draws the ring fin¬
ger inwards.
I. Glutaeus (c) msxi- From the fpine of the Into the upper part To extend the thigh
ilium, pofterior fa-
cro-ifchiatic liga¬
ments, os facrum,
and os coccygis.
of the lined afpera
of the os femoris.
F f
and draw it out¬
wards.
2. Glutaeus
(b) The third interoffeus internus (for there are four of the externi and three of the interni) differs from the
reft in drawing the middle finger from the thumb.
(c) From nates.
228
Of the
Mufcles-
ANATOMY.
Name.
2, Glutaous medius.
3. Glutteus minimus.
4. Pyriformis (0).
5. Gemini ('e).
6. Obturator internus.
'j. Quadratus (f) fe-
moris.
Origin.
From the fpine and
fuperior furface of
the ilium.
From the outer fur-
face of the ilium
and the border of
its great niche.
From the anterior
part of the os fa-
crum.
By two portions, one
from the outer fur-
face of the fpine
of the ifchium 5
the other from the
tuberofity of the
ifchium and pofte-
rior facro-ifchiatic
ligament.
From the fuperior half
of the inner border
of the foramen thy-
roideum.
From the tuberolity
of the ifchium.
Infer t ion. JJfe.
Into the outer and To draw the thigh (
back part of the outwards and a lit-
great trochanter of tie backwards, and
the os femoris. when it is bended,
to roll it.
Into the upper and To aflift the former,
anterior part of the
great trochanter.
Into a cavity at the To roll the thigh out-
root of the trochan- wTards.
ter major.
Into the fame cavity To roll the thigh out-
as the pyriformis. wrards, and likewife
to confine the ten¬
don of the obtura¬
tor internus, when
the latter is in ac¬
tion.
Into the fame cavity To roll the thigh out-
with the former. wards.
Part L
Ot the
Mulcles,
Into a ridge between To move the thigh'
the trochanter ma- outwards,
jor and trochanter
minor.
Muscles on the
thigh (g),
I. Biceps flexor cru¬
ris.
2. Semi-tendinofus.
3. Semi-membranofus
^ 0).
4. Tenfor vaginae fe¬
moris.
By two heads; one
from the tuberofity
of the ifchium
the other from the
linea afpera near
the infertion of
the glutaeus max-
imus.
From the tuberofity
of the ifchium.
From the tuberofity
of the ifchium.
From the fuperior
and anterior fpi-
nous procefs of the
ilium.
ito the upper and
back part of the fi¬
bula (h).
Into the upper and
inner part of the
tibia.
Into the upper and
back part of the
head of the tibia.
Into the inner fide of
the fafcia lata,
which covers the
outfide of the
thigh.
To bend the leg.
To bend and draw
the leg inwards.
To bend the leg.
To ftretch the faf¬
cia.
5. Sartorius.
(d) So named from its pear-like flrape.
( e ) The twro portions of this mufcle having been defcribed as tw7o diftinft mufcles by fome anatomifts,
have occafioned it to be named gemini. The tendon of the obturator internus runs between thefe two por¬
tions.
(f) This mufcle is not of the fquare ftiape its name would; feem to indicate.
(g) The mufcles of the leg and thigh are covered by a broad tendinous membrane called fafcia lata, that
furrounds them in the manner of a (heath. It is fent off from the tendons of the glutaei and other mufcles, and
dipping down between the mufcles it covers, adheres to the linea afpera, and fpreading over the joint of the
knee, gradually difappears on the leg. It is thickefl on the infide of the thigh.
{ h ) The tendon of this mufcle forms the outer hat?ifiritig.
(1) So named on account of its origin, which is by a broad flat tendon three inches long.
Cliap, II.
Of the
Mufcles.
ANATOMY.
229
Name.
Sartorius.
6. Re£tus.
7. Gracilis.
3. Vaftus externus(L).
9. Vaftus internus.
10. Cruraeus (m).
Origin. Inferticn. Vfe.
From the fuperior Into the upper and To bend the leg in-
and anterior fpi- inner part of the wards (k).
nous procefs of the tibia,
ilium.
By two tendons j one Into the upper and To extend the leg.
from the anterior fore part of the pa-
and inferior fpi- tella.
nous procefs of the
ilium } the other
from the pofterior
edge of the coty¬
loid cavity.
From the fore part of Into the upper and To bend the leg.
the ifchium and inner part of the
pubis. tibia.
From the anterior To the upper and To extend the leg.
and lower part of outer part of the
the great trochan- patella,
ter, and the outer
edge of the linea
afpera.
From the inner edge Into the upper and To extend the leg.
of the linea afpera, inner part of the
beginning between patella,
the fore part of the
os femoris and the
root of the leffer
trochanter.
From the outer and Into the upper part To extend the leg,
anterior part of of the patella,
the leffer trochan-
Of the
Mufcles.
II. Pe&inalis.
12. Adductor longus
femoris ( n ).
13. Adductor brevis
femoris.
14. Addudtor magnus
femoris.
15. Obturator exter-
nus.
ter.
From the anterior
edge of the os pu¬
bis, or peftinis, as it'
is fometimes called.
From the upper and
fore part of the os
pubis.
From the fore part of
the ramus of the os
pubis.
From the lower and
fore part of the ra¬
mus of the os pubis.
From part of the ob¬
turator ligament,
and the inner half
of the circumfer¬
ence of the foramen
thyroideum.
Into the upper and
fore part of the li¬
nea afpera.
Near the middle and ’
back part of the
linea afpera.
Into the inner and
upper part of the [>
linea afpera.
Into the whole
length of the li¬
nea afpera. J
Into the os femoris,
near the root of
the great trochan¬
ter.
To draw the thigti
inwards, upwards,
and to roll it a little
outwards.
To draw the thigh-
inwards, upwards,
and to roll it a little
outwards.
To move the thigh
outwards in an ob¬
lique diredlion, and
like wife to bend
and draw it in¬
wards.
Muscles
( k ) Spigelius was the firft who gave this the name of fartorius, or the taylor’s mufcle, from its ufe in crof-
fing the legs.
(l) The vaflus externus, vaftus internus, and crurseus, are fo intimately connected with each other, that fome
anatomifts have been induced to confider them as a triceps, or Angle mufcle with three heads.
(m) Under the crurams we fometimes meet with two hnall mufcles, to which Albinus has given the name of
fub-crurtei. They terminate on each fide of the patella, and prevent the capfular ligament from being pinched.
When they are wanting, which is very often the cafe, feme of the fibres of the cruraeus are found adhering to
the capfula.
(n ) This and the two following mufcles have been ufually, but improperly, eonfidered as forming a finglc
mufcle with three heads, and on that account named triceps femoris.
t
%
♦
2J0
Of the
Mufcles.
Muscles on the leg,
A N A T O
o ^ame' Origin.
I. Gaftrocnemius (o) By two heads; one
externus. from the inner con¬
dyle, the other from
the outer condyle
of the os femoris.
Gaftrocnemius (p) By two heads; one
internus. from the back part
of the head of the
fibula, the' other
from the upper and
back part of the
tibia.
From the upper and
pofterior part of the
outer condyle of the
os femoiis.
From the outer con¬
dyle of the thigh.
5. Flexor longus di- From the upper and
gitorum pedis (s). inner part of the
tibia. 1
3. Plantaris (O*
4. Popliteus (*.),
6. Flexor longus pol- From the back part,
licis pedis. and a little below
the head of the fi¬
bula.
7. Tibialis pofticus. From the back part
and outer edge of
the tibia, and like-
wife from the in-
teroffeous ligament
and adjacent part
of the fibula.
From the outer fide
of the head of the
tibia, and alfo from
the upper, anterior,
and outer part of
the perone or fibu¬
la, to which it ad¬
heres for a confide-
rable way down.
From the outer and
fore part of the fi¬
bula.
8. Peroncus longus.
M Y.
Infer tion. JJf^
By a great round ten- To extend the foot,
don, common to
this and the follow¬
ing mufcle.
By a large tendon To extend the foot,
(the tendo achil/is)
common to this and
the former mufcle,
into the lower and
back part of the os
calcis.
Into the infide of the To aflift in extending
back part of the os the foot,
calcis.
Into the upper and To aflifi in bending
inner part of the the leg and rolling
^bia. it inwards.
By four tendons, To bend the lafi joint
which, after pafling of the toe.
through the perfo¬
rations in thofe of
the flexor digito-
rum brevis, are in-
ferted into the lafl:
bone of all the toes,
except the great
toe.
Into the lafl; bone of To bend the great
the great toe. toe.
Into the inner and To move the foot in¬
upper part of the wards,
os naviculare and
fide of the os cunei-
forme medium.
Into the metatarfal To move the foot out-
bone of the great wards,
toe.
Part L
Of the
Mufcles,
: 9. Pefoneus brevis.
Into the metatarfal To aflift the laft de¬
bone of the little fcribed mufcle.
toe.
10. Extenfor
(o) Tar^Kniuct, fura, “ the calf of the leg.”
ir\ I)?1.8 is by fome anatomifts namedon account of its being fliaped like the fole-fifh.
(pj I his mufcle has gotten the name of plantaru, from its being fuppofed to furnilh the aponeurofis that
panfion 6 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ d°eS n0t m the leaft contribute to the formation of that tendinous ex-
(r) So called on account of its fituation at the ham (poples).
A aboutrth® micfole of the foot, unites with a flefhy mafs, which, from its having firft been
aetcnbed by Sylvius, is ufually cabled maffa carnea Jacobi Syltii.
Chap. II.
Of the
Mufcles.
JO.
ANATOMY.
Name. Origin. Infer tion. life.
Extenfor longus From the upper, out- By four tendons into To extend the toes.
23I
Of the
Mufcles.
the firft joint of the
fmaller toes.
Into the
bone of
toe.
metatarfal To bend the foot,
the little
digitoruxn pedis. er, and fore part
of the tibia, inter-
cfieous ligament,
and inner edge of
the fibula.
From the fore part
of the lower half
of the fibula, and
from the interoffe-
ous ligament.
From the upper and
fore part of the ti¬
bia.
13. Extenfor proprius From the upper and Into the convex fur- To extend the great
pollicis pedis. fore part of the ti- face of the bones of toe.
bia. the great toe.
1 lx. Peroneus tertius.
12. Tibialis anticus.
Into the os cunei-
forme internum.
To bend the foot.
Musclesonthefoot, 1. Extenfor brevis d."
gitorum pedis.
2. Flexor brevis digi-
torum pedis.
From the upper and By four tendons j one To extend the toes,
anterior part of the of which joins the
os calcis. tendon of the ex-
ternus longus polli¬
cis, and the other
three the tendons
of the extenfor di-
gitorum longus.
From the lower part By four tendons, To bend the fecond
of the os calcis.
3. Abduftor pollicis
pedis.
4. Abdu&or minimi
digiti.
5. Lumbrieales pedis.
6. Flexor brevis pol-
. licis pedis.
7. Adduclor pollicis
pedis.
8. Tianfverfales pe¬
dis.
From the inner and
lower part of the
os calcis.
From the outer tu¬
bercle of the os
calcis, the root of
the metatarfal bone
of the little toe,
and alfo from the
aponeurofis planta-
ris.
From the tendons of
the flexor longus
digitorum pedis.
From the inferior and
anterior part of the
os calcis, and alfo
from the inferior
part of the os cu-
neiforme externum.
From near the roots
of the metatarfal
bones of the 2d,
3d, and 4th toes.
From the outer and
under part of the
anterior end of the
metatarfal bone of
the little toe.
which, after af- joint of the toes,
fording a paflage
to thofe of the flex¬
or longus, are in-
ferted into the fe¬
cond phalanx of
each of the fmall
toes.
Into the firft joint of To move the great
the great toe. ' toe from the other
toes.
Into the outer fide To draw the little toe
of the firft joint of outwards,
the little toe.
Into the tendinous To draw the toes in-
expanfion at the wards,
upper part of the
toes.
By two tendons into To bend the firft joint
the firft joint of of the great toe.
the great toe.
Into the outer os fe- To draw the great toe
famoideum, or firft nearer to the reft,
joint of the great and alfo to bend
toe. ft.
Into the inner os fe- To contraft the foot,
famoideum, and an¬
terior end of the
metatarfal bone of
the great toe.
9. Flexor
o u»
ANATOMY.
Name. Origin. Infertron.
p. Flexor brevis mi- From the bails of the Into the firft joint of
nimi digiti pedis. rnetatarfal bone of the little toe,
the little toe.
10. Interofiei pedis in- Situated betw een the
terni(T). metatarial bones.
11. InteroiTei extern!
(v).
Part T.
vp-.
1 o bend the little toe.
EXPLANATION of PLATES XXV. and XXVI.
Plate XXV.
Fig. i. The Muscles immediately under the com¬
mon teguments on the anterior part of the body
are reprefented on the right fide \ and on the left
fide the Muscles are feen which come in view when
the exterior ones are taken avvay,
A, The frontal mufcle. B, The tendinous aponeu-
rofis which joins it to the occipital j hence both named
accipito frontalis. C, Attollens aurem. D, The ear.
E, Anterior auris. FF, Orbicularis palpebrarum,
G, Levator labii iuperioris abeque nafi. FI, Levator
anguli oris. I, Zygematicus minor. K, Zygomaticus
major. L, Maffeter. M, Orbicularis oris. N, De-
preflbr labii inferioris. O, Depreffor anguli oris,
P, Buccinator. QQ^, Platyfma myoides. RR, Ster-
no-cleido-maftoidseus. Part of the trapezius. T,
Part of the fcaleni.
Superior Extremity.-—U, Deltoides, V, Peflo-
xalis major. W, Part of the latifilmus dorfi. XX, Bi¬
ceps flexor cubiti. YY, Part of the brachialis exter-
nus. ZZ, The beginning of the tendinous aponeu-
rofis (from the biceps), which is fpread over the muf-
cles of the fore arm. aa, Its ftrong tendon inferted
into the tubercle of the radius, bb, Part of the bra¬
chialis internus, c, Pronator radii teres, d, Flexor
carpi radialis. e, Part of the flexor carpi ulnar is.
f, Palmaris longus. g, Aponeurofis palmaris. 3, Pal-
maris brevis. 1, Ligamentum carpi annulare. 2 2, Ab-
duftor minimi digiti. h, Supinator radii longus. i,
The tendons of the thumb, k, Abdu&or pollicis,
1, Flexor pollicis longus. mm, The tendons of the
flexor fublimis perforatus, profundus perforans, and
lumbricales.—The (heaths are entire in the right hand,
—-in the left cut open, to Ihow the tendons of the flexor
profundus perforating the fublimis.
Muscles not referred to.—in the leftfuperior extre¬
mity.—n, Pectoralis minor, feu ferratus anticus minor,
o, The two heads of (xx) the biceps, p, Coraco-
brachialis, qq, The long head of the triceps extenfor
cubiti. rr, Teres major, ff, Subfcapularis. tt, Ex-
tenfores radiales, u, Supinator brevis, v, The cut
extremity of the pronator teres, w, Flexor fubli¬
mis perforatus, x, Part of the flexor profundus,
y, Flexor pollicis longus. z, Part of the flexor pollicis
brevis. 4, Abduftor minimi digiti. 5, The four lum~
bricales.
Trunk.—6, Serrated extremities of the fenatus
anticus major. 7 7, Obliquus externus abdominis.
8 8, The linea alba. 9, The umbilicus. 10, Pyra-
midalis. x x 11, The fpermatic cord. On the left
fide it is covered by the creinafter. i 2 12, Redfus
abdominis. 13, Obliquus internus. 14 14, &c. In-
tercoftal mufcles.
Inferior Extremities..—a a, The gracilis, b bt
Part of the triceps, c c, Peftialis. del, Pfoas mag-
nus. e e, Iliac us internus, f Part of the glutaeus
medius. g, Part of the glutreus minimus, h, Cut
extremity of the re£tus cruris, ii, Vaftus externus.
k, Tendon of the redfus cruris. //, Vaflus internus.
* Sartorius mufcle. * * Flelhy origin of the tenfor
vaginae femoris or membranofus. Its tendinous aponeu¬
rofis covers (7) the vaftus externus in the right fide.
mm, Patella, n n, Ligament or tendon from it to the
tibia. e>, Re&us cruris. />, Crureeus. 7 q, The tibia,
r r, Part of the gemellus or gaftrocnemius externus.
fff, Part of the foleus or gaftrocnemius internus,
t. Tibialis anticus. u, Tibialus pofticus, v v, Paeronsei
mufcles. w w, ' Extenfor longus digitorum pedis.
xx, Extenfor longus pollicis pedis, y, Abduftor
pollicis pedis.
Fig. 2. The Muscles, Glands, &.c. of the left
Side ©f the Face and Neck, after the common Te¬
guments and Platyfma myoides have been taken oiL
a, The frontal mufcle. b, Temporalis and tempo¬
ral artery, c, Orbicularis palpebrarum, d, Levator
labii fuperioris aleeque nafi. e, Levator anguli oris,
f, Zygomaticus, g, Depreflbr labii inferioris. h, De-
preffbr anguli oris. i, Buccinator. k, Mafleter.
11, Parotid gland, m, Its duft. n, Sterno-cleido-
maftoideeus, o, Part of the trapezius, p, Sterno-
hyoidteus. q, Sterno-thyroidaeus. r, Omo-hyoidaeus.
f, Levator fcapulse. tt, Scaleni, u, Part of the fple-
nius.
Fig. 3. The Muscles of the Face and Neck in view
after the exterior ones are taken away,
a a, Corrugator fupercilii. b, Temporalis, c, Ten¬
don of the levator palpebree fupenoris. d, Tendon
of the orbicularis palpebrarum, e, Pvlafleter, f, Buc¬
cinator. g, Levator anguli oris, h, Depreflbr labii
fuperioris alaeque nafi. i, Orbicularis oris, k, Depref¬
for anguli oris. 1, Muicles of the. os hyoides. m,
Sterno-cleido-maftoidteus
Fig.
(t) The interoffi i interni are three in number; their ufe is to draw the fmaller toes towards the great toe.
(u) The interoftei externi are four in number , the firft ferves to move the fore toe towards the great toe ;
the reft move the toes outwards. All the interoflei aflift in extending the toes.
2
Chap. III.
anatomy.
Fig.
Some of the Muscles of the Os Hyoides
a:id Submaxillary Gland.
a, Part of the maiTeter mufcle. b, Pofterior head
of the digaftric. c, Its anterior head, dd, Sterno-
hyouheus. e, Omo-hyoidaeus. £,• Stylo-hyoidaeus. g,
Submaxillary gland in fitu.
Fig. 5. The Submaxillary Gland and Duel,
a, Mufculus mylo-hyoidseus. b, Hyo-gloflus. c,
Subraaxillary gland extra fitum. d, Its dud:.
Plate XXVI.
Fig. t. The Mu soles immediately under the common
teguments on the pofterior part of the body are re-
prefented in the right fide 5 and on the left fide the
Mu soles are feen which come in view when the
exterior ones are taken away.
II ead.— \ A, Occipito-frohtalis. B, Attollens au-
fem. C, Part of the orbicularis palpebrarum. I),
Mafieter. E, Pterygoidceus internus.
Trunk.—Right fide. FFF, Trapezius feu cucul-
laris. GGGG, Latitfimus dorfi. H, Part of the
obliquus externus abdominis.
Trunk.—Left fide. I, Splenius. K, Part of the
complexus. L, Levator fcapulce. M, Rhomboides.
NN, Serratus pofticus inferior. O, part of the lon-
giftimus dorfi. P, Part of the facro-lumbalis. CL Part
of the femi-fpinalis dorfi. R, Part of the ferratus an-
ticus major. S, Part of the obliquus internus abdo¬
minis.
Superior Extremity.—Right fide. T, Deltoides.
U, Triceps extenfor cubiti. V, Supinator longus.
WW, Extenfores carpi radialis longior and brevior.
XX, Extenfor carpi ulnaris. YY, Extenfor digito-
rum communis. Z, Abdudor indicis. 123, Ex¬
tenfores pollicis.
Superior Extremity.—Left fide, a, Supra fpi-
natus. b, Infra fpinatus. c, Teres minor, d, Te¬
res major, e, Triceps extenfor cubiti. ff, Exten¬
fores carpi radiales. g, Supinator brevis, h, Indica-
tor.^ 123, Extenfores pollicis. i, Abdudor minimi
digiti. k, Interofiei.
Inferior Extremity—Right fide. 1, Glutreus
maximus. m, Part of the glutaeus medius. n, Ten-
for vaginae femoris. o, Gracilis, pp, Addudor fe-
mpris magnus. q, Part of the vaftus internus. r, Se-
miraembranofus. s, Sernitendinofus. t, Long head
233
of the biceps flexor cruris, uu, Gaftrocnemius ex- Of the
ternus feu gemellus, v, Tendo Achillis. w, Solseus ^domen.
feu gaftrocnemius internus. x x, Peronaeus longus and 'r~~J
brevis, y, Tendons of the flexor longus digitorum
pedis *-and under them * flexor brevis digitorum
pedis, z, Abdudor minimi digiti pedis.
Inferior Extremity.—-Left fide. /«, n, 0, pp, qy
r\ st [■> w w, xx, y, Point the fame parts as in
the right fide, a, Pyriformis. b b, Gemini, c c, Obtu¬
rator internus. d, Quadratus femoris. e, Coccygaeus.
ft f fhort head of the biceps flexor cruris, gg, Plan-
taris. h, Poplitseus. llexor longus pollicis pedis.
Fig. 2. The Palm of the Left Hand after the com¬
mon Teguments are removed, to Ihowthe Muscles
of the Fingers.
n, Tendon of the flexor carpi radialis. b, Tendon
of the flexor carpi ulnaris. c, Tendons of the flexor
fublimis perforatus, profundus perforans, and lumbri-
cales. d, Abduilor pollicis. ee, flexor pollicis
longus. f, Flexor pollicis hi'evis. g, Palmaris bre¬
vis. h, Abdudor minimi digiti. i, Ligamentum car-
piannulare. k, A probe put under the tendons of the
flexor digitorum fublimis ; which are perforated by 1,
the flexor digitorum profundus, mmmm, Lumbri-
cales. n, Addudor pollicis.
Fig. 3. A Fore view of the Foot and tendons of the
Flexores Digitorum.
a, Cut extremity of the tendo Achillis. b, Upper
part of the aftragalus. c, Os calcis. d, Tendon of
the tibialis anticus. e, Fendon of the extenfor pollicis
longus. f, "Fendon of the peronams brevis, g, Ten¬
dons of the flexor digitorum longus, with the nonus
Vefalii. hh, The whole of the flexor digitorum
brevis.
Fig. 4. Mus cles of the Anus,
aa, An outline of the buttocks, and upper part of
the thighs, b, rl he teltes contained in the ferotum.
cc, Sphinder ani. d, Anus, e, Levator ani. ff, E-
redor penis, gg, Accelerator urinae. h, Corpus ca-
vernofum urethne.
Fig. 5. Muscles of the Penis,
aa, b, d, ee, fr, h, point the fame as in fig. 4,
c, Sphinder ani. gg, Tranfverfalis penis.
CHAP. III. OF THE ABDOMEN, OR LOWER BELLY.
ss
THE abdomen, or lower belly, extends from the
lower extremity of the fternum, or the hollow ufually
called the pit of the ftomack, and more properly ycrc^f-
cu/us cordis, to the lower part of the trunk.
It is diftinguifhed into three divifions cdiltd. regions ;
of thefe the upper one, which is called the epigaflric
region, begins immediately under the fternum, and ex¬
tends to within two fingers breadth of the navel, where
the middle or umbilical region begins, and reaches to
the fame diftance below the navel. The third, which
is called the hypognjlric, includes the reft of the abdo¬
men, as far as the os pubis.
Each oi thefe regions is fubdivided into three others j
two of which compofe the fides, and the other the
middle part of each region.
Vol. II. Part I.
The middle part of the upper region is called epi-
gajlrium, and its two fides hypochondria. The middle
part of the next region is the umbilical region, proper¬
ly fo called, and its two fides are the flanks, or iliac
regions. Laftly, The middle part of the lower region
retains the name of hypogaftrium, and its fides are
called inguina or groins. The back part of the abdo¬
men bears the r me of lumbar region.
Thefe are the divifions of the lower belly, which
are neceffary to be held in remembrance, as they fre¬
quently occur in furgical and anatomical writing. We
wiH now proceed to examine the contents «f the abdo¬
men j and after having pointed out the names and ar¬
rangement of the feveral vifeera contained in it, de-
feribe each of them feparately.
Gg
After
I
254
A N A T O M Y.
Of the
Abdomen.
After having removed the fkin, adipofe membrane,
and abdominal mufcles, we difcover the peritonaeum or
membrane that envelopes all the vifcera of the lower
belly. This being opened, the firfl: part that prefents
itfelf is the omentum or cawl, floating on the furface
of the inteftines, which are likewife feen everywhere
loofe and moift, and making a great number of cir¬
cumvolutions through the whole cavity of the abdo¬
men. The ftomach is placed in the epigaftrium, and
under the ftomach is the pancreas. The liver fills the
right hypochondrium, and the fpleen is fituated in the
left. The kidneys are feen about the middle of the
lumbar region, and the urinary bladder and parts of
generation are feated in the lower divifion of the
belly.
Sect. I. Of the Peritoneum.
The peritonaeum is a ftrong Ample membrane, by
which all the vifcera of the abdomen are furrounded,
and in fome meafure fupported. Many anatomical
writers, particularly Window, have defcribed it as be¬
ing compofed of two diftinft membranous laminae 5
but their defcription feems to be erroneous : what
perhaps appeared to be a fecond lamina, being found
to be Amply a cellular coat, which fends off produc¬
tions to the blood veffels palling out of the abdominal
cavity. The aorta and vena cava likewife derive a
covering from the fame membrane, which feems to be
a part of the cellular membrane we have already de¬
fcribed.
The peritonaeum, by its productions and reduplica¬
tions, envelopes the greateft part of the abdominal
vifcera. It is foft, and capable of confiderable exten-
fion ; and is kept fmooth and moift by a vapour,
which is conftantly exhaling from its inner furface,
and is returned again into the circulation by the ab-
forbents.
This moifture not only contributes to the foftnefs
of the peritonaeum, but prevents the attrition, and
other ill effe&s which would otherwife probably be
occafioned, by the motion of the vifcera upon each
other.
When this fluid is fupplied in too great a quantity,
or the abforbents become incapable of carrying it off,
it accumulates, and conftitutes an afcites or dropfy of
the belly } and when by any means the exhalation is
difcontinued, the peritonaeum thickens, becomes dif-
eafed, and the vifcera are fometimes found adhering to
each other.
The peritonaeum is not a very vafcular membrane.
In a found ftate it feems to be endued with little or no
feeling, and the nerves that pafs through it appear to
belong to the abdominal mufcles.
Sect. II. Of the Omentum.
qQ The omentum, epiploon, or cawl, is a double mem¬
brane, produced from the peritonaeum. It is inter¬
larded with fat, and adheres to the ftomach, fpleen,
duodenum, and colon ; from thence hanging down
loofe and floating on the furface of the inteftines. Its
fize is different in different fubjefts. In fome it de-
fcends as lorv as the pelvis, and it is commonly longer
at the left fide than the right.
This part, the fituation of which we have juft now
defcribed, was the only one known to the ancients un¬
der the name of epiploon ; but at prefent we diftinguilh
three omenta, viz. omentum magnum colico-gafricum,
omentum parvum hepatico-gajfricum, and 'omentum co-
licum. They all agree in being formed of two very
delicate laminae, feparated by a thin layer of cellular
membrane.
The omentum magnum colico-gaftricum, of which
w^e have already fpoken, derives its arteries from the
fplenic and hepatic. Its veins terminate in the vena
portae. Its nerves, which are very few, come from the
fplenic and hepatic plexus.
The omentum parvum hepatico-gaftricum abounds
lefs with fat than the great epiploon. It begins at the
upper part of the duodenum, extends along the leffer
curvature of the ftomach as far as the oefophagus, and
terminates about the neck of the gall-bladder, and be¬
hind the left ligament of the liver, fo that it covers-
the leffer lobe •, near the beginning of which we may
obferve a fmall opening, firft defcribed by Win flow,
through which the whole pouch may eafily be diftend-
ed with air (x). The veffels of the omentum parvum
are derived chiefly from the coronary ftomachic arteries
and veins.
The omentum colicum begins at the fore part of the
caecum and right fide of the colon. It appears as a
hollow conical appendage to thefe inteftines, and ufu-
ally terminates at the back of the omentum magnum.
It feems to be nothing more than a membranous coat
of the caecum and colon, affuming a conical ftiape when
diftended with air.
The ufes of the omentum are not yet fatisfaflorily
determined. Perhaps by its foftnefs and loofenefs it
may ferve to prevent thofe adhefions of the abdominal
vifcera, which have been found to take place when the
fat of the omentum has been much wafted. Some au¬
thors have fuppofed, that it aflifts in the preparation of
bile) but this idea is founded merely on conjecture.
Sect. III. Of the Stomach.
The ftomach is a membranous and mufcular bag,
in ftiape not unlike a bagpipe, lying acrofs the upper-
part of the abdomen, and inclining rather more to the
left than the right fide.
It has two orifices, one of which receives the end
of the cefophagus, and is called the cardia, and fome¬
times the left and upper orifice of the ftomach $ though
its fituation is not much higher than the other, which
is ftyled the right and inferior orifice, and more com¬
monly the pylorus; both thefe openings are more ele¬
vated than the body of the ftomach.
The aliment paffes down the cefophagus into the
ftomach through the cardia, and after having under¬
gone
(x) This membranous bag, though exceedingly thin and tranfparent, is found capable of fupporting mercury,
thrown into it by the fame channel,
Part L
Of the
Abdomen,
 v >
95-
Chap.
III. A N A T
Of the gone the neeeffary dlgeftion, paffes out at the pylorus
Abdomen, -where the iuteftinal canal commences.
' Xhe ftomach is compofed of four tunics or coats,
which are fo intimately conne&ed together that it re¬
quires no little dexterity in the anatomift to demon-
ftrate them. The exterior one is membranous, being
derived from the peritonaeum. The fecond is a mui-
cular tonic, compofed of flelhy fibres which are in the
greateft number about the two orifices. The third is
called the nervous coat, and within this is the villous
or velvet-like coat which compofes the infide of the
ffomach.
The two lalt coats being more extenfive than the
two firft, form the folds, which are obierved every-
where in the cavity of this vifcus, and more particu¬
larly about the pylorus j where they feern to impede
the too hafty exclufion of the aliment, making a con-
liderable plait, called vahu/a pylori.
The inner coat is conllantly moiftened by a mucus,
which approaches to the nature of the faliva, and is
called the gaftric juice : this liquor has been fuppofed
to be fecreted by certain minute glands (y) feated in
the nervous tunic, whofe excretory dufts open on the
furface of the villous coat.
The arteries of the ftomach called the gaftric arte¬
ries are principally derived from the caeliac j fome of
its veins pafs to the fplenic, and others to the vena
portee $ and its nerves are chiefiy from the eighth pair
or par vagum.
The account given of the tunics of the ftomach
may be applied to the whole alimentary canal j for
both the cefophagus and inteftines are, like this vifcus,
compofed of four coats.
Before we defcribe the courfe of the aliment, and the
ufes of the ftomach, it will be neceffary to fpeak of
other parts which affift in the procefs of digeftion.
Sect. IV. Of the Oefophagus.
$1 The oefophagus or gullet is a membranous and muf-
cular canal, extending from the bottom of the mouth
to the upper orifice of the ftomach. Its upper part
where the aliment is received is ftiaped fomewhat like
a funnel, and is called the pharynx.
From hence it runs down clofe to the bodies of the
vertebrae as far as the diaphragm, in which there is an
opening through wdiich it pafl’es, and then terminates
in the ftomach about the eleventh or twelfth vertebra
of the back.
The oefophagus is plentifully fupplied with arteries
from the external carotid, bronchial, and fuperior in-
tercoftal arteries j its veins empty themfelves into the
vena azygos, internal jugular, and mammary veins, &c.
Its nerves are derived chiefly from the eighth pair.
We likewife meet with a mucus in the oefophagus,
93
O M Y. 235
which everywhere lubricates its inner furface, and Of the
tends to allift in deglutition. This mucus feems to be Abdomen,
fecreted by very minute glands, like the mucus in other * v
parts of the alimentary canal.
Sect. V. Of the InteJHnes.
The inteftines form a canal, which is ufually fix
times longer than the body to wdiich it belongs. This
canal extends from the pylorus, or inferior orifice of the
ftomach, to the anus.
It will be eafily underftood, that a part of fuch great
length muft neceffarily make many circumvolutions, to
be confined with fo many other vilcera within the cavity
of the lower belly.
Although the inteftines are in faft, as we have ob-
ferved, only one long and extenfive canal, yet different
parts have been diftinguifhed by different names.
The inteftines are firft diftinguifhed into two parts,
one of which begins at the ftomach, and is called the
thin or fmall intejltnes, from the fmall fize of the canal,
when compared with the other part, which is called the
large inteftines^ and includes the lower portion of the
canal down to the anus.
Each of thefe parts has its fubdivifions. The fmall
inteftines being diftinguifhed into duodenum, jejunum,
and ileum, and the larger portion into caecum, colon,
and reftum.
The fmall inteftines fill the middle and fore parts of
the belly, while the large inteftines fill the fides and
both the upper and lower parts of the cavity.
The duodenum, which is the firft of the fmall in¬
teftines, is fo called, becaufe it is about 12 inches long.
It begins at the pylorus, and terminates in the jejunum,
which is a part of the canal obferved to be ufually more
empty than the other inteftines. This appearance
gives it its name, and likewife ferves to point out where
it begins.
The next divifion is the ileum, which of itfelf ex¬
ceeds the united length of the duodenum and jejunum,
and has received its name from its numerous circumvo¬
lutions. The large circumvolution of the ileum co¬
vers the firft of the large inteftines called the ccecum (x),
■which feems properly to belong to the colon, being a
kind of pouch of about four fingers in width, and near¬
ly of the fame length, having exteriorly a little appen¬
dix, called appendix aeci.
The caecum is placed in the cavity of the os ilium
on the right fide, and terminates in the colon, which
is the largeft of all the inteftines.
This inteftine afcends by the right kidney to which
it is attached, paffes under the hollow part of the liver,
and the bottom of the ftomach, to the fpleen, to which
it is likewife fecured, as it is alfo to the left kidney j
and from thence paffes down towards the os facrum,
G g 2 where
(y) Heifter, fpeaking of thefe glands, very properly fays, “ inporcis facile, in homine raro obfervantur j” for
although many anatomical writers have defcribed their appearance and figure, yet they do not feem to have been
hitherto fatisfa&orily demonftrated in the human ftomach j and the gaftric juice is now more generally believed
to be derived from the exhalant arteries of the ftomach.
(x) Anatomifts have differed with refpeft to this divifion of the inteftines.—The method here followed is now
generally adopted ; but there are authors who allow the name of ccecum only to the little appendix, which has
llkewile been called the vermiform appendix, from its refemblance to a worm in fize and length.
r
236 A N A T1
Oftlie where, from its ftraight courfe, the canal begins to
Aodomerh ^a}-e name Qf reclum.
There are three ligamentous bands extending
through the whole length of the colon, which by being
Ihorter than its two inner coats, ferve to increafe the
plaits Oh the inner furface of this gut.
The anus, which terminates the inteftinum reftum,
is furniihed with three mufcles j one of thefe is com-
pofed of circular fibres, and from its ufe in {hutting the
paffage of the anus is called fphincler ani.
The other two are the leva tores ani, fo called, be-
caufe they elevate the anus after dejection. When thefe
by palfy, or any other difeafe, lofe the power of con-
tra&ing, the anus prolapfes and when the fphindler is
affefted by fimilar caufes, the faeces are voided involun¬
tarily.
It has been already obferved, that the inteftinal cahal
is compofed of four tunics j but it remains to be re¬
marked, that here, as in the ftomach, the two inner tu-
idcs being more extenfive than the other two, form the
plaits which are to be feen in the inner furface of the
inteftines, and are called valvulse conniventes.
Some authors have confidered thefe plaits as tending
to retard the motion of the faeces, in order to afford
more time for the feparation of the chyle •, but there
are others who attribute to them a different ufe : they
contend, that thefe valves, by being naturally inclined
downwards, cannot impede the defcent of the faeces,
but that they are intended to prevent their return up¬
wards.
They are probably deftined for both thefe ufes ; for
although thefe folds incline to their lower fide, yet the
inequalities they occafion in the canal are fufficient to
retard in fome meafure the progrefhve motion of the
faeces, and to afford a greater furface for the abforp-
tion of chyle ; and their natural pofition feems to oppofe
itfelf to the return of the aliment.
Befides thefe valvule conniventes, there is one more
confiderable than the reft, called the valve of the colon;
which is found at that part of the canal where the in¬
teftinum ileum is joined to the colon. This valve per¬
mits the alimentary pulp to pafs downwards, but ferves
to prevent its return upwards; and it is by this valve
that clyfters are prevented from paffing into the fmall
inteftines (y).
O M Y.
Part I.
Of the little vermiform appendix of the caecum, it Of the
will be fufficient to fay, that its ufes have never yet been Abdomen.
afcertained. In birds we meet with two of thefe ap- 'v J
pendices.
The inteftines are lubricated by a conftant fupply of
mucus, which is probably fecreted by very minute fol¬
licles (z). This mucus promotes the defcent of the
alimentary pulp, and in fome meafure defends the inner
fuvface of the inteftines from the irritation to which it
would, perhaps, otherwife be continually expofed from
the aliment ; and which, when in a certain degree, ex¬
cites a painful dilorder called colic, a name given to the
difeafe, becaufe its moft ufual feat is in the inteftinum
colon.
The inteftines are likewife frequently diftended with
air, and this diftenfion fometimes occafions pain, and
conftitutes the flatulent colic.
The arteries of the inteftines are continuations of the
mefenteric arteries which are derived in two confider¬
able branches from the aorta.—The redundant blood
is carried back into the vena portarum.
In the reftum the veins are called hcanorrhoulal, and
are there diflinguiftied into internal and external : the
firft are branches of the inferior mefenteric vien, but
the latter pafs into other veins. Sometimes thefe veins
are diftended with blood from obftruftions, from w7eak-
nefs of their coats, or from other caufes, and w hat we
call the hemorrhoids takes place. In this difeafe they
are fometimes ruptured 5 and the difcharge of blood
which confequently follows, has probably occafioned
them to be called hcemorrhoidal veins.
The nerves of the inteftines are derived from the
eighth pair.
Sect. VI. Of the Mefentery.
The name of the mefentery implies its fituation
amidft the inteftines. It is in faff a part of the peri-
tomeum, being a reduplication (a) of that membrane
from each fide of the lumbar vertebrae, to which it is
firmly attached, fo that it is formed of two laminae con¬
nected to each other by cellular membrane.
The inteftines, in their different circumvolutions,
form a great number of arches, and the mefentery ac¬
companies them through all thefe turns } but by being
attached
(y) This is not invariably the cafe ; for the contents of a clyfter have been found not only to reach the Imall
inteftines, but to be voided at the mouth. Such inftances, however, are not common.
(z) Some writers have diftinguiihed thefe glands into miliary, lenticular, &c.—Brunner and Peyer wrere the
firft anatomifts w’ho deferibed the glands of the inteftines, and their deferiptions were chiefly taken from animals,
thefe glandular appearances not feeming to have been hitherto fatisfaClorily pointed out in the human fubje£f.
It is nowr pretty generally believed, that the mucus which everywhere lubricates the alimentary canal, is exhaled
from the minute ends of arteries j and that thefe extremities firft open into a hollow7 veficle, from whence the de-
pofited juice of feveral branches flows out through one common orifice.
(a) He who only reads of the reduplication of membranes, will perhaps not eafily underftand how7 the peii-
toneum and pleura are reflecled over the vifeera in their feveral cavities } for one of thefe ferves the fame pur-
pofe$ in the thorax that the other does in the abdomen. This difpofition, for the difeovery of which we^ are
indebted to modern anatomifts, conftitutes a curious part of anatomical knowledge : but the Undent, unaided
by experience, and affifted only by what the limits of this work would permit us to fay on the occafion, wou c
probably imbibe only confufed ideas of the matter j audit w7ill perlectly anfwer the prelent pm pole, 1 e co^'
fiders the mefentery as a membrane attached by one of its.fides to the lumbar vertebrae, and by t..e otner to t e
inteftines.
Chap. III. A N A T
Of the attached only to the hollow part of eacli arch, it is
Abdomen, found to have only a third of the extent of the intef-
v " ' tines.
That part of this membrane which accompanies the
fmall inteftines is the mefentery, properly fo called } but
thofe parts of it which are attached to the colon and
redfum are diftinguifhed by the names of tnefo-colon and
mefo-reBum.
There are many conglobate glands difperfed through
this double membrane, through which the ladleals and
lymphatics pafs in their way to the thoracic duft. The
blood veffels of the mefentery were deferibed in fpeak-
ing of the inteftines.
This membrane, by its attachment to the vertebrae,
ferves to keep the inteilines in their natural htuation.
The idea ufually formed of the colic called miferere, is
perfeftly erroneous ; it being impofllble that the in¬
teftines can be twifted, as many fuppofe they are, in
that difeafe, their attachment to the mefentery effec¬
tually preventing fuch an accident—but a difarrange-
ment fometimes takes place in the inteftinal canal itfelf,
which is produftive of difagreeable and fometimes fatal
confequences. T his is by an introfufeeption of the in¬
tertine, an idea of which may be eafily formed, by tak¬
ing the finger of a glove, and involving one part of it
within the other.
If inflammation takes place, the ftrifture in this cafe
is increafed, and the periftaltic motion of the inteftines
(by which is meant the progreflive motion of the faeces
downwards) is inverted, and wTiati^ called the iliac paf-
Jion takes place. The fame effefts may be occafloned
by a defeent of the inteftine, or of the omentum either
with it or by itfelf, and thus conftituting what is called a
hernia or rupture ; a term by which in general is meant
the falling down or protruflon of any part of the intef¬
tine or omentum, which ought naturally to be contain¬
ed within the cavity of the belly.
To convey an idea of the manner in which fuch a
defeent takes place, it will be neceffary to obferve, that
the lower edge of the tendon of the mufculus obliquus
externus, is ftretched from the fore part of the os ilium
or haunch bone of the os pubis, and conftitutes wdiat is
called Poupart's or Fallopius's ligament, forming an
opening, through which pafs the great crural artery
and vein. Near the os pubis the fame tendinous fibres
are feparated from each other, and form an opening on
each fide, called the abdominal ring, through which the
fpcrmatic veffels pafs in men, and the ligamenta uteri
in women. In confequence of violent efforts, or per¬
haps of natural caufes, the inteftines are found fome¬
times to pafs through thefe openings •, but the perito¬
neum which enclofes them when in their natural cavity,
ftill continues to furround them even in their defeent.
This membrane does not become torn or lacerated by
the violence, as might be eafily imagined ; but its dila-
tability enables it to pafs out with the vifeus, which it
enclofes as it wrere in a bag, and thus forms what is
called the hernialfac.
If the hernia be under Poupart’s ligament, it is call¬
ed femoral; if in the groin inguinal (b) ; and fcrotal,
if in the ferotum. Different names are likewife given
to the hernia as the contents of the fac differ, whether
O M Y.
237
of omentum only, or inteftine, or both ;—but thefe de- Of the
finitions more properly belong to the province of far- ^ha.jn.en.^
gery.
Sect. VII. Of the Pancreas.
The pancreas is a conglomerate gland, placed be- p-
hind the bottom of the ftomach, towards the firft ver¬
tebra of the loins 5 fliaped like a dog’s tongue, with its
point ftretched out towards the fpleen, and its other end
extending towards the duodenum. It is about eight
fingers breadth in length, twro or three in width, and
one in thicknefs.
This vifeus, which is of a yellowifa colour, fome-
what inclining to red, is covered with a membrane which
it derives from the peritoneum. Its arteries, which
are rather numerous than large, are derived chiefly
from the fplenic and hepatic, and its veins pafs into the
veins of the fame name.—Its nerves are derived from
the intercoftal.
The many little glands of which it has been obferved
the pancreas is compofed, all ferve to fecrete a liquor
called the pancreatic juice, which, in its colour, confift-
ence, and other properties, does not feem to differ from
the faliva. Each of thefe glands fends out a little ex¬
cretory duft, which uniting with others, help to form
larger dufls } and all thefe at laft terminate in one
common excretory dudl (firft difeovered by Virtfungus
in 1642), which runs through the middle of the gland,
and is now ufually called duBus pancreaticus Virtjungi.
This canal opens into the inteftinum duodenum, fome¬
times by the fame orifice with the biliary dudt, and fome¬
times by a diftinft opening. The liquor it difeharges
being of a mild and infipid nature, ferves to dilute the
alimentary pulp, and to incorporate it more eafily with
the bile.
Sect. VIII. Of the Liver.
The liver is a vifeus of confiderable fize, and of a 9®
reddifti colour ; convex fuperiorly and anteriorly where
it is placed under the ribs and diaphragm, and of an
unequal furface pofteriorly. It is chiefly fituated in
the right hypochcndrium, and under the fa]fe ribs $
but it likewife extends into the epigaftric region, where
it borders upon the ftomach. It is covered by a pro-
duftion of the peritonaeum, which ferves to attach it
by three of its reduplications to the falfe ribs. Thefe
reduplications are called ligaments, though very differ¬
ent in their texture from what are called by the lame
name in other parts of the body. The umbilical cord,
too, which in the foetus is pervious, gradually becomes
a fimple ligament after birth 5 and by palling to the
liver, ferves likewife to fecure it in its lituation.
At the pofterior part of this organ where the um¬
bilical veffels enter, it is found divided into two
lobes. Of thefe, the largeft is placed in the right hy-
pochondrium } the other, which covers part of the fto¬
mach, is called the little lobe. All the veffels which
go to the liver pafs in at the fiffure wTe have mention¬
ed ; and the production of the peritonaeum, which in¬
verts the liver, was deferibed by Gliffon, an Englilh
anatomift, as accompanying them in their paffage, and
furrounding
(b) The hernia congenita will be confidered wdth the male organs of generation, with which, it is intimately
connected.
23S _ A N A T
AiuLmen ^urrounf^111S tliem like a glove j hence this produfHon
^ ^ ■ ^las_ keen commonly known by the name of capfula of
Glijfon: but it appears to be chiefly a continuation of
the cellular membrane which covers the vena portte
ventralis.
The liver was confidered by the ancients as an organ
deftined to prepare and perfetS the blood j but later
oifcovenes have proved, that this opinion wTas wrong,
and that the liver is a glandular fubltance formed for
the fecretion of the bile.
The blood is conveyed to the liver by the hepatic
artery and the vena portae. This is contrary to the
mode of circulation in other parts, where veins only
ferve to carry off the redundant blood : but in this vif-
cus the hepatic artery, wTich is derived from the cae-
liac, is principally deltined for its nouriffiment 5 and the
vena portae, which is formed by the union of the veins
from moff of the abdominal vifcera, furnilhes the blood
from which the bile is chiefly to be feparated : fo that
thefe two feries of veflels ferve very diftin& purpofes.
The vena portae, as it is ramified through the liver,
performs the office both of a vein and an artery $ for
like the former it returns the blood from the extremi¬
ties or arteries, w'hile as the latter it prepares it for fe¬
cretion.
The nerves of the liver are branches of the intercof-
tal and par vagum, The bile, after being feparated
from the mafs of blood, in a manner of wdrich mention
will be made in another place, is conveyed out of this
organ by very minute excretory dufts, called />ori hi-
tiarii; thefe uniting together like the excretory duffs
in the pancreas, gradually form larger ones, which at
length terminate in a confiderable channel called tk&us
hepaticus, —
O M Y.
Part L
97
Sect. IX. Of the Gall-Bladder.
The gall-bladder is a little membranous bag,
fhaped like a pear, and attached to the pofterior and
almoft inferior part of the great lobe of the liver.
It has twm tunics j of which the exterior one is a
production of the peritonaeum. The interior, or villous
coat, is fupplied with a mucus that defends it from the
acrimony of the bile. Thefe twm coverings are inti¬
mately connected by means of cellular membrane,
which from its firm gliftening appearance has generally
been fpoken of as a mufcular tunic.
The gall-bladder is fupplied with blood veffels from
the hepatic arteries. Thefe branches are called the
cx/lic arteries, and the cyftic veins carry back the
blood.
Its nerves are derived from the fame origin as thofe
of the liver.
The neck of the gall-bladder is continued in the
form of a canal called duBus cyficus, which foon unites
with the dudfus hepaticus we deferibed as the excre¬
tory dudf of the liver; and forming one common ca¬
nal, takes the name of duBus choledochus communis,
through which both the cyfiic and hepatic bile are dif-
charged into the duodenum. This canal opens into the Of the
inteltine in an oblique direction, firff palling through <Abdomen,
the exterior tunic, and then piercing the other coats '
after running between each of them a very little way.
This economy ferves two ufeful purpofes ;—to promote
the difeharge of bile and to prevent its return. 0g
The bile may be defined to be a natural liquid foap, Of the bile,
fomewhat undtuous and bitter, and of a yellowilh co¬
lour, which eafily mixes wdth water, oil, and vinous
fpirits, and is capable of diffolving refinous fubftances.
From feme late experiments made by M. Cadet *, it * Mm*- A
appears to be formed of an animal oil, combined with *’ dead, de*
the alkaline bale of lea fait, a fait of the nature Q$Sc,,!,cest
milk, and a calcareous earth which is fiightly ferrugi-
nous.
Its definition feems fufficiently to point out the ufes
for which it is intended (c). It blends the alimentary
mafs, by dividing and attenuating it; corredls the too
great difpofition to acefcency, which the aliment ac¬
quires in the ftomach ; and, finally, by its acrimony,
tends to excite the periftaltic motion of the intef-
tines.
After what has been faid, it will be conceived that
there are tw^o forts of bile j one of which is derived
immediately from the liver through the hepatic dudt,
and the other from the gall bladder. Thefe tw’o biles,
however, do not effentially differ from each other.
The hepatic bile indeed is milder, and more liquid than
the cyffic, which is conftantly thicker and yellower j
and by being bitterer, feems to poffefs greater a&ivity
than the other.
Every body knowrs the fource of the hepatic bile,
that it is fecreted from the mafs of blood by the liver
but the origin of the cyffic bile has occafioned no little
controverfy amongft anatomical writers. There are
fome who contend, that it is feparated in the fubftance
of the liver, from whence it paffes into the gall-bladder
through particular veffels. In deer, and in fome other
quadrupeds, as well as in feveral birds and fiffies, there
is an evident communication, by means of particular
veffels, between the liver and the gall- bladder. Bian-
chi, Winflow, and others, have afferted the exiftence
of fuch veffels in the human fubjedl, and named them
hepaticyftic duels; but it is certain that no fuch du£ls
exift,—In obftrudlions of the cyftic dtuft, the gall¬
bladder has been found fhrivelled and empty : fo that
we may confider the gall-bladder as a refervoir of he¬
patic bileand that it is an eftablilhed faff, that the
whole of the bile contained in the gall-bladder is de¬
rived from the liver 5 that it paffes from the hepatic or
the cyftic duel, and from that to the gall-bladder.
The difference in the colour, confiftence, and tafte of
the bile, is merely the confequence of ftagnation and
abforption. W hen the ftomach is dlftended with ali¬
ment, this refervoir undergres a certain degree of com-
preffion, and the bile paffes out into the inteftinal ca¬
nal j and in the efforts to vomit, the gall-bladder feems
to be conftantly affefted, and at fuch times difeharges
itfelf of its contents.
Sometimes
vc.). ancients, who were not acquainted with the re^l ufe of the liver, confidered the bile as an excre-
mentitious and ufelefs fluid. 3
Chap. nr. ANA’
Of the Sometime tnc bile concretes in the gall-bladder, To
Abdomen. as t0 form what are called gallJlones (n). When
thefc concretions pafs into the cyftic duff, they lome-
times occafion exquifite pain, by dillending the canal
in their way to the duodenum j and by lodging in the
duftus choledochus communis, and obllrudling the
courfe of the bile, this fluid will be abforbed, and by
being carried back into the circulation occafion a tem¬
porary jaundice.
Sect. X. Of the Spleen.
22 The fpleen is a foft and fpongy vifeus, of a bluifh
colour, and about five or fix fingers breadth in length,
■and three in width, fituated in the left hypochon-
drium, between the flcmach and the falfe ribs. That
fide of it which is placed on the fide of the ribs is con¬
vex •, and the other, vrhich is turned towards the llo-
mach, is concave.
The fplenic artery, which Is a branch from the cse-
liac, fupplies this vifeus with blood, and a vein of the
fame name carries it back into the vena portite.
Its nerves are derived from a particular plexus called
the fplenic, which is formed by branches of the inter-
collal nerve, and by the eighth pair, or par vagum.
The ancients, wdio fuppofed two forts of bile, confi-
dered the fpleen as the receptacle of what they called
atra bilis. Havers, who ivrote profefledly on the
bones, determined its ufe to be that of fecreting the
fynovia *, and the late Mr Hewfon imagined, that it
concurred with the thymus and lymphatic glands of
the body in forming the red globules of the blood.
All thefe opinions feem to be equally fanciful. The
want of an excretory du£l has occafioned the real ufe
of this vifeus to be ftill doubtful. Perhaps the blood
undergoes fome change in it, which may affift in the
preparation of the bile. This is the opinion of the ge¬
nerality of modern phyfiologifts ; and the great quan¬
tity of blood with which it is fupplied, together with
the courfe of its veins into the vena portae, feem to
render this notion probable.
Sect. XI. Of the Glandulx Renales, Kidneys, and
Ureters.
too The glandulse renales, which w^ere by the ancients
fuppofed to fecrete the atra bilis, and by them named
capfulce atrabiliares, are two flat bodies of an irregular
figure, one on each fide between the kidney and the
aorta.
In the foetus they are as large as the kidneys : but
they do not increafe afterwards in proportion to thofe
parts ; and in adults and old people they are generally
found fhrivelled, and much wafted. They have their
arteries and veins. Their arteries ufually arife from
the fplenic or the emulgent, and fometimes from the
O M Y, 239
aorta ; and their veins go to the neighbouring veins, Of the
or to the vena cava. Their nerves are branches of Abdomen.^
the intercoftal. ~v
The ufe of thefe parts is not yet perfe&ly known.
In the fetus the fecretion of urine muft be in a very
Imall quantity, and a part of the blood may perhaps
then pafs through thefe channels, which in the adult
is carried to the kidneys to fupply the matter of urine. i0r
The kidneys are two in number, fituated one on the Kidneys,
right and the other on the left fide in the lumbar re¬
gion, between the laft falfe rib and the os ilium, by
the fides of the vertebra;. Each kidney in its figure
refembles a fort of bean, which from its ftiape is called
kidney bean. The concave part of each kidney is
turned towards the aorta and vena- cava afeendens.
They are furrounded by a good deal of fat, and re¬
ceive a coat from the peritonaeum ; and when this is-
removed, a very fine membrane is found invefting
their fubftance and the veffels which ramify through
them.
Each kidney has a confiderable artery and vein,
w'hich are called the emulgent. The artery is a branch
from the aorta, and the vein palfes into the vena cava.
Their nerves, which everywhere accompany the blood
veflels, arife from a confiderable plexus, which is de¬
rived from the intercoftal.
In each kidney, which in the adult is of a pretty
firm texture, there are three fubftances to be diftin-
guifhed (e). The outer part is glandular or cortical,
beyond this is the vafcular or tubular fubftance, and
the inner part is papillary or membranous.
It is in the cortical part of the kidney that the fe¬
cretion is carried on 5 the urine being here received
from the minute extremities of the capillary arteries,
is conveyed out of this cortical fubftance by an infinite
number of very fmall cylindrical canals or excretory
veffels, which conftitute the tubular part. Thefe
tubes, as they approach the inner fubftance of the kid¬
ney, gradually unite together; and thus forming larger
canals, at length terminate in ten or twrelve little pro¬
tuberances called papillce, the orifices of which may be
feen without the afliftance of glaffes. Thefe papillae
open into a fmall cavity or refervoir called the pelvis
of the kidney, and formed by a diftimft membranous
bag which embraces the papillae. From this pelvis the
urine is conveyed through a membranous canal which
paffes out from the hollow fide of the kidney, a little
befev the blood veffels, and is called ureter.
The ureters are each about as large as a common Ureterl.
writing pen. They are fomewhat curved in their
courfe from the kidneys, like the letteryl and at length
terminate in the pofterior and almoft inferisr part of
the bladder, at fome diftance from each other. They
pafs into the bladder in the fame manner as the du£his
choledochus communis paffes into the inteftinum duo¬
denum, not by a direft paffage, but by an oblique
eourfe
(d) Fhefe concretions fometimes remain in the gall-bladder without caufing any uneafinefs. Dr Pleberden
relates, that a gall ftone weighing two drachms w^as found in the gall-bladder of the late Lord Bath, though he
had never complained of the jaundice, nor of any diforder which he could attribute to that caufe. Med.
‘Tranf. vol. ii.
(e) The kidneys in the fetus are diftin&ly lobulated; but in the adult they become perfe&Iy firm, fmooth,
and regular.
240
Of the
Abdomen.
ro3
104
Of the
urine.
ANA
courle between the two coats j io that the difeharge
of urine into the bladder is promoted, whilft its return
is prevented. Nor does this mode of ftrudlure prevent
the paffage of fluids only from the bladder into the
ureters, but likevvife air :—for air thrown into the blad¬
der inflates it, and it continues to be diftended ff a li¬
gature is pafled round its neck ; which feems to prove
1'ufficiently that it cannot pafs into the ureters.
Sect. XII. Of the Urinary Bladdef.
The urinary bladder is a membranous and mufcular
bag of an oblong roundilh flrape, fituated in the pelvis,
between the os pubis and inteftinum re6tum in men,
and between the 03 pubis and uterus in women. Its
upper and wideft part is ufually called the bottom, its
narrower part the necli of the bladder j the former only
is covered by the peritonaeum.
The bladder is formed of three coats, connefted to¬
gether by means of cellular membrane. The external
or peritonaeal, is only a partial one, covering the up¬
per and back part of the bladder. The middle, or
mufcular coat, is compofed of irritable, and of courfe
mufcular fibres, which are moft colle&ed around the
neck of the bladder, but not fo as to form a diitin6l
mufcle, or fphinfter, as the generality of anatomifts
have hitherto fuppofed.
The inner coat, though much fmoother, has been
faid to referable the villous tunic of the inteftines, and
like that is provided with a mucus, which defends it
againft the acrimony of the urine.
It will be eafily conceived from what has been faid,
that the kidneys are two glandular bodies, through
which a faline and excrementitious fluid called urine is
conftantly filtering from the mafs of blood.
While only a fmall quantity of urine is colle&ed in
the bladder, it excites no kind of uneafinefs : but when
a greater quantity is accumulated, fo that the bladder
is diftended in a certain degree, it excites in us a cer¬
tain fenfation, which brings on as it were a voluntary
contraftion of the bladder to promote its difeharge. 
But this contradlion is not effefted by the mufcular
fibres of the bladder alone: for all the abdominal muf-
cles contraft in obedience to our will, and prefs down¬
wards all the vifeera of the lower belly j and thefe
powers being united, at length overcome the refiftance
of the fibres furrounding the neck of the bladder,
which dilates and affords a paffage to the urine through
the urethra.
The frequency of this evacuation depends on the
quantity of urine fecreted 5 on the degree of acrimony
it poffeffes; on the fize of the bladder, and on its de¬
gree of fenfibility.
The urine varies much in its colour and contents.
Thefe varieties depend on age, fex, climate, diet, and
other circumftances. In infants it is generally a clear
watery fluid, without fmell or tafte. As we^advance
in life, it acquires more colour and fmell, and becomes
more impregnated with falts. In old people it be¬
comes ftill more acrid and fetid.
In a healthy ftate it is nearly of a ftraw colour.—
After being kept for fome time, it depofites a tartar-
ous matter, which is found to be compofed chiefly of
earth and fait, and foon incrufts the fides of the veffel
in which it is contained. While this leparation is
1
T O M Y. Part I.
taking place, appearances like minute fibres or threads Of the .
of a whitilh colour, may be feen in the middle of the Al'don>en.
urine, and an oily feum obferved floating on its furface. * ‘
So that the moft common appearances of the urine
are fiftficient to alcertam that it is a watery lub-
ftance, impregnated with earthy, faline, and oily par¬
ticles.
’I he urine is not always voided of the fame colour
and confidence ; for thefe are -found to depend on the
proportion of its watery part to that of its other confti-
tuent principles.—Its colour and degree of fluidity
feem to depend on the quantity of faline and inflam¬
mable particles contained in it : fo that an increafed
proportion of thofe parts will conftantly give the
urine a higher colour, and add to the quantity of fedi-
ment.
The variety in the appearances of the urine, depends
on the nature and quantity of folid and fluid aliment
we take in 5 and it is likewife occalloned by the differ¬
ent ftate of the urinary veffels, by which w^e mean the
channels through which it is feparated from the blood,
and conveyed through the pelvis into the ureters. The
caufes of calculous concretions in the urinary paffages,
are to be looked lor in the natural conftitution of the
body, mode of life, &c.
It having been obferved, that after drinking any
light wine or Spa water, it very foon paffed off by
urine, it has been fuppofed by fome, that the urine is
not altogether conveyed to the bladder by the ordinary
courfe of circulation, but that there muft certainly ex-
ift fome other fliorter means of communication, ’per¬
haps by certain veffels between the ftomach and the
bladder, or by a retrograde motion in the lymphatics.
But it is certain, that if we open the belly of a dog.
prefs out the urine from the bladder, pafs a ligature
round the emulgent arteries, and then few up the ab¬
domen, and give him even the moft diuretic liquor to
drink, the ftomach and other channels will be diftend¬
ed with it, but not a drop of urine will be found to
have paffed into the bladder; or the fame thing hap¬
pens when a ligature is thrown round the two ureters.
This experiment then feems to be a fufficient proof,
that all the urine we evacuate is conveyed to the kid¬
neys through the emulgent arteries, in the manner we
have deferibed.—It is true, that wine and other liquors
promote a fpeedy evacuation of urine : but the dif¬
eharge feems to be merely the effca of the ftimulus
they occafion j by which the bladder and urinary parts
are folicited to a more copious difeharge of the urine,
which w’as before in the body, and not immediately of
that which was laft drank ; and this increafed dif-
charge,. if the fupply is kept up, will continue : nor
will this appear wonderful, if w-e confider the great
capacity of the veffels that go to the kidneys 5 the con-
ftant fupply of frefh blood that is effential to health j
and the rapidity with which it is inceffantly circulated
through the heart to all parts of the body.
Sect. XIII. Of "DlgefUon.
We are now proceeding to fpeak of digejlion, which 105
feems to be introduced in this place with propriety,
after a defeription of the abdominal vifeera, the greater
part of which contribute to this funftion. By dige-
Jiion is to be underftood, the changes the aliment un¬
dergoes
Chap. III.
ANATOM Y.
24s
Of the dergoes for tlie formation of cliyle :—tliefe changes
Abdomen. arc effeci;ed in the mouth, ftomach, and fmall in-
* ' * " teftines.
The mouth, of which every body has a general
knowledge, is the cavity between the two jaws, formed
anteriorly and laterally by the lips, teeth, and cheeks,
and terminating pofteriorly in the throat.
The lips and cheeks are made up of fat and mufcles,
covered by the cuticle, which is continued over the
whole inner furface of the mouth, like a fine and deli¬
cate membrane.—Tlefides this membrane, the infide of
the mouth is furnilhed with a fpongy and very vafcu-
lar fubftance called the gu/ns, by means of which the
teeth are fecured in their fockets. A fimilar fubftance
covers the roof of the mouth, and forms what is called
the ve/um pendulum palati, which is fixed to the ex¬
tremity of the arch formed by the offa maxillaria and
ofta ^palati, and terminates in a foft, fmall, and coni¬
cal body, named uvula ; which appears, as it were,
fufpended from the middle of the arch over the bafis of
the tongue.
The velum pendulum palati performs the office of a
valve between the cavity of the mouth and the pha¬
rynx, being moved by feveral mufcles (f).
The tongue is compofed of feveral mufcles (g) which
enable it to perform a variety of motions for the arti¬
culation of the voice j for the purpofes of maftication ;
and for conveying the aliment into the pharynx* Its
upper part is covered with papillae, which conftitute
the organ of tafte, and are eafily to be diftinguiihed j
it is covered by the fame membrane that lines the in¬
fide of the mouth, and which makes at its inferior
part towards its bafts a reduplication called freenum.
Poftcriorly, under the velum palati, and at the bafis
of the tongue, is the pharynx; which is the beginning
of the oefophagus, ftretched out every way, fo as to re-
femble the top of a funnel, through which the aliment
paffes into the ftomach.
The mouth has a communication with the noftrils at
its pofterior and upper part ; with the ears, by the Eu-
ftachian tubes; with the lungs, by means of the la¬
rynx \ and with the ftomach, by means of the oefo-
phagus.
The pharynx is conftantly moiftened by a fluid, fe¬
rreted by twro confiderable glands called the tonjils, one
on each fide of the velum palati. Thefe glands, from
their fuppofed refemblance to almonds, have likewife
been called amygdalus.
The mouth is moiftened by a confiderable quantity
of faliva. 7'his fluid is derived from the parotid glands ;
a name winch by its etymology points out their fitua-
tion to be near the ears. They are two in number, one
on each fide under the os malae : and they are of the con¬
glomerate kind •, being formed of many fmaller glands,
each of which fends out a very fmall excretory dudl,
which unites with the reft, to form one common chan¬
nel, that runs over the cheek, and piercing the bucci¬
nator mufcle, opens into the mouth on each fide, by
an orifice into which a briftle may be eafilv introduced.
Vol. II. Part I.
—Befides thefe, the maxillary glands, which are placed Of the
near the inner furface of the angle of the lower jaw on ^bdomen-
each fide j the fublingual glands, which are fituated
at the root of the tongue } the glands of the pa¬
late, which are feated in the velum palati j and thofe
of the cheeks, lips, &c. together with many other lefs
confiderable ones,—pour the faliva into the mouth
though their feveral excretory du£ts.
The faliva, like all the other humours of the body,
is found to be different in different people j but in ge¬
neral, it is a limpid and infipid fluid, without fmell in
healthy fubjefts ; and thefe properties would feem to
prove, that it contains very few faline or inflammable
particles.
The ufes of the faliva feem to be to moiften and
lubricate the mouth, and to affift in reducing the ali¬
ment into a foft pulp before it is conveyed into the fto¬
mach. 106
The variety of fun£fions wffiich are conftantly per-Ofhunger
formed by the living body, muft neceffarily occafion aan^ thirft.
continual wafte and diffipation of its feveral parts. A
great quantity is every day thrown off by the infen-
fible perfpiration and other difcharges ; and were not
thefe Ioffes conftantly recruited by a freflr fupply of
chyle, the body would foon effecl its own diffolution.
But nature has very wifely favoured us with organs fit¬
ted to produce fuch a fupply $ and has at the fame time
endued us with the fenfations of hunger and thirft, that
our attention may not be diverted from the neceffary
bufinefs of nutrition. The fenfation of hunger is uni-
verfally knowm ; but it would perhaps be difficult to
defcribe it perfectly in words. It may, however be
defined to be a certain uneafy fenfation in the ftomach,
which induces us to wiftr for folid food ; and which
likew’ife fcrves to point out the proper quantity, and
time for taking it. In defcribing the ftomach, men¬
tion was made of the gaftric juice, as.everywhere lu¬
bricating its inner coat. This humour mixes itfelf
with the aliment in the ftomach, and helps to prepare
it for its paffage into the inteftines j but wffien the fto¬
mach is perfectly empty, this fame fluid irrigates the
coats of the ftomach itfelf, and produces the fenfation
of hunger.
A certain proportion of liquid aliment is required
to affift in the procefs of digeftion, and to afford that
moifture to the body, of which there is fuch a conftant
diffipation. Thirft induces us to take this neceffary
fupply of drink ; and the feat of this fenfation is in the
tongue, fauces, and oefophagus, which from their
great fenfibility are required to be kept moift : for
though the fauces are naturally moiftened by the mu¬
cus and falival juices j yet the blood, when deprived of
its watery part, or rendered acrimonious by any natural
caufes, never fails particularly to affeft thefe parts, and
the whole alimentary canal, and to occafion thirft.—.
This is the common effeift of fevers and of hard labour,
by both which too much of the wratery part of the blood
is diffipated.
It has been obferved, that the aliment undergoes
H h mme
(f) Thefe are the circumflexus palati, levator palati mollis, palato-pharyngseus conftriclor ifthmi faucium, and
azygos uvulae.
(g) Thefe are, the genio-gloffus, hyo-gloffus, lingualis, and ftylo-gloffus.
242 A N A T
Of the fome preparation in the mouth beforent pafles into the
Abdomen., fl;0macl5 . an(] t|^js preparation is the effect: of mattica-
I0^ tion. In treating of the upper and lower jaws, men-
Of m,aft!ca-tion was made of the number and arrangement of the
tion and teeth. The upper jaw was defcribed as being immove-
deglutition.^jg . t]le ’ower jaw vvas fpoken of as being ca¬
pable of elevation and deprefhon, and of a grinding
motion. The aliment, when firlt carried into the
mouth, is prefled between the teeth of the two jaws,
by a very ftrong and frequent motion of the lower jaw j
and the tongue and the cheeks aflifting in this procefs,
continue to replace the food between the teeth till it
is perfe611y divided, and reduced to the confiftence of
pulp. The incifores and canini divide it firil into
fmaller pieces, but it is between the furfaces of the
dentes molares by the grinding motion of the jaw that
the maftication is completed.
During this procefs, the falival glands being gently
compreffed by the contraction of the mufcles that
move the lorver jaw, pour out their faliva : this helps to
divide and break down the food, which at length be¬
comes a kind of pulp, and is then carried over the balls
of the tongue into the fauces. But to effeCt this paf-
fage into the oefophagus, it is neceflary that the other
openings which were mentioned as having a commu¬
nication with the mouth as well as the pharynx, Ihould
be clofed 5 that none of the aliment, -whether folid or
liquid, may pafs into them, whilft the pharynx alone
is dilated to receive it :—-And fuch a difpolition aftu-
ally takes place in a manner we will endeavour to de¬
fer ibe.
The trachea arteria, or windpipe, through which
the air is conveyed to the lungs, is placed before the
oefophagus—-in the ad of fwallowing ; therefore, if
the larynx (for fo the upper part of the trachea is call¬
ed) is not clofed, the aliment will pafs into it in its
way to the cefophagus. But this is prevented by a
fmall and very elaftic cartilage, called epiglottis, which
is attached only to the fore part of the larynx •, fo that
the food in its paflage to the oefophagus prefles dotvn
this cartilage, which then covers the glottis or opening
of the larynx j and at the fame time the velum palati
being capable of fome degree of motion, is drawn
backwards by its mufcles, and clofes the openings in¬
to the nofe and the Euftachian tubes.—This, however,
is not all. The larynx, which being compofed of car¬
tilaginous rings cannot fail in its ordinary ftate to
comprefs the membranous canal of the oefophagus, is
in the aft of deglutition carried forwards and upwards
by mufcles deftined for that purpofe j and confequent-
ly drawing the fore part of the pharynx with it, that
opening is fully dilated. When the aliment has reach¬
ed the pharynx, its defeent is promoted by its own
proper weight, and by the mufcular fibres of the cefo-
O M Y.
Part T*.
phagus, which continue to contraft from above down- Of the
wards, until the aliment has reached the ilomach. That Abdomen.-
thefe fibres have no inconfiderable fhare in deglutition,
any perfon may experience, by fwallowing with his
head downwards, when the defeent of the aliment can¬
not poflibly be efl'efted by its weight.
It is neceflary that the noftrils and the lungs fliould
communicate with the mouth, for the purpofes of fpeech
and refpiration 5 but if the moft minute part of our
food happens to be introduced into the trachea, it ne¬
ver fails to produce a violent cough, and fometimes the
mofl: alarming fymptoms. This is liable to happen
when we laugh or fpeak in the aft of deglutition
the food is then faid to have pafled the wrong way.
And indeed this is not improperly ex prefled : for
death would foon follow, if the quantity of aliment
introduced into the trachea fhould be fufficient to ob-
ftruft the refpiration only during a very fhort time •, or
if the irritating particles of food fhould not foon be
thrown up again by means of the cough, which in thefe
cafes very feafonably increafes in prepoxtion to the de¬
gree of irritation.
If the velum palati did not clofe the paflage to the
noftrils, deglutition would be performed with difficulty,
and perhaps not at all j for the aliment would return
through the nofe, as is fometimes the cafe in drinking.
Children, from a deficiency in this velum palati, have
been feen to die a few hours after birth •, and they who
from difeafe or any other caufes have not this part per-
feft, fwallow with difficulty.
The aliment, after having been fufficiently divided'
by the aftion of the teeth, and attenuated by the fali¬
va, is received into the ftomach, where it is deftined
to undergo a more confiderable change.
The properties of the aliment not being much alter¬
ed at its firft entrance into the ftomach, and before it is
thoroughly blended with the gaftric juice, it is capable
of irritating the inner coat of the ftomach to a certain
degree, and occafions a contraftion of its two orifices.-—
Lr this membranous bag, furrounded by the abdominal
vifeera, and w-ith a certain degree of natural heat, the
aliment undergoes a conftant agitation by means of the
abdominal mufcles and of the diaphragm, and likewife
by a certain contraftion or expanfion of the mufcular
fibres of the ftomach itfelf. By this motion, every part
of the food is expofed to the aftion of the gaftric juice,
■which gradually divides and attenuates it, and prepares
it for its paflage into the inteftines.
Some obfervations lately publifhed by Mr Hunter
in the Philofophical Tranfaftions tend to throw con¬
fiderable light on the principles of digeftion. There
ai'e few dead bodies in which the ftomach, at its great
end, is not found to be in fome degree digefted (h).
Animals, or parts of animals, poffefled of the living
principle,
(h) The Abbe Spallanzani, who has written upon digeftion, found, from a variety of experiments
made upon quadrupeds, birds, and fifties, that digeftion goes on for fome time after death, though far lefs con¬
fiderable than in living animals : but heat is necefl'ary in many animals, or at leaf! promotes it in a much great¬
er degree. He found alfo, that when the ftomach was cut out of the body, it had fomewhat of the porver of
digeftion, though this w’as trifling when compared with that which took place when the ftomach wras left in the
body. In not one of the animals was the great curvature of the ftoraach difiblved, or much eroded after death.
There wTas often a little erofion, efpecially in different fillies j in which, when he had cleared the ftomach of
its contents, the internal coat was wanting. In other animals there was only a flight excoriation ; and the in-
2 jury
Chap,
Iir. A N A
Of the principle, when taken into the flomach, are not in the
Abdomen. affefted by the aftion of that vifcus; but the mo-
^ n^ent they lofe the living principle, they become fub-
ieil to its digeilive powers. This feems to be the cafe
with the flomach, which is enabled to refill: the aftion
of its juices in the living body : but •when deprived of
the living principle, it is then no longer able to refift the
powers of that menftruum, which it had itfelf formed
for the digeftion of its contents ; the procefs of dige-
ftion appearing to be continued after death. This is
confirmed by what happens in the llomachs of fifhes:
They frequently fwallow, without maftication, fifh
which are larger than the digefting parts of their ilo-
mach can contain; and in fuch cafes, that part which
is taken into the ftomach, is more or lefs diffolved, while
that part which remains in the oefophagus is perfe&ly
found ; and here, as w7ell as in the human body, the
digefting part of the ftomach is often reduced to the
fame ftate as the digefted part of the food. Thefe ap¬
pearances tend to prove, that digeftion is not effefted
by a mechanical power, by contraftions of the fto-
mach, or by heat; but by a fluid fecreted in the coats
of the ftomach, which is poured into its cavity, and
there animalizes the food, or aftimilates it to the na¬
ture of blood.
* Hlfi. de From fome late experiments by M. Sage*, it ap-
VAcadsmic pears, that inflammable air has the property of deftroy-
Royale des |ng and diflblving the animal texture : And as wre fwal-
Scicnccs&e. jQW wjt|1 fbbftances which ferve us for food a great
p.iur 4- quantjty Gf atmofpherical air, l\T. Sage thinks it pof-
ftble, that dephlogifticated, which is its principle, may
be converted in the ftomach into inflammable air, or
may modify into inflammable air a portion of the oily
fubftance which is the principle of aliments. In
this cafe, wrould not the inflammable air (he alks),
by diflblving our food, facilitate its converflon into
chyle ?
Be this as it may, the food, after having remained one,
two, or three hours in the ftomach, is converted into a
grayifh pulp, which is ufually called chymus, a word of
Greek etymology, fignifyingyWce, and fome few milky or
fchylous particles begin to appear.— But the term of its
refidence in this bag is proportioned to the nature of the
aliment, and to the ftate of the ftomach and its juices.
The thinner and more perfeflly digefted parts of the
food pafs by a little at a time into the duodenum,
through the pylorus, the fibres of wdnch relax to af¬
ford it a paflage and the grofler and lefs digefted par¬
ticles remain in the ftomach, till they acquire a fufli-
cient fluidity to pafs into the inteftines, where the na¬
ture of the chymus is perfeClly changed. The bile and
pancreatic juice which flow into the duodenum, and the
mucUs, which is everywhere diftilled from the furface
of the inteftines, mix themfelves with the alimentary
pulp, which they ftill farther attenuate and diflblve, and
into which they feem to infufe new properties.
Two matters very different from each other in their
nature and deftination, are the refult of this combina-
T O M Y.
243
pour 1784'
mem. 15
tion.—^-One of thefc, which is compofed of the liquid A16
parts of the aliment, and of fome of its more folid par- ,A1lX‘0lTiCn‘l
tides, extremely divided and mixed with the juices we
have deferibed, conftitutes a very mild, fweet, and
whitiih fluid refembling milk, and diftinguilhed by the
name of chyle. This fluid is abforbed by the lafteal
veins, which convey it into the circulation, where, by
being affimilated into the nature of blood, it affords the
fupply of nutrition, which the continual wafte of that
body is found to require.—“The other is the remains of
the alimentary mafs deprived of all its nutritious parti¬
cles, and containing only fuch parts as were rejefted by
the abforbing mouths of the ladeals. This groffer part,
called the faces, paffes on through the courfe of the
inteftines, to be voided at the anus, as will be explained
hereafter 5 for this procefs in the economy cannot be
well underftood till the motion of refpiration has been
explained. But the ftrufture of the inteftines is a fub-
jeft which may be properly deferibed in this place, and
deferves to be attended to.
It has been already obferved, that the inteftinal ca ¬
nal is five or fix times as long as the body, and that it
forms many circumvolutions in the cavity of the abdo¬
men, which it traverfes from the right to the left, and
again from the left to the right ■, in one place defeend-
ing, and in another extending itfelf upwards. It was
noticed likewife, that the inner coat of the inteftines,
by being more capacious than their exterior tunics,
formed a mutitude of plaits placed at a certain di~
ftance from each other, and called valvu/ce conniventes.
Now this difpofition will be found to afford a farther
proof of that divine wifdom, which the anatomift and
phyflologift cannot fail to difeover in all their purfuits.
—For if the inteftinal canal was much fhorter than it
naturally is ; if inftead of the prefent circumvolution,
it paffed in a direct courfe from the ftomach ; and if
its inner furface was fmooth and deftitute of valves j
the aliment would confequently pafs with great rapidity
to the anus, and fufficient time would be wanting to
aflimilate the chyle, and for the neceflary abforption
of it into the lafteals : fo that the body would be de¬
prived of the fupply of nutrition, which is fo efiential
to life and health; but the length and circumvolutions
of the inteftines, the inequality of their internal fur¬
face, and the courfe of the aliment through them, all
concur to perfeift the feparation of the chyle from the
faeces, and to afford the neceffary nouriftiment to the
body.
Sect. XIV. Of the Courfe of the Chyle, and of the
Lymphatic Syflem.
An infinite number of very minute vcffels, called the
laEleal veins, arife like net-work from the inner furface
of the inteftines (but principally from the jejunum and
ileum), which are deftined to imbibe the nutritious
fluid or chyle. Thefe veffels, which were difeovered by
Afellius in 1622 (1), pafs obliquely through the coats
H h 2 of
10S
jury in all of them was at the inferior part, or great curvature. The coats of the ftomach fuffer lefs after death
than flefti, or part of the ftomach of fimilar animals put into it: The author afligns as a reafon for this, that thefe
bodies are invefted on all fides by the gaftric fluid, whereas it only a£ts on the internal furface of the ftomach.
(1) We are informed by Galen, that the la&eals had been feen in kids by Erafxftratus, who cotifidered them
2 44
Of the of tlic inteftine, and running along the mefentery,
Abdomen., imite as ^ey advance, and form larger branches, all
of which pafs through the mefenteric or conglobate
glands, which are very numerous in the human fubjeft.
As they run between the inteftines' and thefe glands,
they are ftyled vence lacieceprimigeneris: but after leav¬
ing thefe glands they are found to be lefs numerous,
and being increafed in fize, are then called vence laElece
fecundi generis, which go to depolite their contents in
the thoracic duci, through which the chyle is conveyed
into the blood.
The thoracic dudl begins about the lower part of the
firft vertebra lumborum, from whence it paiTes up by
the fide of the aorta, between that and the vena azy¬
gos, clofe to the vertebras, being covered by the pleura.
Sometimes it is found divided into two branches; but
they ufually unite again into one canal, which opens
into the left fubclavian vein, after having run a little
way in an oblique c.ourfe between its coats. The fub¬
clavian vein communicates with the vena cava, which
pafles to the right auricle of the heart.
The lower part of this duft being ufually larger than
any other part of it, has been named receptaculum chy-
h, or Pecejuet's receptacle, in honour of the anatomilt
who firft difcovered it in 1651. In fome quadrupeds,
* Hrwforii 'm turtle and in filh, this enlargement * is more confi-
Jsxj>. Inq. derable in proportion to the fize of the du£l, than it
Part II. ufually is in the human fubjeft, rvhere it is not com¬
monly found large enough to merit the name of recep¬
taculum.
Opportunities of obferving the la£teals in the human
fubjeft do not often occur j but they may be eafily de-
monftrated in a dog or any other quadruped that is
killed two or three hours after feeding upon milk, for
then they appear filled with white chyle.
But thefe la&eals vdcac'b. we have defcribed, as paf-
fing from the inteftines through the mefentery to the
thoracic dinft, compofe only a part of a fyftem of vef-
fels wTich perform the office of abforption, and which
conftitute, with their common trunk, the thoracic
Part I.
duel, and the conglobate glands that are difperfed Of the
through the body, what may be fly led the lymphatic Abdomen.^
fyjlern. So that what is faid of the ftruchire of one of ^
thefe feries of vefiels may very properly be applied to
that of the other. 1C9
The lymphatic veins (k) are minute pellucid tubes,Lymphatic
which, like the lafteals, direct their courfe towards the veflels.
centre of the body, where they pour a colourlefs fluid
into the thoracic duel. The lymphatics from all the
lower parts of the body gradually unite as they ap¬
proach this du£t, into which they enter by three or
four very large trunks, that feem to form the lower
extremity of this canal, or receptaculum chyli, which
may be confidered as the great trunk of the lymphatic
fyftem. The la&eals open into it near the fame place j '
and the lymphatics, from a large fliare of the upper
parts of the body, pour their lymph into different parts
of this du£l as it runs upw*ards, to terminate in the left
fubclavian vein. The lymphatics from the right fide
of the neck, thorax, and right arm, &c. terminate in
the right fubclavian vein.
As the lymphatics commonly lie clofe to the large
blood vefiels, a ligature paffed round the crural artery
in a living animal, by enclofing the lymphatics, will oc-
cafion a diftention oi thefe veffels below the ligature,
fo as to demonftrate them with eafe j and a ligature
paffed round the thoracic duft, inftantly after killing
an animal, will, by flopping the courfe of its contents
into the fubclavian vein, diftend not only the ladleals,
but alfo the lymphatics in the abdomen and lower ex¬
tremities, with their natural fluids (l).
The coats of thefe veffels are too thin to be. fepa-
rated from each other ; but the mercury they are ca¬
pable of fuftaining, proves them to be very ftrong j and
their great power of contraction, after undergoing con-
fiderable diftention, together wdth the irritability with
which Baron Haller found them to be endued *, feems * Surle
to render it probable, that, like the blood veffels, they mou-vement
have a mufcular coat. dufang,Y.x.
The lymphatics are nourifhed after the fame manner 29s*
as
ANATOM Y.
as arteries carrying a milky fluid : but from the remote time in which he lived, they do not feem to have been-
noticed till they were difcovered in a living dog by Afellius, who denominated them la&eals, and confidered
them as ferving to convey the chyle from the inteftines to the liver j for before the difeovery of the thoracic
duCt, the ufe of the liver wras univerfally fuppofed to be that of converting the chyle into blood. But the dif¬
eovery of the thoracic duel by Pecquet, not long after, corrected this error. Pecquet very candidly confeffes,
that his difeovery accidentally arofe from his obferving a white fluid, mixed wdth the blood, flowing out of the
vena cava, after he had cut off the heart of a living dog ; which he fufpeded to be chyle, and afterwards traced
to its fource from the thoracic dudl : This dudl had been feen near an hundred years before in a horfe by Eu-
ftachius, who ipeaks of it as a vein of a particular ftrudlure, but without know ing any thing of its termination
or ufe.
(k) The arteries in their courfe through the body becoming gradually too minute to admit the red globules
of the blood, have then been ftyled capillary or lymphatic arteries. The veffels which are here defcribed as con-
ilituting the lymphatic fyftem, were at firft fuppofed to be continued from thofe arteries, and to convey back the
lymph, either into the red veins or the thoracic dudl \ the office of abforption having been attributed to the red
veins. But we know that the lymphatic veins are not continuations of the lymphatic arteries, but that they con-
ilitute the abforhent fyjlem. There are ftill, however, fome very refpedlable names among the anatomifts of the
prefent age, who contend, that the red veins adl likewfife as abforbents : but it feems to have been clearly pro¬
ved, that the red veins do abforb nowhere but in the cavernous cells of the penis, the eredlion of which is occa-
fioned by a diftention of thofe cells with arterial blood.
(l) In the dead body they may be eafily demonftrated by opening the artery ramifying through any vifeus,
«s in the fpleen, for inftance, and then throwing in air j by which the lymphatics will be diftended. One of
them may then be pundtured. and mercury introduced into it through a blowpipe.
Chap. III. A N A 1
Of the as all the other parts of the body. For even the moft
Abdomen. minute of thefe veffels are probably fupplied -with ftill
^ ' more minute arteries and veins. This feems to be prov¬
ed by the inflammation of which they are fufceptible 5
and the painful fwellings which fometimes take place
in lymphatic veflfels, prove that they have nerves as
well as blood veflels.
Both the lafteals, lymphatics, and thoracic duff,
are furnifhed with valves, which are much more com¬
mon in thefe veffels than in the red veins. Thefe
valves are ufually in pairs, and ferve to promote tne
courfe of the chyle and lymph towards the thoracic
duff, and to prevent its return. Mention has been
made of the glands, through which the laffeals pafs
in their courfe through the mefentery •, and it is to. be
obferved, that the lymphatics pafs through fimilar
glands in their way to the thoracic duft. Thefe glands
are all of the conglobate kind, but the changes which
the chyle and lymph undergo in their paffage through
them, have not yet been afcertained.
The lymphatic veffels begin from furfaces and cavities
in all parts of the body as abforhents. 1 his is a faft
now univerfally allowed 5 but how the fluids they ao-
forb are poured into thofe cavities, is a fubjeft of con-
troverfy. The contents of the abdomen, for inftance,
were defcribed as being conftantly moiftened by a very,
thin watery fluid. The fame thing takes place in the
pericardium, pleura, and all the other cavities of the
body, and this watery fluid is the lymph. But whe¬
ther it is exhaled into thofe cavities through the minute
ends of arteries, or tranfuded through their coats,, are
the points in difpute. We cannot here be permitted
to relate the many ingenious arguments that have been
advanced in favour of each of thefe opinions ; nor is it
perhaps of confequence to our prefent purpofe to enter
into the difpute. It will be fufficient if the reader can
form an idea of what the lymph is, and of the manner
in which it is abforbed.
The lymph, from its tranfparency and want of co¬
lour, would feem to be nothing but water •, and hence
the firfl: difcoverers of thefe veffels flyled them du&us
aquoji: but experiments prove, that the lymph of a
healthy animal coagulates by being expofed to the air,
or a certain degree of heat, and likewife by being fuf-
fered to reft ; feeming to agree in this property with
that part of the blood called the coayulable lymph.—
This property of the lymph leads to determine its ufe,
in moiftening and lubricating the feveral cavities of the
body in which it is found ; and for which, by its gela¬
tinous principle, it feems to be much better calculated
than a pure and watery fluid would be, for fuch it has
been fuppofed to be by fome anatomifts.
O M Y. 245
The mouths of the lymphatics and lacleals, by acting
as capillary tubes, feem to abforb the lymph and chyle, '
fomewhat in the fame manner as a capillary tube of
glafs, when put into a bafon of water, is enabled, to
attrafl the water into it to a certain height : but it is
probable that they likewife poffefs a living power,
which aflifts in performing this office, in the human
body the lymph, or the chyle, is probably conveyed
upon this principle as far as the firft pair of valves,
which feem to be placed not far from the orifice of the
abforbing veffel, whether lymphatic or lacleal; and the
fluid will then be propelled forwards, by a continuation
of the abforption at the orifice. But this does not
feem to be the only inducement to its progrefs towards
the thoracic dudl j thefe veffels have probably a mui-
cular coat, which may ferve to prefs the fluid forwards
from one pair of valves to another ; and as the large
lymphatic veffels and the thoracic dud are placed clofe „
to the large arteries, which have a confiderable pulia¬
tion, it is reafonable to fuppofe, that they derive fome
advantages from this fituation.
Sect. XV. Of the Getierative Organs ; of Con¬
ception, See.
§ 1. The Male Organs.
The male organs of generation have been ufually no
divided into the parts which ferve to prepare the femen
from the blood, and thofe which are deftined to con¬
vey it into the womb. But it feems to be more pro¬
per to diftinguiih them into the preparing, the contain¬
ing, and the expelling parts, which are the different of¬
fices of the tefes, the vefculce feminales, and the penis ;
and this is the order in which we propofe to deferibe
them.
The teftes are two glandular bodies, ferving to fe-
crete the femen from the blood. They are originally
formed and lodged within the cavity of the abdomen j
and it is not till after the child is born, or very near
that time, that they begin to pafs into the groin, and
from thence into the ferotum (m). By this difpofition
they are very wifely protedled from the injuries to
which they would be liable to be expofed, from the dif¬
ferent pofitions of the child at the time of parturition.
The tefticles in this ftate are loofely attached to the
pfoce mufcles, by means of the peritonteum by which
they are covered •, and they are at this time of life con-
nedied in a very particular manner to the parietes of
the abdomen, and likewife to the ferotum, by means of
a fubftance which Mr Hunter calls the ligament or gu~
bernaculum tefis, becaufe it connetls the teftis with the
fcrctum.
(m) It fometimes happens in diffeding ruptures, that the inteftine is found in the fame.fac, and in contaa
with the teftis. This appearance was at firft attributed to a fuppofed laceration of the peritonaeum ; but later
obfervations, by pointing out the fituation of the tefticles in the foetus, have led to prove, that the teftis, as. it
defeends into the ferotum, carries with it a portion or elongation of the peritonaeum, which becomes.its tunica
vaginalis, or a kind of fac, in which the tefticle is lodged, as will be explained in the courie of this fedtion.
The communication between this fac and the cavity of the abdomen is ufually foon cut off j but in fome fub-
]edls it continues open during life ^ and when a hernia or defeent of the mteii-ine takes place m fuch a fubjedl,
it does not pufli down a portion of the peritonaeum before it, as it muft otherwife neceffarily do, but paffes at once*
through this opening, and comes in contaa with the naked, tefticle,, conftituting that particular fpecies of rup¬
ture called hernia congenita.
)
24<5 ANA
Of the fcrotum, and dhccls Its comfe In its defcent. This ?u-
bernaculum is of a pyramidal form, with its bulbous
head fixed to the lower end of the teftis and epididy¬
mis, and lolcs its lower, and {lender extremity in the
cellular membrane of the fcrotum. It is difficult to
afcertain what the ftru&ure and compofition of this gu-
bernaculum is, but it is certainly vafcular and fibrous ;
and from certain circumftances, it would feem to be in
part compofed of the cremafter mufcle, running up¬
wards to join the lower end of the teftis.
We are not to fuppofe that the tefticle, when de-
fcended into the fcrotum, is to be feen loofe as a piece
-of gut or omentum would be in a common hernial fac.
^Ve have already obferved, that during its refidence in
the cavity of the abdomen it is attached to the peii-
tonaeum, which defcends with it ; fo that when the fac
is completed in the fcrotum, the tefticle is at firtt at¬
tached only to the pofterior part of it, while the fore
part of it lies loofe, and for fome time affords a com¬
munication with the abdomen. The fpermatic chord
which is made up of the fpermatic artery and vein,
and of the vas -deferens or excretory duft of the teftis,
is clofely attached behind to the pofterior part of this
elongation of the peritonaeum. But the fore part of
the peritoneal fac, which is at firft loofe and not at¬
tached to the tefticle, clofes after a certain time, and
becomes united to the pofterior part, and thus perfedly
turrounds the tefticle as it were in a purfe.
I he tefticles of the foetus differ only in their fize
and fituation from thofe of the adult. In their paffage
from the abdomen they defcend through the abdominal
rings into the fcrotum, where they are fupported and
defended by various integuments.
What the immediate caufe of this defcent is, has not
yet been fatisfa&orily determined. It has been afcri-
bed to the effe&s of refpiration, but the tefticles have
fometimes been found in the fcrotum before the child
has breathed } and it does not feem to be occafioned by
the affion of the cremafter mufcle, becaufe the fame ef-
fefi: would be liable to happen in the hedgehog and
fome other quadrupeds, whofe tefticles remain in the
abdomen during life.
The fcrotum, which is the external or common co¬
vering of both tefticles, is a kind of fac formed by the
common integuments, and externally' divided into two
equal parts by a prominent line called raphe.
In the inner part of the fcrotum we meet with a cel¬
lular coat called cW/Yur (n), which by its duplicature
divides the fcrotum into two equal parts, and forms
what is called fepturn fcroti, which correfponds with the
raphe. The collapfion which is fo often obferved to
take place in the fcrotum of the healthy fubjeft, when
excited by cold or by the ftimulus of venery, feems to
be very properly attributed to the contra&ile motion of
T O M Y.
Part !♦
the (km, and not to any mufcular fibres, as is the cafe Of the
m dogs and fome other quadrupeds. Abdomen.
1 n.e fcrotum, then, by means of its feptum, is
tound to make two diftinct bags, in which the tefti-
i. lv,3, inveited by their proper tunics, are lecurelv
lodged and feparated from each other. Thefe coats
are the cremafter, the tunica vaginalis, and the tunica
albuginea. The firft of thefe is compofed of mufcular
fibres, and is to be confideied only as a partial cover-
nig of the teftis j for it furrounds only the fpermatic
chord, and terminates upon the upper and external
parts of the tunica vaginalis teftis, ferving to draw up
and fufpend the tefticle {o). I he tunica vaginalis tei*
tis has already been defcribed as being a thin pro¬
duction of the peritonaeum loofely adhering every¬
where to the tefticle, which it includes as it were in
a bag. I he tunica albuginea is a firm, white, and
vciy compaft membrane of a gliftening appearance,
which immediately inverts the body of the teftis and
the epididymis; ferving in fome meafure to conned
them to each other, but without extending itfelf at
all to the fpermatic chord. This tunica albuginea
ferves to confine the growth of the teftis and epidi-
dymis within certain limits, and by giving thorn a
due degree of firmnefs, enables them to perform their
proper fun&ions.
Having removed this laft tunic, we difcover the fub-
fiance of the tefticle itfelf, which appears to be made
up of an infinite number of very elaftic filaments, which
may be beft diftinguiflied after macerating the tefticle
m w atei • Bach tefticle is made up of the ipermatic
artery and vein, and the excretory veffels or tubuli fe-
miniferi. There are likewife a great number of abforb-
ent veffels, and fome branches of nerves to be met
wfith in the tefticles.
The fpermatic arteries arife one on each fide from
the aorta, generally about an inch below the emul-
gents. 1 he right ipermatic vein commonly paffes into
the vena cavaj but the left fpermatic vein ufually emp¬
ties itfelf into the emulgent on that fidej and it is fup-
pofed to take this courfe into the emulgent, that it
may avoid parting over the aorta, which it would be
obliged to do in its way to the vena cava.
I he blood is circulated very {lowly through the
fpermatic artery, which makes an infinite number of
circumvolutions in the fubllance of the tefticle, where
it depofttes the femen, which paffes through the tu¬
buli feminiferi. Thefe tubuli feminiferi are feen running
in fhort waves from the tunica albuginea to the axis
of the tefticle; and are divided into diftindl portions by
certain thin membranous productions, which originate
from the tunica albuginea. They at length unite, and
by an infinite number of convolutions form a fort of
appendix to the teftis called epididymis (p), .which is
^n) The dartos has ufually been confidered as a mufcle, and is defcribed as fuch both by Douglas and Win-
^ P!!1.there bein£ no part of the Pcrotum the human fubjeCt which can be faid to confilt of mufcular
nbres, Albinus and Haller have very properly omitted to defcribe the dartos as a mufcle, and confider it merely
as a cellular coat. ^
(o) The cremafter mufcle is compofed of a few fibres from the obliquus internus abdominis, which uniting
with a rew from the tranfverfalis, defcend upon the fpermatic chord, and are infenfibly loft upon the tunica
vaginalis of the tefticle. It ferves to fufpend and draw up the tefticle.
(?) The tefticles w-ere named didymi by the ancients j and the name of this part was given to it on account
oi its fituation upon the tefticle.
Chap. TIL A N A T
Of the a vafcular body of an oblong (Kane, fituated upon the
fSbdomc.u fUperior part of each tefticle. Thefe tubuli of the
' epididymis at length form an excretory duft called vas
deferens, which afeends towards the abdominal rings,
with the other parts that make up the fpermatic chord,
and tuen a ieparation takes place ; the nerves and
blood veflels paffing on to their feveral terminations,
and the vas deferens going to depofite its femen in the
veiiculae feminales, which are two foft bodies of a white
and convoluted appearance externally, fituated ob¬
liquely between the reftum and the lower part of the
bladder, and uniting together at the lower extremity.
From thefe refervoirs (qJ, which are plentifully fup-
plied with blood vefiels and nerves, the femen is occa-
fionally difeharged through two Ihort paflages, wdiich
open into the urethra clofe to a little eminence called
Verumontanum.
Near this eminence we meet with the proftate,
which is fituated at the neck of the bladder, and is
deferibed as being of a glandular ftrufture. It is
fliaped fomewhat like a heart with its fmall end fore-
moft, and inverts the origin of the urethra. Internally
it appears to be of a firm fubftance, and compofed of
O 'M Y. Hl
feveral follicles, fecreting a whitiln vifeid fluid, that is Of the
difeharged by ten or twelve excretory du6fs into the Abclomen,
urethra, on each fide of the openings of the veficul® '
feminales at the fame time, and from the fame caules
that the femen is expelled. As this latter fluid is found
to be exceedingly limpid in the veficulce feminales of
the dead fubjeft, it probably owes its whitenefs and
vifeidity to this liquor of the proftate.
1 he penis, which is to be confidered as the vehicle
or aftive organ of procreation, is compofed of two co¬
lumns, the corpora cavernofa and corpus fpongiofum.
The corpora cavernofa, which conftitute the greateft
part of the penis, may be deferibed as two cylindrical
ligamentous tubes, each of which is compofed of an
infinite number of minute cells of a ipongy texture,
which communicate with each other. Thefe two bo¬
dies are of a very pliant texture, and capable of con-
fiderable diilention; and being united laterally to each
other, occafion by this union a fpace above and ano¬
ther below. The uppermoft of thefe fpaces is filled
bj the blood veflels, and the lower one, which is larger
than the other, by the urethra and its corpus fpongio-
fum. Thefe two cavernous bodies are at firlt only fe-
parated
(O That the bags called veficulce feminales are refervoirs of femen, is a circumftance which has been by ana-
tormfts umverfally believed. Mr J. Hunter, however, from feveral circumftances, has been induced to 'think
this opinion erroneous.
He has examined thefe veficulae in people who have died fuddenly, and he found their contents to be differ-
uJrTrUer Tm To- ^°-e who had loft °ne of the teilicles’ or the one of them, bv
uileale, both the veficulm were full and their contents fimilar. And in a lufus naturce, where there was no
toa^kce^10” betWCen the Vafa deferelltla and veficulae, nor between the veficul* and penis, the fame thing
r Kr°™ ??e.fe ob;efVat.:°ns’ ^ ,tllink's we have a prefumptive proof, That the femen can be abforbed in the bodv
ot the tefticle and m the epididymis, and that the veficulae fecrete a mucus which they are capable of abforbfti^
^ftien it cannot be made rife of: that the femen is not retained in refervoirs after it is fecreted, and kept there
tefticles To this adion^ ^ ^ feCieted at t ie time ln confeTience of certain affedions of the mind ftimulating the
He corroborates his obfervations by the appearance on diffeaion in other animals : and here he finds That
the ftiape and contents of the veficulie vary much in different animals, while the femen in moft of them he has
TW11^ 18 nearly t]le1{atne; 11hat vala deferentia in many animals do not communicate with the veficulEe •
1 hat the contents of the veficuke of caftrated and perfedf animals are fimilar, and nearly equal in quantity in
rTC:rem,bJing tb?, femf as emi«ed from the animal in coitu, or what is found in the vas deferens after
ecTanimakf °DrerVeS llkeWile» that the bulb of the urethra of perfeft males is confiderably larger than in caftrat-
biom the whole, he thinks the following inferences may be fairly drawn : That the bags called veficulce fe-
nnnales are not femmal refervoirs, but glands fecreting a peculiar mucus 5 and that the bulb of the urethra is
properly fpeaking the receptacle of the femen, in which it is accumulated previous to eiedion
But although he has endeavoured to prove that the veficul* do not contain the femen, he has not been able
to afeertain their particular ufe. He thinks, however, we may be allowed upon the whole to conclude that
ti ey are, together with other parts, fubfervient to the purpofes of generation. *
Although the author has treated this fubjeft very ably, and made many ingenious obfervations, fome thin0-5
may be objeaed to what he has advanced 5 of which the following are a few: That thofe animals who have
bags called veficulce feminales perform copulation quickly 5 whereas others that want them, as the dog kind
are tedious m copulation: That m the human body, at leaft, there is a free communication between the vafa
deferentia and veficulaY; and m animals where the author has obferved no communication between the vafa de!
feientu and veficulae, there may be a communication by veffels not yet difeovered, and which may be compar-
ed to the hepato-cyftic oufts in fowls and ffthes : That the fluid in the end of the vafa deferentia and the vefi-
rreaf fem\na CS arer rim.,]ar» according to the author’s own obfervation : That the veficuhe in fome animals in-
eafe and decreafe with the tefticle at particular feafons : That in birds and certain fifties, there is a dilatation
the ends of the vafa deferentia, which the author himfelf allows to be a refervoir for the femen.
With refpea to the circumftance of the bulb of the urethra anfwering the purpofe of a refervoir the author
n° fa6ls whxch tend to eftablllb tliis opinion. See Obfervations on certain Parts of the Animal
248 ANA
Or the parated by a partition of tehdinous fibres, which allow
Abdomen, to communicate with each other: but they after¬
wards divaricate from each other like the branches of
the' letter Y, and diminifhing gradually in fize, are at¬
tached, one on each fide, by means of the ligamentum
fufpenforium penis, to the ramus ifchii, and to the in¬
ferior portion of the os pubis.
The corpus fpongiofum penis, or corpus fpongiofurii
urethrae, as it is ftyled by fome authors, begins as foon
as the urethra has palled the proftate, with a thick
origin almoft like a heart, firft under the urethra, and
afterwards above it, becoming gradually thinner, and
furrounding the whole canal of the urethra, till it ter¬
minates in a confiderable expanfion, and conftitutes
what is called the glans penis, which is exceedingly
vafcular, and covered with papillae like the tongue.
The cuticle which lines the inner furface of the ure¬
thra, is continued over the glans in the fame manner as
it is fpread over the lips.
The penis is invefted by the common integuments,
but the cutis is reflefted back everywhere from the
glans as it is in the eyelids 5 fo that it covers this part,
when the penis is in a relaxed ftate, as it were with a
hood, and from this ufe is called prepuce.
The prepuce is tied down to the under part of the
glans by a fmall ligament called frcenum, which is in
fadl only a continuation of the cuticle and cutis. There
are many fimple febaceous follicles called glanduhe odo-
riferae, placed round the bafis of the glans ; and the
fluid they fecrete ferves to preferve the exquifite fenfi-
bility of this part of the penis, and to prevent the ill
effects of attrition from the prepuce.
The urethra may be defined to be a membranous
canal, palling from the bladder through the whole ex¬
tent of the penis. Several very fmall openings, called
lacunae, communicate with this canal, through which
a mucus is difcharged into it; and befides thefe, there
are two glands, firfl defcribed by Cowper, as fecreting
a fluid for lubricating the urethra, and called Cowper'1 s
* Memoirtsglan(]s (r) j and Littre * fpeaks of a gland fituated
del Acad. near ^ profl:rate, as being deftined for the fame ufe.
The urethra being continued from the neck of the
bladder, is to be confidered as making part of the uri¬
nary paffage ; and it likewife affords a conveyance to
the femen, which we have obferved is occafionally dif¬
charged into it from the veficuloe feminales. '1 he di¬
rection of this canal being firff under arid then before
the pubis, occafions a winding in its courfe from the
bladder to the penis, nor unlike the turns of the let¬
ter s.
The penis has three pair of mufcies, the eredfores,
acceleratores, and tranfverfales. They pulh the blood
from the crura to the fore part of the corpora caver-
nofa. The firfl; originate from the tuberofity of the
ifchium, and terminate in the corpora cavernofa.
The acceleratores arife from the fphindler, and by
their infertion ferve to comprefs the bulbous part of
the urethra; and the tranfverfales are deftined to af¬
ford a paffage to the femen, by dilating the canal of
the urethra.
Royalc des
Sciences,
IJOO.
T O M Y, Part I,
The arteries of the penis are chiefly derived from
the internal iliacs. Some of them are fuppofed to ter¬
minate by pabulous orifices within the corpora caver¬
nofa and corpus fpongiofum ; and others terminate in
veins, which at laft make up the vena magna dorfi pe¬
nis, and other fmaller veins, which are in general diftri-
buted in like order with the arteries.
Its nerves are large and numerous. They arife from
the great fciatic nerve, and accompany the arteries in
their courfe through the penis.
We have now defcribed the anatomy of this organ 5
and there only remains to be explained, how it is ena¬
bled to attain that degree of firmnefs and diftention
which is effential to the great work of generation.
The greateff part of the penis has been fpoken of
as being of a fpongy and cellular texture, plentifully
fupplied with blood veffels and nerves, and as having
mufcies to move it in different directions. Now, the
blood is conftantly pafiing into its cells through the
fmall branches of the arteries which open into them,
and is from thence as conftantly returned by the veins,
fo long as the corpora cavernofa and corpus fpongio¬
fum continue to be in a relaxed and pliant ftate. Eut
when, from any nervous influence, or other means
which it is not necefiary here to define or explain, the
ereflores penis, ejaculatores feminis, levatores ani, See.
are induced to contraft, the veins undergo a certain
degree of compreifion, and the paffage of the blood
through them is fo much impeded, that it colleSls in
them in a greater proportion than they are enabled to
carry off, fo that the penis gradually enlarges, and
being more and more forcibly drawn up againft the os
pubis, the vena magna itfelf is at length ccmprefled,
and the penis becomes fully diftended. But as the
caufes which firft occafioned this diftention fubfide, the
penis gradually returns to its ftate of relaxation.
§ 2. Female Organs of Generation.
Anatomical writers ufually divide the female or- m
gans of generation into external and internal. In the
firft divifion they include the mons veneris, lalia pu~
dendi, perineeum, clitoris, nymphee, and carunculcc myr-
tifornies: and in the latter, the vagina, with the ute¬
rus and its appendages.
The mons veneris, which is placed on the upper part
of the fymphyfis pubis, is internally compofed of adi-
pofe membranes, which makes it foft and prominent :
it divides into two parts called labiapudendi, which de¬
fending towards the redtum, from which they are di¬
vided by the perinoeum, form what is called xhefour-
chette. The perinasum is that flefliy fpace which ex¬
tends about an inch and a half from the fourchette to
the anus, and from thence about two inches to the
coccyx.
The labia pudendi being feparated, we obferve a ful-
cus called foffa viagna ; in the upper part of rvhich is
placed the clitoris, a fmall round fpongy body, in fome
meafure refembling the male penis, but impervious,
compofed of two corpora cavernofa, arifing from the
tuberofities of the offa ifchii ; furnifhed with two pair
of
(r) Both Heifter and Morgagni obferve, that they have fometimes not been able to find thefe glands; fo
that they do not feem to exift in all fubjedts.
J
Chap. Ill,
Of tli of mufcles, the ereflores clitoridis, and the fphin&er or
Abdomen. COnftri6for oftii vaginas ; and terminating in a glans,
v which is covered with its prepuce. From the lower
part, on each fide of the foffa, pafs the nymphae, two
membranous and fpongy folds which feem deflined for
ufeful purpofes in parturition, by tending to enlarge
the volume of the vagina as the child’s head paffes
through it. Between thefe, about the middle of the
folia magna, we perceive the orifice of the vagina or os
externum, clofed by folds and wrinkles •, and about
half an inch above this, and about an inch below the
clitoris, appears the meatus urinarius or orifice of the
urethra, much fliorter, though fomewhat larger, than
In men, with a little prominence at its lower edge,
which facilitates the introdudtion of the catheter.
The os externum is furrounded internally by feveral
membranous folds called caruncuLv myrtiformes, which
are partly the remains of a thin membrane called hymen,
that covers the vagina in children. In general the hy¬
men is fufficiently open to admit the paflage of the
menfes, if it exifts at the time of their appearance ;
fometimes, however, it has been found perfectly
clofed.
The vagina, fituated between the urethra and the
reflum, is a membranous cavity, furrounded, efpecially
at its external extremity, with a fpongy and vafcular
fubftance, which is covered by the fphinfter oftii va¬
ginae. It terminates in the uterus, about half an inch
above the os tincae, and is wider and fliorter in women
who have had children than in virgins.
All thefe parts are plentifully fupplied with blood
veffels and nerves. Around the nymphre there are fe-
baceous follicles, which pour out a fluid to lubricate
the inner furface of the vagina ; and the meatus urina-
rius, like the urethra in the male fubjeft, is conflantly
moiftened by a mucus, which defends it againft the
acrimony of the urine.
The uterus is a hollow vifcus, fituated in the hypo-
gaftric region, between the reclum and bladder. It Is
deflined to receive the firft rudiments of the foetus, and
to affi.fi: in the developement of all its parts, till it ar¬
rives at a date of perfection, and is fitted to enter into
the world, at the time appointed by the wife Author
of nature.
The uterus, in its unimpregnated ftate, refembles a
pear in fliape, fomewhat flattened, with its fundus or
bottom part turned towards the abdomen, and its cer¬
vix or neck furrounded by the vagina. The entrance
Into its cavity forms a little protuberance, which has
been compared to the mouth of a tench, and is there¬
fore called os tinece.
The fubftance of the uterus, which is of a confider-
able thicknefs, appears to be compofed of mufcular
and fmall ligamentous fibres, fmall branches of nerves,
feme lymphatics, and with arteries and veins innume¬
rable. Its nerves are chiefly derived from the interco-
fial, and its arteries and veins from the hypogaftric
and fpermatic. The membrane which lines its cervix
is a continuation of the inner membrane of the vagina 5
but the outer furface of the body of the uterus is co¬
vered with the perltonmum, which is reflected over
it, and defeends from thence to the intertinu'm reCtum.
This duplicature of the peritonaeum, by palling off
from the fides of the uterus to the tides of the pelvis,
is there firmly connected, and forms what are called
Vox.. II. Part I.
249
ligament a uteri lata i which not only ferve to fupport Of the
the uterus, but to convey nerves and blood veffels Abtlon:lt;n»
to it.
The ligamenta uteri rotunda arife from the fides of
the fundus uteri, and palling along within the fore part
of the ligamenta lata, defeend through the abdominal
rings, and terminate in the fubftance of the mons ve¬
neris. The fubfiance of thefe ligaments is vafcular j
and although both they and the ligamenta lata admit
the uterus, in the virgin ftate, to move only about an
inch up and down, yet in the courfe of pregnancy
they admit of confiderable diftention, and after partu¬
rition return nearly to their original ftate with furpri-
ling quicknefs.
On each fide of the inner furface of the uterus, in
the angle near the fundus, a fmall orifice is to be dif-
covered, wdiich is the beginning of one of the tubae
Fallopianae. Each of thefe tubes, ■which are two in
number, palfing through the fubftance of the uterus, is
extended along the broad ligaments, till it reaches
the edge of the pelvis, from -whence it refleCls back ;
and turning over behind the ligaments, about an inch
of its extremity is feen hanging loofe in the pelvis,
near the ovarium. Thefe extremities, having a jag¬
ged appearance, are called Jimhrice, or morfus diaholi.
Each tuba Eallopiana is ufually about three or four-
inches long. Their cavities are at firft very fmall, but
become gradually larger, like a trumpet, as they ap¬
proach the fimbriae.
Near the fimbrim of each tuba Fallopiana, about an
inch from the uterus, is fituated an oval body called
ovarium, of about half the fize of the male tefticle.
Each of thefe ovaria is covered by a production of the
peritonaeum, and hangs loofe in the pelvis. They are
of a flat and angular form, and appear to be compofed
of a wflrite and cellular fubftance, in which we are able
to difeover feveral minute veficles filled with a coagu-
lable lymph, of an uncertain number, commonly ex¬
ceeding 12 in each ovary. In the female of riper
years, thefe veficles become exceedingly turgid, and a
kind of yellow^ coagulum is gradually formed within
one of them, which increafes for a certain time. In
conception, one of thefe mature ova is fuppofed to be
impregnated with the male femen, and to be fqueezed
out of its nidus into the Fallopian tube ; after wFich
the ruptured part forms a fubftance w-hich in fome ani¬
mals is of a yellow colour, and is therefore called cor¬
pus luteum; and it is obfervable, that the number of
thefe fears or fiffures in the ovarium, conftantly corre-
fponds writh the number of foetufes excluded by the
mother.
§ 3. Of Conception.
Man, being ever curious and inquifitive, has natu- nz
rally been led to inquire after the origin of his exift-
ence and the fubjeCl: of generation has employed the
philofophical world in all ages : but in following na¬
ture up to her minute recefl’es, the philofopher foon
finds himfelf bewdldered, and his imagination often
fupplies that which he fo eagerly wifhes to difeover,
but which is deftined perhaps never to be revealed to
him. Of the many theories which have been formed
on this fubjeft, that of the ancient philofophers feems
to have been the moft Ample : they confidered the
male femen as alone capable of forming the foetus, and
I i believed
ANATOMY.
v
ANATOM Y.
Part I.
believed that the female only afforded it a lodging in
the womb, and fupplied it with nourilhment after it
was perfeftly formed. This opinion, however, foon
gave place to another, in which the female was allow¬
ed a more confiderable {hare in conception.
This fecond fyftem confidered the foetus as being
formed by the mixture of the feminal liquor of both
fexes, by a certain arrangement of its feveral particles
in the uterus. But in the 16th century, veficles or
eggs were difcovered in the ovaria or female tefticles j
the foetus had been found fometimes in the abdomen,
and fometimes in the Fallopian tubes; and the two
former opinions were exploded in favour of a new doc¬
trine. The ovaria were compared to a bunch of grapes,
being fuppofed to confilf of veficles, each of which had
a ilalk ; fo that it might be difengaged without hurt¬
ing the reft, or fpilling the liquor it contained. Each
veficle was faid to include a little animal, almoft com¬
plete in all its parts } and the vapour of the male fe-
men being conveyed to the ovarium, was fuppofed to
produce a fermentation in the veficle, which approach¬
ed the neareft to maturity ; and thus inducing it to dif-
engage itfelf from the ovarium, it palled into the tuba
Fallopiana, through which it was conveyed to the ute¬
rus. Here it was fuppofed to take root like a vegeta¬
ble feed, and to form with the veffels originating from
the uterus, what is called the placenta ; by means of
which the circulation is carried on between the mother
and the foetus.
This opinion, with all its abfurditles, continued to
be almoft univerfally adopted till the clofe of the fame
century, when Leeuwenhoek, by means of his glafles,
difcovered certain opaque particles, which he defcribed
as fo many animalcula, Boating in the feminal fluid of
the male.
This difcovery introduced a new fchifm among the
philofophers of that time, and gave rife to a fyftem
which is not vet entirely exploded. According to
this theory, the male femen paffing into the tubse Fal-
lopianae, one of the animalcula penetrates into the fub-
ftance of the ovarium, and enters into one of its vefi¬
cles or ova. This impregnated ovum is then fqueezed
from its hulk, through the coats of the ovarium, and
being feized by the fimbriae, is conducted through the
tube to the uterus, where it is nourilhed till it arrives
at a ftate of perfection. In this fyftem there is much
ingenuity \ but there are certain circumftances fuppofed
to take place, which have been hitherto inexplicable.
A celebrated modem writer, M. Buffon, endeavours
to reftore, in fome meafure, the moft ancient opinion,
by allowing the female femen a lhare in this office 5
afferting, that animalcula or organic particles are to be
difcovered in the feminal liquor of both fexes: he de¬
rives the female femen from the ovaria, and he con¬
tends that no ovum exifts in thofe parts. But in this
idea he is evidently miftaken j and the opinion now
moft generally adopted is, that an impregnation of the
ovum, by the influence of the male femen, is effential
to conception. That the ovum is to be impregnated,
there can be no doubt j but as the manner in which
fuch an impregnation is fuppofed to take place, and Of the
the means by which the ovum afterwards gets into A-bdomer.
the Fallopian tube, and from thence into the uterus, 1'
are Hill founded chiefly on hypothefis, we will not at¬
tempt to extend farther the inveftigation of a fubjeCt
concerning which fo little can be advanced with cer¬
tainty.
$ 4. Of the Fat us in Utero.
Opportunities of differing the human gravid uterus 113
occurring but feldom, the ftate of the embryo (s)
immediately after conception cannot be perfectly
known.
When the ovum defcends into the uterus, it is fup¬
pofed to be very minute 5 and it is not till a confider¬
able time after conception that the rudiments of the
embryo begin to be afcertamed.
About the third or fourth vTeek the eye may difco-
ver the firft lineaments of the foetus ; but thefe linea- .
ments are as yet very imperfeift, it being only about
the fize of a houfe fly. Two little veficles appear in
an almoft tranfparent jelly 5 the large!! of which is def-
tined to become the head of the fetus, and the other
fmaller one is referved for the trunk. But at this pe¬
riod no extremities are to be feen the umbilical cord
appears only as a very minute thread, and the placenta
does not as yet abforb the red particles of the blood.
At fix weeks, not only the head, but the features of the
face, begin to be developed. The nofe appears like a
fmall prominent line, and w e are able to difcover ano¬
ther line under it, which is deftined for the feparation
of the lips. Twm black points appear in the place of
eyes, and twro minute holes mark the ears. At the
fides of the trunk, both above and below, w’e fee four
minute protuberances, wffiich are the rudiments of the
arms and legs. At the end of eight weeks the body
of the fetus is upwards of an inch in length, and both
the hands and feet are to be diftinguilhed. The up¬
per extremities are found to increale fuller than the
lower ones, and the feparation of the fingers is accom-
plilhed fooner than that of the toes.
At this period the human form may be decifively
afcertained j all the parts of the face may be diftin¬
guilhed, the ffiape of the body is clearly marked out,
the haunches and the abdomen are elevated, the fin¬
gers and toes are feparated from each other, and the
inteftines appear like minute threads.
At the end of the third month, the fetus mealures
about three inches ; at the end of the fourth month,
five inches j in the fifth month, fix or feven inches ; in
the fixth month, eight or nine inches ; in the feventh
month, eleven or twelve inches j in the eighth month,
fourteen or fifteen inches j and at the end of the ninth
month, or full time, from eighteen to twenty-two
inches. But as we have not an opportunity of examin¬
ing the fame fetus at different periods of pregnancy,
and as their fize and length may be influenced by the
conftitution and mode of life of the mother, calcula¬
tions of this kind mull be very uncertain.
The fetus during all this time affumes an oval fi-
gure,
(s) The rudiments of the child are ufually diftinguilhed by this name till the human figure can be diftinflly
afcertained, and then it has the appellation oifatus.
Chap. III. ANA
Of the gure, Winch corrcfponds with the (hape of the uterus.
Abdomen, j^g cljin Js found reclining on its breaft with its knees
w cjrawn Up towards its chin, and its arms folded over
them. But it feems likely, that the pofture of fome
of thefe parts is varied in the latter months of preg¬
nancy, fo as to caufe thofe painful twitches which its
mother ufually feels from time to time. In natural
cafes, its head is probably placed towards the os tincae
from the time of conception to that of its birth j
though formerly it wras confidered as being placed to¬
wards the fundus uteri till about the eighth or ninth
month, when the head, by becoming fpecifically heavier
than the other parts of the body, was fuppofed to be
turned downwards.
The capacity of the uterus increafes in proportion
to the growth of the foetus, but without becoming
thinner in its fubftance, as might naturally be expefted.
The nouriihment of the foetus, during all this time,
feems to be derived from the placenta, which appears
to be originally formed by that part of the ovum wThich
is next the fundus uteri. The remaining part of the
ovum is covered by a membrane called fpongy cho¬
rion (rj ; within which is another called true chorion,
which includes a third termed amnios (u) : this con¬
tains a watery fluid, which is the liquor amnii (v), in
wdrich the foetus floats till the time of its birth. On
the fide next the foetus, the placenta is covered by the
amnios and true chorion , on the fide next the mother
it has a production continued from the fpongy cho¬
rion. The amnios and chorion are remarkably thin
and tranfparent, having no blood veffels entering into
their compofition. The fpongy chorion is opaque and
vafcular.
In the firft months of pregnancy, the involucra bear
a large proportion to their contents ; but this pro¬
portion is afterwards reverfed, as the foetus increafes
in bulk.
The placenta, which is the medium through which
the blood is conveyed from the mother to the foetus,
and the manner in wdnch this conveyance takes place,
deferve next to be confidered.
The placenta is a broad, flat, and fpongy fubftance,
T O M Y. 25:
like a cake, clofely adhering to the inner furface of Of the
the -womb, ufually near the fundus, and appearing to Ah^omen-
be chiefly made up of the ramifications of the umbili- ' ”
cal arteries and vein, and partly of the extremities of
the uterine veffels. The arteries of the uterus difcharge
their contents into the fubftance of this cake j and the
veins of the placenta, receiving the blood either by a
direCt communication of veflels, or by abforption, at.
length form the umbilical vein, which paffes on to the
finus of the vena portrn, and from thence to the vena
cava, by means of the canalis venofus, a communica¬
tion that is clofed in the adult. But the circulation of
the blood through the heart is not conducted in the
foetus as in the adult; in the latter, the blood is carried
from the right auricle of the heart through the pulmo¬
nary artery, and is returned to the left auricle by the
pulmonary vein ; but a dilatation of the lungs is efien-
tial to the paffage of the blood through the pulmonary
veffels, and this dilatation cannot take place till after
the child is born and has refpired. This deficiency,
however, is fupplied in the foetus by an immediate
communication between the right and left auricle,
through an oval opening, in the feptum which divides
the two auricles, called foramen ovale. The blood is
likewife tranfmitted from the pulmonary artery to the
aorta, by means of a duCt called canalis artcriofus,
which, like the canalis venofus, and foramen ovale,
gradually clofes after birth.
The blood is returned again from the foetus through
two arteries called the umbilical arteries, which arife
from the iliacs. Thefe two veffels taking a winding
courfe with the vein, form wuth that, and the mem¬
branes by which they are furrounded, what is called
the umbilical chord. Thefe arteries, after ramifying
through the fubftance of the placenta, difcharge their
blood into the veins of the uterus j in the fame manner
as the uterine arteries difcharged their blood into the
branches of the umbilical vein. So that the blood
is conftantly pafllng in at one fide of the placenta
and out at the other; but in what particular manner
it gets through the placenta is a point not yet deter¬
mined.
I I 2 EXPLANATION
(t) Dr Hunter has deferibed this as a lamella from the inner furface of the uterus. In the latter months of
pregnancy it becomes gradually thinner and more connefted wuth the chorion : he has named it membrana caduca,
or decidua, as it is call: off with the placenta., Signior Scarpa, with more probability, confiders it as being ccm-
pofed of an infpiffated coagulable lymph.
( u) In fome quadrupeds, the urine appears to be conveyed from the bladder through a canal called urachus
to the allantois, wdnch is a refervoir, refembling a long and blind gut, fituated betw-een the chorion and amnios.
The human foetus feems to have no fuch refervoir, though fome writers have fuppofed that it does exift. From
the top of the bladder a few longitudinal fibres are extended to the umbilical chord ; and thefe fibres have been
confidered as the urachus, though without having been ever found pervious.
(v) The liquor amnii coagulates like the lymph. It has been fuppofed to pafs into the oefophagus, and to
afford nourifhment to the foetus; but this does not feem probable. Children have come into the world without
an oefophagus, or any communication between the ftomach and the mouth ; but there has been no well attefted
inftance of a child’s having been born witheut a placenta ; and it does not feem likely, that any of the fluid can
be abforbed through the pores of the fkin, the Akin in the foetus being everywhere covered with a great quan¬
tity of mucus.
ANATOM Y.
251
Of the
Abdomen.
EXPLANATION of PLATES XXVII. XXVIII. and XXIX.
Part I.
Of the
Abdomen.
Plate XXVII.
Fig. I. Shows the Contents of the Thorax and Ad-
domen in fitu.
1. Top of the trachea, or windpipe. 2 2, The in¬
ternal jugular veins. 3 3, The fubclavian veins. 4, The
vena cava defcendens. 5, The right auricle of the
heart. 6, The right ventricle. 7, Part of the left
ventricle. 8, The aorta defcendens. 9, The pulmo¬
nary artery. 10, The right lung, part of which is
cut off to (how the great blood veffels. 11, The left
lung entire. 1212, The anterior edge of the dia¬
phragm. 13 13, The two great lobes of the liver.
14, The ligamentum rotundum. 15, The gall-bladder.
16, The ffomach. 17 17, The jejunum and ilium.
18, The fpleen.
Fig. 2. Shows the Organs fubfervient to the Chy-
lopoietic Vifcera,—with thofe of Urine and Gene¬
ration.
I 1, The under fide of the two great lobes of the
liver, a, Lobulus Spigelii. 2, The ligamentum ro¬
tundum. 3, The gall-bladder. 4, The pancreas.
5, The fpleen. 6 6, The kidneys. 7, The aorta
defcendens. 8, Vena cava afcendens. 9 9, The renal
veins covering the arteries. 10, A probe under the
fpermatic veffels and a bit of the inferior menfente-
ric artery, and over the ureters, 11 11, The ureters.
1212, The iliac arteries and veins. 13, The reftum
inteftinum. 14, The bladder of urine.
Fig. 3. Shows the Chylopoietic Vifcera, and Organs
fubfervient to them, taken out of the Body entire.
AA, The under fide of the two great lobes of the
liver. B, Ligamentum rotundum. C, The gall¬
bladder. D, Du£tus cyfticus. E, Duftus hepaticus.
F, Duttus communis choledochus. G, Vena porta-
rum. FI, Arteria hepatica. II, The ftomach. KK,
Venae et arterise gaitro-epiploicae, dextrae et finiffrae.
LL, Venae et arteriae coronarise ventriculi. M, The
fpleen. NN, Mefocolon, with its veffels. OOO, In¬
teftinum colon. P, One of the ligaments of the co¬
lon, which is a bundle of longitudinal mufcular fibres.
Jejunum and ilium. RR, Sigmoid flexure
of the colon with the ligament continued, and over S,
the rectum inteflinum. TT, Levatores ani. U,
Sphindter ani. V, The place to which the proftate
gland is connedted. W, The anus.
Fig. 4. Shows the Pleart of a Foetus at the full time,
with the Right Auricle cut open to fliow the Fora¬
men Ovale, or paffage between both Auricles,
a, The right ventricle. b, The left ventricle,
cc, The outer fide of the right au'ricle ftretched out.
dd, The pofterior fide, which forms the anterior fide
of the feptum. e, The foramen ovale, with the mem¬
brane or valve which covers the left fide, f, Vena ca¬
va inferior pafiing through g, a portion of the dia¬
phragm.
Fig. 5. Shows the Heart and Large Veffels of a Foetus
at the full time.
a, The left ventricle, b, The right ventricle, c, A
part of the right auricle, d, Left auricle, ee, The
right branch of the pulmonary artery. f, Arteria
pulmonalis. gg, The left branch of the pulmonary
artery, with a number of its largeft branches diffedted
from the lungs, h, The canalis arteriofus. i, The
arch of the aorta, kk, The aorta defcendens. 1, The
left fubclavian artery. m, The left carotid artery,
n, The right carotid artery. «, The right fubclavian
artery, p, The origin of the right carotid and right
fubclavian arteries in one common trunk. q, The
vena cava fuperior or defcendens. r, The right com¬
mon fubclavian vein, s, The left common fubclaviart
vein.
N. B. All the parts deferibed in this figure are to be'
found in the adult, except the canalis arteriofus.
Plate XXVIII.
Fig. I. Exhibits the more fuperficial Lymphatic Vef¬
fels of the Lower Extremity.
A, The fpine of the os ilium. B, The os pubis.
C, The iliac artery. D, The knee. EEF, Branches
of the crural artery. G, The mufculus gaftrocnemius^
H, The tibia. I, The tendon of the mufculus tibia¬
lis anticus. On the outlines, a, A lymphatic veffel
belonging to the top of the foot, b, Its firft divifion
into branches, c, c, c, Other divifions of the fame
lymphatic veffel. d, A fmall lymphatic gland, e, The
lymphatic veffels which lie between the fkin and the
mufcles of the thigh, ff, Two lymphatic glands at
the upper part of the thigh below the groin, gg, O-
ther glands, h, A lymphatic veffel which paffes by
the fide of thofe glands without communicating with
them 5 and, bending towards the infide of the groin at
(i), opens into the lymphatic gland (k). 1,1, Lympha¬
tic glands in the groin, which are common to the lym¬
phatic veffels of the genitals and thofe of the lovTer ex¬
tremity. m, n, A plexus of lymphatic veffels pafling
on the infide of the iliac artery.
Fig. 2. Exhibits a Back View of the Lower Extremi¬
ty, differed fo as to fhow the deeper-feated Lym¬
phatic Veffels which accompany the Arteries.
A, The os pubis. B, The tuberofity of the if-
chium. C, That part of the os ilium which wTas ar¬
ticulated with the os facrum. D, The extremity of
the iliac artery ‘appearing above the groin. E, The
knee. F, F, The twm cut furfaces of the triceps
mufcle, which was divided to fhow the lymphatic vef¬
fels that pafs through its perforation along w’ith the
crural artery. G, The edge of the mufculus gracilis.
H, The gaftrocnemius and foleus, much fhrunk by
being dried, and by the foleus being feparated from
the tibia to expofe the veffels. I, The heel. K, The
foie of the foot. L, The fuperficial lymphatic veffels
paffing over the knee, to get to the thigh. On the
outlines j
Chap. III. A N A T
Of the outlines j M, The pofterior tibial artery, a, A lym-
Abdomen. phatic velTel accompanying the pofterior tibial artery.
b, The fame veffel croffing the artery, c, A fmall
lymphatic gland, through which this deep-feated lym¬
phatic veffel paffes. d, The lymphatic veffel paffing
under a fmall part of the foleus, which is left attached
to the bone, the reft being removed, e, The lymphatic
veffel crofting the popliteal artery, f, g, h, Lymphatic
glands in the ham, through which the lymphatic vef¬
fel paffes. i, The lymphatic veffel pafling with the
crural artery, through the perforation of the triceps
mufcle. k, The lymphatic veffel, after it has paffed
the perforation of the triceps, dividing into branches
which embrace the artery (1). m, A lymphatic gland
belonging to the deep-feated lymphatic veffel. At this
place thofe veffels pafs to the fore part of the groin,
wdiere they communicate with the fuperficial lympha¬
tic veffels. n, A part of the fuperftcial lymphatic vef¬
fel appearing on the brint of the pelvis.
Fig. 3. Exhibits the Trunk of the Human Subjefl,
prepared to Ihow the Lymphatic Veffels and the
Hutftus Thoracicus.
A, The neck. BE, The two jugular veins. C, The
vena cava fuperior. DDDD, The fubclavian veins,
E, The beginning of the aorta, pulled to the left
fide by means of a ligature, in order to ftiow the
thoracic duft behind it. F, The branches arifing
from the curvature of the aorta. GG, The two ca¬
rotid arteries. HH, The firft ribs. II, The tra¬
chea. KK, The fpine. LL, The vena azygos.
MM, The defcending aorta. N, The coeliac artery,
dividing into three branches. O, The fuperior mefen-
teric artery. P, The right crus diaphragmatis.
QCJhThe two kidneys. R, The right emulgent ar¬
tery. SS, The external iliac arteries, gd, The muf-
culi pfoae. T, The internal iliac artery. U, The ca¬
vity of the pelvis. XX, The fpine of the os ilium.
YY, The groins, a, A lymphatic gland in the groin,
into which lymphatic veffels from the lower extremi¬
ty are feen to enter. bi>, The lymphatic veffels of
the lower extremities pafting under Poupart’s liga¬
ment. cc, A plexus of the lymphatic veffels lying on
each fide of the pelvis, d, The pfoas mufcle with
lymphatic veffels lying upon its infide. e, A plexus
of lymphatics, which having palled over the brim of
the pelvis at (c), having entered the cavity of the pel¬
vis, and received the lymphatic veffels belonging to the
vicera contained in that cavity, next afcends, and paf¬
fes behind the iliac artery to (g). f Some lymphatic
veffels of the left fide pafling over the upper part of
the os facrum, to meet thofe of the right fide, g, The
right pfoas, with a large plexus of lymphatics lying on
its infide. hb, The plexus lying en each fide of the
fpine. Hi, Spaces occupied by the lymphatic glands.
k. The trunk of the lafteals, lying on the under fide of
the fuperior mefenteric artery. /, The fame dividing
into two branches, one of which paffes on each fide of
the aorta ; that of the right fide being feen to enter
the thoracic duft at (to), to, The thoracic du<ft be¬
ginning from the large lymphatics, n, The duff paf¬
fing under the lower part of the crus diaphragmatis,
and under the right emulgent artery. 0, The thora-
O M Y. 253
cic duff penetrating the thorax, p, Some lymphatic Of the
veffels joining that duff in the thorax, q. The tho- Abdomen.^
racic duff paffing under the curvature of the aorta to v
get to the left fubclavian vein. The aorta being drawn
afide to fhow the duff, r, A plexus of lymphatic vef¬
fels paffing upon the trachea from the thyroid gland
to the thoracic duff.
Plate XXIX.
Fig. I. Reprefents the Under and Pofterior Side of
the Bladder of Urine, &c.
a, The bladder, bb, The infertion of the ureters,
cc, The vafa deferentia, which convey the femen from
the tefticles to dd, The veficulse feminales—and pafs
through e, The proftate gland, to difcharge themfelves
into f, The beginning of the urethra.
Fio. 2. Atranfverfe Seffion of the Penis,
gg, Corpora cavernofa penis, h, Corpus caverno-
fum urethrae, i, Urethra, k, Septum penis. 11, The
feptum between the corpus cavemofum urethrae and
that of the penis.
Fig. 3. A longitudinal Seffion of the Penis,
mm, The corpora cavernofa penis, divided by o.
The feptum penis, n, The corpus cavernofum glan-
dis, which is the continuation of that of the urethra.
Fig. 4. Reprefents the Female Organs of Generation.
a, That fide of the uterus which is next the os fa¬
crum. 1, Its fundus.. 2, Its cervix, bb, The Fal¬
lopian or uterine tubes, which open into the cavity of
the uterus 5—but the other end is open within the pel¬
vis, and furrounded by cc, The fimbriae, dd, The
ovaria. e, The os internum uteri, or mouth of the
womb. ff, The ligamenta rotunda, which paffes
without the belly, and is fixed to the labia pudendi.
gg, The cut edges of the ligamenta lata, which con-
nefts the uterus to the pelvis, h, The infide of the
vagina, i, The orifice of the urethra, k, The clito¬
ris furrounded by (1,) The praeputium. mm, The la¬
bia pudendi. nn, The nymphse.
Fig. 5. Shows the Spermatic Duffs of the Tefticle
filled with Mercury.
A, The vas deferens. B, Its beginning, which
forms the pofterior part of the epididymis. C, The
middle of the epididymis, compofed of ferpentine
duffs. D, The head or anterior part of the epididy¬
mis unravelled, eeee, The whole duffs which com-
pofe the head of the epididymis unravelled, ff, The
vafa deferentia. gg, Rete teftis. hh, Some reffili-
neal duffs which fend off the vafa deferentia. ffi, The
fubftance of the tefticle.
Fig. 6. The Right Tefticle entire, and the Epidi¬
dymis filled with Mercury.
A, The beginning of the vas deferens. B, The vas
deferens afcending towards the abdomen. C, The po¬
fterior part of the epididymis, named globus minor'.
D, The fpermatic veffels enclofed in cellular fubftance.
E, The body of the epididymis. F, Its head, named
globus major. G, Its beginning from the tefticle.
H, The body of the tefticle, enclofed in the tunica al¬
buginea.
CHAP,
254
Of the
Thorax.
ANATOM Y.
CHAP. IV. OF THE THORAX.
Part I.
Of the
Thorax.
THE thorax, or cheft, is that cavity of the trunk
which extends from the clavicles, or the lower part
of the neck, to the diaphragm j and includes the vital
organs, which are the heart and lungs, and likewife
the trachea and oefophagus.—This cavity is formed by
the ribs and vertebrae of the back, covered by a great
number of mufcles, and by the common integuments,
and anteriorly by two glandular bodies called the
hreajls* The fpaces between the ribs are filled up by
mufcular fibres, which from their fituation are called
intercojlal mufcles.
Sect. I. Of the Breajls.
Thb breq/ls may be defined to be two large conglo¬
merate glands, mixed with a good deal of adipofe
membrane. The glandular part is compofed of an
infinite number of minute arteries, veins, and nerves.
The arteries are derived from two different trunks;
one of which is called the internal, and the other the
external, mammary artery. The firft of thefe arifes
from the fubclavian, and the latter from the axillary.
The veins everywhere accompany the arteries, and
are diftinguilhed by the fame name. The nerves are
chiefly from the vertebral pairs. Like all other con¬
glomerate glands, the breafts are made up of a great
many fmall diftindt glands, in which the milk is fe-
creted from the ultimate branches of arteries. The
excretory dudls of thefe leveral glands, gradually unit¬
ing as they approach the nipple, form the -tubuli ladli-
feri, which are ufually more than a dozen in number,
and open at its apex, but have little or no communica¬
tion, as has been fuppofed, at the root of the nipple.
Thefe dufts, in their courfe from the glands, are fur-
rounded by a ligamentary elaftic fubftance, which ter¬
minates with them in the nipple. Both this fubftance,
and the dufts which it contains, are capable of confi-
derable extenfion and contra&ion j but in their natural
itate are moderately corrugated, fo as to prevent an
involuntary flow of milk, unlefs the diftending force be
very great from the accumulation of too great a quan¬
tity.
I he whole fubftance of the nipple is very fpongy
and elaftic : its external furface is uneven, and full of
iinall tubercles. The nipple is furrounded wfith a dilk
or circle of a different colour, called the areola; and on
the infide of the (kin, under the areola, are many feba-
ceous glands, which pour out a mucus to defend the
areola and nipple 5 for the Ikin upon thefe parts is very
thin 5 and the nervous papillre lying very bare, are
much expofed to irritation.
The breafts are formed for the fecretion of milk,
which is deftined for the nourifhment of the child for
fome time after its birth. This fecretion begins to
take place foon after delivery, and continues to flow for
many months in very large quantities, if the woman,
fuckles her child.
The operation of fuftion depends on the principles
of the air pump, and the flow of milk through the
lactiferous tubes is facilitated by their being ftretched
out.
The milk, examined chemically, appears to be com¬
pofed of oil, mucilage, and water, and of a confider-
able quantity of fugar. The generality of phyfiologifts
have fuppofed that, like the chyle, it frequently retains
the properties of the aliment and medicines taken into
the ftomach j but from fome late experiments *, this * Ifwrn. dt
fuppofition appears to be ill founded. Mtd. 1781.
Sect. II. Of the Pleural
The cavity of the thorax is everywhere lined by a “6
membrane of a firm texture called pleura. It is com¬
pofed of two diftinCI portions or bags, which, by be¬
ing applied to each other laterally, form a feptum call¬
ed mediaf inum; which divides the cavity into two
parts, and is attached pofteriorly to the vertebrae of
the back, and anteriorly to the fternum. But the two
laminae of which this feptum is formed, do not every¬
where adhere to each other; for at the lower part of
the thorax they are feparated to afford a lodgment to
the heart 5 and at the upper part of the cavity, they
receive between them the thymus.
The pleura is plentifully fupplied with arteries and
veins from the internal mammary and the intercoftals.
Its nerves, which are very inconfiderable, are derived
chiefly from the dorfal and intercoftal nerves.
The furface of the pleura, like that of the perito¬
naeum and other membranes lining cavities, is conftant-
ly bedewTed with a ferous moifture (w), which prevents
adhefions of the vifeera.
The mediaftinum, by dividing the breaft into twm ca¬
vities, obviates many inconveniences, to which we
fliould otherwife be liable. It prevents the two lobes
of the lungs from comprefling each other wflien wre lie
on one fide ; and confequently contributes to the free¬
dom of refpiration, which is difturbed by the leaft
preffure on the lungs. If the point of a fword pene¬
trates between the ribs into the cavity of the thorax,
the lungs on that fide ceafe to perform their office ; be-
caufe the air being admitted through the wmund, pre¬
vents the dilatation of that lobe ; while the other lobe,
which is feparated from it by the mediaftinuna, re¬
mains unhurt, and continues to perform its function as
ufual.
Sect. III. Of the Thymus.
/
The thymus is a glandular fubftance, the ufe of *17
which is not perfedftly afeertained, its excretory du<5l
not
(w) When this fluid is exhaled in too great a quantity, or is not properly carried off, it accumulates and con-
fktutes the hydrops peaoiis.
Chap. IV. A N A
Of' he not having yet been difcovered. It is of an oblong
Thorax, figure, and is larger in the fcetus and in young chil-
"v" 1 -' dren than in adults, being fometimes nearly effaced in
very old fubje&s. It is placed in the upper part of the
thorax, between the two laminae of the mediaflinum j
but at firft is not altogether contained within the cavity
of the cheft, being found to border upon the upper
extremity of the fternum.
Sect. IV. Of the Diaphragm.
11S The cavity of the thorax is feparated from that of
the abdomen by a flelhy and membranous feptum call¬
ed the diaphragm or midriff. The greateff part of it
is compofed of mufcular fibres ; and on this account
f’yflematic writers ufually place it very properly among
the mufcles. Its middle part is tendinous, and it is
covered by the pleura above, and by the peritonaeum
below. It feems to have been improperly named fep¬
tum tranfverfum, as it does not make a plane tranf-
verfe divifion of the two cavities, but forms a kind of
vault, the fore part of which is attached to the fler-
num. Laterally it is fixed to the laft of the true ribs,
and to all the falfe ribs : and its lower and poflerior
part is attached to the vertebrre lumborum, where it
may be faid to be divided into two portions or crura
The principal arteries of the diaphragm are derived
from the aorta, and its veins pafs into the vena cava.
Its nerves are chiefly derived from the cervical pairs.
It affords a paffage to the vena cava through its ten¬
dinous part, and to the oefophagus through its flefhy
portion. The aorta paifes down behind it between its
crura.
The diaphragm not only ferves to divide the thorax
from the abdomen, but by its mufcular ftrudture is
rendered one of the chief agents in refpiration. When
its fibres contraff, its convex fide, which is turned to¬
wards the thorax, becomes gradually flat, and by in-
creafing the cavity of the breaft, affords room for a
complete dilatation of the lungs, by means of the air
which is then draw-n into them by the a£t of infpira-
tion. The fibres of the diaphragm then relax \ and as
it refumes its former ftate, the cavity of the thorax be¬
comes gradually diminilhed, and the air is driven out
again from the lungs by a motion contrary to the for¬
mer one, called expiration.
It is, in fome meafure by means of the diaphragm,
that w7e void the faeces at the anus, and empty the uri¬
nary bladder. Befides thefe offices, the afts of cough¬
ing, fneezing, fpeaking, laughing, gaping, and fighing,
could not take place without its afliftance ; and the
gentle preffure which all the abdominal vifcera receive
from its conffant and regular motion, cannot fail to af-
T O M Y.
fift in the performance of the feveral functions which
were afcribed to thofe vifcera.
255
Of the
Thorax.
Sect. V. Of the Trachea.
The trachea, or windpipe, is a cartilaginous and lXp
membranous canal, through which the air paffes into
the lungs. Its upper part, which is called the larynx,
is compofed of five cartilages. The uppermoft of thefe
cartilages is placed over the glottis or mouth of the
larynx, and is called epiglottis, which has been before
fpoken of, as clofing the paffage to the lungs in the a£l
of fwallowing. At the fides of the glottis are placed
the two arytenoid cartilages, which are of a very com¬
plex figure, not eafy to be defcribed. The anterior
and larger part of the larynx is made up of two carti¬
lages } one of which is called thyroides or fcutiformis,
from its being fliaped like a buckler 5 and the other
cncoides or annularis, from its refembling a ring. Both
thefe cartilages may be felt immediately under the fldn-;
at the fore part of the throat, and the thyroides, by its
convexity, forms an eminence called pomum adatni,
wdiich is ufually more conllderable in the male than in
the female fubjedl.
All thefe cartilages are united to each other by
means of very elaftic ligamentous fibres j and are ena¬
bled, by the afliftance of their feveral mufcles, to dilate
or contraft the paffage of the larynx, and to perform
that variety of motion which feems to point out the
larynx as the principal organ of the voice ; for when
the air paffes out through a wTound in the trachea, it
produces no found.
Thefe cartilages are moiftened by a mucus, which
feems to be fecreted by minute glands fituated near
them. The upper part ®f the trachea is covered ante¬
riorly and laterally by a conliderable body, w;hich is
fuppofed to be of a glandular ftrudlure, and from its
fituation near the thyroid cartilage is called the thyroid
gland; though its excretory dud: has not yet been dif¬
covered, or its real ufe afcertained.
The glottis is interiorly covered by a very fine mem¬
brane, which is moiftened by a conftant fupply of a
watery fluid. From the larynx, the canal begins to
take the name of trachea or afpcria arteria, and extends
from thence as far down as the third or fourth verte¬
bra of the back, where it divides into twTo branches,
which are the right and left bronchial tube. Each of
thefe bronchi (y) ramifies through the fubftance of
that lobe of the lungs, to which it is diftributed, by
an infinite number of branches, which are formed of
cartilages feparated from each other like thofe of the
trachea, by an intervening membranous and ligamen¬
tary fubftance. Each of thefe cartilages is of an angu¬
lar figure 3 and as they become gradually lefs and lefs
in
(x) Anatomical writers have ufually defcribed the diaphragm as being made up of two mufcles united by a
middle tendon 3 and thefe two portions or crura form what they fpeak of as the inferior tnufcle, arifing from the
fides and fore part of the vertebrae.
(y) The right bronchial tube is ufually found to be fomewhat fhorter and thicker than the left 3 and M. Por¬
tal, who has publiihed a memoir on the aftion of the lungs on the aorta in refpiration, obferves, that the left
bronchial tube is clofely contra&ed by the aorta; and from fome experiments he is induced to conclude, that in
the nrft refpirations, the air only enters into the right lobe of the lungs. Memoires de l'Academic Royale des
Sciences, 1769.
256 A ,N A T O M Y, Parti.
in tlieir diameter, tlie lower ones are in fome meafure
Tnorax. receivecl iato thofe above them, when the lungs, after
" being inflated, gradually collapfe by the air being pufh-
ed out from them in expiration. As the branches of
the bronchi become more minute, their cartilages be¬
come more and more angular and membranous, till at
length they are found to be perfectly membranous, and
and laft become invifible.
The trachea is furnifhed with flefhy or mufcular
fibres ; fome of which pafs through its whole extent
longitudinally, while the others are carried round it in
a circular direftion •, fo that by the contraction or re¬
laxation of thefe fibres, it is enabled to Ihorten or
lengthen itfelf, and likewife to dilate or contrail the
diameter of its paffage.
The trachea and its branches, in all their ramifi¬
cations, are furniflied with a great number of fmall
glands which are lodged in their cellular fubflance,
and difcharge a mucous fluid on the inner furface of
thefe tubes.
The cartilages of the trachea, by keeping it con-
ftantly open, afford a free paTage to the air, which we
are obliged to be inceffantly refpiring; and its mem¬
branous part, by being capable of contrailion and di¬
latation, enables us to receive and expel the air in a
greater or lefs quantity, and with more or lefs velocity,
as may be required in finging or in declamation. This
membranous ilrufture of the trachea pofieriorly feems
likewife to aflift in the defcent of the food, by prevent¬
ing that impediment to its paffage down the cefopha-
gus, which might be expeded if the cartilages were
complete rings.
The trachea receives its-arteries from the carotid and
fubclavian arteries, and its veins pafs into the jugulars.
Its nerves arife from the recurrent branch of the eighth
pair, and from the cervical plexus.
Sect. VI. Of the Lungs.
The lungs fill the greater part of the cavity of the
bread. They are of a foft and fpongy texture, and
are divided into two lobes, which are feparated from
each other by the mediadinum, and are externally co¬
vered by a produdlion of the pleura. Each of thefe is
divided into twro or three lefler lobes 5 and we com¬
monly find three in the right fide of the cavity, and
two in the left.
To difeover the druclure of the lungs, it is required
to follow the ramifications of the bronchi, which were
deferibed in the lad fedlion. Thefe becoming gradu¬
ally more and more minute, at length terminate in the
cellular fpaces or veficles, which make up the greated
part of the fubflance of the lungs, and readily commu*-
nicate with each other.
The lungs feem to poffefs but little fenfibility.
Their nerves, which are fmall, and few’ in number, are
derived from the intercoflal and eighth pair. This lad
pair having reached the thorax, fends off a branch on
each fide of the trachea, called the recurrent, which
reaicends at the back of the trachea, to which it fur-
nifhes branches in its afeent, as w’ell as to the oefopha-
gus, but it is chiefly diflributed to the larynx and its
mi cles. By dividing the recurrent and fuperior la-
ryu eal nerves at their origin, an animal is deprived of
its voice.
There are twm feries of arteries wdiich carry blood Of the
to the lungs : thefe are the arteriae bronchiales, and the Thorax,
pulmonary artery.
The arterice bronchiales begin ufually by twm branches;
one of wfliich commonly arifes from the right interco¬
flal, and the other from the trunk of the aorta : but
fometimes there are three of thefe arteries, and in fome
fubjedls only one. The ufe of thefe arteries is to ferve
for the nourifhment of the lungs, and their ramifica¬
tions are feen creeping everywhere on the branches of
the bronchi. The blood is brought back from them
by the bronchial vein into the vena azygos.
The pulmonary artery and vein are not intended for
the nourifliment of the lungs •, but the blood in its
paffage through them is deffined to undeigo fome
changes, or to acquire certain effential properties (from
the adlion of the air), wfliich it has lort in its circula¬
tion through the other parts of the body. The pulmo¬
nary artery receives the blood from the right ventricle
of the heart; and dividing into twm branches, accom¬
panies the bronchi everywhere, by its ramifications
through the lungs } and the blood is afterwards con¬
veyed back by the pulmonary vein, which gradually
forming a confiderable trunk, goes to empty itfelf into
the left ventricle of the heart; fo that the quantity of
blood which enters into the lungs, is perhaps greater
than that which is fent in the fame proportion of time
through all the other parts of the body.
Sect. VII. Of Refpiration.
Respiration conditutesoneof thofe functions which Isi
are properly termed vital, 3s being effential to life ; for
to live and. to breathe are in faefl fynonymous terms.
It confifts in an alternate contraflion and dilatation of
the thorax, by firfl infpiring air into the lungs, and
then expelling it from them in expiration.
It will perhaps be eafy to diftinguilh and point out
the feveral phenomena of refpiration ; but to explain
their phyfical caufe will be attended with difficulty ;
for it will naturally be inquired, how the lungs, when
emptied of the air, and contradled by expiration, be¬
come again inflated, they themfelves being perfedlly
paflive ? How^ the ribs are elevated in oppofition to
their own natural fituation ? and why the diaphragm is
contradled downwards towards the abdomen ? Were wTe
to affert that the air, by forcing its way into the cavity
of the lungs, dilated them, and confequently elevated
the ribs and preffed down the diaphragm, we fhould
fpeak erroneoufly. What induces the firft infpiration,
it is not eafy to afeertain; but after an animal has once
refpired, it would feem likely that the blood, after ex¬
piration, finding its paffage through the lungs obllrudl-
ed, becomes a ffimulus, which induces the intercoflal
mufcles and the diaphragm to contradl, and enlarge the
cavity of the thorax, in confequence perhaps of a cer¬
tain nervous influence, which we will not here attempt
to explain. The air then rufhes into the lungs $ every
branch of the bronchial tubes, and all the cellular fpa¬
ces into which they open, become fully dilated ; and
the pulmonary veffels being equally diflended, the blood
flows through them with cafe. But as the ftimulus
which firft occafioned this dilatation ceafes to operate,
the mufcles gradually contradl, the diaphragm rifes up¬
wards again, and diminifties the cavity of the cheft; the
Chap. IV. ANATOMY.
Of the ribs return to their former ftate ; and as the air pafles
i°rax^ . out in expiration, the lungs gradually collapfe, and a
refiftance to the paffage of the blood again takes place.
But the heart continuing to receive and expel the
blood, the pulmonary artery begins again to be diflend-
ed, the ftimulus is renewed, and the lame procefs is
repeated, and continues to be repeated, in a regular
fucceifion during life : for though the mufcles of refpi-
ration, having a mixed motion, are ("unlike the heart)
in Ibme meafure dependent on the will, yet no human
being, after having once refpired, can live many mo¬
ments without it. In an attempt to hold one’s breath,
the blood foon begins to diftend the veins, vrhich are
unable to empty their contents into the heart; and we
are able only, during a very little time, to refill the lli-
mulus to infpiration. In drowning, the circulation
teems to be ilopped upon this principle ; and in hang-
ing, the preflure made on the jugular veins, may co¬
operate with the lloppage of refpiration in bringing on
death.
Till within thefe few years phyliologifls were entire¬
ly ignorant of the ufe of refpiration. It -was at length
difcovered in part by the illuftrious Dr Prieftly. He
found that the air expired by animals was phlogiilicat-
ed ; and that the air wras fitter for refpiration, or for
iupporting animal life, in proportion as it was freer
from the phlogiftic principle. It had long been obferv-
ed that the blood in palling through the lungs ac¬
quired a more florid colour. He therefore fufpedled,
that it was owing to its having imparted phlogillon to
the air and he fatisfied himfelf of the truth* of this
idea by experiments, which Ihowed, that the craffamen-
tum of extravafated blood phlogiilicated air in pro¬
portion as it loll its dark colour. He farther found,
that blood thus reddened had a ftrong attraction for
phlogifton infomuch that it was capable of taking it
from phlogifhcated air, thereby becoming of a darker
colour. From hence it appeared that the blood, in its
circulation through the arterial fyftem, imbibes a con-
liderable quantity of phlogiiton, which is difcharged
from it to the air in the lungs.
I his dilcovery has fince been prolecuted by two very
ingenious phyfiologifts, Dr Crawford and Mr Elliot.
It had been fhown by Profeffors Black and Irvine, that
different bodies have different capacities for containino-
fire. For example, that oil and water, when equally
hot to the fenle and the thermometer, contain differ¬
ent proportions of that principle ; nnd that unequal
quantities of it are required, in order to raife thofe
iubftances to like temperatures. The inquiries of Dr
Crawford and Mr Elliot tend to prove, that the ca¬
pacities of bodies for containing fire are diminilhed by
the addition of phlogillon, and increafed by its repara¬
tion : the capacity of calx of antimony, for example,
being greater than that of the antimony itfelf. Com¬
mon air contains a great quantity of fire ; combullible
bodies very little. In combullion, a double eledive
attraction takes place ; the phlogifton of the body be¬
ing transferred to the air, the fire contained in the air
to the combuftible body. But as the capacity of the
latter is not encreafed fo much as that of the former is
Vol. II. Part I.
diminifhed, only part of the extricated fire will be ab-
forbed by the body. The remainder therefore will raife
the temperature of the compound ; and hence we may
account for the heat attending combuftion. As the
ufe of refpiration is to dephlogifticate the blood, it feems
probable, that a like double eledlive attradlion takes
place in this procefs ; the phlogifton of the blood be¬
ing transferred to the air, and the fire contained in the
air to the blood ; but with this difference, that the ca¬
pacities being equal, the wdiole of the extricated fire is
abforbed by the latter The blood in this ftate circu¬
lating through the body, imbibes phlogifton, and of
courfe gives out its fire ; part onlv of which is abforb¬
ed by the parts furniftiing the phlogifton, the remain¬
der, as in combuftion, becoming fenfible ; and is there¬
fore the caufe of the heat of the body, or ivhat is call¬
ed animal heat.
In confirmation of this dodlrine it may be obferved,
that the venous blood contains lefs fire than the arte¬
rial ; combuftible bodies lefs than incombuftlble ones ;
and that air contains lefs of this principle, according
as it is rendered, by combination with phlogillon, Ids'
fit for refpiration (z).
In afcending very high mountains, refpiration is
found to become ftiort and frequent, and fometimes to
be amended with a fpitting of blood. Thefe fymptoms
feem to be occafioned by the air being too rare and
thin to dilate the lungs fufficiently; and the blood
gradually accumulating in the pulmonary veffels, fome¬
times burfts through their coats and is brought up by
coughing. This has likewife been accounted for in a
different way, by fuppofing that the air contained in
the blood, not receiving an equal preffure from that of
the atmofphere, expands, and at length ruptures the
very minute branches of the pulmonary vefl’els ; upon
the fame principle that fruits and animals put under
the receiver of an air pump, are feen to fwell as the
outer air becomes exhaufted. But Dr Darwin of
Litchfield has lately publifhed fome experiments, which
feem to prove, that no air or elallic vapour does exift
in the blood veflels, as has been generally fuppofed ;
and he is induced to impute the fpitting of blood which
has fometimes taken place in afcending high moun¬
tains, to accident, or to violent exertions ; as it never
happens to animals that are put into the exhaufted re¬
ceiver of an air pump, where the diminution of preffure
is many times greater than on the fummit of the high-
eft mountains.
Sect. VIII. Of the Voice.
Respiration has already been defcribed as affording
us many advantages ; and next to that of life, its moil
important ufe feems to be that of forming the voice
and fpeech. The ancients, and almoft all the moderns,
have confidered the organ of fpeech as a kind of mufi-
cal inftrument, which may be compared to a flute, to
an hautboy, to an organ, &c. and they argue after the
iollowing manner :
The trachea, which begins at the root of the tongue,
and goes to terminate in the lungs, may be compared
K k to
257
Of the
Thorax.
(z) See Crawford’s Experiments and Obfervations on Animal Heat, and Elliot’s Philofophical Obfervations.
2j8
O f the
Thorax.
,23
ANATOMY.
Part T.
to tlie pipe of an organ'j tlie lungs dilating like bellows
during tbe time of infpiration •, and as the air is driven
out from them in expiration, it finds its paffage ftrait-
ened by the cartilages of the larynx, againft which it
ftrikes. As thefe cartilages are more or lefs elaftic,
they occafion in their turn more or lefs vibration in the
air, and thus produce the found of the voice } the va¬
riation in the found and tone of which depends on the
flate of the glottis, which, when ftraitened, produces
an acute tone, and a grave one when dilated.
The late M. Ferein communicated to the French
Academy of Sciences a very ingenious theory on the
formation of the voice. He confidered the organ of
the voice as -a. firing, as well as a wind, inftrument ; fo
that what art has hitherto been unable to conftrucl,
and what both the fathers Merfenne and Kircher fo
much wifhed to fee, M. Ferein imagined he had at
length difcovered in the human body. He obferves,
that there are at the edges of the glottis certain tendi¬
nous chords, placed horizontally acrofs it, which are
capable of confiderable vibration, fo as to produce
found, in the fame manner as it is produced by the
firings of a violin or a harpfichord : and he fuppofes
that the air, as it padfes out from the lungs, a£ls as a
bow on thefe firings, while the efforts of the breaft
and lungs regulate its motion, and produce the variety
of tones. So that according to this fyflem the varia¬
tion in the voice is not occafioned by the dilatation or
contradlion of the glottis, but by the diftention or re¬
laxation of thefe firings, the found being more or lefs
acute in proportion as they are more or lefs flretched
out. Another writer on this fubjedl fuppofes, that the
organ of voice is a double inftrument, which produces
in unifon two founds of a different nature j one by
means of the air, and the other by means of the chords
of the glottis. Neither of thefe fyftems, however, are
univerfally adopted. They are both liable to infupe-
rable difficulties \ fo that the manner in which the
voice is formed has never yet been fatisfadlorily afcer-
tained : we may obferve, however, that the found pro¬
duced by the glottis is not articulated. To effedl this,
it is required to pafs through the mouth, where it is
differently modified by the adlion of the tongue,
which is either pufhed againfl the teeth, or upwards
towards the palate •, detaining it in its paffage, or per¬
mitting it to flow freely, by contradling or dilating the
mouth.
Sect. IX. Of Dejection.
By deje&ion we mean the adl of voiding the faeces
at the. anus j and an account of the manner in which
this is condufted was referved for this part of the work,
becaufe it feemed to require a knowledge of refpiration
to be perfeftly underflood.
The interlines were defcribed as having a periflaltic
motion, by which the fseces were gradually advancing
towards the anus. Now, whenever the fheces are ac¬
cumulated in the inteilinum redlum in a fufficient quan¬
tity to become troublefome, either by their weight or
acrimony, they excite a certain uneafinefs which in¬
duces us to go to flool. To effedl this, we begin by
making a confiderable infpiration ; in cenfequence of
which the diaphragm is carried downwards towards
the lower belly ; the abdominal mufcles are at the fame
time contradled in obedience to the will : and the in-
teflines being compreffed on all fides, the refiflance of
the JfhinBer is overcome, and the faeces pafs out at the
anus 5 which is afterwards drawn up by its longitudinal
fibres, which are called levatores ani, and then by
means of its fphinSler is again contradled : but it fome-
times happens, as in dyfenteries for inflance, that the
faeces are very liquid, and have confiderable acrimo¬
ny ; and then the irritation they occafion is more fre¬
quent, fo as to promote their difcharge without any
preffure from the diaphragm or abdominal mufcles ;
and fometimes involuntarily, as is the cafe when the
fphincter becomes paralytic.
Of the
Thorax.
Sect. X. Of the Pericardium, and of the Heart and
its Auricles.
124
The two membranous bags of the pleura, ■whichPericar-
were defcribed as forming the mediaflinym, recede one^“im-
from the other, fo as to afford a lodgment to a firm
membranous fac, in which the heart is fecurely lodg¬
ed 5 this fac, which is the pericardium, appears to be
compofed of two tunics, united to each other by cel¬
lular membrane.—The outer coat, which is thick, and
in fome places of a tendinous complexion, is a pro-
duclion of the mediaflinum •, the inner coat, which is
extremely thin, is reflected over the auricles and ven¬
tricles of the heart, in the fame manner as the tunica
conjunctiva, after lining the eyelids, is reflected over
the eye.
This bag adheres to the tendinous part of the dia¬
phragm, and contains a coagulable lymph, the liquor
pericardii, whlbh ferves to lubricate the heart and fa¬
cilitate its motions ; and feems to be fecreted and ab-
forbed in the fame manner as it is in the other cavities
of the body.
The arteries of the pericardium are derived from the
phrenic, and its veins pafs into veins of the fame
name } its nerves are likewife branches of the phrenic.
The fize of the pericardium is adapted to that of the
heart, being ufually large enough to contain it loofe-
ly. As its cavity does not extend to the flernum, the
lungs cover it in infpiration ; and as it everywhere in¬
verts the heart, it effedlually fecures it from being in¬
jured by lymph, pus, or any other fluid, extravafated
into the cavities of the thorax. 125
The heart is a hollow7 mufcle of a conical fhape, fi- Heart, and
tuated tranfverfely between the two laminae of the me-Its auncles>
diaftinum, at the knver part of the thorax •, having its
bafis turned towards the right fide, and its point or
apex towards the left.—Its lower furface is fomewhat
flattened towards the diaphragm. Its bafis, from wdiich
the great veflels originate, is covered with fat; and it
has two hollow7 and flefhy appendages, called auricles.
—Round thefe feveral openings, the heart feems to be
of a firm ligamentous texture, from which all its fibres
feem to originate ; and as they advance from thence
towards the apex, the fubftance of the heart feems to
become thinner.
The heart includes two cavities or ventricles, which
are feparated from each other by a flefhy feptum •, one
of thefe is called the right, and the other the left, ven¬
tricle; though perhaps, w'ith refpedl to their fituation,
it would be more proper to diftinguiih them into the
anterior and poferior ventricles.
/
Chap. IV*
ANA
The heart is exteriorly covered by a very fine mem¬
brane } and its ftrudlure is perfeftly mufcular or fiefiiy,
being compofed of fibres which are defcribed as paf-
iing in different direftions •, fome as being extended
longitudinally from the bafis to the apex ; others, as
taking an oblique or fpiral courfe ; and a third fort as
being placed in a tranfverfe direftion (a).—‘Within
the two ventricles we obferve feveral furrows ; and
there are likewife tendinous firings, which arife from
flefliy ccAumnce in the two cavities, and are attached to
the valves of the auricles : That the ufe of thefe and
the other valves of the heart may be underftood, it
muff be obferved, that four large veffels pafs out from
the bafis of the heart, viz. two arteries and two veins j
and that each of thefe veffels is furnifhed with a thin
membranous produftion, which is attached all round
to the borders of their feveral orifices, from whence
hanging loofely down they appear to be divided into
two or three diftinct portions. But as their ufes in the
arteries and veins are different, fo are they differently
difpofed. Thofe of the arteries are intended to give
way to the paffage of the blood into them from the
ventricles, but to oppofe its return : and, on the con¬
trary, the valves of the veins are conftrudffed fo as to
allow the blood only to pafs into the heart. In confe-
quence of thefe different ufes, we find the valves of
tire pulmonary artery and of the aorta attached to the
orifices of thofe veffels, fo as to have their concave
furfaces turned towards the artery ; and their convex
furfaces, which mutually meet together, being placed
towards the ventricle, only permit the blood to pafs
oneway, which is into the arteries. There are ufually
three of thefe valves belonging to the pulmonary ar¬
tery, and as many to the aorta ; and from their figure
they are called valvula femilwiarcs. The communica¬
tion between the two great veins and the ventricles is
by means of the two appendages or auricles into which
the blood is difeharged 5 fo that the other valves which
may be laid to belong to the veins, are placed in each
ventricle, where the auricle opens into it. The valves
in the right ventricle are ufually three in number, and
arc named valvuU tricufpides ; but in the left ventricle
we commonly obferve only two, and thefe are the
valwla mitraies. The membranes which form thefe
valves in each cavity are attached fo as to projett fome-
what forward ; and both the tricufpides and the mitra-
les are connected with the tendinous firings, which
were defcribed as arifing from the flelhy column#. By
the contraflion of either ventricle the blood is driven
into the artery which communicates with that ventri¬
cle ; and thefe tendinous firings being gradually re¬
laxed as the fides of the cavity are brought nearer to
each other, the valves naturally dole the opening into
the auricle, and the blood neceffarily dire£ls its courfe
into the then only open paffage, which is into the ar¬
tery ; but after this contraction the heart becomes re¬
laxed, the tendinous firings are again flretched out,
259
Of the
Thorax.
T O M Y.
and, drawing the valves of the auricle dowmVards, the
blood is poured by the veins into the ventricle, from
wdience, by another contraction, it is again thrown in- ^
to the artery, as will be defcribed hereafter. The
right ventricle is not quite fo long, though fome what
larger, than the left ; but the latter has more fubflance
than the other ; and this feems to be, becaufe it is in¬
tended to tranfmit the blood to the mofl diflant parts
of the body, whereas the right ventricle diflributes it
only to the lungs.
The heart receives its nerves from the par vagum
and the intercoflals. The arteries which ferve-far its
nouiifhment are two in number, and arife from the
aorta. They furround in fome meafure the bafis of
the heart, and from this courfe are called the coronary
arteries. From thefe arteries the blood is returned by
veins of the fame name into the auricles, and even in¬
to the ventricles.
The mufcular bags called the auricles are fituated at
the bafis of the heart, at the fides of each other ; and,
correfponding with the two ventricles, are like thofe
two cavities diflinguifhed into right and left. Thefe
facs, which are anteriorly unequal, have externally a
jagged appendix ; w'hich, from its having been com¬
pared to the extremity of an ear, has given them their
name of auricles.
Sect. XI. Angiology^ or a Defcription of the Blood
Vefftls.
The heart has been defcribed as contracting itfelf, T ?
and throwing the blood from its two ventricles into
the pulmonary artery and the aorta, and then as re¬
laxing itfelf and receiving a frelh fupply from two large
veins, wdiich are the pulmonary vein and the v :na ca¬
va. We wrill now point out the principal dillributions
of thefe veffels.
The pulmonary artery arifes from the right ventri¬
cle by a large trunk, which foon divides into two con-
fiderable branches, which pafs to the right and left
lobes of the lungs : each of thefe branches is after-
wrards divided and fubdivided into an infinite number
of branches and ramifications, which extend through
the whole fubflance of the lungs; and from thefe
branches the blood is returned by the veins, wdiich,
contrary to the courfe of the arteries, begin by very
minute canals, and gradually become larger, forming
at length four large trunks ca-led pulmonary veins,
which terminate in the left auricle by one common
opening, from wdrence the blood paffes into the left
ventricle. From this fame ventricle arifes the aorta or
great artery, which at its beginning is nearly an inch
in diameter : it foon fends off two branches, the coro¬
naries, which go to be diftributed to the heart and its
auricles. After this, at or about the third or fourth
vertebra of the back, it makes a confiderable curva¬
ture ; from this curvature (b) arife three arteries ; one
K k 2 of
(a) Authors differ about the courfe and diftinflions of thefe fibres; and it feems right to obferve, that the
ftrudlure of the heart being more compaft than that of other mufcles, its fibres are not eafily feparated.
(b) Anatomills ufually call the upper part of this curvature aorta afeendens ; and the other part of the artery
to its divifion at the iliacs, aorta defeendens ; but they differ about the place where this dinindlion is to be intro¬
duced ; and it feems fufficiently to anfwer every purpofe, to fpeak only of the aorta and its curvature.
200 ANATOMY.
Of the of which foon divides into two branches. The firft
Ih"rax' , two are the left fubclavian and the left carotid, and the
third is a common trunk to the right fubclavian and
right carotid ; though fometimes both the carotids arife
diilinctly from the aorta.
The two carotids afcend within the fubclavians, along
the fides of the trachea 5 and when they have reached
the larynx, divide into two principal branches, the in¬
ternal and external carotid. The firft of thefe runs a
little way backwards in a bending direction 5 and hav¬
ing reached the under part of the ear, paifes through
the canal in the os petrofum, and entering into the ca¬
vity of the cranium, is diftributed to the brain and
the membranes which envelope it, and likewife to the
eye. The external carotid divides into feveral branch¬
es, which are diftributed to the larynx, pharynx, and
other parts of the neck ; and to the jaws, lips,
tongue, eyes, temples, and all the external parts of
the head.
Each fubclavian is likewife divided into a great num¬
ber of branches. It fends off the vertebral artery,
which paffes through the openings we fee at the bot¬
tom of the tranfverfe proceffes of the vertebrte of the
neck, and in its courfe fends off many ramifications
to the neighbouring parts. Some of its branches are
diftributed to the fpinal marrow, and after a confider-
able inflexion it enters into the cranium, and is diftri¬
buted to the brain. The fubclavian likewife fends oft’
branches to the mufcles of the neck and fcapula ; and
the mediaftinum, thymus, pericardium, diaphragm, the
breaft, and the mufcles of the thorax, and even of the
abdomen, derive branches from the fubclavian, which
are diftinguiftted by different names, alluding to the
parts to which they are diftributed •, as the mammary,
the phrenic, the intercofal, &c. But notwithftanding
the great number of branches which have been deferi-
bed as arifing from the fubclavian, it is ftill a confider-
able artery when it reaches the axilla, where it drops
its former name, which alludes to its paffage under the
clavicle, and is called the axillary artery * from which
a variety of branches are diftributed to the mufcles of
the breaft, fcapula, and arm.—But its main trunk ta¬
king the name of brachialis, runs along on the infide
of the arm near the os humeri, till it reaches the joint
ot the fore arm, and then it divides into two branches.
This divifion, however, is different in different fubjetfts j
for in fome it takes place higher up, and in others low¬
er down. When it happens to divide above the joint,
it may be confidered as a happy difpofition in cafe of
an accident by bleeding; for fuppofing the artery to
be unfortunately pumftured by the lancet, and that the
haemorrhage could only be flopped by making a liga¬
ture on the veffel, one branch would remain unhurt,
through which the blood would pafs uninterrupted to
the fore arm and hand. One of the two branches of
the brachialis plunges down under the flexor mufcles,
and runs along the edge of the ulna 5 while the other
is carried along the outer furface of the radius, and is
eafily felt at the wrift, where it is only covered by the
common integuments. Both thefe branches common¬
ly unite in the palm of the hand, and form an arterial
arch, from whence branches are detached to the fin¬
gers.
T he aorta, after having given off at its curvature the
carotids and fubclavians which convey blood to all the
upper parts of the body, defeends upon the bodies of
the vertebrae a little to the left, as far as the osfacrum,
where it drops the name of aorta, and divides into
two confiderable branches. In this courfe, from its
curvature to its bifurcation, it fends off feveral arteries
in the following order: x. One or two little arteries
firft demonrtrated by Ruyfch as going to the bronchi’
and called arterice bronchioles Ruyfchii. 2. The arte-
nae cefophageae. Thefe are commonly three or four in
number. . They arife from the fore part of the aorta,
and are diftributed chiefly to the oefophagus. 2. The
inferior intercoftal arteries, which are diftributed be¬
tween the ribs in the fame manner as the arteries of the
three or four fuperior ribs are, which are derived from
the iubclaviam Thefe arteries fend off branches to
the medulla fpinalis. 4. The diaphragmatic or infe¬
rior phrenic arteries, which go to the diaphragm, fto-
mach, omentum, duodenum, pancreas, fpleen, liver’ and
gall-bladder. 5. The coeliac, which fends off the co¬
ronary ftomachic, the fplenic, and the hepatic artery.
6. The fuperior mefenteric artery, which is diftributed
to the mefentery and fmall inteftines. 7. The emul-
gents, which go to the kidneys. 8. The arteries
which are diftributed to the glandulae renales. 9. The
fpermatic. 10. The inferior mefenteric artery, wdiich
ramifies through the lower portion of the mefentery
and the large inteftines. A branch of this artery which
goes to the redum is called the internal hcemorrhoidal.
1 1. The lumbar arteries, and a very fmall branch called
the facra, which are diftributed to the mufcles of the
loins and abdomen, and to the os facrum and medulla
fpinalis.
The trunk of the aorta, when it has reached the
laft vertebra lumborum, or the os facrum, drops the
name of aorta, and feparates into two forked branches
called the iltacs. Each of thefe loon divides into two
branches j one of which is called the internal iliac, or
hypogqftric artery, and is diftributed upon the contents
of the pelvis and upon the mufcles on its outer fide.
One branch, called pudenda communis, lends fmall rami¬
fications to the end of the rectum under the name of
hcemorrhoidalts externa, and is afterwards diftributed
upon the penis. The other branch, the external iliac,
after having given off the circumflex artery of the os
ilium and the epigaftric, which is diftributed to the
reCfi-mufcles, paifes out of the abdomen under Pou-
part’s ligament, and takes the name of crural artery.
It defeends on the inner part of the thigh clofe to the
os femoris, fending off branches to the mufcles, and
then finking deeper in the hind part of the thigh, reach¬
es the ham, where it takes the name of popliteal; after
this it feparates into two confiderable branches ; one of
which is called the anterior tibial artery ; the other di¬
vides into two branches, and thefe arteries all go to be
diftributed to the leg and foot.
The blood, which is thus diftributed by the aorta
to all parts of the body, is brought back by the veins,
which are fuppoled to be continued from the ultimate
branches of arteries 5 and uniting together as they ap¬
proach the heart, at length form the large trunks, the
vena cava afeendens, and vena cava defeendens.
•All the veins which bring back the blood from the
upper extremities, and from the head and breaft, pafs
into the vena cava defeendens; and thofe which return
it from the lower parts of the body terminate in* the
Part 1.
Of the
Thorax.
vena
Chap. IV. ANATOMY. 261
Of the vena cava afcendens ; and tliefe two cavas uniting to- Every trunk of an artery, before it divides, is nearly O' the
Ihorax. ^ gether as they approach the heart, open by one com- cylindrical, or of equal diameter through its whole thorax.
* v mon orifice into the left auricle. length, and fo are all its branches when examined fe-' v
It does not here feem to be neceffary to follow the parately. But every trunk feems to contain lefs blood
different divifions of the veins as w-e did thofe of the than the many branches do into which that trunk .fe-
arteries ; and it will be fufficient to remark, that in parates j and each of thefe branches probably contains
general every artery is accompanied by its vein, and lefs blood than the ramifications do into which it is
that both are diitinguifhed by the fame name. But, fubdivided : and it is the fame with the veins j the vo-
like many other general rules, this too has its excep • lume of their feveral ramifications, when confidered lo¬
tions (c). The veins, for inftance, wdiich accompany gether, being found to exceed that of the great trunk
the external and internal carotid, are not called the w’hich they form by their union.
carotid veins, but the external and internaljugular.— The return of the blood through the veins to the
In the thorax there is a vein diftinguifhed by a pro- heart, is promoted by the adlion of the mufcles, and
per name, and this is the a%ygos, or vena Jine pari, the pulfation of the arteries. And this return is like-
This vein, which is a pretty confiderable one, runs wife greatly afliited by the valves w’hich are to be met
along by the right fide of the vertebrae of the back, with in the veins, and which conftitute one of the great
and is chiefly deftined to receive the blood from the diitindtions between them and the arteries. Thefe
intercoftals on that fide, and from the lower half of valves, which are fuppofed to be formed by the inner
thofe on the left fide, and to convey it into the vena coat of the veins, permit the blood to flow from the
cava defcendens. In the abdomen we meet with a extremities towards the heart, but oppofe its return,
vein, which is ftill a more remarkable one, and this is They are mofl: frequent in the fmaller veins. As the
the vena ports, which performs the office both of an column of blood inereafes, they feem to become lefs
artery and a vein. It is formed by a reunion of all necelfary j and therefore in the vena cava afcendens, we
the veins which come from the ftomach, inteftines, meet wfith only one valve, which is near its origin,
omentum, pancreas, and fpleen, fo as to compofe one The arteries are compofed of feveral tunics. Some
great trunk, which goes to ramify through the liver ; writers enumerate five of thefe tunics 5 but perhaps w^e
and after having depofited the bile, its ramifications may more properly reckon only three, viz. the
unite, and bring back into the vena cava, not only the miifcular, and cuticular coats. The veins are by fome
blood which the vena portae had carried into the liver, anatomifts defcribed as having the fame number of
but likewife the blood from the hepatic artery. Every coats as the arteries ; but as they do not feem to be
artery has a vein wffiich correfponds w-ith it; but the irritable, we cannot with propriety fuppofe them to
\ trunks and branches of the veins are more numerous have a mufcular tunic. We are aware of Dr Verf-^^,^-
than thofe of the arteries. The reafons for this dif- chub’s experiments to prove that the jugular and fome r/V™*
pofition are perhaps not difficult to be explained ; the other veins poflefs a certain degree oHrritability ; but Venarvm -A
blood in its courfe through the veins is much farther it is certain, that his experiments, repeated by others,"'™^'7'*
removed from the fource and caufe of its motion, which have produced a different refult; and even he himfelf4t0*
are in the heart, than it was when in the arteries *, fo allows, that fometimes he was unable to diftinguilh any
that its courfe is confequently lefs rapid, and enough fuch property in the veins. Both thefe feries of vef-
of it could not poffibly be brought back to the heart fels are nourifned by ftill more minute arteries and veins,
in the moment of its dilatation, to equal the quantity which are feen creeping over their coats and ramifying
which is driven into the arteries from the two ven- through their whole fubftance, and are called vafa va-
tricles, at the time they contratt ; and the equilibri- forum; they have likewife many minute branches of
um, which is fo effential to the continuance of life and nerves.
health, would confequently be deftroyed, if the capa- The arteries are much rtronger than the veins; and
city of the veins did not exceed that of the arteries, they feem to require this force, to be enabled to refill:
in the fame proportion that the rapidity of the blood’s the impetus with which the blood circulates through
motion through the arteries exceeds that of its return them, and to impel it on towards the veins,
through the veins. When the heart contracts, it impels the blood into
A large artery ramifying through the body, and the arteries, and fenfibly diftends them ; and thefe vef-
continued to the minute branches of veins, which gra- fels again contradl, as the heart becomes relaxed to re-
dually unite together to form a large trunk, may be ceive more blood from the auricles ; fo that the caufe
compared to two trees united to each other at their of the contra&ion and dilatation of the arteries feems
tops •, or rather as having their ramifications fo dif- to be eafy to be underftood, being owing in part to
pofed that the two trunks terminate in one common their own contraftile power, and in part to the aftion
point ; and if we farther fuppofe, that both thefe trunks of the heart ; but in the veins, the eftedls of this im-
, and their branches are hollow, and that a fluid is incef- pulfe not being fo fenfibly felt, and the veffels them-
fantly circulated through them, by entering into one of felves having little or no contraftile power, the blood
the trunks and returning through the other, we (hall be feems to flow in a conftant and equal ftream : and this,
enabled to conceive how the blood is circulated through together with its palling gradually from a fmall chan-
the veffels of the human body. nel into a larger one, feems to be the reafon why the
veins
(c) In the extremities, fome of the deep-feated veins, and all the fuperficial ones, take a courfe different from
that ot the arteries.
262 A N A T
Of the veins have no pulfatory motion, except the large ones
^Thorax, near the heart j and in thefe it Teems to be occaiioned
v~ by the motion of the diaphragm, and by the regurgi¬
tation of the blood in the cavas.
Sect. XII. Of the AFlicn of the Hearty Auricles,
and Arteries.
*2? The heart, at the time it contracts, drives the blood
from its ventricles into the arteries 5 and the arteries
being thus filled and diftended, are naturally inclined
to contract the moment the heart begins to dilate, and
ceafes to fupply them with blood. Thefe alternate mo¬
tions of contraftion and dilatation of the heart and ar¬
teries, are diftinguhhed by the names of fjlole and dia-
fole. When the heart is in a date of contraction or
fyftole, the arteries are at that inftant dittended with
blood, and in their diaftole ; and it is in this Hate we
feel their pulfatory motion, which we call the pulfc.
When the heart dilates, and the arteries contract, the
blood is impelled onwards into the veins, through which
it is returned back to the heart. While the heart,
however, is in its fyftole, the blood cannot pafs from
the veins into the ventricles, but is detained in the au¬
ricles, which are two refervoirs formed for this ufe,
till the diaftole, or dilatation of the heart, takes place 5
and then the diftended auricles contrad, and drive the
blood into the ventricles : fo that the auricles have an
alternate fyftole and diaftole as well as the heart.
Although both the ventricles of the heart contraCI
at the fame time, yet the blood pafies from one to the
other. In the fame moment, for inftance, that the
left ventricle drives the blood into the aorta, the right
ventricle impels it into the pulmonary artery, which
is diftributed through all the fubftance of the lungs.
The blood is afterwards brought back into the left ven¬
tricle by the pulmonary vein, at the fame time that
the blood is returned by the cavas, into the right ven¬
tricle, from all the other parts of the body.
This feems to be the mode of action of the heart
and its vefiels ; but the caufe of this aftion has, like
all other intricate and interefting fubjefts, been differ¬
ently explained. It feems to depend on the ftimulus
made on the different parts of the heart by the blood
itfelf, which, by its quantity and heat, or other proper¬
ties (d), is perhaps capable of firft exciting that mo¬
tion, w'hich is afterwards continued through life, inde¬
pendent of the will, by a regular return of blood to
the auricles, in a quantity proportioned to that which
Is thrown into the arteries.
The heart poffeffes the vis inf to, or principle of ir¬
ritability, in a much greater degree than any other
mufcle of the body. The pulfe is quicker in young
than in old fubjefls, becaufe the former are ccet. par,
more irritable than the latter. Upon the fame prin¬
ciple w’e may explain, why the pulfe is conftantly
quicker in weak than in robuft perfons.
o M Y. Part I.
Sect. XIII. Of the Circulation. Thorax.
<" ■ v
After, wdiat has been obferved of the ftru&ure and I28
a&ion of the heart and its auricles, and likewife of the
arteries and veins, there feem to be but very few argu¬
ments required to demonftrate the circulation of the
blood, wdrich has long fince been eftabliftred as a medi¬
cal truth. This circulation may be defined to be a per¬
petual motion of the blood, in confequence of the ac¬
tion of the heart and arteries, wdiich impel it through
all the parts of the body, from wdrence it is brought
back by the veins to the heart.
A very fatisfacftory proof of this circulation, and a
proof eafy to be underftood, may be deduced from the
different effefls of preffure on an artery and a vein. If
a ligature, for inftance, is paffed round an artery, the
veffel fwells confiderably between the ligature and the
heart ; whereas if we tie up a vein, it only becomes
filled between the extremity and the ligature, and this
is what we every day obferve in bleeding. The liga¬
ture wre pafs round the arm on thefe occafions, com-
preffes the fuperficial veins \ and the return of the blood
through them being impeded, they become diftended.
When the ligature is too loofe, the veins are not fufti-
ciently comprcffed, and the blood continues its progrefs
towards the heart and, on the contrary, when it is
made too tight, the arteries themfelves become com-
preffed 5 and the flowr of the blood through them being
impeded, the veins cannot be diftended.
Another phenomenon, w hich effeflually proves the
circulation, is the lofs of blood that every living ani¬
mal fuftains by opening only a fingle artery of a mode¬
rate fize} for it continues to How from the wounded
veffel till the equilibrium is deftroyed which is effential
to life. This truth was not unknown to the ancients j
and it feems ftrange that it did not lead them to a
knowdedge of the circulation, as it fufficiently proves,
that all the other Veffels muft communicate with that
which is opened. Galen, who lived more than 1 $;oO
years ago, drew this conclufion from it; and if We far¬
ther obferve, that he defcribes (after Erafiftratus, who
flourilhed about 450 years before him) the feveral valves
of the heart, and determines their difpofition and ufes,
it will appear wonderful, that a period of near 2oco
years ftiould afterwards elapfe before the true courfe
of the blood was afcertained. This difcovery, for
which w'e are indebted to the immortal Harvey, has
thrown new lights on phyfiology and the doflrine of
difeafes, and conftitutes one of the moft important pe¬
riods of anatomical hiftory.
Sect. XIV. Of the Nature of the Blood.
Blood, recently drawn from a vein into a bafon, 125>
would feem to be an homogeneous fluid of a red co¬
lour (e) ; but when fuffered to reft, it foon coagulates,
and divides into two parts, which are diftinguilhed by
the
(b) Dr Harvey long ago fuggefted. that the blood is poffcffed of a living principle ; and Mr J. Hunter has
lately endeavoured to revive this dofxrine j in fupport of which he has adduced many ingenious arguments.
The fubjeff is a curious cue, fend deferves to be profecuted as an inquiry which cannot but be interefting to
phyfiologifts.
(e) The blood, as it flows through the arteries, is obfeived to be more florid than it is in the veins j and
this rednefs is acquired in its paffage through the lungs* Vid. Seft. VII.
Chap. IV.
A N A T
Of the
Thorax.
* Herufons
Experim.
Jnq. Part I.
the names of crciffamentum and ferum. The craffamen-
tum is the red coagulum, and the fermn is the water
in which it floats. Each of thefe may be again i'epa-
rated into two others j for the craffamentum, by being
repeatedly waflied in warm water, gives out all its red
globules, and what remains appears to be compofed of
the coagulable lymph (p), which is a gelatinous fub-
ftance, capable of being hardened by fire till it becomes
perfecily horny : and if we expofe the ferum to a cer¬
tain degree of heat, part of it will be found to coagu¬
late like the white of an egg, and there will remain a
clear and limpid water, refembling urine both in its ap¬
pearance and fmell.
The ferum and craffamentum differ in their propor¬
tion in different conftitutions ; in a ftrong perfon, the
craffamentum is in a greater proportion to the ferum
than in a weak one *5 and the fame difference is found
to take place in difeafes (g).
Sect. XV. Of Nutrition.
The variety of fun ft ions which we have defcribed
as being inceflantly performed by the living body, and
the continual circulation of the blood through it, muft
neceifarily occafion a conftant diflipation of the feveral
parts which enter into its compofition. In fpeaking
of the infenfible perfpiration, we obferved how much
■was inceffantly paflmg off from the lungs and the fur-
face of the fkin. The difcharge by urine is likewife
every day confiderable } and great part of the bile, fa-
liva, &c. are excluded by ftool. But the folid, as well
as the fluid parts of the body, require a conftant re¬
newal of nutritious particles. They are expofed to the
attrition of the fluids which are circulated through
them •, and the contraftion and relaxation they repeat
fo many thoufand times in every day, would neceflarily
occafion a diflolution of the machine, if the renewal
was not proportioned to the wafte.
It is eafy to conceive hour the chyle formed from
the aliment is aflimilated into the nature of blood, and
repairs the lofs of the fluid parts of our body; but
how the folids are renewed, has never yet been fatis-
faftorily explained. The nutritious parts of the blood
are probably depofited by the arteries by exudation
O M Y. 263
through their pores into the tela cellulofa j and as the Of the
folid parts of the body are in the embryo only a kind , ,
of jelly, which gradually acquires the degree of con-
fiftence they are found to have when the body arrives
at a more advanced age ; and thefe fame parts which
confift of bones, cartilages, ligaments, mufcles, &c. are
fometimes reduced again by difeafe to a gelatinous ftate;
we may, with fome degree of probability, confider the
coagulable lymph as the fource of nutrition.
If the fupply of nouriftiment exceeds the degree of
w'afte, the body increafes ; and this happens in infancy
and in youth : for at thofe periods, but more particu¬
larly the former one, the fluids bear a large proportion
to the folids 5 and the fibres being loft and yielding,
are proportionably more capable of extenfion and in-
creafe. But when the fupply of nutrition only equals
the w^afte, wre neither increafe nor decreafe \ and we
find this to be the cafe when the body has attained its
full growth or acme: for the folids having then ac¬
quired a certain degree of firmnefs and rigidity, do not
permit a farther increafe of the body. But as we ap¬
proach to old age, rigidity begins to be in excefs, and
the fluids (h) bear a much lefs proportion to the folids
than before. The diffination of the body is greater
than the fupply of nouriftiment j many of the fmaller
veffels become gradually impervious (1); and the fibres
lofing their moifture and their elafticity, appear flaccid;
and wrinkled. The lilies and the rofes difappear, be-
caufe the fluids by which they were produced can no
longer reach the extremities of the capillary veflels of
the lkin. As thefe changes take place, the nervous
power being proportionably weakened, the irritability
and fenfibility of the body, which were formerly fo re¬
markable, are greatly diminilhed*, and in advanced life,
the hearing, the eye-fight, and all the other fenfes, be¬
come gradually impaired.
Sect. XVI. Of the Glands and Secretions.
The glands are commonly underftood to be fmall, 131
roundifli, or oval bodies, formed by the convolution of
a great number of veflels, and deiiined to feparate par •
ticular humours from the mafs of blood.
They are ufually divided into two clafles; but it feems
more
(f) It may not be improper to obferve, that till of late the coagulablc lymph has been confounded with the
ferum of the blood, which contains a fubftance that is likewife coagulable, though only when expofed to heat,
or combined with certain chemical fubftances*, whereas the other coagulates fpontaneoufly when expofed to the
air or to reft.
(g) When the blood feparates into ferum and craffamentum, if the latter be covered with a cruft of a whitifti
or buff colour, it has been ufually confidered as a certain proof of the blood’s being in a ftate of too great vil-
cidity. This appearance commonly taking place in inflammatory difeafes, has long ferved to confirm the theory
which afcribes the caufe of inflammation to lentor and obftruftions. But from the late Mr Hewfon’s experi¬
ments it appears, that when the aftion of the arteries is increafed, the blood, inftead of being more vifcid, is,
on the contrary, more fluid than in the ordinary ftate previous to inflammation ; and that in confequence of
this, the coagulable lymph fufters the red globules, which are the heavieft part of the blood, to fall down to
the bottom before it coagulates : fo that the craffamentum is divided into two parts j one of which is found
to confift of the coagulable lymph alone (in this cafe termed the buff); and the other, partly of this and partly
of the red globules.
( h ) As the fluids become lefs in proportion to the folids, their acrimony is found to increafe ; and this may
perhaps compenfate for the want of fluidity in the blood, by diminiftiing its cohefion.
(1) In infancy, the arteries are numerous and large in refpeft to the veins, and the lymphatic glands are
larger than at any other time of life 5 whereas, in old age, the capacity of the venous fyftem exceeds that o£
the arteries, and the lymphatic fyftem almoft difappears*
264
Th rax proper to difllnguxfti three kinds of glands, viz.
■ J 'X’ ■ 1:^le mucous, conglobate, and conglomerate.
I lie mucous glands, or follicles as they are molt
commonly called, are Imall cylindrical tubes continued
from the ends of arteries. In fome parts of the body,
as in the tonfils, for example, feveral of thefe follicles
may be feen folded together in one common covering,
and opening into one common fmus. Thefe follicles
are the vellels that fecrete and pour out mucus in the
mouth, oefophagus, ftomach, inteftines, and other parts
of the body.
The conglobate glands are peculiar to the lymphatic
fyftem. . Every lymphatic vein paffes through a gland
of this kind in its way to the thoracic dudt. They are
met with in different parts of the body, particularly
in the axilla, groin, and mefentery, and are either fo-
litary or in diftinft clufters.
I he conglomerate glands are of much greater bulk
than the conglobate, and ieem to be an affemblage of
many fmaller glands. Of this kind are the liver, kid¬
neys, &c. Some of them, as the pancreas, parotids, &c.
have a granulated appearance. All thefe conglomerate
glands are plentifully fupplied with blood veffels ; but
their nerves are in general very minute, and few in
number. Each little granulated portion furnifhes a
imall tube, which unites with other fimilar duds, to
form the common excretory dud of the gland.
* The principal glands, and the humours they fecrete,
have been already defcribed in different parts of this
work ; and there only remains for us to examine the
general ftrudure of the glands, and to explain the me-
chanifm of fecretion. On the firlt of thefe fubjeds
two different fyftems have been formed ; each of which
has had, and ftill continues to have, its adherents.
One of thefe fyftems was advanced by Malpighi, who
fuppofed that an artery entering into a gland ramifies
very minutely through its whole fubftance 5 and that
its branches ultimately terminate in a veficular cavity
or follicle, from whence the ftcreted fluid paffes out
through the excretory dud. This dodrine at firft
met with few opponents j but the celebrated Ruyfch,
who firft attempted minute injedions wuth wmx, after-
wards difputed the exiftence of thefe follicles, and af-
lerted, that every gland appears to be a continued fe-
ries of veffels, which after being repeatedly convoluted
in their courfe through its fubftance, at length termi¬
nate in the excretory dud. Anatomifts are ftill di¬
vided between thefe twro fyftems : that of Malpighi,
hov rever, feems to be the beft founded.
The mode of fecretion has been explained in a va¬
riety of ways, and they are all perfedly hypothetical.
In fuch an inquiry, it is natural to afk, how one gland
conftantly feparates a particular humour, while another
gland fecretes one of a very different nature from the
blood ? Fhe bile, for inftance, is feparated by the liver,
and the urine by the kidneys. Are thefe fecretions to
be imputed to any particular difpofition in the fluids,
or is their caufe to be looked for in the folids ?
_ ^ has been fuppofed, that every gland contains
within itfelf a fermenting principle, by which it is
enabled to change the nature of the blood it receives,
and to endue it with a particular property. Thus,
according to this fyftem, the blood, as it circulates
through the kidneys, becomes mixed with the ferment-
ing principle of thofe glands, and a part of it is con-
Part L
verted into urine ; .and again in the liver, in the fa- the
lival and other glands, the bile, the faliva, and other l 1 horax«
juices, are generated from a fimilar caufe. But it feems ' V"—'
to be impoifible for any liquor to be confined in a
place expofed to the circulation, without being car¬
ried aw'ay by the torrent of blood, every part of which
would be equally affe&ed •, and this fyftem of fermen¬
tation has long been rejected as vague and chimerical.
But as the caule of lecretion continued to be looked
for in the fluids, the former fyftem was fucceeded by
another, in which recourfe was had to the analogy of
the humours. It was obferved, that if paper be moift-
ened with water, and oil and water be afterwards
poured upon it, that the water only will be permitted
to pafs through it j but that, on the other hand, if the
paper has been previoufly foaked in oil inftead of water,
the oil only, and not the water, will be filtered through
it. Thefe obfervations led to a fuppofition, that every
fecretory organ is originally furnilhed with a humour
analogous to that which it is afterwards deftined to
feparate from the blood ; and that in confequence of
this difpofition, the fecretory veffels of the liver, for
inftance, will only admit the bilious particles of the
blood, w'hile all the other humours will be excluded.
This fyftem is an ingenious one, but the difficulties
with which it abounds are unanfwerable : for oil and
water are immifcible ; W'hereas the blood, as it is cir¬
culated through the body, appears to be a homoge¬
neous fluid. Every oil will pafs through a paper
moiftened only with one kind of oil; and wine, or
fpirits mixed with water, will eafily be filtered through
a paper previoufly foaked in water. Upon the fame
principle, all our humours, though differing in their
other properties, yet agreeing in that of being perfeff-
ly mifcible with each other, will all eafily pafs through
the fame filtre.-—But thefe are not all the objections
to this fyftem. The humours which are fuppofed to
be placed in the fecretory veffels for the determination
of fimilar particles from the blood, muft be originally
feparated without any analagous fluid $ and that which
happens once, may as eafily happen always. Again,
It fometimes happens, from a vitious difpofition, that
humours are filtered through glands w'hich are natu¬
rally not intended to afford them a paffage : and when
this once has happened, it ought, according to this
fyftem, to be expefted always to do fo : whereas this
is not the cafe ; and wc are, after all, naturally led to
feek for the caufe of fecretion in the folids. It does
not feem right to aferibe it to any particular figure of
the fecretory veflels ; becaufe the foft texture of thofe
parts does not permit them to preferve any conftant
ftrape, and our fluids feem to be capable of actommo-
dating themfelves to every kind of figure. Some have
imputed it to the difference of diameter in the orifices
of the different fecretory vellels. To this doftrine
objections have likewife been raifed 5 and it has been
argued, that the veffels of the liver, for inftance, would
upon this principle, afford a paffage not only to the
bile, but to all the other humours of lefs confiftence
with it. In reply to this objedlion, it has been fuppof¬
ed, that fecondary veflels exift, which originate from
the firft, and permit all the humours thinner than the
bile to pafs through them.
Each of thefe hypothefes is probably very remote
from the truth.
EXPLANATION
ANATOMY.
ANATOM Y.
EXPLANATION of PLATE XXX.
Chap. V.
Of the
Brain and
\ | Nerves.
This Plate reprefents the Heart in fitu, all the
large Arteries and Veins, with Tome of the Muf-
cles, &c.
Muscles, See.—Superior Extremity.—a,Maf-
feter. b, Complexus. c, Digaltricus. d, Os hyoides.
e, Thyroid gland, f, Levator fcapulae. g, Cuculla-
ris. hh, *The clavicles cut. i, The deltoid mufcle.
k, Biceps flexor cubiti cut. 1, Coraco-brachialis.
m, Triceps extenfor cubiti. n, The heads of the pro¬
nator teres, flexor carpi radialis, and flexor digitorum
fublimis, cut. o, The flexor carpi ulnaris cut at its
extrem ty. p, Flexor digitorum profundus, q, Supi¬
nator radii longus, cut at its extremity, r, Ligamen-
tum carpi tranfverfale. s, Extenfores carpi radiales.
t, Latiflimus dorfi. u, Anterior edge of the ferratus
anticus major, vv, The inferior part of the diaphragm,
ww, Its interior edge cut. xx, The kidneys, y, Tranf-
verfus abdominis, z, Os ilium.
Inferior Extremity.—a, Pfoas magnus. b, I-
liacus internus. c, The flefhy origin of the tenfor va¬
ginae femoris. The ofla pubis cut from each other.
e, Mufculus pedlineus cut from its origin, f, Short
head of the triceps adductor femoris cut. g, The great
head of the triceps, b, The long head cut. i, Vaftus
internus. £, Vaftus externus. /, Crureus. m, Gemel¬
lus. n, Soleus. o, Tibia. />, Peronaeus longus. q, Pe-
xomeus brevis, r, Fibula.
Heart and Blood Vessels.—A, The heart, with
the coronary arteries and veins. B, The right auricle
of the heart. C, The aorta afeendens. D, The left
iubclavian artery. E, The left carotid artery. F, The
common trunk which fends oft' the right fubclavian and
right carotid arteries. G, The carotis externa. H, Ar~
teria facialis, which fends off the coronary arteries of
the lips. I, Arteria temporalis profunda. K, Aor¬
ta defeendens. LL, The iliac arteries,—which fend
off MM, The femoral or crural arteries. V. B. The
other arteries in this figure have the fame diftribution
as the veins of the fame name :—And generally, in
the anatomical plates, the defeription to be found on
the one fide points out the fame parts in the other.
I, The frontal vein. 2, The facial vein. 3, Vena
temporalis profunda. 4, Vena occipitalis. 5, Vena
jugularis externa. 6, Vena jugularis interna, covering
the arteria carotis communis. 7, The vafcular arch on
the palm of the hand, which is formed by 8, the radial
artery and vein, and, 9, the ulnar artery and vein.
10 10, Cephalic vein. 11, Bafilic vein, that on the
right fide, cut. 12, Median vein. 13, The humeral
vein, wThich, with the median, covers the humeral ar¬
tery. 14 14, The external thoracic or mammary ar¬
teries and veins. 15, The axillary vein, covering the
artery. 16 16, The fubclavian veins, which, with
(66) the jugulars, form, 17, The vena cava fupe-
rior. 18, The cutaneous arch of veins on the fore part
of the foot. * 19, The vena tibialis antica, covering
the artery. 20, The vena profunda femoris, covering
the artery. 21, The upper part of the vena faphena
major. 22, The femoral vein. 23 23, The iliac
veins. 24 24, Vena cava inferior. 25 25, The renal
veins covering the arteries. 26 26, The diaphragma¬
tic veins.
CHAP. V. OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES.
13*
133
Integu¬
ments of
the brain,
Sect. I. Of the Brain and its Integuments.
THE bones of the cranium were deferibed in the
ofteological part of this work, as enclofing the brain
and defending it from external injury : but they are not
its only proteftion 5 for when we make a horizontal
feclion through thefe bones, we find this mafs every¬
where furrounded by two membranes (k), the dura and
Vol. II. Part I.
pia mater.—The firft of thefe lines the interior furface
of the cranium, to w'hich it everywhere adheres ftrong-
ly (l), but more particularly at the futures, and at the
many foramina through which veffels pafs between it
and the pericranium. The dura mater (m) is perfedf-
ly fmooth and inelaftic, and its inner furface is conftant-
ly bedew’ed with a fine pellucid fluid, which everywhere
feparates it from the pia mater. The dura mater fends
• L 1 oft'
(k) I he Greeks called thefe membranes meninges ; but the Arabians, fuppofing them to be the fource of all
the othei membranes of the body, afterwards gave them the name of dura and pia mater $ by which they are
now ufually diftinguifhed.
(l) In young fubjeefts this adhefion is greater than in adults j but even then, in the healthy fubjeft, it is no-
wheie eafily feparable, without breaking through fome of the minute veffels by means of which it is attached to
the bone.
( m ) I his membrane is commonly deferibed as confiding of two laminae j of which the external one is fup-
pofed to perform the office of perioiteum internum to the cranium, while the internal one forms the folds and
proceffes of the dura mater. In the natural ftate, however, no fuch feparation is apparent j like other mem¬
branes, we may indeed divide it, not into ttvo only, but many laminae j but this divifion is artificial, and depends
on the dexterity of the anatomift.
266
ANATOMY.
Part I.
Of the off” feveral conffderabie proceiTes, which divide the brain
into feparate portions, and prevent them from compref-
. ffng each other. Of thefe procefles there is one fupe-
rior and longitudinal, called the falx or falciform pro-
cefsy from its refemblance to a fcythe. It arifes from
the fpine of the os frontis, near the crifta galli, and ex¬
tending along in the direftion of the fagittal future, to
beyond the lambdoidal future, divides the brain into two
hemifpheres. A little below the lambdoidal future, it
divides into two broad wings or expanfions called the
trayifverfe or lateralproceffes, which prevent the lobes
of the cerebrum from preffing on the cerebellum. Be-
fides thefe there is a fourth, -which is fftuated under
the tranfverfe procefles, and being continued to the
fpine of the occiput, divides the cerebellum into two
lobes.
The blood, after being diftributed through the ca¬
vity of the cranium by means of the arteries, is return¬
ed, as in the other parts of the body, by veins w'hich all
pafs on to certain channels fituated behind thefe feveral
procefles.
Thefe canals or fmufes communicate with each other,
and empty themfelves into the internal jugular veins,
which convey the blood into the vena cava. They are
in fadt triangular veins, running through the fubftance
of the dura mater, and, like the procefles, are diftin-
guiihed into longitudinal and lateral; and where thefe
three meet, and where the fourth procefs pafies off, we
obferve a fourth finus, which is called torcular; Hero-
philus, wTho firfl: defcribed it, having fuppofed that the
blood at the union of thefe twTo veins, is, as it were, in
a prefs.
Befides thefe four canals, which were known to the
ancients, modern anatomifls enumerate many others, by
giving the appellation offnufes to other veins of the
dura mater, which for the molt part empty themfelves
into fome of thofe we have juft now defcribed. There
are the inferior longitudinal ftnus, the fuperior and in¬
ferior petrous finufes, the cavernous finufes, the cir¬
cular finus, and the anterior and pofterior occipital
finufes.
Thefe finufes or veins, by being conveyed through a
thick denfe membrane, firmly fufpended, as the dura
mater is, within the cranium, are lefs liable to rupture $
at the fame time they are wTell fupported, and by run¬
ning everywhere along the inner lurface of the bones,
they are prevented from prefling on the lubftance of the
brain. To prevent too great a dilatation of them, w e
find filaments (called chorda; Willijii, from their having
been firft noticed by Willis) ftretched acrofs their ca¬
vities ; and the oblique manner in which the veins from
the brain run through the fubftance of the brain into
thefe channels, ferves the purpofe of a valve, which
prevents the blood from turning back into the fmaller
and weaker veflels of the brain.
The pia mater is a much fofter and finer membrane
than the dura mater j being exceedingly delicate, tranf-
parent, and vafcular. It invefts every part of the brain,
and fends off an infinite number of elongations, which
infinuate themfelves between the convolutions, and even
into the fubftance of the brain. This membrane is
compofed of two laminae ; of w'hich the exterior one is
named tunica arachnoidea from its thinnefs, which is
equal to that of a fpider’s web. Thefe two laminae are
intimately adherent to each other, at the upper part of
the brain, but are eafily feparable at the bafis of the Of the
brain, and through the wdiole length of the medulla fpi- Brain and
nalis. The external layer, or tunica arachnoidea, ap-, ^s,’<-'rvcs' ,
pears to be fpread uniformly over the furface of the
brain, but without entering into its furrows as the in¬
ner layer does; the latter being found to infinuate it-
felf between the convolutions, and even into the inte¬
rior cavities of the brain. The blood veflels of the
brain are diftributed through it in their way to that
organ, and are therefore divided into very minute ra¬
mifications, before they penetrate the fubftance of the
brain. _
There are feveral parts included under the general xhe brails
denomination of brain. One of thefe, which is of the
fofteft confiftence, and fills the greateft part of the ca¬
vity of the cranium, is the cerebrum, or brain properly
fo called. Another portion, which is feated in the in¬
ferior and pofterior part of the head, is the cerebellum;
and a third, which derives its origin from both thefe,
is the medulla oblongata. ,
The cerebn/jn is a medullary mafs of a moderate Cerebrum,
confiftence, filling up exaftly all the upper part of the
cavity of the cranium, and divided into two hemi¬
fpheres by the falx of the dura mater. Each of thefe
hemifpheres is ufually diftinguiftied into an interior, a
middle, and a poferior lobe. The firft of thefe is
lodged on the orbital procefles of the os frontis ; the
middle lobes lie in the middle foflae of the bafis of the
cranium, and the pofterior lobes are placed on the
tranfverfe feptum of the os occipitis, immediately over
the cerebellum, from which they are feparated by the
lateral procefles of the dura mater. Thefe two por¬
tions afford no diftinguiftiing mark of feparation ; and
on this account Haller, and many other modern ana-
tomifts, omit the diftinftion of the middle lobe, and
fpeak only of the anterior and pofterior lobes of the
brain.
The cerebrum appears to be compofed of two di-
ftincl fubftances. Of thefe, the exterior one, which is
ef a grayifh or afti colour, is called the cortex, and is
fomewhat fofter than The other, which is very white,
and is called medulla, or fubfantia alba.
After having removed the falx, and feparated the
two hemifpheres from each other, we perceive a white
convex body, the corpus callofum, which is a portion
of the medullary fubftance, uniting the two hemi¬
fpheres to each other, and not invefted by the cortex.
By making a horizontal incifion into the brain, on a
level with this corpus callofum, we diicover two oblong
cavities, named the anterior or lateral ventricles, one
in each hemifphere. Thefe two ventricles, which
communicate with each other by a hole immediately
under the plexus choroides, are feparated laterally by
a very fine medullary partition, cal led feptum lucidum,
from its thinnefs and tranfparency. The lower edge
of this feptum is fixed to the fornix, which is a kind
of medullary arch (as its name implies) fituated under
the corpus callofum, and nearly of a triangular fhape.
Anteriorly the fornix fends off two medullary chords,
called its anterior crura ; which feem to be united to
each other by a portion of medullary fubftance, named
commijfura anterior cerebri. Thefe crura diverging
from one another, are loft at the outer fide of the low¬
er and fore part of the third ventricle. Pofteriorly
the fornix is formed into two other crura, which unite
with
Chap. V.
ANATOMY.
Of the
Brain and
Nerves.
with two medullary protuberances called pedes hippo¬
campi, and fometimes cornua ammonis, that extend
j along the back part of the lateral ventricles. The con¬
cave edge of the pedes hippocampi is covered by a
medullary lamina, called corpus frnhriatum.
Neither the edges of the fornix, nor its pofterior
crura, can be well diflinguiihed, till we have removed
the plexus choroides. This is a produdlion of the pia
mater, which is fpread over the lateral ventricles. Its
loofe edges are colle&ed, fo as to appear like a vafcu-
lar band on each fide.
When we have removed this plexus, we difcover fe-
veral other protuberances included in the lateral ven¬
tricles. Thefe are the corpora ftriata, the thalami ner¬
vorum opticorum, the tubercula quadrugemina, and
the pineal gland.
T he corporajlnata are two curved oblong eminences,
that extend along the anterior part of the lateral ven¬
tricles. They derive their name from their ftriated
appearance, which is owing to an intermixture of the
cortical and medullary fubftances of the brain. The
thalami nervorum opticorum, are fo called, becaufe the
optic nerves arife chiefly from them, and they are like-
wife compofed both of the cortex and medulla. They
are ieparated from the corpora ftriata only by a kind
of medullary chord, the geminum centrum femicircu-
lare. The thalami are nearly of an oval Ihape, and are
fituated at the bottom of the upper cavity of the late¬
ral ventricles. They are clofely united, and at their
convex part feem to become one body.
Anteriorly, in the fpace between the thalami, we
obferve an orifice by which the lateral ventricles com¬
municate, and another leads down from this, under the
different appellations of foramen commune anterius, vul¬
va, Uer ad infundibulum, but more properly iter ad
tertium ventriculum ; and the feparation of the thalami
from each other poileriorly, forms another opening or
interftice called anus. This has been fuppofed to com¬
municate with the third ventricle ; but it does not, the
bottom of it being Ihut up by the pia mater. The
back part of the anus is formed by a kind of medulla¬
ry band, which connects the thalami to each other,
and is called commijfura pofcrior cerebri.
Behind the thalami and commiffura pofterior, we
obferve a ftnall, foft, grayifh, and oval body, about the
fl/.e of a pea. This is the glandula pinealis ; it is de-
icribed by Galen under the name of conarion, and has
been rendered famous by Defcartes, who fuppofed it
to be the feat of the foul. Galen feems formerly to
have entertained the fame opinion. Some modern
writers have, with as little reafon, imagined that the
foul is placed in the corpus callofum.
The pineal gland refts upon four remarkable emi¬
nences, difpofed in pairs, and feated immediately be¬
low it. Thefe tubercles, which by the ancients were
called tfles and nates, have, fince the time of Win-
flow, been more commonly named lubercula quadru¬
gemina.
Under the thalami we obferve another cavity, the
third ventricle, which terminates anteriorly in a fmall
medullary canal, the infundibulum, that leads to the
267
glandula pituitaria. It has been doubted, whether the Of the
infundibulum is really hollow 5 but fome late experi- Brain and
ments on this part of the brain * by Profeffor Murray
of Upfal, clearly prove it to be a medullary canal, fur-* jy:f. de
rounded by both laminae of the pia mater. After freez- infundibula
ing the brain, this channel was found filled with ice ; Cerebri.
and De Haen tells f us, he found it dilated, and filled t Ratio
wuth a calcareous matter (n). Med.
The foft fpongy body in which the infundibulum
terminates, was by the ancients fuppofed to be of
glandular ftru&ure, and deftined to filter the ferofity
of the brain. Spigelius pretended to have difcovered
its excretory duft, but it feems certain that no fuch
duft exifts. It is of an oblong ihape, compofed, as it
were of two lobes. In ruminant animals it is much
larger than in man.
From the pofterior part of the third ventricle, we
fee a fmall groove or channel, defcending obliquely
backwards. This channel, which is called the aque-
duB of Sylvius, though it was known to the ancients,
opens into another cavity of the brain, placed between
the cerebellum and medulla oblongata, and called the
fourth ventricle. 136'
The cerebellum, which is divided into two lobes, is(^rel3eb
commonly fuppofed to be of a firmer texture than thelum‘
cerebrum j but the truth is, that in the greater num¬
ber of fubjefts, there appears to be no fenfible differ¬
ence in the confiftence of thefe two parts. It has more
of the cortical than of the medullary fubftance in its
compofition.
The furrow that divides the two lobes of the cere¬
bellum leads anteriotly to a procefs, compofed of me¬
dullary and cortical fubftances, covered by the pia
mater \ and which, from its being divided into nume¬
rous furrows, refembling the rings of the earth worm,
is named procejfus vermiformis. This procefs forms a
kind of ring in its courfe between the lobes.
The furface of the cerebellum does not afford thofe
circumvolutions which appear in the cerebrum j but
inftead of thefe, we obferve a great number of minute
furrows, running parallel to each other, and nearly in
a tranfverfe direftion. The pia mater infinuates itfelf
into thefe furrows.
When we cut into the fubftance of the cerebellum,
from above downwards, wre find the medullary part
running in a kind of ramifying courfe, and exhibiting
an appearance that has gotten the name of arbor vitce.
Thefe ramifications unite to form a medullary trunk j
the middle, anterior, and moft confiderable part of
which forms two proceffes, the crura cerebelli, which
unite wuth the crura cerebri, to form the medulla ob¬
longata. The reft furnifties twro other proceffes, which
lofe themfelves under the nates, and thus unite the
lobes of the cerebellum to the pofterior part of the ce¬
rebrum. Under the nates w’e obferve a tranfverfe me¬
dullary line, or linea alba, running from one of thefe
proceffes to the other *, and between them we find a
very thin medullary lamina, covered with the pia ma¬
ter, which the generality of anatomifts have (though
feemingly without reafon) confidered as a valve formed
for doling the communication between the fourth ven-
L 1 2 tricle
(n) The under part of it, howTever, appears to be impervious ; at leaft no injeftion that can be depended on
has been made to pafs from it into the glandula pituitaria without laceration of parts.
268 A--N A T
Of t5ie^ tricle and the aqutfidutius Sylvii. Vieuffens named it
valvula major cerebri.
-I' i The medulla oblongata is fituated in the middle,
X37 lower, and potterior part of the cranium, and may be
Medulla conlidered as a produclion or continuation of .the
oblongata. whole medullary fubftance of the cerebrum and cere¬
bellum, being formed by the union of two confiderable
medullary proceffes of the cerebrum, called crura cere¬
bri, with two other fmaller ones from the cerebellum,
■which were jult now fpoken of under the name of cru¬
ra cerebellu
The crura cerebri arife from the middle and lower
part of each hcmifphere. They are feparated from each
other at their origin, but are united below, where they
terminate in a middle protuberance, the pons Varolii,
fo called, becaufe Varolius compared it to a bridge.
This name, however, can convey no idea of its real
appearance. It is, in fact, nothing more than a me¬
dullary protuberance, nearly of a femifpherical lhape,
which unites the crura cerebri to thofe of the cere¬
bellum.
Between the crura cerebri, and near the anterior
edge of the pons Varolii, are two tubercles, compofed
externally of medullary, and internally of cineritious
fubftance, to which Euftachius firft gave the name of
emmentice mamillares.
Along the middle of the pofterior furface of the me¬
dulla oblongata, where it forms the anterior part of
the fourth ventricle, we obferve a kind of furrow
which runs downwards and terminates in a point. A-
bout an inch above the lower extremity of this fiffure,
leveral medullary filaments are to be feen running to¬
wards it on each fide in an oblique direction, fo as to
give it the appearance of a writing pen j hence it is
called cala?nus fcriptorius.
From the pofterior part of the pons Varolii, the me¬
dulla oblongata defcends obliquely backwards j at its
fore part, immediately behind the pons Varolii, we ob¬
ferve two pair of eminences, which were defcribed by
Euftachius, but received no particular appellation till
the time of Vieuffens, who gave them the names of
corpora olivaria and corpora pyramidalia. The former
are the outermoft, being placed one on each fide.
They are nearly of an oval ihape, and are compofed
of medulla, with ftreaks of cortical fubftance. Be¬
tween thefe are the corpora pyramidalia, each of
which terminates in a point. In the human fubieft
thefe four eminences are fometimes not eafily diftin-
138 guilhed.
Medulla The medulla fpinalis, or fpinal marrow, which is
fpmahs. t]ie name given to the medullary chord that is extend¬
ed down the vertebral canal, from the great foramen
of the occipital bone to the bottom of the laft lumbar
vertebra, is a continuation of the medulla oblongata.
Tike the other parts of the brain, it is inverted by the
dura and pia mater. The firft of thefe, in its paffage
out of the cranium, adheres to the foramen of the os
occipitis. Its connexion with the ligamentary fub¬
ftance that lines the cavity of the fpine, is only by
means of cellular membrane ; but between the feveral
O M Y. Parti.
vertebrae, where the nerves pafs out of the fpine, it Of the
fends off prolongations, which adhere ftrongly to the an<*
vertebral ligaments. Here, as in the cranium, the. e^ves> ,
dura mater has its finufes or large veins. Thefe are
two in number, and are feen running on each fide of
the medullary column, from the foramen magnum of
the os occipitis to the lower part of the os facrum.
They communicate together by ramifying branches at
each vertebra, and terminate in the vertebral, intercof-
tal, and facral veins.
The pia mater is connedled rvith the dura mater by
means of a thin tranfparent fubftance, which from its
indentations between the fpinal nerves has obtained
the name of ligamentum denticulatum. It is fomewhat
firmer than the tunica arachnoidea, but in other re-
fpefls refembles that membrane. Its ufe is to fupport
the fpinal marrowq that it may not affe£l the medulla
oblongata by its weight. ,
The fpinal marrow itfelf is externally of a white co¬
lour ; but upon cutting into it we find its middle part
compofed of a darker coloured mafs, refembling the
cortex of the brain. When the marrow has reached
the firft lumbar vertebra, it becomes extremely narrow,
and at length terminates in an oblong protuberance j
from the extremity of which the pia mater lends oft’
a prolongation or ligament, refembling a nerve, that
perforates the dura mater, and is fixed to the os coc-
cygis-
The medulla fpinalis gives rife to 30 or 31 pair of
nerves, but they are not all of the fame fize, nor do
they all run in the fame diredtion. The upper ones
are thinner than the reft, and are placed almoft tranf-
verfely : as we defcend we find them running more
and more obliquely dowmwards, till at length their
courfe is almoft perpendicular, fo that the lowermoft
nerves exhibit an appearance that is called cauda equma,
from its refemblance to a horfe’s tail.
The arteries that ramify through the different parts
of the brain are derived from the internal carotid and
from the vertebral arteries. The medulla fpinalis is
fupplied by the anterior and pofterior fpinal arteries,
and likew'ife receives branches from the cervical, the
inferior and fuperior intercoftal, the lumbar, and the
facral arteries.
Sect. II. Of the Nerves.
The nerves are medullary chords, differing from r-y
each other in fize, colour, and confiftence, and deri¬
ving their origin from the medulla oblongata and me¬
dulla fpinalis. There are 39, and fometimes 40, pair
of thefe nerves j nine (o) of which originate from the
medulla oblongata, and 30 or 31 from the medulla fpi¬
nalis. They appear to be perfe&ly inelaftic, and like-
wife to poffefs no irritability. If we irritate mufcular
fibres, they immediately contradl j but nothing of this
fort happens if we irritate a nerve. They carry with
them a covering from the pia mater but derive no tu¬
nic from the dura mater, as hath been generally,
though erroneoufly, fuppofed, ever fince the time of"
Galen
(o) It has been ufual to deferibe ten pair of nerves as arifing from the medulla oblongata ; but as the tentn
pair arife in the fame manner as. the other fpinal nerves, Santorini, Heifter, Haller, and others, feem very pro¬
perly to have claffed them among the nerves of the fpine.
Chap. V. A N A T
Of the Galen (p), the outer covering of the nerves being in
Bvain and fa(c^ nothing more than cellular membrane. This
. •,Nl£l‘vcs' , covering is very thick where the nerve is expofed to
the aclion of mufcles ; but where it runs through a
bony canal, or is fecure from preffure, the cellular
tunic is extremely thin, or altogether wanting. We
have inftances of this in the poitio mollis of the audi¬
tory nerve, and in the nerves of the heart.
By elevating, carefully and gently, the brain from
the bafis of the cranium, we find the firft nine pair
arifing in the following order : i. The nervi olfaftorii,
diftributed through the pituitary membrane, which
conftitutes the organ of fmell. 2. The optici, which
go to the eyes, where they receive the impreffions of
vifible objects. 3. The oculorum motores, fo called
becaufe they are diftributed to the mufcles of the eye.
4. The pathetici, diftributed to the fuperior oblique
mufcles of the eyes, the motion of which is expreflive
of certain paflions of the foul. 5. The nerves of this
pair foon divide into three principal branches, and each
of thefe has a different name. Its upper divifion is
the ophthalmicus, which is diftributed to various parts
of the eyes, eyelids, forehead, nofe, and integuments
of the face. The fecond is called the maxillaris fupe-
rior, and the third maxillnris inferior; both which
names allude to their diftribution. 6. The abduflores •,
each of thefe nerves is diftributed to the abduflor muf-
cle of the eye, fo called, becaufe it helps to draw the
globe of the eye from the nofe. 7. The auditorii
(q_), which are diftributed through the organs of hear¬
ing. 8. The par vagum, which derives its name from
the great number of parts, to wftrich it gives branches
both in the thorax and abdomen. 9. The linguales,
or hypoglofli, which are diftributed to the tongue, and
appear to contribute both to the organ of tafte and to
the motions of the tongue (a).
It has already been obferved, that the fpinal mar¬
row fends off 30 or 31 pair of nerves ; thefe are chiefly
diftributed to the exterior parts of the trunk and to
the extremities. They are commonly diftinguifhed in¬
to the cervical, dorfal, lumbar, and facral nerves. The
cervical, which pafs out from between the feveral ver-
O M Y.
269
tebrae of the neck, are eight (s) in number j the dor- Of the
fal, twelve 5 the lumbar, five; and the facral, five or fix \
the number of the latter depending on the number of. —^ 1
holes in the os facrum. Each fpinal nerve at its ori¬
gin is compofed of two fafciculi of medullary fibres.
One of thele fafciculi arifes from the anterior, and the
other from the pofterior, furface of the medulla.
Thefe fafciculi are feparated by the ligamentum denti-
culatum ; after which we find them contiguous to one
another. They then perforate the dura mater, and
unite to form a confiderable knot or ganglion. Each
of thefe ganglions fends off two branches ; one anteri¬
or, and the other pofterior. The anterior branches
communicate with each other at their coming out of
the fpine, and likewife fend off one, and fometimes
more branches, to aflift in the formation of the inter-
coftal nerve.
The kn'ots or ganglions of the nerves juft now fpo-
ken of, are not only to be met with at their exit from
the fpine, but likewife in various parts of the body.
They occur in the nerves of the medulla oblongata, as
well as in thofe of the fpine. They are not the effecfts
of difeafe, but are to be met with in the fame parts of
the fame nerves, both in the foetus and adult. They
are commonly of an oblong fhape, and of a grayifti co¬
lour, fomewhat inclined to red, wftnch is perhaps ow¬
ing to their being extremely vafcular. Internally wm
are able to diftinguifh fomething like an intermixture
of the nervous filaments.
Some wuiters have confidered them as fo many little
brains ; Lancifi fancied he had difcovered mufcular
fibres in them, but they are certainly not of an irrit¬
able nature. A late wwiter, Dr Johnftone*, imagines * e*
they are intended to deprive us of the power of the t^’e We °f
will over certain parts, as the heart, for inftance : but ^ Gan&ll~
if this hypothefis were wTell founded, we ftrould meet
with them only in nerves leading to involuntary muf¬
cles \ wftrereas it is certain, that the voluntary mufcles
receive their nerves through ganglions. Dr Monro,
from obfervingthe accurate intermixture of the minute
nerves which compofe them, confiders them as new
fources of nervous energy f. + ohfttva._
The lions on tbs
Nervous-
' Syjlem,
(p) Baron Haller and Profeffor Zinn feem to have been the firft who demonftrated, that the dura mater is
reflefled upon and adheres to the periofteum at the edges of the foramina that afford a paflage to the nerves out
of the cranium and vertebral canal, or is foon loft in the cellular fubftance.
(c^) This pair, foon after its entrance into the meatus auditorius internus, feparates into two branches. One
of thefe is of a very foft and pulpy confiftence, is called the portio mollis of the feventh pair, and is fpread over
the inner part of the ear. The other paffes out through the aqueduft of Fallopius in a firm chord, which is.
diftinguifhed as the portio dura, and is diftributed to the external ear and other parts of the neck and face.
(r) Heifter has fummed up the ufes of thefe nine pair of nerves in the twro following Latin verfes :
“ Olfaciens, cernens, oculofque movens, patienfque,
“ Gujlans, abducens, audienfque, vaganfquc, loquenfque.'l'>
(s) Befides thefe, there is another pair called accejforii, which arifes from the medulla fpinalis at its begin¬
ning } and afeending through the great foramen of the os occipitis into the cranium, paffes out again clofe to
the eighth pair, with wftnch, however, it does not unite ; and it is afterwards diftributed chiefty to the mufcles
of the neck, back, and fcapula. In this courfe it fends off filaments to different parts, and likewife communi¬
cates with feveral other nerves, Phyfiologifts are at a lofs howr to account for the Angular origin and courfe of
thefe nervi accefforii. The ancients confidered them as branches of the eighth pair, diftributed to mufcles of
the fcapula : Willis likewife confidered them as appendages to that pair, and on that account named them ac¬
cefforii. They are fometimes called the fpinal pair ; but as this latter name is applicable to all the nerves of
the fpine indiferiminately, it feems better to adopt that given by Willis.
27° ANA'
Brain " i\d *^ne nerves, like the blood veiTels, in their courfe
Nerve?! t^rou§h the body, communicate with each other ; and
each of thefe communications conftitutes what is call¬
ed afrom whence branches are again detached
to different parts of the body. Some of thefe are con-
ffant and confiderable enough to be diftinguifhed by
particular names, as the fcmilunar plexus, the pulmonary
plexus, the hepatic, the cardiac, &c.
It would be foreign to the purpofe of this work to
follow the nerves through all their diftributions ; but it
may be remembered, that in deferibing the different
vifeera, mention was made of the nerves diftributed to
them. 1 here is one pair, however, called the inter-
cojlal, or great fympathetic nerve, which feems to require
particular notice, becaufe it has an almoft univerfal
connexion and correfpondence with all the other nerves
of the body. Authors are not perfe&ly agreed about
the origin of the intercoftal j but it may pferhaps not
improperly be deferibed, as beginning from filaments
of the fifth and fixth pair ; it then paffes out of the
cranium, through the bony canal of the carotid, from
whence it defeends laterally clofe to the bodies of the
vertebra;, and receives branches from almoft all the
vertebral nerves ; forming almoft as many ganglions in
its courfe through the thorax and abdomen. It fends
off an infinite number of branches to the vifeera in thofe
cavities, and forms feveral plexus with the branches of
the eighth pair or par vagum.
That the nerves are deftined to convey the principles
of motion and fenfibility to the brain from all parts of
the fyftem, there can be no doubt; but how thefe ef-
fefts are produced, no one has ever yet been able to
determine. The inquiry has been a conftant fource of
hypothefis in all ages, and has produced fome inge-
H O M \. Part I,.
nious ideas, and many erroneous pofitions, but with- Of the
out having hitherto afforded much fatisfa&ory infor- Bl'am and
mation. Nerves.
Some phyfiologifts have confidered a trunk of nerves
as a folid chord, capable of being divided into an infi¬
nite number of filaments, by means of rvhich the im-
preflions of feeling are conveyed to the fenforium com¬
mune. Others have fuppofed it to be a canal, which af-
terw'ards feparates into more minute channels ; or, per¬
haps, as being an affemblage of many very fmall and
diftinc! tubes, connected to each other, and thus form¬
ing a cylindrical chord. They who contend for their
being folid bodies, are of opinion, that feeling is occa-
fioned by vibration *, fo that, for inftance, according to
this fyftem, by pricking the finger, a vibration would
be occafioned in the nerve, dittribqted through its fub-
ftance ; and the effects of this vibration, when extended
to the fenforium, would be ary excital of pain. But
the inelafticity, the foftnefs, the connexion, and the fi-
tuation of the nerves, are fo many proofs that vibra¬
tion has no fhare in the caufe of feeling.
Others have fuppofed, that in the brain and fpinal
marrow a very fubtle fluid is fecreted, and from
thence conveyed through the imperceptible tubes,
wftiich they confider as exifting in the nerves. They
have further fuppofed, that this very fubtle fluid, to
rvhich they have given the name of animal fpirits, is fe¬
creted in the cortical fubftance of the brain and fpinal
marrow, from whence it paffes through the medullary
fubftance. This, like the other fyftem, is founded
altogether on hypothefis; but it feems to be a hypo¬
thefis derived from much more probable principles, and
there are many ingenious arguments to be brought in
its fupport.
EXPLANATION o* PLATE XXXI.
Fig. i. Reprefents the Inferior part of the Brain j
—the Anterior part of the whole fpine, including
the Medulla Spinalis 5—with the origin and large
portions of all the Nerves.
AA, The anterior lobes of the cerebrum. BB, The
lateral lobes of the cerebrum, CC, The two lobes of
the cerebellum. D, Tuber annulare. E, The paf-
fage from the third ventricle to the infundibulum.
F, The medulla oblongata, wTich fends off the me¬
dulla fpinalis through the fpine. GG, That part of
the os occipitis wTich is placed above (HH) the
tranfverfe proceffes of the firft cervical vertebra.
II, &c. The feven cervical vertebrae, wuth their in¬
termediate cartilages. K K, &c. The twelve dorfal
vertebrae, with their intermediate cartilages. LL, &c.
The five lumbar vertebrae, wdth their intermediate car¬
tilages. M, the os facrum. N, The os coccygis.
N erves.—11, The firft pair of nerves, named ol-
faBory, which go to the nofe. 2 2, The fecond pair,
named optic, which goes to form the tunica retina of
the eye. 3 3, The third pair, named motor oculi; it
fupplies moft of the mufcles of the eyeballs. 4 4, The
fourth pair, named pathetic,—which is wholly fpent
upon the mufculus trochlearis of the eye. 5 5, The
fifth pair divides into three branches.—The firft, na¬
med ophthalmic, goes to the orbit, fupplies the lachry¬
mal gland, and fends branches out to the forehead and
nofe.— I he fecond, named fuperior maxillary, fupplies
the teeth of the upper jaw, and fome of the mufcles of
the lips.—The third, named inferior maxillary, is fpent
upon the mufcles and teeth of the lower jaw, tongue,
and mufcles of the lips. 6 6, The fixth pair, which,
after fending oft the beginning of the intercoftal or
great fympathetic, is fpent upon the abdu&or oculi.
^ 7, The feventh pair, named auditory, divides into
two branches.—The largeft, named portio mollis, is
fpent upon the internal ear.*—The fmalleft, portio dura^
joins to the fifth pair within the internal ear by a re¬
flected branch from the fecond of the fifth ; and with¬
in the tympanum, by a branch from the third of the
fifth, named chorda tympani.-—Vid. fig. 3, near B. 88,
&c. The eighth pair, named par vagum,—which ac¬
companies the intercoftal, and is fpent upon the
tongue, larynx, pharynx, lungs, and abdominal vifeera.
9 9,7 he ninth pair, which are fpent upon the tongue,
xo 10, &c. The intercoftal, or great fympathetic,
w hich is feen from the fixth pair to the bottom of the
pelvis on each fide of the fpine, and joining with all
the nerves of the fpine ; in its progrefs fupplying the
heart, and, with the par vagum, the contents of-the
abdomen and pelvis. 11 1 1, The accefibrius, which
is fpent upon the fternocleido-maftoidaeus and trapezius
mufcles
Chap. VT. ANA
Of the mufcles. 12 12, The firix cervical nerves j 13 13, The
Brain and fecond cervical nerves ; both fpent upon the mufcles
, ^e^ves- i lie on the neck, and teguments of the neck and
head. 14 I4» The third cervical nerves, which, after
fending off (15 15, &c.) the phrenic nerves to the
diaphragm, fupply the mufcles and teguments that lie
on the fide of the neck and top of the fhoulder.
16 16, The brachial plexus, formed by the fourth, fifth,
fixth, feventh cervicals, and firft dorfal nerves,—which
fupply the mufcles, and teguments of the luperior ex¬
tremity. ly 17, The twelve dorfal, or proper inter-
coftal nerves, which are fpent upon the intercoftal muf¬
cles and fome of the large mufcles which lie upon the
thorax. 18 18, The five lumbar pairs of nerves,
which fupply the lumbar and abdominal mufcles, and
fome of the teguments and mufcles of the inferior ex¬
tremity. 1919, The facro-fciatic, or pofterior crural
nerve, formed by the two inferior lumbar, and three
fuperior of the os facrum. This large nerve fupplies
the greateft part of the mufcles and teguments of the
inferior extremity. 20, The flomachic plexus, form¬
ed by the eighth pair. 2i 21, Branches of the folar
or cseliac plexus, formed by the eighth pair and inter-
T O M Y. 271
coftals, which fupply the ftomach and chylopoietic Of the
vifcera. 22 22, Branches of the fuperior and inferior ®^ain ant*
mefenteric plexufes, formed by the eighth pair and in-. ' a' 1
tercoftals, which fupply the chylopoietic vifcera,
with part of the organs of urine and generation.
23 23, Nerves w'hich accompany the fpermatic cord.
24 24, The hypogaftric plexus, which fupplies the
organs of urine and generation within the pelvis.
Fig. 2, 3, 4, 5. Show different views of the Inferior
part of the Brain, cut perpendicularly through the
Middle—with the Origin and large portions of all
the Nerves which pafs out through the Bones of the
Cranium,—and the three firft Cervicals.
A, The anterior lobe. B, The lateral lobe of the
cerebrum. C, One of the lobes of the cerebellum.
D, Tuber annulare. E, Corpus pyramidale, in the
middle of the medulla oblongata. F, The corpus oli-
vare, in the fide of the medulla oblongata. G, The
medulla oblongata. H, The medulla ipinalis.
Nerves.— 1 2345678 and 9, Pairs of nerves.
10 10, Nervus accefforius, which comes from—11, 12,-
and 13, the three firft cervical nerves.
CHAP. VI. OF THE SENSES, AND THEIR ORGANS.
140 IN treating of the fenfes, we mean to confine our-
felves to the external ones of touch, tajle, fmelling,
hearing, and vijion. The word fenfe, when applied to
thefe five, feems to imply not only the fenfation ex¬
cited in the mind by certain impreflions made on the
body, but likewife the organ deftined to receive and
tranfmit thefe impreflions to the fenforium. Each of
thefe organs being of a peculiar ftrufture, is fufcep-
tible only of particular imprefiions, which will be
pointed out as we proceed to defcribe each of them fe-
parately.
Sect. I. Of Touch.
■4. The fenfe of touch may be defined to be the faculty
of diftinguifliing certain properties of bodies by the
feel. In a general acceptation, this definition might
perhaps not improperly be extended to every part of
the body poffeffed of fenfibility (t), but it is commonly
confined to the nervous papillae of the cutis, or true
Ikin, which, with its appendages, and their feveral
ufes, have been already defcribed.
The exterior properties of bodies, fuch as their fo-
lidity, moifture, inequality, fmoothnefs, drynefs, or
fluidity, and likewife their degree of heat, feem all to
be capable of making different impreflions on the pa¬
pillae, and confequently of exciting different ideas in
the fenforium commune. But the organ of touch, like
all the other fenfes, is not equally delicate in every part;
of the body, or in every fubjedl ; being in fome much
more exquifite than it is in others.
Sect. II. Of Tafe.
The fenfe of tafte is feated chiefly in the tongue *, the r4^
fituation and figure of which are fufficiently known.
On the upper furface of this organ we may obferve
a great number of papillae, which, on account of their
difference in fize and lhape, are commonly divided into
three claffes. The largeft are fituated towards the
bafis of the tongue. Their number commonly varies
from feven to nine, and they feem to be mucous fol¬
licles. Thofe of the fecond clafs are fomewhat fmaller,
and of a cylindrical lhape. They are moft numerous
about the middle of the tongue. Thofe of the third
clafs are very minute, and of a conical fliape. They
are
(t) In the courfe of this article, mention has often been made of the fenfibility or infenfibility of different
parts of the body : it will therefore, perhaps, not be amifs to obferve in this place, that many parts which were
formerly litppoied to poffeis the moft exquifite fenfe, are now known to have but little or no feeling, at leaf! iiy
a found ftate ; for in an inflamed ftate, even the bones, the moft infenfible parts of any, become fufceptible of
<he moft painful fenfations. I his curious dilcovery is due to the late Baron Haller. His experiments prove,
that the bones, cartilages, ligaments, tendons, epidermis, and membranes ^as the pleura, pericardium, dura
and pia mater, periofteum, &c.), may in a healthy ftate be confidered as infenfible. As fenfibility depends on
the brain and nerves, of courfe different parts will poffefs a greater or lefs degree of feeling, in proportion as
they are fuppHed with a greater or fmaller number of nerves. Upon this principle it is, that3the fldn, mufcles,
ftomach, inteftines, urinary bladder, ureters, uterus, vagina, penis, tongue, and retina, are extremely fenfible’.
while the lungs and glands have only an obfcure degree of feeling.
272 ANA
Of the are very numerous on the apex and edges of the tongue,
, Senfes. ^ ancj have been fuppofed to be formed by the extremi-
ties of its nerves.
We obferve a line, the linea lingua mediana, run¬
ning along the middle of the tongue, and dividing it as
it were into two portions. Towards the bafis of the
tongue, we meet with a little cavity, named by Mor¬
gagni foramen cxcum, which feems to be nothing more
than a common termination of fome of the excretory
duels of mucous glands fituated within the fubllance
of the tongue.
We have already obferved, that this organ is every¬
where covered by the cuticle, which, by forming a re¬
duplication, called the franutn, at its under part, i'erves
to prevent the too great motion of the tongue, and to
fix it in its fituation. But, befides this attachment,
the tongue is connedted, by means of its mufcles and
membranous ligaments, to the lower jaw, the os hyoi-
des, and the ftyloid procefles.
The principal arteries of the tongue are the linguales,
which arife from the external carotid. Its veins emp¬
ty themfelves into the external jugulars. Its nerves
arife from the fifth, eighth, and ninth pair.
The variety of taftes feems to be occafioned by the
different impreflions made on the papillae by the food.
The different Hate of the papillae with refpedf to their
moifture, their figure, or their covering, feems to pro¬
duce a confiderable difference in the tafte, not only in
different people, but in the fame fubjedl, in ficknefs
and in health. The great ufe of the tafte feems to be
to enable us to diftinguilh wholefome and falutary food
from that which is unhealthy ; and we obferve that
many quadrupeds, by having their papillae (u) very
large and long, have the faculty of diftinguiftiing fla¬
vours with infinite accuracy.
Sect. III. Of Smelling.
143 The fenfe of fmelling, like the fenfe of tafte, feems
intended to direct us to a proper choice of aliment,
and is chiefly feated in the nofe, which is diftinguilhed
into its external and internal parts. The fituation and
figure of the former of thefe do not feem to require a
definition. It is compofed of bones and cartilages, co¬
vered by mufcular fibres and by the common integu¬
ments. The bones make up the upper portion, and
the cartilages the lower one. The feptum narium, like
the nofe, is likewife in part bony, and in part cartila¬
ginous. Thefe bones and their connexions were de-
feribed in the ofteology.
The internal part of the nofe, befides the offa fpon-
giofa, has fix cavities or finufes, the maxillary, the
frontal, and the fphenoid, which were all deferibed with
the bones of the head. They all open into the no-
ftrils } and the nofe likewife communicates with the
mouth, larynx, and pharynx, pofteriorly behind the
velum palati.
All thefe feveral parts, which are included in the in¬
ternal divifion of the nofe, viz. the inner furface of the
noftrils, »the lamellae of the ofla fpongiofa and the finu-
T O M Y. Part I.
fes, are lined by a thick and very vafcular membrane, Of the
which, though not unknown to the ancients, was firft Senfes.
well delcribed by Schneider*, and is therefore now *
commonly named memlranapituitaria Schneideri. This tarrho, lib.
membrane is truly the organ of fmelling ; but its real iii.
ftruCture does not yet feem to be perfectly underftood.
It appears to be a continuation of the cuticle, which
lines the inner furface of the mouth. In fome parts
of the nofe it is fmooth and firm, and in others it is
loofe and fpongy. It is conftantiy moiftened by a mu¬
cous fecretion; the finer parts of which are carried off
by the air we breathe, and the remainder, by being re¬
tained in the finufes, acquires confiderable confiftence.
The manner in which this mucus is fecreted has not
yet been fatisfaftorily afeertained j but it feems to be
by means of mucous follicles.
Its arteries are branches of the internal maxillary and
internal carotid. Its veins empty themfelves into the
internal jugulars. The firft pair of nerves, the olfac¬
tory, are fpread over every part of it, and it likewife
receives branches from the fifth pair.
After what has been faid of the pituitary membrane,
it will not be difficult to conceive how the air we draw
in at the noftrils, being impregnated with the effluvia '
of bodies, excites in us that kind of fenfation we call
fmelling. As thefe effluvia, from their being exceed¬
ingly light and volatile, cannot be capable in a final!
quantity of making any great impreflion on tl^p extre¬
mities of the olfadtory nerves, it was neceffary to give
confiderable extent to the pituitary membrane, that by
this means a greater number of odoriferous particles
might be admitted at the fame time. When we with
to take in much of the effluvia of any thing, we natu¬
rally clofe the mouth, that all the air we infpire may
pafs through the noftrils ; and at the fame time, by
means of the mufcles of the nofe, the noftrils are dilat¬
ed, and a greater quantity of air is drawn into them.
In many quadrupeds, the fenfe of fmelling is much
more extenfive and delicate than it is in the human
fubjedt ; and in the human fubjedt it feems to be more
perfedt the lefs it is vitiated by a variety of fmells. It
is not always in the fame ftate of perfedlion, being na¬
turally affedted by every change of the pituitary mem¬
brane, and of the lymph with which that membrane is
moiftened.
Sect. IV. Of Hearing.
Before we undertake to explain the manner in 144
which we are enabled to receive the impreffions of
found, it will be neceffary to deferibe the ear, which
is the organ of bearing. It is commonly diftinguifhed
into external and internal. The former of thefe di-
vifions includes all that we are able to difeover with¬
out diffedfion, and the meatus auditorius, as far as the
tympanum ; and the latter, all the other parts of the
ear.
The external ear is a cartilaginous funnel, covered
by the common integuments, and attached, by means
of its ligaments and muicles, to- the temporal bone.
Although
(u) Malpighi’s deferi tion of the papillae, which has been copied by many anatomical writers, feems to have
been taken chiefly from the tongues of Iheep.
Chap, VI. ANA
Of the Although capable only of a very obfcure motion, it is
, Se"les‘ , found to have feveral mufcles. Different parts of it
are diflinguifhed by different names; all its cartilagi¬
nous part is called ala or voing, to dilfinguilh it from
the foft and pendent part below, called the lobe. Its
outer circle or border is called helix, and the femicircle
within this, antihehx. The moveable cartilage placed
immediately before the meatus auditorius, which it
may be made to clofe exa&ly, is named tragus ; and
an eminence oppofite to this at the extremity of the
antihelix, is called antitragus. The concha is a confi-
derable cavity formed by the extremities of the helix
and antihelix. The meatus auditorius, -which at its
opening is cartilaginous, is lined with a very thin mem¬
brane, which is a continuation of the cuticle from the
furface of the ear.
In this canal we find a yellow wax, which is fecreted
by a number of minute glands or follicles, each of
which has an excretory duft. This fecretion, which
is at firif of an oily confiftence, defends the membrane
of the tympanum from the injuries of the air ; and, by
its bitternefs, prevents minute infers from entering in¬
to the ear. But when from negleft or difeafe it accu¬
mulates in too great a quantity, it fometimes occafions
deafnefs. 1 he inner extremity of the meatus is clofed
by a very thin tranfparent membrane, the membrana
tympani, which is fet in a bony circle like the head of
a drum.. In the latl century Rivinus, profeffor at Leip-
fic, fancied he had difcovered a hole in this membrane,
furrounded by a fphinfler, and affording a paffage to
the air, between the external and internal ear. Cow-
per, Heiiter, and fome other anatomifts, have admitted
this fuppofed foramen, which certainly does not exift.
Whenever there is any opening in the membrana tym¬
pani, it may be confidered as accidental. Under the
membrana tympani runs a branch of the fifth pair of
nerves, called chorda tympani; and beyond this mem¬
brane is the cavity of the tympanum, which is about
feven cm eight, lines wide, and half fo many in depth ;
k is femifpherical, and everywhere lined by a very fine
membrane. I here are four openings to be obferved
in this cavity. It communicates with the mouth by
means of the Euftachian tube. This canal, which is
in part bony and in part cartilaginous, begins by a very
harrow opening at the anterior and almoft fuperior part
of the tympanum, increafing in fize as it advances to¬
wards the palate of the mouth, where it terminates by
an oval opening. 'I his tube is everywhere lined by
the fame membrane that covers the infide of the mouth,
f ne real ufe of this canal does not feem to have been
hitherto fatlsfaftorily afcertained; but found would
feem to be conveyed.through it to the membrana tym-
pam, deaf perfons being often obferved to liften atten¬
tively with their mouths open. Oppofite to this is a
minute paffage, which leads to the finuofities of the
maitoid procefs *, and the two other openings, which
are in the internal procefs of the os petrofum, are the
feneftra ovalis, and feneflra rotunda, both of which are
covered by a very fine membrane.
Vol. II. Part I.
T O M Y. 27
There are three diftinft bones in the cavity of the Of the
tympanum j. amPthefe are the malleus, incus, and ftapes. Scnfcs-
Befides thefe there is a fourth, which is the os orbicu-
lore confidered by fome anatomifts as a procefs of the
ftapes, which is neceffarily broken off by the violence
we are obliged to ufe in getting at thefe bones 5 but
when accurately confidered, it feems to be a diftinft
bone.
. -^le malleus is fuppofed to refemble a hammer, be-
ing larger at one extremity, which is its head, than it
is at the other, which is its handle. The latter is at¬
tached to the membrana tympani, and the head of the
bone is articulated with the incus.
T he incus, as it is called from its ftiape, though it
feems to have lefs refemblance to an anvil than to one
of the dentes molares with its roots widely feparated
from each other, is diftinguiihed into its body and its
legs. .One of its legs is placed at the entry of the ca¬
nal. which leads to the maftoid procefs; and the other,
which is fomewhat longer, is articulated with the ftapes*
or rather with the os orbiculare, which is placed be¬
tween them.
The third bone is very properly namedyfayw, being
perfectly fhaped like a ftirrup. Its bafis is fixed into
the feneftra ovalis, and its upper part is articulated
with the os orbiculare. What is called the fenejlra ro¬
tunda, though perhaps improperly, as it is more oval
than round, is obferved a little above the other, in an
eminence formed by the os petrofum, and is clofed by
a continuation of the membrane that lines the inner
furface of the tympanum. The ftapes and malleus are
each of them furnifhed with a little mufcle the ftape-
deus and tenfor tympani. The firft of thefe, which is
the fmalle.ft in the body, arifes from a little cavern in
the pofterior and upper part of the cavity of the tym¬
panum ; and its tendon, after palling through a hole
in the fame cavern, is inferted at the back part of the
head of the ftapes. This mufcle, by drawing the ftapes
obliquely upwards, aflifts in ftretching the membrana
tympani.
The tenfor tympani (x), or internus mallei as it is
called by fome writers, arifes from the cartilaginous
extremity of the Euftachian tube, and is inlerted into
the back part of the handle of the malleus, which it
leives to pull inwards, and of courfe helps to ftretch
the membrana tympani.
T he labyrinth is the only part of the ear which re¬
mains to be deferibed. It is fituated in the os petro¬
fum, and is feparated from the tympanum by a parti¬
tion which is everywhere bony, except at the two fe-
neftrae. It is compofed of three parts; and thefe are
the veftibulum, the femicircular canals, and the coch¬
lea.
The vejlibulum is an irregular cavity, much fmaller
than the tympanum, fituated nearly in the centre of the
os petro.fum, between the tympanum, the cochlea, and
the lemicircular canals. It is open on the fide of the
tympanum by means of the feneftra ovalis, and com¬
municates with the upper portion of the cochlea by an
^ 111 oblong
(x) Some anatomifts deferibe three mufcles of the malleus 5 but only this one feems to deferve the name nf
- ulele : what are called the externus and obliquus mallei feeming to be7ligaments rather than mufcles.
274 A N A T
Of the oblong foramen, which is under the feneftra ovalis,
t Sc”ies- i from which it is feparated only by a very thin par¬
tition.
Each of the three femlcircular canals forms about
half a circle of nearly a line in diameter, and running
each in a different direction, they are diffinguiflied into
vertical, oblique, and horizontal. Thefe three canals
open by both their extremities into the veftibulum ;
but the vertical and the oblique being united together
at one of their extremities, there are only five orifices
to be feen in the veflibulum.
The cochlea is a canal which takes a fpiral courfe,
not unlike the {hell of a fnail. From its bafis to its
apex it makes two turns and a half; and is divided in¬
to two canals by a very thin lamina or feptum, which
is in part bony and in part membranous, in fuch a
manner that thefe two canals only communicate with
each other at the point. One of them opens into the
veftibulum, and the other is covered by the membrane
that clofes the feneftra rotunda. The bony lamella
which feparates the two canals is exceedingly thin, and
fills about two-thirds of the diameter of the canal.
The reft of the feptum is compofed of a moft delicate
membrane, which lines the whole inner furface of the
cochlea, and feems to form this divifion in the fame
manner as the two membranous bags of the pleura, by
being applied to each other, form the mediaftinum.
Every part of the labyrinth is furnifhed with a very
delicate periofteum, and filled with a w’atery fluid, fe-
creted as in other cavities. This fluid tranfmits to the
nerves the vibrations it receives from the membrane
doling the feneftra rotunda, and from the bafis of the
ftapes, where it refts on the feneftrum ovale. When
this fluid is collefted in too great a quantity, or is
compreffed by the ftapes, it is fuppofed to efcape
through two minute canals or aquedudts, lately deferib-
Aqua-z& by Dr Cotunni *, an ingenious phyfician at Naples.
du&ibus Au- Qne 0f thefe aquedu&s opens into the bottom of the
rintern*an* ve^‘t)ulum, and the other into the cochlea, near the
Svomyfo. feneftra rotunda. They both pafs through the os pe-
trofum, and communicate with the cavity of the cra¬
nium where the fluid that paffes through them is ab-
ibrbed ; and they are lined by a membrane which is
fuppofed to be a production of the dura mater. *
The arteries of the external ear come from the tem¬
poral and other branches of the external carotid, and
its veins pafs into the jugular. The internal ear re¬
ceives branches of arteries from the bafilary and caro¬
tids, and its veins empty themfelves into the finufes of
the dura mater, and into the internal jugular.
The' portio mollis of the feventh pair is diftributed
through the cochlea, the veftibulum, and the femicir-
cular canals ; and the portio dura fends off a branch to
v the tympanum, and other branches to the external ear
and parts near it.
The fenfe of hearing, in producing which all the
parts w7e have deferibed aflift, is occafioned by a cer-
O M Y.
Part I.
Of the
Senfes.
tain modulation of the air colleCled by the funnel-like
fhape of the external ear, and conveyed through the
meatus auditorius to the membrana tympani. That
found is propagated by means of the air, is very eafily
proved by ringing a bell under the receiver of an air
pump ; the found it affords being found to diminifh
gradually as the air becomes exhaufted, till at length
it ceafes to be heard at all. Sound moves through the
air wdth infinite velocity ; but the degree of its motion
feems to depend on the ftate of the air, as it conftant-
ly moves fafter in a denfe and dry, than it does in a
moift and rarefied air.
That the air vibrating on the membrana tympani
communicates its vibration to the different parts of
the labyrinth, and by means of the fluid contained in
this cavity affefts the auditory nerve fo as to produce
found, feems to be very probable ; but the fituation,
the minutenefs, and the variety of the parts which
compofe the ear, do not permit much to be advanced
wnth certainty concerning their mode of adlion.
Some of thefe parts feem to conftitute the immediate
organ of hearing, and thefe are all the parts of the
veftibulum : but there are others which feem intended
for the perfeftion of this fenfe, without being abfo-
lutely effential to it. It has happened, for inftance,
that the membrana tympani, and the little bones of the
ear, have been deftroyed by difeafe, without depriving
the patient of the fenfe of hearing (y).
Sound is more or lefs loud in proportion to the
ftrength of the vibration •, and the variety of founds
feems to depend on the difference of this vibration ;
for the more quick and frequent it is, the more acute
will be the found, and vice verfa.
Before we conclude this article, it will be right to
explain certain phenomena, w hich will be found to have
a relation to the organ of hearing.
Every body has, in confequence of particular founds,
occafionally felt that difagreeable fenfation which is
ufually called Jetting the teeth on edge: and the caufe
of this fenfation may be traced to the communication
which the portio dura of the auditory nerve has with
the branches of the fifth pair that are diftributed to
the teeth, being probably occafioned by the violent
tremor produced in the membrana tympani by thefe
very acute founds. Upon the fame principle w7e may
explain the ftrong idea of found which a perfon has
who holds a vibrating firing betwTeen his teeth.
The humming which is fometimes perceived in the
ear, without any exterior caufe, may be occafioned
either by an increafed aftion of the arteries in the ears,
or by convulfive contradiions of the mufcles >bf the
malleus and ftapes, affedling the auditory nerve in fuch
a manner as to produce the idea of found. An inge¬
nious philofophical writer * has lately difeovered, that * EiUot',
there are founds liable to be excited in the ear by irri- Pbllofopbi-
tation, and without any afliftance from the vibrations of cal Obferva-
the air. tio^ ontbc
r ijtoti and
Hearing,
— ——  — Svo.
(y) This obfervation has led to a fuppofition, that a perforation of this membrane max in fome cafes of deaf-
nefs be ufeful •, and Mr Chefelden relates, that fome years ago, a malefaftor wras pardoned, on condition that he
fhould fubmit to this operation ; but the public clamour raifed againft it was fo great, that it was ti ought rig it
not to perform it.
Chap. VI.
ANA
Of the
Senfes.
f See Optics
p. 142.
Sect. V, Of Vifon f.
I he eyes, which conilitute the organ of vifion, are
fituated in two bony cavities named orbits, where they
are furrounded by feveral parts, which are either in¬
tended to proteft them from external injury, or to af-
fifl: in their motion.
I lie globe of the eye is immediately covered by two
eyelids or palpebrm, which are compofed of mufcular
fibres, covered by the common integuments, and lined
by a very fine and fmooth membrane, which is from
thence extended over part of the globe of the eye,
and is called tunica conjunctiva. Each eyelid is carti^
laginous at its edge 5 and this border, which is called
tarfus, is furnifhed with a row of hairs named cilia or
eyelafhes.
The cilia ferve to proteft the eye from infers and
minute bodies floating in the air, and likewife to mo¬
derate the aftion of the rays of light in their paflage
to the retina. At the roots of thefe hairs there are
febaceous follicles, firfl noticed by Meibomius, which
difcharge a glutinous liniment. Sometimes the fluid
they fecrete has too much vifcidity, and the eyelids be¬
come glued to each other.
The upper border of the orbit is covered by the
eyebrows or fupercilia, which by means of their two
mufcles are capable of being brought towards each
other, or of being carried upwards. They have been
confidered as ferving to protedl the eyes, but they are
probably intended more for ornament than utility (z).
1 he orbits, in which the eyes are placed, are fur-
niflied with a good deal of fat, which affords a foft bed
on which the eye performs its feveral motions. The
inner angle of each orbit, or that part of it which is
near the nofe, is called canthus major, or the great
angle ; and the outer angle, which is on the oppofite
fide of the eye, is the canthus minor, or little angle.
The little reddifli body which we obferve in the
great angle of the eyelids, and which is called carun-
cula Iqchrymalis, is fuppofed to be of a glandular ftruc-
tuie, and, like the follicles of the eyelids, to fecrete an
oily humour. But its Bruaure and ufe do not feem to
have been hitherto accurately determined. The fur-
face of the eye is conftantly moiilened by a very fine
limpid fluid called the tears, which is chiefly, and per¬
haps wholly, derived from a large gland of the conglo¬
merate kind, fituated in a fmall depreflion of the os
frontis near the outer angle of the eye. Its excretory
ducts pierce the tunica conjunctiva juft above the car¬
tilaginous borders of the upper eyelids. When the
tears were fuppofed to be fecreted by the caruncle, this
gland was called glandule innominata ; but now that
its (li uCture and ules are afeertained, it very properly
has the name of glandula lachrymalis. The tears pour-
T O M Y»
ed out by the duCts of this gland are, in a natural and
healthy ftate, inceffantly fpread over the iurface of the
eye, to keep it clear and tranlparent by means of the
eyelids, and as conftantly pafs out at the oppofite cor¬
ner of the eye or inner angle, through two minute ori¬
fices, the pun ft a lachrymalia (a) 3 being determined
into thefe little openings by a reduplication of the tu¬
nica conjunftiva, fliaped like acrefcent, the two points
of which anfwer to the punfta. This reduplication is
named membraua, or valvula fernilunaris. Each of
thefe punfta is the beginning of a imall excretory tube,
through which the tears pals into a little pouch or re-
feivoir, the facculus lachrymalis, which lies in an ex¬
cavation formed partly by the nafal procefs of the os
maxillaie fuperius, and partly by the os unguis. l ire
lower part of this fac forms a duft called the duBus ad
nares, which is continued through a bony channel, and
opens into the nofe, through which the tears are occa-
fionally difeharged (b).
I he motions of the eye are performed by fix muf¬
cles; four of which are ftraight and two oblique. The
ftraight mufcles are diitrnguifhed by the names of ele¬
vator, deprejj'or, adductor, and abduBor, from their fe-
yeral ufes in elevating and depreffing the eye, drawing
it towards the nofe, or carrying it from the nofe to¬
wards the temple. All thefe four mufcles a rife from
the bottom of the orbit, and are inferted by flat ten¬
dons into the globe of the eye. The oblique mufcles
are intended for the more compound motions of the
eye. The firft of thefe mufcles, the oblrquus fuperior,
does not, like the other four mufcles we have deferibed]
arife from the bottom of the orbit, but from the edo-e
of the foramen that tranfmrts the optic nerve, which
leparates the origin of this mufcle from that of the
others. From this beginning it paffes in a ftraight
line towards a very fmall cartilaginous ring, the fitua-
tion of which is marked in the fkeleton by a little hol¬
low in the internal orbitar procefles of tlie os frontis.
I he tendon of the mufcle, after palling through this
ring, is inferted into the upper part of the globe of the
eye, which it ferves to draw forwards, at the fame time
turning the pupil downwards.
_ The obliquus inferior arifes from the edge of the or-
bit, under the opening or the duftus lachrymalis 3 and
is inferted fomewhat pofteriorly into the outer fide of
the globe, ferving to draw the eye forwards and turn
the pupil upwards. When either of thefe tivo mufcles
aft feparately, the eye is moved on its axis 3 but when
they aft together, it is comprefled both above and be¬
low. . The eye itfelf, which is now to be deferibed,
with its tunics, humours, and component parts, is
nearly of a fpherical figure. Of its tunics, the con-
junftiva has been already deferibed as a partial cover¬
ing, reflefted from the inner furface of the eyelids
over the anterior portion of the eye. What has been
M m 2 named
f z^) It is obfervable, that the eyebrows are peculiar to the human fpecie*
cheek, and is then ftriftly and properly called tears. 8 " tnckleS down thti
(b) When the dudfus ad nares becomes obllrufted in confennpnrp nf ± 1 ,
276 A N A T
Of the named albuginea cannot properly be confidered as a
, Senies- i coat of the eye, being in facl nothing more than the
tendons of the ftraight mufcles fpread over fome parts
of the fclerotica.
The immediate tunics of the eye, which are to be
demonftrated when its partial coverings, and all the
other parts with which it is furrounded, are removed,
are the fclerotica, cornea, choroides, and retina.
The fcletorica, which is the exterior coat, is every¬
where w’hite and opaque, and is joined at its anterior
edge to another, which has more convexity than any
other part of the globe, and being exceedingly tranf-
parent is called cornea (c). Thefe two parts are per¬
fectly different in their ftruclure 5 fo that fome anatom-
ifts fuppofe them to be as diffindf from each other as
the glafs of a watch is from the cafe into which it is
fixed. The fclerotica is of a compact fibrous ilructurej
the cornea, on the other hand, is compofed of a great
number of laminae united by cellular membrane. By
macerating them in boiling w-ater, they do not feparate
from each other, as fome waiters have afferted \ but
the cornea foon foftens, and becomes of a glutinous
confiftence.
The ancients fuppofed the fclerotica to be a conti¬
nuation of the dura mater. Morgagni and fome other
modern writers are of the fame opinion *, but this point
is difputed by Window, Haller, Zinn, and others.
The truth feems to be, that the fclerotica, though not
a production of the dura mater, adheres intimately to
that membrane.
The choroides is fo called becaufe it is furnifhed with
a great number of veffels. It has likewdfe been named
uvea, on account of its refemblance to a grape. Many
modern anatomical writers have confidered it as a pro-
duftion of the pia mater. This was likewfife the opi¬
nion of the ancients; but the ffrength and thicknefs of
the choroides, when compared with the delicate flruc-
ture 01” the pia mater, are fufficient proofs of their be¬
ing twro diftinff membranes.
The choroides has of late generally been defcribed
as confiding of two laminae *, the innermoft of which
has been named after Ruyfch, who firff defcribed it.
It is certain, however, that Ruyfch’s diftinftion is ill
founded, at lead wdth refpe<d to the human eye, in
which w'e are unable to demondrate any fuch druc-
ture, although the tunica choroides of dreep and fome
other quadrupeds may eafily be feparated into two
layers.
The choroides adheres intimately to the fclerotica
round the edge of the corna 5 and at the place of this
union we may obferve a little whitifh areola, named
iigatnentum ciliare, though it is not of a ligamentous
nature.
They who fuppofe the choroides to be compofed of
two laminae, defcribe the external one as terminating
in the ligamentum ciliare, and the internal one as ex¬
tending farther to form the iris, which is the circle wTe
are able to didinguidt through the cornea} but this
O M Y. 'Parti.
part is of a very different drudlure from the choroides; Of the
fo that fome late writers have perhaps not improperly Senfes.
confidered the iris as a didinfl membrane. It derives v
its name from the variety of its colours, and is perfo¬
rated in its middle. This perforation, which is called
the pupil or Jight of the eye, is clofed in the foetus by
a very thin vafcular membrane. This membrana
pupillaris commonly difappears about the feventh
month.
On the under fide of the iris wTe obferve many mi¬
nute fibres, called ciliaryprocejfes, which pafs in radii
or parallel lines from the circumference to the centre.
The contraftion and dilatation of the pupil are fuppof¬
ed to depend on the aftion of thefe proceffes. Some
have confidered them as mufcular, but they are not of
an irritable nature ; others have fuppofed them to be
filaments of nerves; but their real drudlure has never
yet been clearly afcertained.
Befides thefe ciliary proceffes, anatomids ufually
fpeak of the circular fibres of the iris, but no fuch
feem to exid.
The poderior furface of the iris, the ciliary proceffes,
and part of the tunica choroides, are covered with a
black mucus for the purpofes of. accurate and didindf
vifion ; but the manner in which it is fecreted, has not
been determined.
Immediately under the tunica choroides we find the
third and inner coat, called the retina, which feems to
be merely an expanfion of the pulpy fubdance of the
optic nerve, extending to the borders of the crydalline
humour.
The greated part of the globe of the eye, within
thefe feveral tunics, is filled by a very tranfparent and
gelatinous humour of confiderable confidence, which
from its fuppofed refemblance to fufed glafs, is called
the vitreous humour. It is inveded by a very fine and
delicate membrane, called tunica vitrea, and iometimes
arachnoides It is fuppofed to be compofed of two
laminae ; one of which dips into its fubdance, and by
dividing the humour into cells adds to its firmnefs. The
fore part of the vitreous humour is a little hollowed, to
receive a very wdiite and tranfparent fubdance of a firm
texture, and of a lenticular and fomewhat convex drape,
named the cryjlalline humour. It is included in a cap-
fula, which feems to be formed by a feparation of the
two laminae of the tunica vitrea.
The fore part of the eye is filled by a very thin and
tranfparent fiuid, named the aqueous humour, which oc¬
cupies all the fpace between the crydalline and the
prominent cornea.—That part of the choroides which
is called the iris, and which comes forward to form
the pupil, appears to be fufpended as it were in this
humour, and has occafioned this portion of the eye to
be didinguifhed into two parts. One of thefe, which
is the little fpace between the anterior furface of the
crydalline and the iris, is called the poffenor chamber-,
and the other, which is the fpace between the iris and
the cornea, is called the anterior chamber of the eye (d)-
Both
(c) Some writers, who have given the name of cornea to all this outer coat, have named what is here and
mod commonly called fclerotica, cornea opaca ; and its anterior and tranfparent portion, cornea lucida.
(r>) We are aware that fome anatomids, particularly Lieutaud, are of opinion, that the iris is everywhere in
dole contad with the crydalline, and that it is of courfe right to fpeak only of one chamber of the eye ; but as
this
Chap. VI.
ANATOMY.
277
Of the Both thefe fpaces are completely filled with the aqueous
^en^es- humour ( e ).
v" ' The eye receives its arteries from the internal caro¬
tid, through the foramina optica; and its veins pafs
through the foramina lacera, and empty themfelves in¬
to the lateral finufes. Some of the ramifications of
thefe veffels appear on the inner furface of the iris,
were they are feen to make very minute convolutions,
which are fufficiently remarkable to be diftinguilhed by
the name of circulus arteriofus, though perhaps impro¬
perly, as they are chiefly branches of veins.
The optic nerve paffes in at the pofterior part of
the eye, in a confiderable trunk, to be expanded
for the purpofes of vifion, of which it is now univer-
fally fuppofed to be the immediate feat. But Meffrs
Mariotte and Mery contended, that the choroides is the
feat of this fenfe •, and the ancients fuppofed the cryftal-
line to be fo. Befides the optic, the eye receives branches
from the third, fourth, fifth, and fixth pair of nerves.
The humours of the eye, together with the cornea,
are calculated to refraft and converge the rays of light
in fuch a manner as to form at the bottom of the eye
a diftinfl image of the objedl we look at j and the
point where the rays meet is called the focus of
the eye. On the retina, as in a camera obfcura, the
objedl is painted in an inverted pofition; and it is on¬
ly by habit that we aje enabled to judge of its true
fituation, and likewife of its cfiliance and magnitude.
To a young gentleman who was born blind, and who
was couched by Mr Chefelden, every objeft (as he ex-
preffed himfelt) feemed to touch his eyes as what he
felt did his {kin j and he thought no objedfs fo agree¬
able as thofe which were fmooth and regular, although
for fome time he could form no judgment of their
fliape, or guefs what it was in any of them that was
pleafing to him.
In order to paint objefts diftindlly on the retina,
the cornea is required to have fuch a degree of con¬
vexity, that the rays of light may be collected at a
certain point, fo as to terminate exaftly on the re¬
tina.—If the cornea is- too prominent, the rays, by di¬
verging too foon, will be united before they reach
the retina, as is the cafe with near-fighted people or
myopes; and on the contrary, if it is not fufficiently
convex, the rays will not be perfedlly united when they
reach the back part of the eye ; and this happens to
long-fighted people or prejbi, being found conftantly
to take place as we approach to old age, wffien the eye
gradually flattens (f). Thefe defeds are to be {ap¬
plied by means of glafies. He who has too prominent
an eye, will find his vifion improved by means of a
concave glafs ; and upon the fame principles, a convex
glafs will be found ufeful to a perfon wffiofe eye is na¬
turally too flat.
Of the
Sen Its,
EXPLANATION of PLATE XXXII.
Eig. I. {hows the Lachrymal Canals, after the Com¬
mon Teguments and Bones have been cut away,
a, The lachrymal gland, b, The twTo punda la-
chrymalia, from which the two lachrymal canals pro¬
ceed to c, the lachrymal fac. d, The large lachrymal
dud. e, Its opening into the ncfe. f, The caruncu-
la lachrymalis. g, The eyeball.
Fig. 2. An interior View of the Coats and Humours
of the Eye.
aaaa, The tunica fclerotica cut in four angles, and
turned back, bbbb, The tunica choroides adhering
to the infide of the fclerotica, and the ciliary veffels
are feen paffing over—cc, The retina, which covers
the vitreous humour, dd, The ciliary proceffes, which
were continued from the choroid coat, ee, The iris,
f, The pupil.
Fig. 3. {hows the Optic Nerves, and Mufcles of the
Eye.
aa, The twTo optic nerves before they meet, b, The
two optic nerves conjoined, c, The right optic nerve.
d, Mufculus attollens palpebrae fuperioris. e, Attol-
lens oculi. f, Abdudor. gg, Obliquus fiiperior, or
trochlearis. h, Addudor. i, The eyeball.
Fig. 4. ffiows the Eyeball with its Mufcles.
a, The optic nerve, b, Mufculus trochlearis. c, Part
of the os frontis, to which the trochlea or pulley is fix¬
ed, through which,—d, The tendons of the trochlea¬
ris pafs. e, Attollens oculi. f, Addudor oculi.
g, Abdudor oculi. h, Obliquus inferior, i, Part of
the fuperior maxillary bone to which it is fixed,
k, The eyeball.
Fig. 5. reprefents the Nerves and Mufcles of the Right
Eye, after part of the Bones of the Orbit have been
cut avray.
A, The eyeball. B, The lachrymal gland. C, Muf¬
culus abdudor oculi. D, Attollens. E, Levator
palpebrse fuperioris. F, Depreffor oculi. G, Adduc¬
tor. H, Obliquus fuperior, with its pulley. I, Its
infertion into the fclerotic coat. K, Part of the obli¬
quus inferior. L, The anterior part of the os frontis
cut.
this does not appear to be the cafe, the fituation of the iris and the two chambers of the eye are here defcribed in.
the ufual way.
(e) When the cryftalline becomes opaque, fo as to prevent the paffage of the rays of light to the retina, it
conifitutes what is called a cataraSi; and the operation of couching confifts in removing the difeafed cryftalline
from its bed in the vitreous humour. In this operation the cornea is perforated, and the aqueous humour efcapes
out of the eye, but it is conftantly renewed again in a very fliort time. The manner, however, in which it is fe,-
creted has not yet been determined.
(r) Upon this principle, they, who in their youth are near-fighted, may exped to fee better as they advance
in life, as their eyes gradually become more fiat.
2/8 A N A T
Sen!>1,2 CUt* t^e Cr‘^a ethmoid bone. N, The
i . i pofterior part of the fphenoid bone. O, d'ranfverfe
fpinous procefs of the fphenoid bone. P, The carotid
artery, denuded where it paffes through the bones.
Ql T he carotid artery within the cranium. R, The
ocular artery.
Nerves.—aa, The optic nerve. b, The third
pair.—c, Its joining with a branch of the firft branch
of the fifth pair, to form 1, the lenticular ganglion,—
which fends off the ciliary nerves, d. ee, The fourth
pair, f, The trunk, of the fifth pair, g, The firft
branch of the fifth pair, named ophthalmic.—h, The
frontal branch of it. i, Its ciliary branches, along
with which the nafal twig is fent to the nofe. k, Its
branch to the lachrymal gland. 1, The lenticular gan¬
glion: m, The fecond branch of the fifth pair, named
fuperior maxillary, n, The third branch of the fifth
pair, named inferior maxillary, o, The fixth pair of
nerves,—which fends off, p, the beginning of the great
fympathetic. q, The remainder of the fixth pair, fpent
on c, the abdudlor oculi.
Fig. 6. reprefents the Head cf a Youth, where the
upper part of the Cranium is fawed off,—to fbow the
Upper Part of the Brain, covered by the Pia Ala-
ter, the veffels of which are minutely filled with wax.
AA, The cut edges of the upper part of the cra¬
nium. B, The two tables and intermediate diplbe.
BB, The two hemifpheres of the cerebrum. CC, The
incifure made by the falx. D, Part of the tentorium
cerebello fuper expanfum. E, Part of the falx, which
is fixed to the crifta galli.
Fig. 7. reprefents the parts of the External Ear, with
the Parotid Gland and its Duft.
PAR
COMPARATIV
TTAVING fully examined and defcribed the ftruc-
T ture of man, we are nowr to take a view of that
of the inferior animals, and to confider in what the reft
of animated nature differs from man.
Comparative anatomy, was formerly, as we have
ftiewn in the hiftory, much more cultivated than that
of the human body ; but when the prejudices of bigo¬
try and ignorance fubfided, and allowed human difi'ec-
tion to be more freely exercifed, the ftudy of this fpe-
cies of anatomy was almoft entirely negleCred. Of
late, however, it has attracted the attention of feveral
of the moft eminent naturalifts and anatomifts, parti¬
cularly of Monro, Hunter, Vicq d’Azyr, and Cuvier,
from whofe labours it has received confiderable im¬
provement, and has attained a degree of accuracy and
an extent of application, which render it an objeft of
inquiry highly interefting to the philofopher and the
phyfician.
Many advantages are derived from the ftudy of
comparative anatomy. Firft, It furniflies us with a
fuificient knowledge of the feveral parts of animals, to
prevent our being impofed on by thofe authors who
O M Y. Fait II.
aa, The helix, b, The antihelix, c, The anti- Of the
tragus, d, The tragus, e, The lobe of the ear. f, denies.
The cavitas innominata. g. The fcapha. h, The v '
concha. ii, The parotid gland. k, A lymphatic
gland, which is often found before the tragus. 1, The
duA of the parotic gland, m, Its opening into the
mouth.
Fig. 8. A View of the Pofterior Part of the External
Ear, Meatus Auditorius, Tympanum, with its Small
Bones, and Euftachian tube of the Right Side,
a, The back part of the meatus, with the fmall ce¬
ruminous glands, b, The incus, c, Malleus, d, The
chorda tympani. e, Membrana tympani. f, The Eu¬
ftachian tube, g, Its mouth from the fauces.
Fig. 9. reprefents the Anterior Part of the Right Ex¬
ternal Ear, the Cavity of the Tympanum—its Small
Bones, Cochlea, and Semicircular Canals,
a, The malleUs. b, Incus with its long leg, refting
upon the ftapes. c, Membrana tympani. d, e, The
Euftachian tube, covered by part of—ff, the mufcu-
lus circumflexus palati. 1, 2, 3, The three femicircu-
lar canals. 4, The veftible. 5, The cochlea. 6, The
portio mollis of the feventh pair of nerves.
Fig. 10. (hows the Mufcles which compofe the fieftiy
fubftance of the Tongue.
aa, The tip of the tongue, with feme of the papil¬
lae minimae. b, The root of the tongue, c, Part of
the membrane of the tongue, which covered the epi¬
glottis. dd, Part of the mufculus hyo-gloffus. e, The
lingualis. f, Genio-gloffus. gg, Part, ol the ftylo-
gloffus.
T II.
E ANATOMY.
have defcribed and delineated many organs from brutes'
as belonging to the human body. That this is of im¬
portance, is evinced by examining the works of fome
of the earlieft and greateft mafters of anatomy, who,
for want of human fubjefts, have often taken their de-
feriptions from other animals j Galen is notorioufly
faulty in this refpeft, and the great Vefalius, though
he juftly reproves Galen, has fallen into the fame er¬
ror, as is plain from his delineations of the kidneys,
the uterus, the mufcles of the eye, and other parts.
Nor is antiquity only chargeable with this, fince in
Willis’s Anatomia Cerebri (the plates of which were
revifed by that accurate anatomift Dr Lower) there
are feveral of the figures taken from difterent brutes,
efpecially from the dog, befides what he acknowledges
for fuch.
Secondly, It helps us to underftand federal paffages
in the ancient writers on medicine, efpecially Hippo¬
crates and Galen, who have taken many of their de-
feriptions from brutes and reafoned from them.
Thirdly, It affords one of the beft afliftants and moft
certain guides in the ftudy of natural hiftory ) and the
beft
ANATOMY
Mate XXI .
p-/1 -
W- i
ilv9 WM
I*'
€
1^'“
\ 1
43 .
Plate XXII
A N A T O MY.
^ry^s,
i
) r
i
•: , -
J
I
Anatomy. riauNXY
V
1
(T9 ‘-'s
«
'
/
4
AN AT O MY.
Flat c XXVII.
C:\_x.
■Sy
c ^ .. riate xxvni
• /?
Anatomy.
K
' /./l. /■ /,' /' /.
Plate XXIX
Akatomt.
(A
/
\
r
>r
StBe/Z^n,,.
V
Aik*—.
Plate :xxxi.
A X A T O M Y.
Ax A TO M v.
I’I ate XXXli
Chap. I. A N A T
General befl and moft fcientlfic methods of arranging the feve-
variations, raj c]aflfes of organized beings, are founded on their ana-
. tomical ftrudure.
v Fourthly, From comparing the organization of man
with that of other animals, we derive confiderable aid
in our phyfiological refearches, as many funftions of
the animal economy can be but imperfe&ly underftood,
without comparing in various claffes the organs which
are fubfervient to them. From a want of this compa¬
rative view, there have arifen among anatomifts many
difputes, which a more enlarged acquaintance wdth
this fubjeft has decided.
To thefe advantages of comparative anatomy, we
may add, that it may be pra£tifed at all times and in
all places; and this enables thofe, who from preju¬
dice or delicacy, are withheld from the ftudy of ana¬
tomy on the human fubjeft, to acquire at an eafy rate
a knowledge of this ufeful fcience, fufikient for the
ufual purpofes of a liberal education.
O M Y.
In the view which we are here to take of compara-
2 79
General
tive anatomy, it is by no means our intention to enter vai^u'ns’
into a particular detail of the ftrufture of the feveral
fpecies, or even genera of animals. We propofe, how¬
ever, to confider pretty fully the diverfities of organi¬
zation exhibited by the feveral clafles, and to exempli¬
fy thefe by fomc well-known individuals of each. We
fhall thus, we truft, render the fubjeft interefting to
the general reader, for whom this article is calculated,
rather than for profeffional men ; and enable the na-
turalift, the veterinary feudent, the fportfman, and the
artitt, to profit by our labours. But before entering
on the particular comparative view of the feveral claf¬
fes, we think it proper to premife a few general obfer-
vations on the variations which appear in the organi¬
zation and functions of animals, on the relations which
take place among thefe variations, and the arrange¬
ment of animals founded on them.
14S
CHAP. I. GENERAL VARIATIONS IN THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONS.
THE moft obvious and fimple funftion of an ani¬
mal is motion, and we therefore begin with the organs
by which this is produced. All animals are furnifhed
with mufcles, or mufcular fibres, but a great propor¬
tion of them have nothing analogous to bone. In
thofe wdiich have bones, there are two ftriking diftinc-
tions ; in one divifion they are fituated within the
mufcles, forming an internal articulated fkeleton ; in
the other they form an external fcaly or ftrelly-cover¬
ing, within which the mufcles are included.
Thofe animals which are furnifhed with articulated
fkeletons, conftituting what is called a vertebral co¬
lumn, are denominated vertebral animals. Of thefe
there are four orders, the mammalia, birds, fifhes, and
reptiles. All other animals, comprehending the mol-
lufca, infefts, worms, and zoophytes, may be called
invertebral animals.
The general differences in the organs of fenfation
are much lefs fimple ; they may be confidered as re-
fpefting the internal nervous fyftem, and the organs of
the external fenfes. With refpeft to the former, fome
animals appear to have no nervous fyftem, as the zoo¬
phytes; another clafs has all of this internal fyftem ex¬
cept the brain, fituated in the fame cavity with the vif-
cera, as the mollufca, infers, and fome of the articu¬
lated worms; the third and moft complete clafs, have
the common origin of the nerves fituated in a cavity,
diftineft from that of the vifeera, within the vertebral
column ; this comprehends all the vertebral animals.
The two fir ft claffes have the ganglia or nervous knots,
(Vid. Gangl 1 forming protuberances in the
general nervous cord, as is the cafe with infedls and
fome articulated worms; or have them only within the
larger cavities, as the mollufca : the laft divifion have
them either on the fides of the cord, or within the ca¬
vities, or both.
The external fenfes differ in number and energy ;
all the vertebral animals agree with man in having five
fenfes. Of the invertebral animals, all appear to pof-
fefs fmell, tafte, and feeling ; moft of the mollufca and
infedls, as far as is yet knowm, are without hearing;
and the mollufca who want heads, the larvae of fame
infedls, many of the articulated worms, and all the
zoophytes, are not poffeffed of fight. The energy of
the fenfes varies very confiderably in different clafles,
and in different individuals; fome, as moft of the dogs,
the vulture, and moft of the farcophaga, or animals
which prey on carrion, have the fenfe of fmelling ex¬
tremely acute, and in thefe the membrane lining the
nafal cavities appears to be proportionally more ex¬
tended than in others. Some excel in the fenfe of
feeling, particularly man and the monkey tribe, in
whom the extremities are moft divided, moft delicate,
and furniihed with the moft minute ramifications of the
fuperficial nerves. Man, and thofe animals who, like
man, have the powrer of moving the head in all direc¬
tions, poffefs a great extent of vifion, both as to cir¬
cuit and diftance ; and thefe have two eyes funk and
fixed within the head: others, as moft infefls, which
are to fee minute objedls near at hand, have either fe¬
vered eyes, or at leaft eyes containing feveral lenfes.
But the differences which appear in thefe organs will
be fully noticed in comparing the feveral clafles.
1’he organs of digeftion furnifli us with two great 1S3
diftindlions. Some animals, as moft of the zoophytes,
have only one opening to the alimentary canal, which
ferves both for the taking in of aliment, and the rejec¬
tion of the excrement; in all others this canal has two
diftinft openings, at a greater or lefs diftance from
each other, according as the convolutions of this canal
are more or lefs numerous. Another difference which
has confiderable influence on the nature of the aliment,
adapted to the feveral fpecies is, that fome animals have
the mouth furniihed with teeth or other hard bodies, for
the purpofe of breaking down folids, and that others want
thefe organs. In the latter cafe, the animal if its mouth
be large, can fwallow its food entire, or if its mouth
be in the form of a tube, can only luck in fluid fub-
ftances. The nature of the bodies which the animal
is to mafticate, is alfo influenced by the form of the
teeth : thus fome animals have only teeth formed for
cutting and tearing, and therefore can only fubfift on
flelh, or are carnivorous; others have chiefly grinding
teeth, calculated only for bruifing herbs and grain,.
and
T53
r54
a So
vS™,ioi '1,ere. are I>«b:v>DtouS; a third ciaft have both, and
&c. ,e omnivorous. This difference of aliment is attend-
* v 1 ed w^h a correfpondent difference in the ffruaure of
t le alimentary canal,, as to its greater or fmaller length,
the number of llomachs, &c.
The chyle formed from the aliment by the aftion of
thefe organs, is carried to its place of deftination in
one of two ways j it either exudes through the fides of
the alimentary canal, or it is abforbed by particular
veffels, by which it is conveyed into the general circu¬
lation. The former takes place in the zoophytes, and
according to Cuvier in moft infeaS, which appear to
poffels no proper circulating veffels. The latter is the
cafe in tne mollufca, and in all the vertebral animals:
but thefe have the blood red and the chyle white
while thofe have all the fluids of the fame whitifh co¬
lour. Of the vertebral animals too, the chyle is opake
in fome, as the mammalia, and tranfparent like the
lymph in others, as in birds, fiflies, and reptiles.
In the organs of circulation feveral very important
diffinftions take place.
Some appear to have no circulating fyflem, as in-
fefts and zoophytes. In thofe which poffefs circulating
organs, fome have a double circulation, or in them all
the vemous blood paffes through the lungs, before it
again enter the arterial fyftem, as man, mammalia,
birds, fiflies, and many of the mollufca; others have
only a Angle circulation, or in thefe a great part of
the veinous blood re-enters the arterial fyflem, with¬
out palling through the lungs, as in reptiles. The
ftructure and petition of the heart is different in various
claffes. In fome it is double, one part ferving for cir¬
culating the blood through the lungs, and the other
tor diftributing it through the reft of the body j and
in this cafe the parts may be united, as in man, the
mammalia, and birds, or they may be diflindl, as in the
cuttle-fifli. In others the heart is Angle, or confifts of
one ventricle, which may be fituated either at the bafe
°f the general artery, as in fnails and fome other mol¬
lufca, or at the bale of the pulmonary artery, as in
fiflies.
The organs of refpiration difplay ftriking varieties,
l ft according to the element which is to ferve as the
medium : if this be air, it is received into the interior
of the refpiratory organs ; if it be water, it merely
glides over the furface of lamellae, which have been
named branchiae, as in fiflies, and many of the molluf¬
ca, or of fringes, as in fome Worms. The air may
be admitted into the body by one opening or by many.
The former is the cafe wdth all animals wffo have pro¬
per lungs: the tube which receives the air is fubdivid-
ed into numerous branches, terminating in cells, which
are reunited, ufually, into two maffes, which the ani¬
mal can at pleafure comprefs or dilate. In infers,
which refpire through many openings, the air-veffels
are moft: minutely ramified, fo as to admit the air to
every part of the body, and thefe animals are faid to
refpire. by tracheae. . Laftly, The zoophytes, with the
exception of the echinodermata, appear to have no re¬
fpiratory organs.
There are only twm general differences in the organs
of voice, and thefe relpefl the pofition of the glottis,
where the found is formed. In birds, this is fituated
at the bafe of the windpipe, where this divides into
ANATOMY.
Part IIa
two branches going to the lungs j in quadrupeds and General
reptiles, it is placed at the commencement of the var‘i‘tioi s,
windpipe, at the root of the tongue. Only thefe three , &c-
claffes have a glottis j in otners founds are produced by v~ "
various mechanical means, by which the external air,
or that contained within fome part 0f their bodies, is
let m rapid motion.
1 he differences which take place in the organs of I57
generation aie of two kinds, as they relate to the ac¬
tion itfelf, and to the confequences of this aftion. In
a few animals, which moftly belong to the zoophytes
there is no copulation, but the young growrs upon the
body of the parent, like a ftioot upon a tree : others
propagate only by copulation, and are ofcourfe of two
fexes 5 thefe, however, may be diftinft in different ani¬
mals, or united in the fame ; this laft only takes place
in the mollufca and in the zoophytes 5 all the vertebral
animals and infects have the fexes diftimft.
In hermaphrodite animals each individual can gene¬
rate alone, as the bivalve fhell fifti : others copulate reci¬
procally, or each individual performs the double office
of male and female ; this is the cafe with fnails, and
fuch other of the mollufca as crawl on the belly.
As to the produce of generation, there are three
modes in which the offspring is brought forth. Some
animals, as fome of the zoophytes and of articulated
W'orms produce fhoots which remain for fome time cn
the body of the animals, and thefe are gemmiparous.
Others, as man and the mammalia, contain the foetus with¬
in a uterus, to which it is connefled by a net-work of
blood veffels, and from which it is fent forth alive }
thefe, therefore, are viviparous. A third clafs, compre¬
hending all the other animals, have the young contain¬
ed within a fhell,.and enveloped by a fubftance which
it abforbs before it is hatched ; the viper may feem an
exception to this divifion, as it brings forth its young
alive 5 but then thefe have been hatched in the recep¬
tacle which contained the eggs 3 thefe animals are call¬
ed oviparous.
Laftly, The organs of fecretion fliow fome diverfity.
Ad the veitebral animals and fome mollufca lecrete
by means of glands fituated in various parts of the
body, or at leaf! by means of expanfions of veffels.
I he only fecretory organs in infe&s feem to be tubes
of various lengths, which attraft with the fpongy tif-
fue of their Aides, thofe fluids which they are to fepa-
rate from the general nutritious mafs. The fecretory
organs in the zoophytes are very imperfectly under-
ftood.
Thefe are the principal general differences which w'e
had. to notice as taking place in animals. The fol¬
lowing Table exhibits a comprehenfive view of thefe,
arranged in the order in which w'e have enumerated
them.
1. OSSIFICATION.
a. Animals with an internal bony fkeleton.
Man, Mammalia, Birds, Reptiles,
Fishes properly fo called.
b.  * with an internal cartilaginous fkeleton.
Cartilaginous Fishes.
B, a. ~ ■■ with an external horny fkeleton.
Perfect Insects, Lithophytes.
b. Animals
relations,
&.C.
Chap. II. ANA
General b. Animals with an external cretaceous fkeleton.
Crustacea, and moil of the Zoo-
U PHYTES.
C.  without a (keleton.
Larva: of Insects, Worms, Po¬
lypi.
2. IRRITABILITY.
Animals which have the whole body mufcular.
Moft larvae of Insects, Worms, Po¬
lypi.
R, - which have the mufcles covering the fke¬
leton.
Man, Mammalia, Birds, Fishes, Rep¬
tiles.
C. which have the mufcles covered by the
fkeleton.
Perfect Insects, Crustacea.
3. SENSATION.
Animals which have a brain and nerves readily di-
flinguifhed from the fpinal marrow.
Man, Mammalia,Birds,Fishes,Rep¬
tiles.
JB. ■■ which have a brain and nerves fcarcely to
be ehllinguifhed from the fpinal marrow.
Insects, Crustacea, Worms.
C. - which have no apparent fenforium.
Zoophytes.
4. DIGESTION.
A' Animals which have one flomach, or more, readilv
diftinguifhed from the cefophagus and
the alimentary canal.
Man, Mammalia, Birds, Crustacea*
1 "l"* which have the flomach diftinguifhed from
the oefophagus and alimentary canal on¬
ly by certain fwellings.
Fishes and Reptiles.
T O M Y. aS?I
5, Animals with white blood, and a heart formed
of a longitudinal canal jointed and C
contradlile. > 1 «
Moft Crustacea, Worms.
C, —•   - without a heart, but with fluids contain¬
ed in veflels.
Insects, Zoophytes.
6. RESPIRATION.
A. a. Animals which refpire by means of lungs not
adhering and fpongy.
Man, Mammalia.
n.
c.
wnich have only an alimentary canal.
Insects, Worms, Zoophytes.
b.
5. CIRCULATION.
A. a. Animals with red blood, and a heart having two
ventricles and two auricles.
Man, Mamp<ialia, Birds.
11 ~ vith a heart having one ventricle di¬
vided into feveral cavities and twro
auricles.
Reptiles.
 with a heart having but one ventricle
and one auricle.
Fishes.
b.
B.
C.
b.
E.
— which refpire by means of lungs not ad¬
hering, but formed of cells, and muf-
cular.
Reptiles.
-- which refpire by means of lungs adhe¬
ring to the ribs, and furnifhed with
appendages.
Birds.
— which refpire by means of gills of va¬
rious forms.
Fishes, Crustacea.
— which refpire by means of ftigmata, or
holes fituated in different rings.
Insects, Terrestrial Worms.
which refpire by means of trachem, of
' by external fringed bodies.
Aquatic Worms.
which appear to have neither ftigmata
nor tracheae.
Zoophytes ex. Echinodermata.
7. GENERATION.
A. Animals viviparous.
Man, Mammalia.
B.     oviparous.
Birds, Fishes, Reptiles, Insects,
Crustacea, Worms.
C. which may be propagated by cuttings.
Worms, Polypi.
8. SECRETION.
A. Animals fecreting by means of glands.
Man, Mammalia, Birds, Fishes, Rep,
tiles, and fome Mollusca.
B.
which appear to have no glands.
Some Mollusca, Insects, Worms.
Zoophytes.
CHAP. II. GENERAL RELATIONS WHICH TAKE PLACE AMONG THE VARIATION
OF ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONS. VAIGA1I0N
WE fliall beft obferve thefe relations by comparing-
together the feveral funtfions, two by two.
To begin with one of the moft obvious’ reflation
we perceive that this is always regulated by the mo-
tion of the nutritions fluid. In animals which are
furnilhed with a heart and veffels, there is a central
Vol. II. Part I.
receptacle, in which this fluid is collefted, and from
which it is diftributed to every part of the body : the
heart is.its great goal, from which it fets out, and to
which it muft return before performing a new cir¬
cuit.
It muft, therefore, at its fource undergo the adion
h
282 A N A 1
General ot the air, and accordingly, before it is fent through
relations, general artery, to the various organs, it is circulat-
ed through the lungs or branchiae for this purpofe.
Eut in animals, as infe&s, which have neither heart nor
veffels, this correfpondence is unneceffary. In them the
nutritious fluid has no regular motion, no general
fource 5 it could not have been prepared in a feparate
organ, before its diftribution to the reft of the body,'
as exuding through the pores of the inteftinal canal, it
continually bathes the feveral parts, and introduces
freih particles between thofe which compofe them.
The air, therefore, could exert its adlion only at the
very points of this introduftion, and the very inftant
when it happens. This is extremely well provided for
by the difpofttion of the tracheae, as there is no one
folid point in the bodies of infedts to which the fine
ramifications of the air vefiels do not extend, and at
wfliich the chemical adlion of the air does not take
place. As we clearly fee the caufes of thefe relations
between the organs belonging to thefe two fundlions
of refpiration and circulation, we are authorized to
conclude that other relations, which are found to hold
between them, depend upon caufes of the fame kind,
though perhaps not equally evident.
Ji8 For inftance, of thofe animals who have blood vef¬
fels and a double circulation, fome refpire by admitting
the air immediately into the fpongy fubftance of the
lungs, and in thefe the two trunks of the large arteries
approach each other, and are furnilhed with mufcular
ventricles united into one flelhy mafs j others refpire
through the medium of water pafling between the folds
of their branchiae, and in thefe the two trunks are al¬
ways feparated, whether each be furniftied with a fe¬
parate ventricle as in the cuttle filh, or both nave a
common ventricle as in fifties and the mollufca.
I59' The relation which fubfifts betw-een refpiration and
motion is more eaftly explained. We find, that thofe
animals which move quickeft, and are conftantly refi-
dent in the air, ftand moft in need of pure air, and can
obtain it with the greateft facility. The conftant de¬
mand for frefli air, is found by modern chemiftry to be
owing to the lofs of irritability, in the mufcular fibre,
which is fupplied by fomething from the air. Birds,
therefore, who from the fwiftnefs of their motion, and
conlequent lofs of irritability, have the greateft demand
for frefti air, have alfo the moft complete and extenlive
refpiratory organs. In reptiles, again, whole motion
is generally very ftow, and whofe irritability is retain¬
ed with great obftinacy, thefe organs are incomplete, and
their veffels confounded with thofe of the general cir¬
culation, and they can exift long without air. The
mammalia feem to hold the middle rank between theie
two extremes.
160 The relations which take place between the dif-
O M Y. Part II.
ferences of the organs of fenfation with thofe oi refpi- General
ration likewife deferve attention. re ^Icons’
In animals with cold blood, the external fenfes are . ^ .
much lefs acute than in the warm-blooded animals *,
and in the former the brain is lefs, and does not com¬
pletely fill the ikull. This is doubtlefs owing to the
flower motion of the cold-blooded animals requiring
lefs nervous energy.
The digeftive organs are found to poffefs more 16*
power in proportion as thofe of refpiration are more
active, as the great wafte occafioned by thefe muft be
compenfated by a proportional fupply of aliment re¬
ceived. Hence in birds, the ftomach is extremely
powerful, the digeftion very vigorous, and the demand
for food frequent and importunate 5 while reptiles re¬
quire very little nouriftiment, and can remain very long
without a frefti fupply.
We have feen the relations which flibfift between
the organs of refpiration and thofe of digeftion. Thefe
laft are alfo immediately related to the organs of mo¬
tion and of fenfation ; for the nature of the aliment
by which the animal is to be nouriflied is completely
determined by the difpofttion of the alimentary canal
but if the animal had not its organs of fenfation and
of motion calculated for diftinguifhing and procuring
its proper food, it is evident that it could not exift :
thus an animal who can digeft only flefti, muft of ne-
ceflity be enabled to perceive, to purfue, to feize, to
overcome, and tear in pieces its proper prey. It muft
therefore poffefs a piercing fight, an acute fmell, a ra¬
pid motion, agility, and confiderable ftrength in its
jaws and talons. Accordingly, we never fee exifting
in the fame animal a tooth formed for cutting fleih to¬
gether with a horny foot j this explains why every
animal with hoofs is herbivorous, and why hoofs indi¬
cate grinding teeth with flattened crownsj a very
long alimentary canal, a large ftomach, or feveral
ftomachs, and many other fimilar relations. Among
all thefe relations there are many which have fome¬
thing in common, and there are always fome in which
the differences are few, fo that by bringing together
thofe which have the neareft refemblance, we are en¬
abled to form a kind of feries, which wall appear
gradually to proceed from a primitive ftandard. Hence
the idea of a fcale of beings, which fome natu-
ralifts have formed, exhibiting a regular gradation,
beginning at the moft perfedl, and defcendmg to the
moft Ample ftate of organization, or vice verfa. As
the links which conftitute this chain are by no means
entirely known, a perfedt fcale of beings is at prefent
not to be expedled.
The following table difplays a feries of animals*
beginning with the moft fimple ftate of organization,
and afcending to the moft perfedl.
SCALE
ANATOMY.
Chap. nr.
Arrange¬
ment of A-
wimals, See,
283
SCALE of Animals according to the greater or lefs fimplicity of their Strudlure.
Arrange¬
ment of A-
nimals, &c.
I. Having only a ftomach,
2» A flomach and inteftines,
fSea animonies.
Actinias.
Nettles.
Medifce,
Argonauts.
Beroe.
Moft animalcula of vegetable in-
fufions.
Linne.
Forjkall.
Linne,
C Flo wer-p oly pe s.
3. Having befide thefe an external organ for refpira-J Vorticellce.
tion in the water, - - i Brachioni,
LBotrylli.
4. Having befides thefe, fome vifeera, a fyftem .of ab- C -
forbents, organs of generation, (but not of copu-< ... 1 ”
lation), and a net-work of nerves, - / \ e^eIS‘ P . . . , . „
Animals of the bivalve lliells.
5. Having befide, a blood veffel, and fometimes the! T n* 1
fenfe of feeing, . . j Inteftinal wonns.
6. Having befide, organs of copulation (hermaphrodites) T Leeches
a heart without auricles, but with diftindl pulfa- ( gliaQs eS*
tions, nervous ganglia, the fenfe of vifion, and an f ^na. *. r n „
imperfeft organ of maftication, . J An,mals °f the univalve lhells-
’7. Having befides a brain, organs of locomotion, male'
and female organs of generation diftinft, fome- jnfe(c^
times the fenfe of hearing, and an external bony " e '
fyftem,
S. Having rudiments of an internal bony fyftem, a7 /■-< • -n ^
heart and blood veffels, - . j Cartilaginous fiflres.
pf Having a complete internal bony fyftem,
10. Having internal lungs, and an organ of fmelling,
11. Having befides a bilocular heart,
12. Having perfect organs of tafte and maftication, l Mammalia.
organs for fecreting milk, and a uterus, } Man.
Miller.
Fallas.
Linne.
Fifties properly fo called.
Amphibia.
Birds.
CHAP. III. ARRANGEMENT OF ANIMALS FOUNDED ON THE GENERAL
DIFFERENCE OF THEIR ORGANIZATION.
HAVING taken a furvey of the general differences
which take place in the organization and funflions of
animals, and of the relations which fubfirt among thefe
differences 5 we are now to proceed to a fummary
view- of the whole animal kingdom, and confider what
is common in the organization of the various claffes of
which it is compofed.
The whole animal kingdom is generally divided in¬
to two great families, that of the vertebral animals,
who have red blood ; and that of the invertebral ani¬
mals, almoft all of which have white blood.
In the firft divifion we always find an interior arti¬
culated fkeleton, of which the principal fupport is the
vertebral column, having the head at its atlantal ex¬
tremity, and containing within its cavity the general
origin of the nerves j its facral extremity is commonly
prolonged to form a tail. The ribs, which are feldom
wanting, are fituated on both fides of this-column (g).
N n 2 Thefe
(g) As the terms generally employed in the human anatomy are by no means calculated for deferibing the
ftru£ture
284
Of Qua- Thefe animals have never more than four limbs j but
_ drupeds. jn fome 0f them two of thefe are wanting, in others
y" all.
Their brain is always contained within a peculiar
cavity of the head called the cranium; all the fpinal
nerves fend off filaments to afiift in forming a nervous
chord, which is derived from one of the nerves of the
cranium, and is di'ftributed to moft of the vifcera.
They have always five fenfes : two eyes which they
can move at pleafure ; the ear has always at lead three
femicircular canals the organ of fmell is alwavs
confined to cavities in the fore part of the head j
there is always at lead one dedry ventricle, by which
the circulation of the blood is carried on j fometimes
there are twTo ventricles, which are always united.
The lymphatic veffels are always didinft from the
blood veffels.
The jaws are always fituated horizontally, and fepa-
rate from above downwards.
The alimentary canal is continued from the mouth
to the anus, which is always fituated behind the bones
with which the facral extremities are articulated.
The intedines are enveloped in a membranous bag,
called peritonceum.
There are always a liver, and a pancreas or fweet-
bread, by wdnch liquors are fecreted for the purpofes
of digedion, and a fpleen, in which one part of the
blood which goes afterwards to the liver, undergoes
fome previous change.
The urine is always feparated by two kidneys, which
are fituated on the fides of the vertebral column with¬
out the peritonceum, and above which are always twro
bodies called atrabiliary capfules, the ufe of which is
unknown. The vertebral animals are fubdivided into
two feffions j the hot-blooded, and the cold-blooded.
In the hot-blooded vertebral animals there is always
a heart and a double circulation. Refpiration is car¬
ried on by means of lungs, and without the exetcife
of this funclion they cannot exid.
The brain in thefe animals completely fills the cavi¬
ty of the fkull, and their eyes clofe by means of lids.
The tympanum of their ear is lunk in the folid bone
PartH,
of the fkull, as the parts of the labyrinth are entirely Of Qua-
furrounded by bone ; befides the femicircular canal, ^rupeds.
there is always an organ with two fpiral cavities, like "■'V—'
the fhell of a fnail *, the nodrils ferve for the paflage
of the air in breathing, and form a communication
with the mouth. The trunk is always furrounded by
the ribs, and there are for the mod part four limbs.
The cold-blooded vertebral animals are deficient in
feveral of thefe particulars j many of them wrant ribs,
and fome of them have no limbs. In them the brain
never entirely fills the cavity of the fkull, and their
eyelids are feldom moveable ; the tympanum of their
ear, as alfo the fmall bones, is often wanting, the fpi¬
ral cavity always 5 when the tympanum is prefent, it
is never funk within the fkull.
Each of thefe two divifions is again fubdivided in¬
to two claffes ; the former into the mammalia and the
birds 5 the latter into the fifhes and the reptiles : the
drublure of thefe claffes will be confidered in their pro^
per place.
The invertebral animals have fewrer common circum-
dances, and conllitute a lefs regular feries than thofe
of which wre have been fpeaking ; their hard jfarts,
wdien they are prefent, are generally, at lead when ar¬
ticulated, placed externally. No part of their nervous
fydem is contained within a bony fheath, but floats in
a common cavity with the vifcera.
The brain only is placed above the alimentary ca¬
nal *, from it proceed two branches which embrace the
gullet like a collar, and from which the general bun¬
dle of the nerves is formed. In thefe animals refpira¬
tion is never carried on by means of cellular lungs, and
they are all deflitute of voice 5 their jaws have no par¬
ticular direftion, and their mouths are often merely
fuckers •, they have no kidneys, and confequently fe-
crete no urine ; if they have limbs, thefe are always
at lead fix in number.
Confidered in an anatomical point of view, they
may be divided into five clafl’es, namely, the molluf-
ca, the crudacea, infedls, w-orms, and zoophytes. We
fhall treat of thefe feveral claffes in the order in which
we have enumerated them.
ANATOMY.
CHAP. IV. MAMMALIA, OR QUADRUPEDS.
Sect. I. General Obfervations.
Whether A question has been darted by fome fanciful phi-
man is na- lofophers, “ Whether man is naturally a biped or a
rurally 6 quadrupedP'' and much ingenuity has been employed
«pjadnip£d.to eftablidi the latter opinion. But it is prefumed
that few of their readers have been made converts to
fiich an opinion, and that not many of ours wfill require
much argument to perfuade them of their ereft dedi¬
nation. It may therefore fuffice to obferve, that this
ereft pofition is bed adapted to the conformation of
the human head, and the ponderous quantity of hu¬
man brains :—that the articulation of the os occipitis
rvith the fird vertebra of the neck, is differently con-
drufted from that of quadrupeds, wuth the obvious de-
fign that man diould be able to move his head in every
direftion with the greated facility :—that the human
fpecies (and alfo monkies) are deditute of that drong
ligament or tendinous aponeurofis, vulgarly called pax-
wax, which quadrupeds poffefs (as a kind oi J!ay-
tape}, to prevent the head from finking to the earth 5
to which, from its natural pofition, it mud be very
prone :—and that our eyes and ears are, fortunately,
not
ffru&ure of the inferior animals, we diall in this article make ufe of others, wdth wdiich we have been favoured
by Dr Barclay, the ingenious lecturer ®n anatomy, to whofe publication on anatomical nomenclature we refirt
the reader for their explanation.
Chap. IV.
Of Qua- not placed as tliofe of the quadrupeds. The axis of
mPeds . the human eye is nearly perpendicular with a vertical
fe£lion of the head 5 whereas, in the brute creation
(the larger ape excepted), the polition of the eyes
forms an acute angle :—nature has alfo furnifhed other
animals with 'a. fufpenforium oculi, a mufcle which the
ereci attitude renders needlefs, though highly neceflary
in x\vt prone; confequently, whoever tries the experi¬
ment will find that, in the inclined direftion, both his
eyes and his ears are in the moll unfavourable fituation
poflible for quick hearing or extenfive vifion. In fine,
the fhape, breadth, ftrength of the vertebrae of the
back and loins, are all coincident with the eredl atti¬
tude of the trunk.
All quadrupeds have a covering of hair, wool, &c.
to defend them from the injuries of the weather, which
varies in thicknefs according to the feafon of the year
and difference of the climate : thus in Ruffia and the
northern countries, the furs are very thick and warm,
while the little Spanifh lap-dogs, and Barbary cows,
have little or no hair at all.
cut t n The cutis and cuticula in quadrupeds are difpofed
nicului car-the fame way as the human, only more elaf-
Rofus. tic ; immediately under this, there is a very thin cu¬
taneous mufcular fubftance called panniculus carnoJusy
which is common to all quadrupeds, the porcine kind
excepted ; this principally covers the trunk, ferving
ANATOMY.
285
„ '*3
Cuticula,
Of Qua¬
drupeds.
to Ihrivel the Ikin, in order to drive off infers, their
tails and heads not being fufficient for this purpofe,
while their extremities are employed in their fupport
and progreffion. I(^
It has probably been from obferving fome mufcles Whence
of the human body, fuch as the platyfma myoides, ere-the m°bon
mafter, and frontales, and the collapfed tunica cellulofa 01 t5je pan“
of emaciated fubjedls, to refemble this thin mufcle, that nofuSU ^c!"*
fome of the older anatomifts reckoned fuch a pannicu¬
lus among the common teguments of the human body.
This Carolus Stephanus has well obferved. 165
Moft part of quadrupeds want clavicles, whereby Why moft
their atlantal extremities fall upon their cheft, fo as quadruPed3
to make their thorax proportionally narrower than the a‘
human. This fmall diftance of their atlantal extre¬
mities is very neceffary for their uniform progreffion :
apes indeed and fquirrels have clavicles to allow them
a more full ufe of their extremities in climbing ; but
when they walk on all-fours, they move but indif¬
ferently.
Their head is connefted to the firft vertebra of the
neck by two eminences as in man. The vertebree of
the neck are never lefs than fix, or more than nine.
The number of the dorfal and other vertebrae differ
confiderably in the various individuals. The follow¬
ing table exhibits thefe differences in each fpecies.
The brain of thefe animals is more complicated than
that of the other claffes.
TABLE of the Proportional Number of Spinal Vertebrae in various fpecies of
Mammalia.
Species.
Dorfal
Vertebra.
Lumbar
Vertebra.
Man,
Simla fatyrus, Lin. Orang-outang,
 troglodytes. Jocko,
— lar. Gibbon,
 panifeus. Coa'ita,
 capucina. Weeping monkey, fai,
 rofalia. Silky monkey, marakina,
 patas. Patas,
Maimon, rib-nofed ape,
• cynomolgus. Macaca,
 chinenfs. Chinefe monkey,
 fphinx. Baboon, papion,
 inuus. Magot,
 maimon. Mandrill,
 pongo. Pongo,
 beelxebub. Alofti, howling baboon,
Lemur catta. Macauco,
 gracilis. Lori,
 tarjius. Tarffer,
Vefpertilio vampyrus. Roufette, vampyre bat,
*  murinus. Common bat,
•  noBula. Nodtule, great bat,
 ferrutn equinum. Horfe-ffioe bat,
12
I 2
H
12
12
12
,12
II
12
I 2
12
I 2
H
12
*5
J4
12
II
12
12
5
4
5
3
3
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
4
4
■ 7
9
5
4
5
7
6
Sacral Coccygian
Vertebra. Vertebra.
5
3
4
6
2
4
1
3
1
1
3
1
1
3
3
5
3
1
3
1
4
3
3
4
4
5
o
32
25
26
16-f.
*3
5
20
31
3
13
4
25
18
9
*7+
o
12
6
12
TABLE.
286
Of qua¬
drupeds.
f
*
ANATOMY,
TABLE, &c. continued.
Part IT.
Of Qua¬
drupeds.
Species.
Dorfal
Vertebra.
Lemur vo/ans. Flying lemur,
Erinctceus europccus. Hedgehog,
 ecaudatus. Tanrec,
Sorex tnus araneus. Mufetta, Ihrew,
Lalpa europteci. Mole.
Urfus maritimiis. White bear,
 arflos. Brown bear,
——— meles. Badger,
 gulo. Glutton,
Viverra. Coati,
Ur. lotor. Racoon,
Mujlela lutra. Otter,
 martes. Martin,
 vulgaris. Weafel,
Viverra civetta. Civet,
Felts leo. Lion,
- - tigris. Tiger,
 pardus. Panther,
 concolor. Couguar,
   catus. Cat,
Canis familiaris. Wolf-dog,
 lupus. Wolf,
—— vulpes. Fox,
 hycena. Hyaena,
Didelphis cancriphaga. Cayenne opofium, crab-eater,
 murina. Marmofe,
 orientalis. Phalarger,
Hi/lrix criflata. Porcupine,
Lepus timidus. Hare,
 cutiiculus. Rabbit,
Cavia capybara. Cabse,
—— cobaya. Guinea pig,
 paca. Paca, or fpotted cavy,
 aguti. Agouti,
'Hajlor fiber. Beaver,
Sciurus vo/ans. Flying fquirrel,
Mus mannotta. Marmotte,
 arvalis. Field moufe,
— amphibius. Water rat,
— rattus. Black rat,
— decumanus. Norway rat,
— mujculus. Common moufe,
—fylvaticus. Field or harveft rat,
— cricetus. Hamfter,
— glis. Fat dormoufe,
— quercinus. Garden dormoufe,
Myrmecophaga dida&yla. Ant-eater,
Manis pentadaclyla. Pangolin,
 tetradaByla. Long-tailed manis,
Defy pus. Armadillo,
Bradypus didaffylus. Two-toed Hath,
Elephas indicus. Elephant,
Sus ferofa. Flog,
Lumbar
Vertebra.
Sacral
Vertebra.
12
I5
*5
12
*3
H
15
16
*4
J4
*4
>3
J3
*3
J3
13
*3
13
x3
13
16
L3
13
14
12
12
L3
13
13
12
15
12
13
13
'3
13
*3
12
12
13
L3
13
16
J3
11
23
20
14
7
6
7
6
6
6
5
5
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
6
7
7
4
6
6
6
5
7
7
6
6
6
8
5
8
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
6
7
7
2
5
5
4
2
3
5
4
3
3
7
7
5
3
3
1
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
5
1
1
4
4
2
2
4
5
4
3
3
6
3
4
3
4
4
3
4
2
4
4
3
2
3
4
4
3
Coccygian
Vertebra.
22
I 2
8
17
II
11
4H-
16
18
1 o -f-
20
21
18
14
20
23
24
22
22
22
*9
20
8 +
16-f
29
3°
8 +
20
20
4 +
6
7
7
23
13
22
15
23
26
23
24
23
*5
18
24
40
28
45
3°
7 +
14
4
TABLE,
Chap. IV.
Of (Qua¬
drupeds.
ANATOMY.
TABLE, &c. continued.
287
Of Qua¬
drupeds.
Dorfal
Vertebra.
Lumbar
Vertebra.
Sacral
Vertebra.
20
l9
12
12
*3
I4
13
!3
13
J3
J3
18
18
!3
13
}
4
3
7
7
6
5
6
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
. 5
in all
66
Coccygian
Vertebra.
1 2
22
*7
18
11
18
11
7f
12
16
16
*7
18
12
oPECIES.
Tafiirus. T apir,
Rhinoceros,
Camel us baBrianus. Camel,
—* dromedanus. Dromedary,
Cervus elaphus. Stag,
Camelo-pardahs. Camelopard,
Antilope cervicapra. Antelope,
   dorcas. Gazelle,
■  rupicapra. Chamois goat,
Capra hircus. Goat,
Ovis aries. Sheep,
Bos taurus. Ox,
Equus caballus. Horfe,
 <Iuagga' Couaga,
Phoca vitulina. Seal,
Delphinus delphis. Dolphin,
 phoccena. Porpoife,
Their eyes have only two lids, and they agree with
man in having the internal ear furnilhed with four
little bones articulated with each other, and a com¬
pletely fpiral cochlea, and a tongue entirely foft and
flefliy. Their heart, lungs, and diaphragm refemble
thofe of man in their general ftrudture $ and differ
only in a few circumftances, which will be belt feen
in the exemplification of their ftrufture, which is pre-
fently to be given.
In treating of quadrupeds we (hall divide them into
the carnivorous, or rather thofe w’hich feed indifferent¬
ly on fiefh and vegetables, and the granivorous. The
ftru&ure of the former we lhall exemplify in the doo-,
that of the latter in the cow.
Sect. II. ’The Anatomy of a Dog.
Wk may firft obferve of this animal, as of moft
quadrupeds, that its legs are much fhorter in propor¬
tion to its trunk than in man, the length of whofe iteps
depends entirely on the length of his facral extremi¬
ties 5 however, to balance this, the trunk of the animal
is proportionally longer and fmaller, his fpine more
flexible, by which he is able at each ftep to bring his
facial nearer to his atlantal extremities. His common
teguments are much a-kin to thofe of other quadrupeds,
only they, allow little or no paffage for fweat j but
when he is over-heated, the fuperfluous matter finds
an exit by the falivary glands, for he lolls out his
tongue and flavors plentifully. We are not, however,
to fuppofe, that becaufe a dog does not fweat, he has
no. infenfible perfpiration. That a dog perfpires is
evident, becaufe one of thefe animals can trace ano¬
ther by .the fcent of his footfteps; which could not
happen if a large quantity of perfpirable matter wxis
not conflantly going off.
The pyramidal mufcles are wanting, to fupply w'hich
the reftus is inferted flefhy into the os pubis. x^f.
The brain is proportionally much fmaller than the Brain.,
human •, but, as in man, it is divided into cerebrum and
cerebellum, and thefe two parts bear nearly the fame
proportion to one another as in us. There was no fuch
occafion for fo great a quantity of brain in thefe ani¬
mals as in man ; feeing that in them all its energy is
employed in their progreffion, while man has a great
waffe of fpirits in the exercife of his reafon and intel¬
lectual faculties. And belides all this, a bulky brain
wmuld be inconvenient to thefe creatures, in fo far as
it would add confiderably to the weight of the head ;
w’hich having the advantage of a long lever to aft with,
would require a much greater force to fupport it than
it does now y for the heads of the greateft part of qua¬
drupeds are not near fo heavy as they would at firft
fight feem to be, from the frontal finufes being produ¬
ced a great way upwards to enlarge the organs of fmel-
The pits in the anterior part of their fkulls are much
more confpicuous than in the human ; which may be
occafioned by the depending pofture of thefe creatures
heads while they gather their food : the brain at this
time gravitating much on the bones while they are as
yet foft, will gradually make imprefiions upon them at
thofe places where it rifes into eminences. This is
prevented in man moflly by his erecl pofture.
Ti he falx is not near fo large in quadrupeds as in paix. '
man, as they have little occafion to lie on either fide,
and the two hemifpheres of the brain are in a great
meafure hindered from juitling againft one another in
violent motions., by the brain’s infinuating itfelf into
the above-mentioned pits.
The fecond procefs of the dura mater, or tentorium
cerebello fuper-expanfum: is confiderably thicker and
ftrongep.
Of Qua¬
drupeds.
168
Proceffus
mamiilaris.
169
Nates,
teites.
170
Rete mira
bile Galeni
•r t?I
longue.
ANA
ftronger titan in man. This membrane is generally of-
fified, or we find the place of it fupplied by a bo ne,
that it may the more effe&ually keep off the fuperin-
cumbent brain from the cerebellum in rapid motions,
which other wife would be of bad confequence.
The olfaftory nerves are very large, and juftly de-
ferve the name of procejjus mamillaru. They are hol¬
low, and confilf of a medullary and cineritious fub-
ftance, and at firft fight appear to be the frontal ven¬
tricles of the brain produced ; but in man they are
Imall, and without any difcernihle cavity. The reafon
of this is pretty evident, if we confider how this ani¬
mal’s head is fituated ; for the lymph continually gra¬
vitating upon the inferior part of the ventricles, may
thus elongate and produce them \ but from this very
inferior part the olfaftory nerves rife, and are fent im¬
mediately through the ethmoid bone into the nofe.
Hence the ancients, thinking they were continued hol¬
low into the nofe, believed they were the emunftories
of the brain : in the brain of fheep, which by its firm
texture is the belt fubjeft of any for fearching into the
ftrufture of this part, we evidently fee, that the name
of the Jigmoid cavity was very properly applied by the
ancients to the lateral ventricles of the brain 5 which
are really of a greater extent than they are ordinarily
painted by anatomifts, reaching farther backwards, and
forwards again under the fubftance of the brain. The
cortical and medullary parts, as well as the corpus cal-
lofum, are fimilar to thofe parts in man.
The nates and tejies deferve this name much better
here than in the human body, with refpeft to each
other. They are larger in the quadruped ^ and hence
we perceive that there is no great reafon for aferibing
the different operations to any particular fi2e or flrape
.of thefe parts. They are here alfo of different colours ;
the nates being of the colour of the cortical, and the
tejies of the medullary fubftance of the brain ; where¬
as in man they are both of one colour. The reafon
of thefe differences, and others of the like nature to be
met with, we (hall not pretend to determine *, for we
have hitherto fuch an imperfect knowledge of the
brain itfelf, that we are entirely ignorant of the va¬
rious ufes of its different parts. We may in general
conclude, that the varying in one animal from what it
is in another, is fitted to the creature’s particular way
of living.
The fete mirabi/e Galeni, fituated on each fide of the
'fella turcica, about which there has been fo much dif-
pute, is very remarkable in thefe animals. This net¬
work of veifels is nothing elfe than a Continuation of
the internal carotid arteries, which, entering the fkull,
divide into a vaft number of minute branches running
along the fide of the fella turcica ; and, uniting after¬
wards, are fpent on the brain in the common way.
Galen feems with juftice to fuppoie, that this plexus
of veffels ferves for checking the impetuofity of the
blood deftined for the brain.
The tongue, in confequence of the length of the
jav-s, is much longer than ours ; and as this creature
feeds with his head in a depending pofture, the bolus
would always be in danger of falling out of the mouth,
were it not for feveral prominences or papillae placed
moftly at the root of the tongue, and crooked back¬
wards in fuch a manner as to allow any thing to pafs
eafily down to the jaws, but to funder its return. By
TOM Y. Part ir„
the papillae alfo the furface of the tongue is increafed, Of Qua-
and a ftronger impreflion is made on the fenfation of drupeds.
tafte. In fotne animals who feed on living creatures, J
thefe tenter-hooks are ftill more confpicuous 5 as in fe¬
veral large fifties, where they are almoft as large as
their teeth in the fore part of their mouth, and near as
firm and ftrong.
The nofe is generally longer than in man, and its ex-Nofe.
ternal paifage much narrower. The internal ftrudlure
' is alfo better adapted for an acute fmelling, having a
larger convoluted furface on which the membrana fchei-
deriana is fpread *, and this is to be obferved in moft
quadrupeds, who have the offa fpongiofa commonly
large, and thefe too divided into a great number of
exceflively fine thin lamellae. The fenfibility feems to
be increafed in proportion to the furface ; and this will
alfo be found to take place in all the other fenfes. The
elephant, wftiich has a head pretty large in proportion
to its body, has the greateft part of it taken up with
the cavity of the nofe and frontal finufes ; which laft
extend almoft over their tvhole head, and leave but a
fmall cavity for their brains. A very nice fenfe of
fmelling was not fo abfolutely neceflary for man, who
has judgment and experience to dire<ft him in the choice
of his food j whereas brutes, who have only their fenfes,
muft of neccflity have thefe acute, fome having one
fenfe in greater perfeftion than others, according to
their different w7ay of life. We not only conclude d
priori from the large expanded membrana fcheideriana,
that their fenfe of fmelling is very acute, but we find
it fo by cows and horfes diftinguiftiing fo readily be-
twuxt noxious and wdiolefome herbs, which they do
principally by this fenfe. 1-3
The external ear in different quadrupeds is differ-Ear.
ently framed, but always calculated for the creature’s
manner of life. In fliape it commonly refembles the
oblique feftion of a cone from near the apex to the
bafis. Hares, and fuch other animals as are daily ex-
pofed to infults from beafts of prey, have large ears di-
redled backwards, their eyes warning them of any dan¬
ger before •, rapacious animals, on the other hand, have
their ears placed direftly forwards, as we fee in the
lion, cat, &c. The flow hounds, and other animals
that are defigned to hear moft diftindlly the founds
coming from below, have their ears hanging down-
w-ards *, or their ears are flexible, becaufe they move
their head for the moft part writh greater difficulty than
man. Man, again, who muft equally hear founds co¬
ming from all quarters, but efpecially fuch as are fent
from about his own height, has his external ear placed
in a vertical manner, fomewffiat turned forward. In
flrort, wherever we fee a fpecialty in the make of this
organ in any creature, we fhall, rvith very little reflec¬
tion, difeover this form to be more convenient for that
creature than another. The animal alfo has the power
of direfting the cone of the ear to the fonorous body
without moving the head. There are fome differences
to be obferved in the ftrufture of the internal ear in
different animals •, but we know fo very little of the
ufe of the particular parts of that organ in the human
fubieft, that it is altogether impoffible to affign reafons
for thefe variations in other creatures. 174
All quadrupeds have at the internal canthus of the^^^na.
eye a ftrong firm membrane with a cartilaginous edge,11’" ‘ ‘ '*
which may be made to cover fome part of their eye j
and
Chap. IV.
ANATOMY.
Ot Ouu
drupeds,
J75
Mufculus
fufpenfo-
176
tupilla.
Xapetum.
and this is greater or lefs in different animals as their
■ eyes are more or lefs expofed to dangers in fearching
after their food. This membrana niclitans, as it is
called, is not very large in this animal. Cows and
hories have it fo large as to cover one half of the eye
like a curtain, and at the fame time it is fufficiently tranf-
parent to allow abundance of the rays of light to pafs
through it. Fillies have a cuticle always over their
eyes, as they are ever in danger in that inconftant
element. In this then we may alfo obferve a fort of
gradation.
All quadrupeds have a feventh mufcle belonging
to the eye, called fufpenforius. It furrounds almoft
the whole optic nerve, and is fixed into the fclerotic
coat as the others are. Its ufe is, to fuftain the
weight of the globe of the eye, and prevent the optic
nerve from being too much ftretched, without obli¬
ging the four llraight mufcles to be in a continual con¬
traction, which would be inconvenient ; at the fame
time this mufcle may be brought to affift any of the
other four, by caufing one particular portion of it to
aft at a time.
1 he next thing to be remarked is the figure of the
pupil, which is different in different animals, but always
exaftly accommodated to the creature’s way of life, as
well as to the different fpecies of objefts that are view¬
ed. Man has it circular, for obvious reafons : an ox
has it oval, with the longeft diameter placed tranfverfe-
ly, to take in a larger view of his food : cats, again,
have theirs likewife oval, but the longeft diameter
placed perpendicularly 5 they can either exclude a
bright light altogether, or admit only as much as is
neceffary. The pupil of different animals varies in
v/idenefs, according as the internal organs of vifion
are more or lefs acute : Thus cats and owls, who feek
their prey in the night, or in dark places (and confe-
quently muft have their eyes fo formed as that a few
rays of light may make a lively impreffion on the re¬
tina), have their pupils in the day-time contrafted in¬
to a very narrow fpace, as a great number of rays
Would opprefs their nice organs ; while in the night,
or where the light is faint, they open the pupil, and
very fully admit the rays. In the fame way, when the
retina is inflamed, a great number of rays of light
would occafion a painful fenfation ; therefore the pupil
is contrafted : on the contrary, in dying people, or in
a beginning amaurofis, it is generally dilated, as the
eyes on fuch occafions are very difficultly afi'efted, and
as it were infenfible.
I he pofterior part of the choroid coat, which is
called tapetum, is of different colours in different crea¬
tures. For oxen, feeding moftly on grafs, have this
membrane of a green colour, that it may refleft upon
the retina all the rays of light which come from objefts
of that colour, while other rays are abforbed : Thus
the animal fees its food better than it does other ob¬
jefts. Cats and owls have their tapetum of a whitiffi
colour ; and for the fame reafons have the pupil very
dilatable, and their organs of vifion acute : And we
fhall find, that all animals fee more or lefs diftinftlv in
the dark, according as their tapetum approaches near¬
er to a wffiite or black colour. Thus dogs, who have
it of a grayifii colour, diftinguifti objefts better in the
night than man, whole tapetum is dark brown 3 and
who, it is believed, fees worft in the dark of any crea-
Vol. II. Part I,
2S9
ture : it being originally deligned that he fliould reft Of Qua-
from all kinds of employment in the night-time. The dnipeds.
difference then of the colour of the tapetum, as indeed W v
the fabric of any other part in different creatures, al¬
ways depends on fome particular advantage accruing
to the animal in its peculiar manner of life from this
Angularity. _ I7s
We look on it as a general rule, that all quadrupeds, Neck,
as having occafion to gather their food from the ground,
are provided with longer necks than man : but as a
long neck not only gives the advantage of too long a
lever to the weight of the head, but alfo, when the ani¬
mal is gathering his food, makes the brain in danger
of being oppreffed with too great a quantity of blood,
by the liquor in the arteries having the advantage of
a defeent, while that in the veins muft remount a con-
fiderable way contrary to its owm gravity ; it was
therefore neceffary that a part of the length of the neck
ffiould be fupplied by the length ofthejaws. Thus we Jaws! ^
lee hories, cows. &c. who have no occafion for open¬
ing their mouths very wide, yet have long jaw's. Bull¬
dogs, indeed, and fuch animals as have occafion for
very ftrong jaw's, muft of neceffity, have them ffiort j
becaufe the longer they are, the refiftance to be over¬
come afts with a longer lever. Another exception to
this general rule, is fuch animals as are furnifhed with
fomething analogous to hands to convey their food to l8,,
their mouths, as cats, apes, &c. The teeth of this Teeth,
creature plainly ffiow it to be of the carnivorous kind ;
for there are none of them made for grinding its
food, but only for tearing and dividing it. It has fix
remarkably lharp teeth before, and two very long tulks
behind ; both ol which the ruminating animals want.
Thefe are evidently calculated for laying very firm
hold of fubftances, and tearing them to pieces j and
the vaft ftrength of the mufcles inferted into the lower
jawq aflifts greatly in this aftion 5 while the grinders
have ffiarp cutting edges, calculated for cutting flefli,
and breaking the hardeft bones. Even its pofterior
teeth are not formed with rough broad furfaces as
ours are ; but are made confiderably iharper, and prefs
over one another when the mouth is ftmt, that lb
they may take the firmer hold of whatever comes be¬
twixt them. lSl
When we open the mouth, we fee the amygdalae Amygdals.
very prominent in the pofterior part of it; fo that it
would appear at firft view, that thefe were inconve¬
niently placed, as being continually expofed to injuries
irom the hard fubftances this creature fwallows : but
upon a more narrow ferutiny, we find this provided
for by two membranous capfules, into which the amyg¬
dalae, when preffed, can efcape, and remove themfelves
from fuch injuries. rP,
The velum pendulm palati is in this creature confi- Velum pen-
derably longer than in man, to prevent the food fnrrrt duluin pa-
getting into his nofe ; which would happen more fre-^atl‘
quently in this animal than in man, becaufe of its fitua-
tion while feeding. ^
In this fubjeft, as well as in other quadrupeds, there Glottif.
is no uvula ; but then the epiglottis, when pi’efied down, 1S4
covers the whole rima entirely, and naturally continues EP'£*ott“*
fo : there is therefore a ligament, or rather mufcle,
that comes from the os hyoides and root of the tongue,
that is inferted into that part of the epiglottis where it
is articulated with the cricoid cartilage, which ferves
O 0 to
290
Of Qua¬
drupeds.
186
Gullet.
187
Omentum.
iSS
Stomach.
to raife it from tlie nma, thougli not fo ftrongly
but that it may with a fmall force be clapped down
again.
It may be afked, however, Why the uvula is want¬
ing here, and not in naan ? This feems to be, that
quadrupeds, who fwallow their food in a horizon¬
tal fituation, have no occafion for an uvula, though
it is neceflary in man on account of his eicft litua-
tion.
In the upper part of the pharynx, behind the cricoid
cartilage, there is a pretty large gland to be found,
which ferve's not only for tne fdparation of a mucous
liquor to lubricate the bolus as it paffes this way, but
alfo fupplies the place of a valve, to hinder the food
from regurgitating into the mouth, which it would be
apt to do by reafon of the defcending fituation of the
creature’s head. In man, the mufcle of the epiglottis
is wanting, its place being fupplied by the elafticity of
the cartilage.
The gu//e( is formed pretty much in the fame
way as the human. Authors indeed generally allege,
that quadrupeds have their gullet compofed of a double
row of fpiral fibres decuffating one another •, but this
is peculiar to ruminating animals, who have occafion for
fuch a decuflation of fibres. The aflion of thefe you
may eafily obferve in a cow chewing her cud.
The omentum reaches down to the os pubis, which
confidering the pofture of the animal we (hall find to
be a wife provifion, fince its ufe is to feparate an oily
liquor for lubricating the guts and facilitating their
periftaltic motion ; fo in our ere£t pofture the natural
gravity of the oil will determine it downward, but in
the horizontal pofition of thefe creatures, if all the in-
teftines were not covered, there would be no favour¬
able derivation of the fluid to the guts lying in the fa-
cral part of the abdomen, which is the higheft 5 and
befides, had the omentum reached much farther down
in us, it would not only have fupplied too great a quan¬
tity of oil to the lower part of the abdomen, but we
fiiould have been in continual danger of hernise ; and
even at prefent the omentum frequently paffes down
with lome of the other vifcera, and forms part of
thefe tumours. To thefe, however, the dog is not
fubjeft, as his vifcera do not prefs fo much on the rings
of the abdominal mufcles, and befides are prevented
from palling through by a pendulous flap of fat men¬
tioned Ne 35. The facral and fternal lamella of the
omentum is fixed to the fpleen, fundus of the ftomach,
pylorus, liver, &c. in the fame way as the human ; but
the fuperior having no colon to pafs over, goes dirccfly
to the back-bone. This ferves to explain the forma¬
tion' of the fmall omentum in the human body ; which
is nothing but the large omentum, having loft its fat,
pa fling over the ftomach and colon, where it reaffumes
it? fat, fo proceeds, and is firmly attached to the liver,
fpine, &c. The ftrire of fat are pretty regularly dif-
pofed through it, accompanying the diftribution of the
blood veffels to guard them from the preffure of the
fuperincumbent vifcera.
This animal’s ftomach, though pretty much refem-
bling the human in its ftiape, is fomewhat differently
frtuated. It lies more longitudinal, as indeed all the
ether vifcera do, to accommodate themfelves to the
ftiape of the cavity in which they are contained ; that
is, its facral orifice is much farther down with refpedl
ANATOM Y.
Part II.
to the atlantal than the human : by this means the grofs Of Qua-
food has an eafier paffage into the duodenum. Again, diupeds.
the fundus of the human ftomach, when diftended, /
(lands almoft directly fternal, which is occafioned by
the little omentum tying it fo clofe down to the back
bone, &c. at its two orifices ; but it not being fixed in
that manner in the dog, the fundus remains always dor-
fal: this alfo anfwers very well the drape of the differ¬
ent cavities, the diftance betwixt the cardia and fundus
being greater than that betwixt the two fides. It feems
to be much larger in proportion to the bulk of the ani¬
mal than the human, that it might contain a greater
quantity of food at once } which was very neceffarv,
fince this animal cannot at any time get its. fuftenance
as men do. The turbillion is not fo large, nor is there
any coanftion forming the antrum WiHefii, as in the
ftomach of man. It is conftderably thicker and more
mufcular than ours, for breaking the cohefion of their
food, which they (wallow without fufficient chewing.
Hence it is evident the force of the ftomach is not lb
great as fome would have it, nor its contraftion lb vio¬
lent : otherwife that of dogs would be undoubtedly
wounded by the (harp bones, &c. they always take
down 5 for the contraction here is (fill greater than in
the human ftomach, which is much thinner. The rugse
of the tunica villofa are neither fo large, nor fituated
tranfverfely, as in the human, but go from one orifice
to the other : the reafon of which difference is, per¬
haps, that they might be in lefs danger of being hurt
by the hard fubftances this creature frequently feeds
upon ; and for the fame reafon there is not the like
ftrifture at their pylorus.
The inteftineo of this animal are proportionally much inteftineji
(horter than ours ; for the food wTich thefe creatures
moftly ufe, foon diffolves, and then putrifies : on which
account there was no occafion for a long trad of in-
teftines, but on the contrary that it fhould be quickly
thrown out of the body. Thb fame is to be obferv-
ed of all the carnivorous animals. The mufcular coat
of the inteftines is alfo thicker and ftronger than the
human, to protrude the contents quickly and accu¬
rately.
The valvulae conniventes are lefs numerous, and in
a longitudinal direftion ; and the whole trad of the
alimentary canal is covered with a (lime, which lubri¬
cates the inteftines, faves them from the acrimony of
the excrementitious part, and facilitates its paffage. 190
The duodenum differs confiderably in its fituation Duodenum,
from the human. For in man it firft mounts from the
pylorus upwards, backwards, and to the right fide 5
then paffes down by the gall-bladder j and, marching
over the right kidney and fuperior part of the pfoas
mufcles, makes a curvature upwards 5 and paffes over
the back bone and vena cava inferior, to the left hypo-
chondrium, where it gets through the omentum, me- , T
fentery, and mefocolon, to commence the jejunum, be-j, jul;um.
ing firmly tied down all the way, the biliary and pan¬
creatic duds entering at its moft depending part :
Whereas, in the dog, the duodenum is fixed at the py¬
lorus to the concave furface of the liver, and hangs
loofe and pendulous with the mefentery backwards in¬
to the cavity of the abdomen ; then turning up again,
is fixed to the back bone, where it ends in the jejunum j
the bile and pancreatic juice are poured into it at the
moft depending part. Therefore the fame intention
^ feems
Chap. IV.
ANATOMY.
Of 'Qua¬
drupeds.
192
Inteftina
renuia.
‘93.
A ppendi*
vermifor-
feems to have been bad in view in the formation of this
part in both, viz. the giving the chyle, after the liquors
of the liver and pancreas are poured into it, a difadvan-
tageous courfe, that fo it might be the more intimately
blended with the humours before its entry into the je^
junum, where the lacfeals are very numerous : And
thus, by reafon of their different pofture, the fame de-
fign (though by a very different order of the parts) is
brought about in both.
The other fmall guts are much the fame with ours,
only fhorter. The great guts are alfo fhorter and lefs
capacious than in the human body •, and we take it for
a general rule, that all animals that live on vegetable
food, have not only their fmall guts coniiderably long¬
er, but alfo their great guts more capacious, than fuch
creatures as feed on other animals. Hence man, from
this form of his inteftittes, and that of the teeth, feems
to have been originally defigned for feeding on vege¬
tables chiefly ; and ifiil the molt of his food, and all
his drink, is of that clafs.
The reafcn of this difference feems to be, that as
animal food is not only much more eafily reduced in¬
to chyle, but alfo more prone to putrefaction, too long
a delay of the juices might occafion the w ord confe-
quences. So it was necefl'ary that their receptacles
fhould not be too capacious •, but, on the contrary, be¬
ing fliort and narrow, might conduce to the feafonable
difcharge of their contents. Whereas vegetable food
being more difficultly diifolved and converted into an
animal nature, there was a neceffity for fuch creatures
as fed on it to be provided with a long inteflinal canal,
that this food in its paifage might be confiderably re¬
tarded, and have time to change its quality into one
more agreeable to our nature. Befides which there is
another advantage with accrues to man in particular,
from having ids great guts very capacious: for as he
is a rational being, and mofily employed in the func¬
tions of focial life, it would have been very inconve¬
nient as well as unbecoming for him to be too fre¬
quently employed in fuch ignoble exercifes ; fo that,
having this large refervoir for his freces alvinse, he
can retain them for a confiderable time without any
trouble.
The appendix vermiformis juftly enough deferves the
name of an intejlinum c.ecum in this fubjecf, though in
the human body it does not; and it has probably been
from the largenefs of this part in this and fome other
animals, that the oldefl anatomilts came to reckon that
jmall appendicle in man as one of the great guts. On
its internal furface we obferve a great number of mu¬
cous glands. As all thefe throw out (lime, their prin¬
cipal office would feem to be the procuring a fufficient
quantity of that matter for the purpofes above men¬
tioned. Still, however, there feems to be fome un¬
known ufe for this organ in other animals ^ for the ap-
pendicula vermiformis in therq is either of great fize
or of great length. In a rat, it is rather larger than
the ftomach; in others, as {’wine, and fome of the ani¬
mals which live on vegetables, it has long convolutions,
fo that the food muft be lodged in it for a long time.
Thus, probably, fome change takes place in the food,
which requires a confiderable time to effedluate, and,
though unknown to us, may anfwer very ufeful pur¬
pofes to the animal.
1 he colon has no longitudinal ligaments; and confe-
29I
quently this gut is not purfed up into different bags or Of Qua-
cells as the human : nor does this intefline make any nrnpeds. ^
circular turn round the abdomen j but paffes diredlly J(^
acrofs it to the top of the os facrum, where it gets the Colon,
name of redium. I9-
At the extremity of the intejlinum re&um, or verge Redtum.
of the anus, there are found twm bags or pouches,
which contain a mod abominable fetid mucus of a yel¬
low' colour, for which we know no ufe, unlefs it ferves
to lubricate the drained extremity of the reftum, and
defend it againd the afperity of the faeces, or to fepa-
rate fome liquor that might otherwife prove hurtful to
their bodies. There is nothing analogous to thole facs
in the human fubjecl, unlefs we reckon the mucilagi¬
nous glands that are found mod frequent and larged
about the lower part of the redlum. *
The mefentery is coniiderably longer than in the, hu- MefentenS
man body 5 that, in his horizontal fituation, the lute-
dines may red fecurely on the foft cufhion of the ab¬
dominal mufcles. The fat is here difpofed in the fame
way, and for the fame reafon, as in the omentum.
The interdices betwixt the fat are filled wdth a fine
membrane. Indead of a great number of glandulae 197
vagae to be found in the human mefentery, we find Pancreas
the glands few in number, and thole are clofely con-
needed together •, or there is only one large gland to
be obferved in the middle of the mefentery of a dog,
which, from its imagined refemblance to the pancreas
and the name of its difeoverer, is called pancreas Afel-
hi; but the refemblance, if there is any, depends
chiefly on the connexion, the druclure being entire¬
ly different. The reafon w hy this in man is as it were
fubdivided into many fmaller ones, may poffibly be^
that as the guts ol a human body are proportionally
much longer than thofe of this creature, it would have
been inconvenient to have gathered all the laBea primi-
genens into one place •, whereas, by colledling a few
of thefe veffels into a neighbouring gland, the fame
effect is procured much more eafily. Whether the
food in this animal needs lefs preparation in its paffage
through thefe glands, is a matter very much unknown
to us ^ though it is certain that fome changes really do
take place. / 108
The pancreas in man lies acrofs the abdomen, tied Pancreas,
down by the peritonaeum ; but the capacity of this
creature’s abdomen not allowung of that fituation, it is
difpofed more longitudinally, being tied to the duode¬
num, which it accompanies for fome way. Its dudf
enters the duodenum about an inch and a half below
the dudlus communis.
The fpleen of this animal differs from the human Spleem
very much, both in figure and fituation. It is much
more oblong and thin, and lies more according to the
length of the abdomen, like the pancreas. Though
the fpleen of this creature is not firm A tied to the dia¬
phragm (wffiich was neceffary in our eredf poflure to
hinder it from falling downwards), yet by the animal’s
prone polition, its dorfal parts being rather higher
than the fternal, it comes to be ahvays contiguous
to this mufcle, and is as effediually fubjedted to
an alternate preffure from its adlion as the human
fpleen is. 2O0
The human liver has no fiffures or divifions, unlefs Liver.
wre may reckon that fmall one betwixt the two pylce,
where the large veffels enter: Whereas in a dog, and
O 0 2 & all
2$2
Of Qua¬
drupeds.
iOT
IVlediafti-
Hum.
•ZC2
Heart.
so3
Vena cava.
A N A T
all other creatures that have a large flexion in their
, fpine, as lions, leopards, cats, &c. the liver and lungs
are divided into a great many lobes by deep fe&ions,
reaching the large blood veffels, which in great motions
of the back bone may eaflly Hide over one another;
and fo be in much lefs danger of being torn or bruif-
ed, than if they were formed of one entire piece, as
we really fee it is in horfes, cows, and fuch creatures
as have their back bone ftifF and immoveable. There
is here no ligamentum latum connecting the liver to the
diaphragm, which, in our fituation, was neceflfary to
keep the vifcus in its place : Whereas in this creature,
it naturally gravitates forwards, and by the horizon¬
tal pofition of the animal is in no danger of prelTmg
againit the vena cava \ the preventing of which is one
trie generally affigned to this ligament in man. Had
the liver of the dog been thus connefted to the dia¬
phragm, the refpiration muft neceffarily have fuller¬
ed 5 for, as we fhall fee afterwards, this mufcle is
here moveable at the .centre as well as at the lides :
But in man the liver is fixed to the diaphragm, moil-
ly at its tendinous part; that is, where the pericar¬
dium is fixed to it on the other fide 5 fo that it is in
no danger of impeding the refpiration, being fufpend-
ed by the mediaftinum and bones of the thorax. In
confequence of this vifcus being divided into fo many
lobes, it follows, that the hepatic duds cannot pof-
fibly join into one common trunk till they are quite
out of the fubftance of the liver ; becaufe a branch
comes out from every lobe of the liver; all of which,
by their union, form the hepatic duel : whence we
are led to conclude, that the hepato-cyftic duds, men¬
tioned by former authors, do not exill. The gall¬
bladder itfelf is wanting in feveral animals, fuch as the
deer, the horfe, the afs, &c.; but, in place of it, in
fuch animals, the hepatic dud, at its beginning, is
widened into a refervoir of confiderable lize, -which
may anfwer the fame purpofe in them that the gall¬
bladder does in others.
The mediajlinum in this creature is pretty broad.
The pericardium is not here contiguous to the dia¬
phragm, but there is an inch of diftance betwixt them,
in which place the fmall lobe of the lungs lodges; and
by this means the liver, &c. of this animal, though
continually preifing upon the diaphragm, yet cannot
difiurb the heart’s motion.
The heart is fituated with its point almoft diredly
fternally, according to the creature’s pollure, and is
but very little inclined to the left fide. Its point is
much {harper, and its fhape more conoidal, than the
human. The animal has the vena cava of a confide¬
rable length within the thorax, having near the whole
length of the heart to run over ere it gets at the finus
Lowerianus dexter. In man, as foon as it pierces the
diaphragm, it enters the pericardium, which is firmly
attached to it, and immediately gets into the Jinus
Lowerianus; which finus, in the human fubjed, by
the oblique fituation of the heart is almoft contiguous
to the diaphragm : and by this we difeover, that feve¬
ral authors have taken their delineations of the human
heart from brutes; which is eafily deteded by the
ftiape and fituation of the heart, and long vena cava,
within the thorax. This was one of the faults of the
curious wax-rvork that was fhown at London and Pa¬
ris, which was plainly taken from a cow.
O M Y. Part ir.
This fituation of the heart of the creature agrees beft Of Qua-
with the fhape of its thorax, which is lower than the dmpeds.
abdomen. v -
The egrefs of the large blood veflels from the heart Aorta tf-
is fomewhat different from the human: For here thecendens,
right fubclavian comes off firft : and as a large trunk :rnProPerly
runs fome way upwards before it gives off the left ca-^° calle^*
rotid, and fplits into the carotid and fubclavian of the
right fide, then the left fubclavian is fent off. So that
neither here, properly fpoaking, is there an aorta af-
cendens, more than in the human ; but this name 'has
probably been impoled upon it from obferving this in
a cow, where indeed there is an afeending and defend¬
ing aorta.
From this fpecialty of the diftribution of the veffels
of the right fide, which happens, though not in fo great
a degree, in the human fubje6t, we may perhaps in
fome meafure account for the general greater ftrength,
readinefs, or facility of motion, which is obfervable in 20 ..
the right arm. Upon meafuring the Tides of the vef-Amecha-
feis, the lurface of the united trunk of the right fub-nical ;IC-
clavian and carotid is lefs than that of the left fubcla- c.ount of.
vian and carotid, as they are feparated. If fo, the re-ftreilgth'of1*
fiftance to the blood muft be lefs in that common trunk the right
than in the left fubclavian and carotid : But if the re-arm> kg*
fiftance be fmaller, the abfolute force with which the2*-0,
blood is fent from the heart being equal, there muft
neceffarily be a greater quantity of blood lent through
them in a given time ; and as the ftrength of the muf-
cles is, cectens paribus, as the quantity of blood fent
into them in a given time, thole of the right arm will
be ftronger than thofe of the left. Now children, be¬
ing confcioiis of this fuperior ftrength, ufe the right
upon all occafions; and thus from ufe comes that great
difference which is fo obfervable. That this is a fuffi-
cient caufe, feems evident from faff ; mr what a dif¬
ference is there betwixt the right and the left arm of
one who has played much at tennis ? View but the
arms of a blackfmith and legs of a footman, and you
will foon be convinced of this effedl ariling from ufing
them. But if by any accident the right arm is kept
from adfion for fome time, the other from being ufed
gets the better; and thofe people are left-handed :
For it is not to be imagined, that the fmall odds in
the original formation of the Vtffels Ihould be fuflicient
to refill: the effedf of ufe and habit (inftances of the
contrary occur every day) ; it is enough for our prefent
argument, that where no means are ufed to oppofe it,
the odds ate fufficient to determine the choice in fa¬
vour of the right. Now becaufe it is natural to begin
with the leg correfponding to the hand we have rnoft
power of, this is what gives alfo a fuperiority to the
right leg.
This difference Is not peculiar to man, but is Hill
more obfervable in thofe creatures in whom the fame
mechanifm does obtain in a greater degree. Do but
obferve a dog at a trot, how he bears forward with his
right fide ; or look at him when a-feraping up any
thing, and you will prefently fee that he ufes his right
much oftener than he does his left foot. Something
analogous to this may be obferved in horfes. It has
been the opinion of fome anatomifts, that left-handed
people, as well as thofe dillinguilhcd by the name of
ambidexter (who ufe both hands alike), have the two
carotid and fubclavian arteries coming off in four di-
ftimSt
Chap. IV.
ANATOMY.
207
Sternum.
aoS
Ribs.
Oi Oua- ftlncl trunks from the arch of the aorta : but no ap-
, | pearance of this kind has ever been obferved in fuch
v bodies as have been examined for this purpofe ; though
indeed theie have been but few, and more experience
?g6 might throw greater light on the fubjeft.
Diaphragm f'*16 diaphragm^ in its natural lituation, is in general
more loofe and free than the human ; which is owing
to its connexion with the neighbouring parts in a dif¬
ferent manner from ours. The human diaphragm is
connefted to the pericardium ; which again, by the
intervention of the mediaflinum, is tied to the fternum,
fpine, &c. but here there is fome diftance between the
diaphragm and pericardium. We obferve further,
that its middle part is much more moveable, and the
tendinous parts not fo large. And indeed it was ne-
ceffary their diaphragm Ihould be fomewhat loofe, they
making more ufe of it in difficult refpiration than man.
This we may obferve by the ftrong heaving of the
flanks of a horfe or dog when out of breath ; which
correfponds to the riling of the ribs in us.
The Jlernum is very narrow, and conflfts of a great
number of fmall bones, moveable every way ; which
always happens in creatures that have a great mobility
in their fpine. The ribs are ftraighter, and by no
means fo convex as the human •, whereby in refpira¬
tion the motion forward will very little enlarge their
thorax, wffiich is compenfated by the greater mobility
of their diaphragm : fo our thorax is principally enlar¬
ged according to its breadth and depth, and theirs
according to its length, lire want of clavicles, and
the confequent falling in of the atlantal extremities
upon the chert, may contribute fomewhat to the
ftraightnefs of the ribs.
We come next to difcourfe of thofe organs that
ferve for the fecretion and excretion of urine. And
firft of the kidneys : Which in this animal are fituated
much in the fame way as in the human fubjebl 5 but
have no fat on their inferior furface, where they face
the abdomen, and are of a more globular form than
the human. The' reafon ol thefe differences will eafily
appear, if we compare their fituation and pofture in
this animal with thofe in a man who walks ereft. They
are placed in them in the facral part of the bodv, fo
are not lubjeft to the preflure of the vifcera, which
feems to be the principal caufe of the fatnefs of thofe
organs in us, and perhaps may likewife be the caufe
of our being more fubjedt to the ftone than other ani¬
mals. Hence there is no need of any cellular fub-
ftance to ward off this preffure where there would ne-
ceffarily be fat collected ; but the atlantal part of their
kidneys is pretty well covered with fat, left they Ihould
fuffer apy compreffion from the ablion of the ribs and
fpine.
In the internal ftruflure there is ftill more confi-
derable difference : For the papillce do not here fend
out Angle the feveral tuhuli uriniferi; but being all
united, they hang down in form of a loofe pendulous
flap in the middle of the pelvis, and form a kind of
partition 5 fo that a dog has a pelvis formed within
the fubftance of the kidney. The only thing that is
properly analogous to a pelvis in man is that fac or di¬
latation of the ureters formed at the union of the duc¬
tus uriniferi. The external part of the kidney of a
dog fomewhat refembles one of the lobes of the kidney
of a human foetus ; but in a human adult the appear-
293
Of (Qua¬
drupeds.
209
Kidneys.
210
Papillse.
211
Pelvis.
ance is very different ^ becaufe, in man, from the con¬
tinual preffure of the furrounding vifcera, the lobes,
which in the foetus are quite diftinft and feparated,
concrete, but the original cortical fubftance is ftill pre-
ferved in the internal parts of the kidney. The rea¬
fon of thefe particularities may probably be, that the
liquors of this animal, as of all thofe of the carnivo¬
rous kind, being much more acrid than thofe that live
on vegetable food, its urine muft incline much to an
alkalefcency, as indeed the fmell and tafte of that li¬
quor in dogs, cats, leopards, &c. evidently ffiow, be¬
ing fetid and pungent, and therefore not convenient to
be long retained in the body. For this end it was
proper that the fecreting organs fhould have as little
impediment as poffible by preffure, &c. in the per¬
forming their funbtions ; and for that deflgn, the me-
chanifm of their kidneys feems to be excellently
adapted : We have moft elegant phftures in Euftachius
of the kidneys of brutes, delineated as fuch, with a
view to ffiow Vefalius’s error in painting and deferibing
them for the human. 2I,
The glandules or capfihe atrabilarice are thicker and Capfuls;
rounder than the human, for the fame reafon as the atrabilariac,
kidneys. .2I-.
The ureters are more mufcular than the human, be- Ureters,
caufe of the unfavourable paffage the urine has through
them } they enter the bladder near its large extre¬
mity.
The bladder of urine differs conflderably from the Bladder,
human ; and firft in its form, which is pretty much
pyramidal or pyriform. This fliape of the dog’s blad¬
der is likewife common to all quadrupeds, except the
ape and thofe of an ereft pofture. In man it is by no
means pyriform, but has a large fac at its dorfal and
facral part : this form depends entirely on the urine
gravitating in our ereft pofture to its bottom, which
it will endeavour to protrude 5 but as it cannot yield
before, being contiguous to the os pubis, it will natu¬
rally ftretch out where there is the leaft refiftance,
that is, at the pofterior and lateral parts ; and were it
not for this fac, we could not fo readily come at the
bladder to extracl the ftone either by the leffer or la¬
teral operation of lithotomy. Moft anatomifts have
delineated this wrong : fo much, that we know of
none wffio have juftly painted it, excepting Mr Cow-
per in his Myotomia, and Mr Butty. It has certainlv
been from obferving it in brutes and young children,
that they have been led into this miftake. The fame
caufe, viz. the gravity of the urine, makes the bladder
of a different form in brutes : In their horizontal poli¬
tico the neck, from which the urethra is continued,
is higher than its fundus; the urine muft therefore
diftend and dilate the moft depending part by its
weight. _ ... 21^
As to its connexion, it is faftened to the abdominal Connec-
mufcles by a procefs of the peritoneum, and that mem- tl0U‘
brane is extended quite over it; whereas in us its fu-
peiior and pofterior parts are only covered by it: hence
in man alone the high operation of lithotomy can be
performed without hazard of opening the cavity of the 2if>
abdomen. Had the peritoneum been fpread over the the
bladder in its whole extent, the weight of the vifcera pm^n ,
in our ereft pofture would have fo born upon it, that in part^o-4
they would not have allowed any confiderable quantity vered by
of urine to be collected there ; but we muft have been the peritow
obliged”
217
A ftimulus
proved to
be a prin¬
cipal caufe
t)f the eva¬
cuation of
the blad¬
der.
21S
Vafa iper-
matica.
'sip
Whence
the falfe
notion of
hernia or
rupture.
A N A 7
obliged to difcharge its contents too frequently to be
confident with the functions of a focial life : 'Whereas
by means of the peritoneum, the urine is now colledt-
ed in fufficient quantity, the vifcera not gravitating
this way.
It may be taken for a general rule, that thofe crea¬
tures that feed upon animal food have their bladder
more mufcular and confiderably flronger and lefs ca¬
pacious, than thofe that live on vegetables, fuch as
horfes, cows, fwine, &c. whofe bladder of urine is per-
fedlly membranous, and very large. This is wifely
adapted to the nature of their food : For in thefe firlf,
as all their juices are more acrid, fo in a particular
manner their urine becomes exalted j which, as its de¬
lay might be of very ill confequence, mult neceflari-
ly be quickly expelled. This is chiefly effected by its
ffimulating this vifcus more ftrongly to contract, and
fo to difcharge its contents, though the irritation does
not altogether depend upon the ffretching, but likewife
arifes from the quality of the liquor. That a ftimulus
is one of the principal caufes of the excretion of urine,
we learn from the common faline diuretic medicines
that are given, which are diffolved into the ferum of
the blood, and carried down by the kidneys to the
bladder : The fame appears likewife from the applica¬
tion of cantharides $ or without any of thefe,. when
the parts are made more fenfible, as in an excoriation
of the bladder, there is a frequent defire to make w7a^
ter. Accordingly we find thefe animals evacuate their
urine much more frequently than man, or any other
creature that lives on vegetable food* And if thefe
creatures, whofe fluids have already a tendency to pu¬
trefaction, are expoled to heat or hunger, the liquids
muft for a confiderable time undergo the aClions of
the containing veffels, and frequently perform the
courfe of the circulation, without any new fupplies of
food 5 by which the fluids becoming more and more
acrid, the creature is apt to fall tinto feverilh and pu¬
trid difeafcs.
Their /permalic vefjcls are within the peritoneum,
which is fpread over them, and from which they have
a membrane like a mefentery, to hang loofe and pen¬
dulous in the abdomen : whereas in us, they are con¬
tained in the cellular part of the peritoneum, which is
tenfely ftretched over them. At their paffage out of
the knver belly, there appears a plain perforation, or
holes 3 hence the adult quadruped, in this refpeCt, re-
fembles the human foetus. And from obferving this
in quadrupeds* has arifen the falfe notion of hernia or
rapture among authors. This opening, which leads
down to the tefticle, is of no diladvantage to them,
but evidently would have been to us 3 for from the
rveight of our vifcera, and our continually gravitating
upon thefe holes, we muft have perpetually laboured
under enteroceles. This they are in no hazard of,
fince in them this paffage is at the higheft part of their
belly, and, in their horizontal pofture, the vifcera can¬
not bear upon it: And, to prevent even the fmalleft
hazard, there is a loofe pendulous femilunar flap of fat 3
which ferves two ufes, as it both hinders the inteftines
from getting into the paffage, and alfo the courfe of
the fluids from being flopped in the veffels, which is
fecured in us by the cellular fubftance and tenfe peri¬
toneum : And it may be worth while to obferve, that
1 O M Y. Part II.
this procefs remains almoft unaltered, fcveh after the OtOpa.
animal has been almoft exhaufted of fat. drupeds.
There is next a paffage quite down into the cavity v ^
where the tefticles lie. Had the fame ftruClure ob¬
tained in man, by the conftant drilling down of the li¬
quor which is fecreted for the lubricating of the guts,
we ftiould always have laboured under an hydrocele 3
but their pofture fecures them from any hazard of this
kind : indeed very fat lap-dogs, vdio confequently have
an overgrown omentum, are fometimes troubled wdth
an epiplocele. 2ZO
The fcrotum is ftiorter and not fo pendulous as the Scrotum,
human in all the dog kind that want the vejiculce femi-
nales,, that the feed at each copulation might the foon-
er be brought from the teftes, thus in feme meafure 22I
fupplying the place of the vejicuhe feminales ; for the The vefi-
courfe of the feed through the vafa deferentia is thusculse femi-
fliortened, by placing the fecerning veffels nearer the jjovr
excretory organs. Perhaps its paffage is likewife quick- J i 1 ’
ened by the mufcular power of the vafa deferentia,
which is ftronger in this creature than in man. The
want of vejiculce feminales at the fame time explains
the reafon why this creature is fo tedious in copula¬
tion. But why thefe bodies are ablent in the dog kind
more than in other animals, is a circumftance we know
nothing off 222
The ftrufture of the tejlicles is much the fame with Teftes.
the human 3 as are likewife the corpus pyramidale, va~
ricofutn, or pa?npin forme, and the epididymis or excre¬
tory veffel of the tefticle. The vafa deferentia enter
the abdomen where the, blood veffels come out; and,
palling along the upper part of the bladder, are infert-
ed a little belowr the bulbous part of the urethra.
T he pneputium has two mufcles fixed to it : one
that arifes from the fphin&er ani, and is inferted all 2,.
along the penis 3 and this is called retradlor praputii: Penis.
But the other, whofe office is directly contrary to this,
is cutaneous 3 and feems to take its origin from the
mufcles of the abdomen, or rather to be a production
of their tunica carnofa. The corpora cavern of a rife
much in the fame way as the human : but thefe foon
terminate 3 and the reft is fupplied by a triangular bone,
in the inferior part of which there is a groove excava¬
ted for lodging the urethra. There are upon the penis
two protuberant bulbous fleffiy fubftances, refembling
the glans penis in man, at the back of which are two
veins, which by the eredlores penis and other parts are
compreffed in the time of coition 3 and the circulation
being flopped, the blood diftends the large cavernous 224
bodies. After the penis is thus fwrelled, the vagina Coitus,
by its contraCHon and fwelling of its corpus caverno-
fum, wffiich is confiderably greater than in other ani¬
mals, gripes it clofely 3 and fo the male is kept in ac¬
tion fome time contrary to his will, till time be given
for bringing a quantity of feed fufficient to impregnate
the female : and thus, by that orgafmus veneris of the
female organs, the want of the vefculce feminales is
in fome meafure fupplied. But as it would be a very
unealy pofture fcr the dog to fupport himfelf folely up¬
on his hinder feet, and for the bitch to fupport the
W7eight of the dog for fo long a time 3 therefore, as
foon as the bulbous bodies are fufficiently filled, he
gets off and turns averfe to her. Had, then, the penis
been pliable as in other animals, the urethra muft of
neceffity
Chap. IV. ANA
Of Qua- necexilty have been compreffed by this twifting, and
, druP£i'Is- t conrequently the courfe of the feed intercepted j but
v this is wifely provided againft by the urethra’s being
formed in the hollow of the bone. After the emiffion
of the feed, the parts turn flaccid, the circulation is
reftored, and the bulbous parts can be eaflly ex-
22^ trailed.
Proftata. The projlata feeras here divided into two, which are
proportionably larger than the human, and afford a
225 greater quantity of that liquid.
Uterus. d he uterus of multiparous animals is little elfe but a
continuation of their vagina, only feparated from it by
a fmall ring or valve. From the uterus two long ca¬
nals mount upon the loins, in which the foetus are
lodged : thefe are divided into different facs, which
are ftrongly conflrifted betwixt each foetus j yet thefe
coardlions give way in the time of birth. From thefe
go out the tuba: Fallopiana, fo that the ovaria come to
227 lodge pretty near the kidneys.
Mammae. 1 he difpofition and fituation of the mammee vary as
they bear one or more young. Thofe of the unipa-
rous kind have them placed between the facral ex¬
tremities, which in them is the higheft part of their
bodies, whereby their young get at them without the
inconvenience of kneeling : Neverthelefs, when the
creatures are of no great fize, and their bread large,
as in fheep, the young ones are. obliged to take this
poifure. In multiparous animals, they mud have a
great number of nipples, that their fbveral young ones
may have room at the fame time, and thefe difnofed
over both thorax and abdomen 5 and the creatures ge¬
nerally lie down when the young are to be fuckled,
that they may give them the mod favourable fituation.
From this it does not appear to be from any particular
fitnefs of the veffels at certain places for giving a pro¬
per nourifhment to the child, that the breads are fo
placed in women as wTe find in them, but really from
that fituation being the mod convenient both for mo¬
ther and infant.
Sect. III. Anatomy of ruminating Animals, and par-
ticu!ar!\ of the Cow.
The animal whofe drufture -we have been examin¬
ing, being one of thofe which live chiefly on other
animals, had a foot formed for running and feizing its
prey. But the tribe of ruminating animals have their
feet enveloped in a horny covering, fitting them for
walking much, as is required of many of them, but
totally difqualifying them for feizing living prey.
In thefe animals, the fpinous proceffes of the verte¬
brae of the neck diminifh in flze according to the
length of the neck ; the atlas or fird vertebra, has its
lateral proceffes flatted and bending forw'ards, and the
mammillary proceffes of the back of the head are
lengthened out 5 hence, they can move the head with
difficulty Tideways or forwards, but the motion of the
neck is very extendve. The ribs are broad and thick.
The fcapyla is narrow next the back, and lengthened
out towards the neck, and it has neither acromion nor
coracoid procefs. The great tuberodty near the head
of the thigh bone, in the atlantal extremity is very
large, and the rough line on the bone very prominent,
to give greater room for the infertion of drong muf-
cles. 1 he two bones of the fore leg, grow' together
T O M Y.
almod their whole length, being only
from it at the top by a furrow. Hence,
tion of the foot in thefe animals, is almod entirely pre- 'r~~
vented. The haunch ‘bone is draped fomething like
a hammer, with the anterior part of the fpine extreme¬
ly large, and the mufcles dtuated about thefe bones,
exceeding drong and bulky, as one would fuppofe they
ought to be, in order to enable thefe animals to kick
with greater power.
There are no parietal bones in the fkull of thefe
animals, but their place is occupied by one very drong
bone in the top of the head ; the frontal bone is very
large, and forms a large arch overhanging each orbit.
The brain in thefe animals, is much fmaller in pro¬
portion to the red of their body, than in man ; in the
ox it conditutes of the weight of the body, where¬
as in man it amounts to about 5 its general form does
not differ much from that of man.
In the eye of the cow the pupil is oblong, rounded
at the ends, and the tapetum is of a beautiful green
colour, changing to an azure blue j the drise at the
back of the uvea are very large and confpicuous. The
eye of this animal is ufually the fubjebl of diffeftion -
in examining the drublure of this organ, which it ex¬
hibits to great advantage. It is in the organs of di-
gedion, that thefe animals differ mod effentially from
the other mammalia 5 thefe therefore deferve a parti¬
cular examination. „„g
There are no cutting teeth in the upper jaw, but The hiftory
the gums are pretty hard, and the tongue rough. °f the cow
This roughnefs is occadoned by long diarp-pointed as a rumi*
papillae, with which the whole fubdance of it is cover- aa“
ed. Thefe papillae are turned towards the throat, fo
that by their means the food, having once got into
the mouth, is not eafily pulled back. The animals
therefore fupply the defefl of teeth by wrapping their
tongue round a tuft of grafs j and fo, preding it againd
the upper jaw, keep it dretched, and cut it with the
teeth of the under jaw ; then, without chewing, throw
it down into the gullet, which in thefe creatures con-
flds of a double row of fpiral fibres eroding one ano¬
ther. All animals which ruminate mud have more
domachs than one ; fome have two, fome three ; our
prefent fubjedd has no lefs than four. The food is car- jt has four
ried diredlly down into the fird, which lies upon the ftomachs,
left fide, and is the larged of all 5 it is called
ventriculus, and xaiXm, by way of eminence. It is what Their °
is called by the general name of paunch by the vulgar, names and
There are no rugae upon its internal furface ; but in- deferiptiom
dead of thefe there are a vad number of fmall blunt-
pointed proceffes, by which the whole has a general
roughnefs, and the furface is extended to feveral times
the fize of the paunch itfelf. The food, by the force
of its mufcular coat, and the liquors poured in here,
is fufficiently macerated ; after which it is forced up
hence by the gullet into the mouth, and there it is
made very fmall by madication ; this is what is pro¬
perly called chewing the cud, or rumination ; for w hich
purpofe the grinders are exceedingly w-ell fitted : for
indead of being covered wdth a thin crud, the enamel
on them confids of perpendicular plates, between which
the bone is bare, and condantly wearing fader than
the enamel, fo that the tooth reipains good to extreme
old age ; and by means of thefe teeth the rumination
is carried on for a long time without any danger of
fpoiling
295
didinguiflied Of Qua-
the fide mo- druPeds- .
sg6
Of Qua¬
drupeds.
A N
fpoiling tliem. After rumination, the food is fent
j down by the gullet into the fecond ftomach ; for the
gullet opens indifferently into both. It ends exactly
where the two llomachs meet: and there is a fmooth
gutter with riling edges wdiich leads into the fecond
llomach, from thence to the third, and alfo to the
fourth : however, the creature has the pow?er of di¬
recting it into which it will. Some tell us, that the
drink goesi into the fecond •, but that might be eafily
determined by making them drink before daughter.
The fecond ftomach, which is the anterior and fmaller,
is called xix^vCpxXos, reticulum, honeycomb, the bonnet
or kings hood. It confilts of a great number of cells
on its internal furface, of a regular pentagonal figure,
like a honeycomb. Here the food is farther macerat¬
ed ; from which it is protruded into the third, called
iyj'ioq or omafwrt, vulgo the manyplies, becaufe the in¬
ternal furface rifes up into a great many plicae or folds,
and Jlratwfi fuper Jlratum, according to the length of
this ftomach. Some of thefe plicae are farther produ¬
ced into the ftomach than others ; i. e. firft twro long
ones on each fide, and within thefe twro fhorter in the
middle, &c. There are numberlefs glandular grains
like millet feeds difperfed on its plicae, from wdiich
fome authors call this ftomach the millet. From this
it paffes into the fourth, w'hofe names are abo-
mafum, caille, or the red, wdiich is the name it com¬
monly has becaufe of its colour. This much refem-
bles the human ftomach, or that of a dog ; only the
inner folds or plicae are longer and loofer ; and it may
alfo be obferved, that in all animals there is only one
digeftive ftomach, and that has the fame coagulating
power in the foetus as the fourth ftomach in this ani¬
mal ; wdaence this might not improperly be called the
only true ftomach. fiW///fignifies curdled; and hence
the French have given that as a name to this fourth
ftomach, becaufe any milk that is taken dowm by young
calves is there curdled. It is this fourth ftomach, with
the milk curdled in it, that is commonly taken for
making runnet : but after the bile and pancreatic
juice enter, this coagulation is not to be found, wdiich
fliows the ufe of thefe liquors. There are other crea¬
tures wdiich ufe the fame food, that have not fuch a
mechanifm in their digeftive organs. Horfes, afles, &c.
have but one ftornach, wdiere grafs is macerated,
and a liquor for their nourifhment extradited, and
the remainder fent out by the anus very little altered.
From this different ftrudture of the ftomach in thefe
creatures, a ruminant animal wdll be ferved with one-
third lefs food than another of equal bulk : grafters
are fufficiently acquainted with this. The reafon is,
that ruminating animals have
geftive organs •, all their food
almoft wholly converted into
idomach is not fitted for this
A T O M Y.
Ol Qua¬
drupeds.
many and fdrong di-
is fully prepared, and
chyle : But a horfe’s
fo that he requires a
*31
Snteltina.
*32
Duode-
much greater quantity of food to extraft the fame
nourifhment.
The guts of thefe creatures are of a confiderable
length in proportion to the bulk of the body ; and
this confirms what we faid formerly on the fubjeft of
the inteftines of a dog, viz. that the length and capa¬
city of the guts were different in different animals, ac¬
cording to the nature of their food.
The duodenum is formed here much the fame wray as
in a dog, and the general intention kept in view with
Part II.
regard to the mixture of the bile and pancreatic lymph.
The great guts here hardly deferve that name, their
diameter differing very little from that of the fmall;
but to compenfate this, they are much longer propor¬
tionally than a dog’s, being convoluted as the fmall
guts are. The caecum is very large and long. The
digeftion of the cow, as wTell as fome other animals,
is accompanied withthe intention of which
feems to be, that the food may be fufficiently commi¬
nuted, and thus more fully adted upon by the ffomach :
for it is not obferved that a calf ruminates as long as
it is fed only upon milk, though the adlion takes place
as foon as it begins to eat folid food. But it is to be
obferved, that as long as a calf feeds only upon milk,
the food defcends immediately into the fourth ftomach
(which, as has been already mentioned, feems only ca¬
pable of performing the operation of digeftion) with¬
out flopping in any of the firft three. The rumina¬
tion does not take place till after the animal has eaten
a pretty large quantity : after which fhe lies down, if
fhe can do it conveniently, and begins to chew;
though the operation wTill take place in a Handing pof-
ture, if fire cannot lie down. In this aclion a ball is
obferved to rife from the ftomach with great velocity,
almoft as if fliot from a mufket. This ball the animal
chew's very accurately, and then fwallows it again, and
fo on alternately, till all the food Are has eaten has
undergone this operation. This is cafily explained
from the ftrufture of the gullet, which has one fet of
fibres calculated for bringing up the grafs, and another
for taking it down.
By means of rumination, the cow extracts a much
larger proportion of nourifhment from her food than
thofe animals which do not ruminate ; and hence fhe
is contented with much worfe fare, and fmaller quan¬
tities of it, than a horfe 5 hence alfo the dung of
cows, being much more exhaufted of its fine parts
than horfe-dung, proves much inferior to it as a
manure.
The fpleen differs not much either in figure or fituu- Spleen,
tion from that of a dog j but it is a little more firmly
fixed to the diaphragm, there not being here fo much
danger of this vifcus’s being hurt in the flexions of the
. . . . . . 234
The liver is not fplit into fo many lobes in this Liver,
creature as either in a man or dog; w hich depends
on the fmall motion this creature enjoys in its fpine,
which made fuch a divifion needlefs. This alfo con¬
firms what we formerly advanced on this head. 2,<.
The fituation of the heart is pretty much the fame Heart,
with that of a dog, only its point is rather fharper :
In us, the heart beating continually againft the ribs,
and both ventricles going equally far down to the con-
ftitution of the apex, it is very obtufe : but here the
apex is made up only of the left ventricle, fo is more
acute* . .   236
The aorta in this creature is juftly divided into af- Aorta af-
cending and defeending, though this divifion is ill found- cendens
ed either in a dog or man j and it has certainly been ^‘c^elccn"
from this fubjedt that the older anatomifts took their
deferiptions when they made this divifion ; for here
the aorta divides into two, the afeending and defeend-
in&-
Their urinary bladder is of a pyramidal ffiape.
very large, and more membranaceous) for the urine
of
T . 237
It is Bladder.
Chap. IV,
ANA
Of Qua-
J {drupeds,
238
Scrotum,
Vedculse
femiiuies,
43<»
Uterus.
240
Cornua
uteri.
241
Uterus if
thicker in
time of ge
ftation.
242
Chorion.
243
Cotyledo-
of thefe creatures not being fo acrid as that of carni-
vorous animals, there was no fuch occafion for expel¬
ling it fo foon.
The male is provided with a loofe pendulous fcrotum,
and confequently with vejiculce feminales. The female
organs differ from thofe of a bitch, moftly as to the
form of the cornua uteri, which are here contorted
in form of a fnail. In this, and all uniparous animals,
they contain only part of the fecundines j but in
bitches, and other multiparous animals, they run
ftraight up in the abdomen, and contain the foetus
themfelves.
The form of a cow’s uterus differs from the human in
having two pretty large cornua. This is common to it
with other brutes ; for a bitch has two long cornua uteri:
But thefe again differ (as being multiparous and uni¬
parous) in this, that in the bitch’s cornua the foetus
are contained \ whereas here there is only part of the
fecundines, being moftly the allantois with the includ¬
ed liquor. The mufcular fibres of the uterus are
more eafily difcovered ; its internal furface has a great
number of fpongy, oblong, protuberant, glandular bo¬
dies fixed to it. Thefe are compofed of veffels of the
uterus terminating here. In an impregnated uterus,
Tve can eafily prefs out of them a chylous mucilaginous
liquor ; they are compofed of a great many proceffes
or digituli, and deep caverns, anfwering to as many
caverns and procefles of the placenta. Their refem-
blance has occafioned the name of papilLe to be given
them •, and hence it was that Hippocrates was induced
to believe that the foetus fucked in utero. The papilla;
are found in all the different ftages of life, in the va¬
rious ftages of pregnancy, and likewife in the unim¬
pregnated ftate. It is not eafy to determine whether
the uterus grows thicker or thinner in the time of gef-
tation. The membranes, it is plain (by the ftretch-
ing of the parts), mult be made thinner 5 but then
it is as evident, that the veffels are at that time enlar¬
ged, upon which principally the thicknefs of any part
depends; fo there feems to be as much gained the one
way as loft the other.
The os uteri is entirely fhut up by a glutinous muci¬
laginous fubftance, that is common to the females of
all creatures when with young : by this the external
air is excluded,” which would foon make the liquors
corrupt : it alfo prevents the inflammation of the mem¬
branes, and the hazard of abortion. By this means
alfo the lips of the womb are kept from growing to¬
gether, which otherwife they would certainly at this
time do. There are mucous glands placed here to
fecrete this gluten, which on the breaking of the mem¬
branes with the contained waters make a foap that lu¬
bricates and wafhes the parts, and makes them eaiily
yield. The firrt of the proper involucra of the foetus
is the chorion.
The chorion is a pretty ftrong firm membrane, on
wnofe external'furface are difperfed a great many red
flefhy bodies of the fame number, lize, and ftrutfture,
with the papillae, with which they are mutually indent¬
ed. They have been called cotyleciones, from KarvXv>,
“ cavity.” This is greatly difputed by feme as a name
very improper ; but we think without reafon, fince
the furface that is connected to the papillae is concave,
though when feparated it appears rather convex. To
fhun all difpute, they may be called properly enough
Vol. II. Part I.
T O M Y. 297
placentulce, fince they ferve the fame ufe as the placen- Of Qua-
ta in women. The feparation of thefe from the pa- drupeds.
pillse without any laceration, and our not being able J
to injed coloured liquors from the veffels of the glands
of the uterus into the placentulae, feem to prove be¬
yond a reply, that there can be here no anaftomofes
betwixt the veffels. On their coats run a great number
of veffels that are fent to the feveral placentulse, on the
external fide next to the uterus ; whereas in creatures
that have but one placenta, as in the human fubjed,
cats, dogs, &c. the adhefion is fomewhat firmer : The
placentae are likewife joined to the papillae in the cor¬
nua uteri. We lhall next give the hiftory of the allantois. 244
This is a fine tranfparent membrane contiguous to Allantois,
the former. It is not a general involucrum of the foe¬
tus in the mother, for it covers only a fmall part of the
amnios. It is moflly lodged in the cornua uteri. In
mares, bitches, and cats, it furrounds the amnios, be¬
ing everywhere interpofed betwixt it and the chorion.
In iheep and goats it is the fame as in this animal ; and
in fwine and rabbits it covers ftill lefs of the amnios.
This fac is probably formed by the dilatation of the
urachus, which is conneded at its other end to the
fundus of the bladder, through which it receives its
contents ; and a great quantity of urine is commonly
found in it. The membrane is doubled at the extre¬
mity of the canal, to hinder the return of the urine
back into the bladder. Its veflels are fo exceflively
fine and few, that we cannot force an injeded liquor
farther than the beginning of this coat. This mem¬
brane is fo far analogous to the cuticula, as not to be
liable to corruption, or eafily irritated by acrid liquors.
The exiftence of this membrane in women has been
245
very warmly difputed on both fides. Thofe who are The Irgu-
againft its exiftence deny they could ever find it ; and, ments for
allowing it were fo, allege, that fince the urachus is human
impervious, as appears by our not being able to throw allantoid
liquors from the bladder into it, or vice verfa, it can¬
not ferve the ufe that is agreed by all it does ferve in
beafts ; and therefore in the human body there is no
fuch thing. But if we confider, on the other hand,
firft, that there feems to be the fame neceflity for fuch
a refervoir in man as in other animals: fecondly, that
we adually find urine contained in the bladder of the
human foetus: thirdly, that urine has been evacuated
at the navel when the urethra was flopped, which urine
without this conduit would have fallen into the cavity
of the abdomen : fourthly, that midwives have pre¬
tended to remark two different forts of waters come
aw'ay at the time of birth : and, laftly, that Dr Littre
and Dr Hale have given in this membrane of a hu¬
man fubjeft, with all the other fecundines curioufly
prepared, the one to the Royal Academy at Paris, the
other tp the Royal Society at London ; by w hich fo-
cieties their refpe&ive accounts are attefted ; not to
mention Verheyen, Heifter, Keill, &c. who affirm
their having feen it; and Albinus is laid to have fliown
to his college every year a preparation of it : On all
thefe accounts it feems moft probable, that there is
fuch a membrane in the human body. ,
The third proper integument of the feetus is the am- Amnios.
nios. It is thinner and firmer than the chorion ; it has
numerous ramifications of the umbilical veflels fpread
upon it, the lateral branches of which feparate a liquor
into its cavity. This is the proper liquor of the am-
P p nios ;
29S A N A T
Of Birds, nios $ which at firft is in a fraall quantity, afterwards
increafes for fome months, then again decreafes j and
in a cow near her time, the quantity of this liquor is
not above a pound. This membrane does not enter
the cornua uteri in this creature, being confined to the
body of the uterus \ whereas the allantois occupies
chiefly its cornua. But for what further relates to
the ftrufture of the involucra, with the nature of the
liquors contained in them, wTe mull refer to the fecond
volume of Medical Eflays, from page 121, where you
have the fum of all wre know of this matter.
O M Y. Part 11.
There are here two vcniz umbilicales, and but one in Of Birds,
the human fubjeft j becaufe the extreme branches co-
ming from the feveral placentulae could not unite fo
foon as they would have done had they come all from
one cake, as in the human.
There is a fmall round flefliy body that fwims in the
urine of this creature, mares, &c. which is the hippo-
manes of the ancients. Several idle opinions and whims
have been entertained as to its ufe 5 but that feems to
be Hill unknown, or how it is generated or nouriflied,
for it has no connexion with the foetus or placentulas.
CHAP. V. THE ANATOMY OF BIRDS.
SECT. I. Of Birds in general.
THE ftruflure of the greater part of thefe anmials
is obvioufly calculated for the moll rapid of all mo¬
tions. That part of the' vertebral column which con-
Hitutes the back is immoveable, but the neck is ex¬
ceedingly flexible, the vertebrae being articulated to¬
gether, not by flat furfaces, but by portions of cylin¬
ders, but in fuch a manner as that the more atlantal
vertebrae can move only forward, the more facral only
backward. The neck is generally long, but its length
differs in various fpecies, being determined by their man¬
ner of life and other circumftances. The head is fmall
in proportion to the body, and generally ends in a
lharp bill, that the animal may the more eafily make
its way through the air. The breafl: bone is fliaped
like a fliield, and has in the middle a large and broad
fpine, like the keel of a (hip, thus forming a confider-
able extent of furface for the infertion of mufcles.
This ridge is moft confpicuous in birds that fly. On
each fide of the bread bone, next the wings, are twm
bones, which correfpond to the clavicle or collar bone
in man, by which the wings are connected to the breafl;
bone, and between thefe is a very elaflic bone with
tw?o horns, fhaped like a V, and commonly known by
the name of merry-thought. The wings are compofed
in a manner very fimilar to the atlantal extremity in
the mammalia, and are generally divided into two por¬
tions ; the wing, to which the principal mufcles are
attached, and the pinion.
Their Fowds have the itrongeft mufcles of their w’hole bo¬
wings, how dy inferted into their wungs; whence by the way we
furnifhed. may obferve, that it- is altogether ,impoffible for man
to buoy himfelf up into the air like birds, even though
he had proper machines in place of wings, unlefs he
n8 were likewife provided with mufcles ftrong enough for
Why not moving them, which he has not. In the next place,
placed in their wings are not placed in the middle of their bo-
tf toddle but a good deal farther forwards; whence it
ol l ie bo- wou]^ at £rf|. view appear, that their heads would be
cre£t, and their pofterior parts molt depending when
raifed in the air •, but by ft retching out their heads
which aft upon the lever of a long neck, they alter
their centre of gravity pretty much j and alfo by fil¬
ling the facs or bladders in the infide of their abdomen
with air, and expanding their tail, they come to make
the pofterior part of their bodies confiderably higher;
and thus they fly with their bodies nearly in a hori¬
zontal fituation. Hence we find, that if their necks
are kept from being ftretched out, or if you cut away
their tails, they become incapable of flying any confi-
derable way.
The largenefs of the wings in different fowls varies
according to the wants of the creature. Thus birds
of prey, wdio muft fly a confiderable way to provide
their food, have large ftrong wings ) whereas domeftic
birds, who find their nourilhment aimoft everywhere,,
have very flrort and but fmall wings. Their tail is of
ufe in aflifting to raife them in the air ; though the
chief purpofe of it is to ferve as a rudder in guiding
their flight, whilft they ufe their wings as we do oars
in putting forward a boat. The beft account of this
manner of progreffioh of fowls is given by Alfonfus
Borellus, in his treatife De Motu Animahum ; and in the
Religious Philofopher we have Borelli’s doilrine ftripped
pretty much of its mathematical form. The facral
extremities are fituated fo far back, as to make us at
firft think they would be in continual hazard of falling
down forwards w'hen they walk; but this is prevented
by their holding up their head and neck, fo as to
make the centre of gravity fall upon the feet; and when
they have occafion for climbing up a fteep place they
ftretch out their heads and necks forward, efpecially if
they are flrort-legged, the better to preferve properly the
balance of the body. Thus we may obferve a goofe
entering a barn-door, w’here generally there is an af-
cending ftep, to ftretch out its neck, which before was
raifed, and incline its body forwards. This is laughed
at by the common people, who aferibe it to a piece of
folly in the goofe, as if afraid of knocking its head
againft the top of the door. 249
Carnivorous birds are provided wuth ftrong crook- A peculiar
ed claws for catching their prey: wxater fowls u^etoe'1'
them for fwimming 5 and, principally for this purpofe, 0f fowls,
have a ftrong firm membrane interpofed betwixt the
toes. There is a beautiful mechanifm to be obferved
in the toes of fowls, wrhich is of confiderable ufe to
them. For their toes are naturally drawn together,
or bend, when the foot is bended : this is owing to
the Ihortnefs of the tendons of the toes, which pafs
over them, which is analogous to our heel j and that
the toes are fet in the circumference of a circle, as our
fingers are : Hence, when the foot is bended, the ten¬
dons muft confequently be much ftretched 5 and, fince
they are inferted into the toes, muft of neceflity bend
them w'hen the foot is bended ; and w'hen the foot is
extended, the flexors of the toes are again relaxed,
and they are therefore expanded. This is alfo of great
ufe to different kinds of fowls; thus the hawk de-
feending
Chap. V.
ANA
Of Birds.
$
*5°
Their co*
Vering.
251
‘I he organ
of imeil-
ing.
fcending with his legs and feet extended, fpreads his
talons over his prey ; and the weight of his body bend¬
ing his feet, the toes are contraded, and the prey is
feized by the talons. This is alfo of great ufe to wa¬
ter fowls: for had there been no fuch contrivance as
this, they mult have loft as much time when they pull¬
ed their legs in as they had gained by the former
ftroke : but, as the parts are now framed, whenever
the creature draws in its foot, the toes are at the fame
time bended and contrafted into lefs fpace, fo that the
renftance made againft the water is not near fo great
as before : on the contrary, when they ftretch their
foot, their toes are extended, the membrane betwixt
them expanded, and coniequently a greater refiftance
made to the water. Again, fuch fowls as live moftly
in the air, or have occafion to fuftain themfelves on
branches of trees in windy weather, and even in the
night-time when afleep, while all their mufcles are fuppo-
fed to be in a ftate of relaxation, have only to lean down
the weight of their bodies, and their toes continue bend¬
ed without any mufcles being in aftion ; and when¬
ever they would difentangle themfelves, they raife up
their bodies, by which their feet, and confequently their
toes, are extended.
Fowls have a particular covering of feathers diffe¬
rent from all other creatures, but exadtly well fuited to
their manner of life : for it not only protects them from
the injuries of the weather, but ferves them in their
progreffion through that thin aerial element they are,
for the moft part, employed in 5 and as fowls live much
in the water, their feathers being continually befmear-
ed with an oily liquor, keeps the water from foaking
into their fldns, and fo prevents the bad effefts which
it would infallibly otherwife produce*
The brain in birds is large in proportion to their
heads it has neither corpus callofum, fornix, nor corpora
quadrigemina* Hence we may conclude, that thefe
parts are not effential to life, nor probably to reafon.
The organ of fmelling is placed at the bafe of the
beak j the noftrils are fometimes naked, fometimes
concealed by feathers, and by a fmall fcale, or even by
a ilefliy fubftance.
Their organ of fmelling is very large, and well pro¬
vided with nerves •, hence they have this fenfation very
acute. Ravens and other birds of prey give a fure
proof of this, by their being able to find out their prey,
though concealed from their fight and at a confidera-
ble diftance.
Thofe birds that grope for their food in the waters,
mud, &c. have large nerves, which run quite to the
end of their bills, by which they find out and diftin-
252 guifh their food.
-• The anterior part of their eyes (inftead of having the
fclerotic coat continued, fo as to make near a fphere as
in us) turns all of a hidden flat; fo that here the
fclerotic makes but half a fphere; and the cornea rifes
up afterwards, being a portion of a very fmall and di-
ftincft fphere : fo that in thefe creatures there is a much
greater difference betwixt the fclerotic and cornea than
in us. Hence their eyes do not jut out of their heads,
as in man and quadrupeds. As moft of thefe creatures
are continually employed in hedges and thickets, there¬
fore, that their eyes might be fecured from thefe inju¬
ries, as well as from too much light when flying in the
face of the fun, there is a very elegant mechanifm in
T O M Y.
299
their eyes. A membrane riles from the internal can- Of Birds,
thus, which at pleafure, like a curtain, can be made to
cover the whole eye ; and this by means of a proper
mufcle that rife's from the fclerotic coat, and palling
round the optic nerves, runs through the mufculus
ccuh attollcns (by which however the optic nerves are
not compreffed) and palpebra, to be inferted into the
edge of this membrane. Whenever this mufcle ceafes
to aft, the membrane by its own elafticity again dif»
covers the eye. This covering is neither pellucid nor
opaque, both which would have been equally incon¬
venient ; but, being fomewhat tranfparent, allows as
many rays to enter as to make any objeft juft vifible,
and is fufficient to direft them in their progreflion.
By means of this membrane it is that the eagle is faid
to look at the fun. „„„
Befides, all birds have another particularity, the ufe Bourfe
of which is not fo well underftood ; and that is, a noire. Its
pretty long black triangular purfe, rifing from tlle n rid ufes °n
bottom of their eye juft at the entry of the optic U
nerve, and ftretched out into their vitreous humour,
and one would imagine it gave fome threads to the
cryftalline. To this the French (who probably were "
the firft who took notice of it in their diffeftions be¬
fore the Royal Academy) gave the name of bourfe noire.
1 his may poflibly ferve to fuffocate fome of the rays of
light, that they may fee objefts more diftinftly with¬
out hurting their eyes. It has a connexion with the
vitreous, and feems to be joined alfo to the cryflalline
humour. If we fuppofe it to have a power of con-
traftion (which may be as well allowed as that of the
iris), it may fo alter the pofition of the vitreous and
cryftalline humours, that the rays from any body may
not fall perpendicularly upon the cryftalline : and this
feems to be neceffary in them, fince they cannot change
the figure of the anterior part of their eye fo much as
we can do : and as this animal is expofed often to too
great a number of rays of light, fo they have no ta-
petum, but have the bottom of their eye wholly black
on the retina ; and in confequence of this, fowls fee
very ill in the dark. 2-4
They have no external ear; but in place of it a Organ of
tuft of very fine feathers covering the meatus a/zc/fto-^ear^nS-
rius, which eafily allows the rays of found to pafs them,
and likewiie prevents dull: or any infeft from getting
in. An external ear would have been inconvenient in
their pafling through thickets, and in flying, See. A
liquor is feparated in the external part of the ear, or
meatus auchtornis, to lubricate the paffage, and further
prevent the entrance of any infefts, &.c. The mem-
brana tympam is convex externally; and no mufcles are
fixed to the bones of their ear, which are rather of a
cartilaginous confiftence : any tremulous motions im-
preffed on the air are communicated in thefe creatures
merely by the fpring and elafticity of thefe bones ; fo
probably, the membrane is not fo ftretched as in the
human ear by mufcles. rI he femicircular canals are
very diftinft, and eafily prepared.
I he roftrum, bill, or beak of fowls, is compofed of The2 variety
two mandibles ; and, as in quadrupeds, the upper one in the beaks
has no motion but what it pofleffes in common withof fowls-
the head. But parrots are an exception to this rule ;Itsu^eSj^CC*
for they can move the upper mandible at pleafure :
this is exceedingly convenient, as it enables them to lay
hold of whatever comes in their way. Carnivorous
P p 2 fowls
3°o
ANATOMY.
Part II.
t$6
Crop.
Of Birds, fowls have their beaks long, (harp, and crooked 5 the
domeftia fowls, fuch as the hen-kind, &c. have ftrong
ftiort beaks, commodiouily fitted to dig up and break
their food j the water fowls, again, have long or very
broad fcoop-like beaks, which is moll; convenient for
them. '
The other circumftances in which the ftru&ure of
birds differs from that of other animals, particularly
as to the organs of digeftion, refpiration, and genera¬
tion, will be bell explained by defcribing them in an
individual inflance ; and we fliall fele£t for this pur-
pofe the domeftic cock, taking an opportunity of con-
trafting the vifcera of a carnivorous bird with thofe of
this fpecies as a granivorous bird.
Sect. II. Anatomy of a Cock.
Though this kind of birds live upon food fome-
what fimilar to that of man, yet as they have no teeth
to feparate or break down this food, we fiiould expeft
to find fomething to compenfate for the want of teeth,
fornething remarkable in the organs of digellion : we
{hall therefore begin with thefe parts.
The gullet of this creature runs down its neck, fome-
■what inclined to the right fide ; and terminates in a
pretty large membranous fac, which is the ingluvies or
crop, where the food is macerated and diffolved by a
liquor feparated by the glands, which are eafily obler-
ved everywhere on the internal furface of this bag.
The effedl of this maceration may be very well obferv-
ed in pigeons, who are fometimes in danger of being
fuffocated by the peafe, &c. they feed upon, fwelling
to fuch an immenfe bulk in their ingluvies, that they
can neither get upwards nor downwards. If it be a
favourite fowl, it might be preferved by opening the
fac, taking out the peafe, and fewing up the wound.
The food getting out of this fac goes down by the
remaining part of the gullet into the ventriculus fuc-
centuriatus, or infundibulum Peyeri, which is a continu¬
ation of the gullet with more numerous glands, which
feparate a liquor to dilute the food ftill more, which at
length gets into the true ftomach or gizzard, ventricu¬
lus callofus, which confifts of two very ftrong mufcles
covered externally by a tendinous aponeurofis, and li¬
ned on the infide by a very thick firm membrane,
which wre evidently difcover to be a produftion of the
cuticula. This might have been proved in fome mea-
fure a priori, from taking notice, that this membrane,
which in chicks is only a thin flight pellicle, by de¬
grees turns thicker and ftronger the more attrition it
fuffers : but there is no other animal fubftance, fo far
as we knowq which growTs more hard and thick by be¬
ing fubjedled to attrition, excepting the cuticula.—
Hence may be drawn fome kind of proof of what has
been affirmed concerning the tunica villofa of the fto¬
mach and inteftines in the human body, viz. that it w’as
in part a continuation of the epidermis ; nay, all the
hollow parts of the body, even arteries, veins, &c.
feem to be lined with a produftion of this membrane,
or one analogous to it. The ufe of the internal coat
of the ftomach of fowls is to defend the more tender
parts of that vifcus from the hard grains and little
ftones thofe creatures take down. The ufe of the
gizzard is to compenfate for the want of teeth j and it
2S7
Ventricu¬
lus fuccen-
turiatus feu
infundibu¬
lum.
258
Epidermis
invefts the
internal
furface of
all the ca¬
vities and
veflels of
the human
body.
is well fitted for this purpofe, from the great ftrength Of Birds,
which it poffeffes. —y—j
The digeftion of thefe animals is performed merely
by attrition, as is evinced by many experiments; and
it is further aftifted by the hard bodies they fwallow.
We fee them daily take down confiderable numbers of
the moft folid rugged little flints they find j and thefe
can ferve for no other purpofe than to help the tritura¬
tion of their aliments. ^After thefe pebbles, by be¬
coming fmooth, are unfit for this office, they are
thrown up by the mouth. Hence fowls that are long
confined, though ever fo wrell fed, turn lean for want
of thefe ftones to help their digeftion. This was put
beyond all difpute by Mr Tauvry, who gave a piece
of metal to an oftrich, convex on one fide and concave
on the other, but carved on both 5 and opening the .
creature’s body fome time after, it was found, that the
carving on the convex fide was all obliterated, while
the engraved charafter remained the lame as before
on the concave fide, which was not fubjedled to the
ftomach’s preffure : which could not have happened
had digeftion been performed by a menftruum, or any
other way whatfoever 5 but may be eafily folved by
allowing a fimple mechanical preffure to take place.
We are, however, by no means to conclude frcm this,
as fome have too raftily done, that in the human body
digeftion is performed by fimple attrition } otherwiie
we may, with equal ftrength of reafon, by as good
arguments drawn from what is obferved in fillies, prove
that the aliments are diffolved in our ftcmachs by the
adlion of a menftruum. But this method of reafon-
ing is very faulty *, nor can it ever bring us to the true
folution of any philofophical or medical problem. It
is very plain, fince the ftructure of the parts of the hu¬
man ftomach are fo very different from that of this
creature, that it is.foolifh and.unreafonable to imagine
both of them capable of producing the fame effedls.
At each end of the ftomach, there are as it were twro
particular facs of a different texture from the reft of
the ftomach, not confifting of ftrong mufcular fibres ;
they feem to be receptacles for the ftones (efpecially
at the end which is far theft from the orifice), while the
digefted aliment is protruded into the inteftines.
Spallanzani, however, has lately found, that pebbles
are not at all neceffary to the trituration of the food of
thefe animals. At the fame time, he does not deny,
that when put in motion by the gaftric mufcles, they
are capable of producing fome effect on the contents
of the ftomach •, but is inclined to believe, that they
are not fought for and felected by defign, as many fup-
pofe, but becaufe they frequently happen to be mixed
with the food. 259
The duodenum begins pretty near the fame place at Tuodenura-
which the gullet enters; yet notwithftanding the vici¬
nity of thefe two tubes, the aliments are in no danger
of getting out before they are perfectly digefted, by
reafon of a protuberance betwixt the orifices ; and in
thofe creatures w;ho have fuch a ftrong mufcular fto¬
mach, it is a matter of great indifference whether the
entry of the gullet or pylorus be higheft, provided that
the entry from the gullet does not allow’ the food to re¬
gurgitate, fince the force of the ftomach can eafily pro¬
trude it towards the duodenum. This gut is moffly in
the right fide, and hangs pendulous in their abdomen,
Chap.
260
Duftus
choledo-
chus.
261
friteftina
tenuia.
V. • A N A T
Of Birds, having its two extremities fixed to the liver. The
duElus choledochus enters near its termination, where it
mounts up again to be fixed to the liver j and left, by
the contraction of the inteftines, the bile fhould pafs
over without being intimately blended with the chyle,
that duCt enters downwards, contrary to the courfe of
the food, and contrary to what is obferved in any of
the animals wTe have yet mentioned. But ftill the ge¬
neral intention is kept in view, in allowing thefe juices
the faireft chance of being intimately blended with the
food.
The fmall guts are proportionally longer than thofe
of carnivorous birds, for the general caufe already af-
figned. At the end of the ilium they have two large
intcjlina cceca, one on each fide, four or five inches long,
coming off from the fide of the reftum, and afcending;
and we find them containing part of the food : Thefe
ferve as refervoirs to the feces •, which, after fome de¬
lay there, regurgitate into wdrat foon becomes the
reflum ; wdrich, together with the excretories of urine
and organs of generation, empties itfelf into the com¬
mon cloaca. The fmall inteftines are conne&ed by a
long loofe mefentery, which has little or no fat accom¬
panying the blood velfels, there being no hazard of the
blood’s being flopped.
The principal difference to be obferved in carnivo¬
rous birds is in their chylopoietic vifcera, which may
be accounted for from their different way of life.
Immediately under their clavicles, you will obferve
the oefophagus expanded into their ingluvies, which is
proportionally lefs than in the granivorous kind, fince
their food does not fwell fo much by maceration 5 and
for the fame reafon, there is a lefs quantity of a men-
ftruum to be found here.
They have alfo a ventriculus fuccenturialus, plenti¬
es fuccen- fui]y ftored wdth elands, fituated immediately above
tun nt vis • • ^ ' • • •'
their ftomach, which rve fee here is thin and mufculo-
membranous, otherwife than in the granivorous kind :
and this difference, which is almoft the only one we
fliall find betwixt the twm different fpecies of fowds, is
eafily accounted for from the nature of their food,
W'hich requires lefs attrition, being eafier of digeftion
than that of the other kind ; neverthelefs, it feems re-
quifite it fhould be llronger than the human, to com-
penfate the want of abdominal mufcles, which are here
very thin.
The fame mechanifm obtains in this creature’s duo-
denum that we have hitherto obferved. As being a
carnivorous animal, its guts are proportionally fhorter
than thofe of the granivorous kind : for the reafon firft
given, viz. its food being more liable to corrupt, there¬
fore not proper to be long detained in the body; and
for that reafon it has no intejlina caca, of which the
other fpecies of fowls have a pair. The difference in
their wings, backs, and claws, is obvious j and has
been already in fome meafure obferved.
The pancreas in this creature lies betwixt the two
folds of the duodenum, and fends two or three dudls
into this gut pretty near the biliary.
The fpleen. Theis here of a round globular figure, fitua¬
ted between the liver and ftomach j and betwixt thefe
and the back bone it enjoys the fame properties as in
other animals, viz. large blood veffels, &c. All its
blood is fent into the vena portarum, and has a perpe¬
tual conquaffation. It has no excretory, as far as we
262
Carnivorous
birds.
263
Ingluvies.
264
Ventricu-
265'
Inteftina.
266
Pancreas.
O M Y. 301
know7. Their liver is divided into two equal lobes by Of Birds..
a pellucid membrane, running according to the length ''' ^ '
of their body: and hence rve may obferve, that it isLjveri
not peculiar to that bow’d to lie on the right fide 5 which
is ftill more confirmed by Avhat avc obferve in fifties,
AA’here the greateft part of it lies in the left fide. 269
The ftiape of their gall bladder is not much different ^'re^ica Ic'"
from that of quadrupeds 5 but is thought to be longer ^
in proportion to the fize of the animal, and is farther
removed from the liver. 27®
The principal difference to be remarked in their C°r-
heart, is the want of the valvule tricufpides, and their
place being fupplied by one flefhy flap. 271
The lungs are not loofe within the cavity of the tho- Pulmones,
rax, but fixed to the bone all the w’ay 5 neither are
they divided into lobes, as in thofe animals that have ufeSt
a large motion in their fpine. They are tivo red fpon-
gy bodies, covered Aidth a membrane that is pervious,
and which communicates Avith the large vehicles or air¬
bags that are difperfed over their Avhole abdomen j
W’hich veficles, according to Dr Monro, ferve two very 272
confiderable ufes. The one is to render their bodies ^ie
fpecifically light, wdien they haA’e a mind to afeend and^ ^ ^
buoy themfelves up w’hen flying, by diftending their (jomen_
lungs wuth air, and alfo ftraiten their Avindpipe, and 273
fo return the air. Secondly, They fupply the place rlie dia-
of a mxxlcxxl'Av diaphragm and ftrong abdominal mufcles ?
producing the fame effedls on the feveral contained vif- pped.
cera, as thefe mufcles wmuld have done, without the in-
conveniency of their additional rveight) and conducing
as much to the exclufion of the egg and feces.
Dr Hunter has made fome curious difeoveries rela¬
tive to thefe internal receptacles of air in the bodies
of birds. Some of them are lodged in the fleftiy
parts, and fome in the holloAv bones j but all of them
communicate wdth the lungs. He informs us, that
the air cells Avhich are found in the loft parts have no
communication with the cellular membrane which is
common to birds as well as other animals. Some of
them communicate immediately with each other ; but
all of them by the intervention of the lungs as a com¬
mon centre. Some of them are placed in cavities, as
the abdomen 5 others in the interflices of parts, as
about the breaft. The bones which receive air are of
two kinds; fome of them divided into innumerable
cells ; others hollowed out into one large canal. They
n*ay be diftinguifhed from fuch as do not receive air,
by having lefs fpecific gravity ; by being lefs vafcular ;
by containing little oil; by having no marrow nor
blood in their cells; by having lefs hardnefs and firm-
nefs than others } and by the paflage for the air being
perceivable.
The mechanifm by which the lungs are fitted for
conveying air to thefe cavities is, their being attached,
to the diaphragm, and connefted alfo to the ribs and
fides of the vertebrae. The diaphragm is perforated
in feveral places by pretty large holes, allorving a free
paflage of air into the abdomen. To each of thefe
holes is attached a diftindl membranous bag, thin and
tranfparent. The lungs open at their interior part in¬
to membranous cells, which lie upon the fides of the
pericardium, and communicate with the cells of the
fternum. The fuperior parts of the lungs open into
cells of a loofe net-work, through Avhich the wind¬
pipe and gullet pafs. When thefe cells are diftended
with.
302 ANA
Of Birds, with air, it indicates jjaiTion, as in the cafe of the
turkey-cock, pouting-pigeon, &c.
Thefe cells communicate with others in the axilla,
and under the large pe&oral mufcle j and thofe with
the cavity of the os humeri, by means of fmall open¬
ings in the hollow furface near the head of that bone.
Laltly, I he pollerior edges of the lungs have openings
into the cells of the vertebras, ribs, os facrum, and other
bones of the pelvis, from which the air finds a paffage
to the cavity of the thigh bone.
Concerning the ufe of thefe cavities the doftor con-
jedures, that they are a kind of appendage to the
lungs ; and that, like the bags continued through the
bellies of amphibious animals, they ferve as a kind of
refervoirs of air. They affift birds during their flight,
which mull: be apt to render frequent refpiration diih-
„ cult. He farther mfinuates, that this conftrudion of
the organs of refpiration may aflTifl birds in finging ;
"which, he thinks, may be inferred from the long con¬
tinuance of fong between the breathings of a canary
bird. On tying the windpipe of a cock, the animal
breathed through a canula introduced into his belly j
another through the os humeri, when cut acrofs ; and
a hawk through the os femoris. In all thefe cafes the
animal foon died. In the firft, the Do&or afcribes
the death to an inflammation of the bowels; but in
the laft, he owns it was owing to difficult breathing.
What took place, however, was fufficient to (how that
the animals did really breathe through the bone.
When we examine the upper end of the trachea, we
-obferve a fima glottidis with mufcular Tides, which may
ad in preventing the food or drink from palling into
the lungs : for there is no epiglottis as in man and qua-
274 drupeds.
Windpipe. The windpipe, near where it divides, is very mucti
cohtraded j and their voice is principally owing to
this coardation. If you liften attentively to a cock
crowing, you will be fenfible that the noife does not
proceed frorii the throat, but deeper ; nay, this very
pipe, when taken out of the body, and cut off a little
after its divifion, and blown into, will make a fqueak-
ing noife, fomething like the voice of thefe creatures.
On each fide, a little higher than this contradion,
there is a mufcle arifing from their fternum, which
dilates the trachea. The cartilages, of which the pipe
is compofed in this animal, go quite round it; where¬
as in man and quadrupeds they are difcontinued for
about one-fourth on the back part, and the interme¬
diate fpace is filled up by a membrane. Neither is the
trachea fo firmly attached to their vertebrae as in the
other creatures we have examined. This ffrUdure we
lhall find of great fervice to them, if tve confider, that
had the fame ftrudure obtained in them as in us, their
breath would have been in hazard of being flopped at
every flexion or twilling of their neck, which they are
frequently obliged to. This we may be fenfible of by
bending our necks confiderably on one fide, upon which
we lhall find a great ftraitnefs and difficulty of breath¬
ing ; whereas their trachea is better fitted for follow¬
ing the flexions of the nesk by its loofe connexion to
the vertebra?.
In place of a mvfcidar diaphragm, this creature has
nothing but a thin membrane connedted to the pe¬
ricardium, which feparates the thorax and abdomen.
Sut befides this, the whole abdomen and thorax are di-
T O M Y. part if,
vided by a longitudinal membrane or tnediajlimm con- Of Birds,
nedted to the lungs, pericardium, liver, ftomach, and to
the fat lying over their ftomach and guts, which is ana¬
logous to an omentum, and liipplies its place.
The lymphatic fg/}an in birds confills, as
275
- - _  , — m man, of Lymphatic
lacteal apd lymphatic veffels, with the thoracic dudt. O'dem.
The lafteals, indeed, in the ftridteft fenfe, are the
lymphatics ox the inteftines j and, like the other lym¬
phatics, carry only a tranfpatent lymph 5 and inftead
of one thoracic dudt, there are two, which go to the
jugular veins. In thefe circumftances, it would feem
that birds differ from the human fubjedt, fo far at leaft
as we may judge from the diffedlion of ngoofe, the com¬
mon fubjedt of this inquiry, and from which the follow¬
ing defcription is taken.
The ladteals run from the inteftines upon the mefen-
teric veffels : thofe of the duodenum pal’s by the fide
of the pancreas j afterward they get upon the cadiac
artery, of which the fuperior mefenteric is a branch.
Here they are joined by the lymphatics of the liver,
and then they form a plexus which furrounds the cte-
liac artery. Here alfo they receive a lymphatic from
the gizzard, and foon after another from the lower
part of the gullet. At the root of the cadiac artery
they are joined by the lymphatics from the glanduhs
renales, and near the fame part by the ladleals from the
otrier fmall inteftines, wffiich veffels accompany the
lower mefenteric artery • but, before they join thofe
from the duodenum, receive from the redtum a lym¬
phatic, which runs from the blood veffels of that gut.
Into this lymphatic fome fmall veffels from the kidneys
feem to enter at the root of the cadiac artery. The
lymphatics of the facral extremities probably join thofe
from the inteftines. At the root of the caeliac artery
and contiguous part of the aorta, a net-work is formed
by the vefiels above defcribed. From this net-work
arife twm thoracic dudls, of \vhich one lies on each fide
of the fpine, and runs obliquely over the lungs to the
jugular vein, into the infide of which it terminates,-
nearly oppcfite to the angle formed by the vein and
this fubclavian one. The thoracic dudt of the left fide
is joined by a large lymphatic, which runs upon the
gullet. The thoracic dudls are joined by the lympha¬
tics of the neck, and probably by thofe of the wings,
where they open into the jugular veins. The lympha¬
tics of the neck generally confift of .two large branch¬
es, on each fide of the neck, accompanying the blood
veffels; and thefe two branches join near the lower
part of the neck, and form a trunk wdiich runs clofe to
the jugular vein, and opens into a lymphatic gland ;
from the oppofite fide of this gland a lymphatic comes
out, wdrich ends in the jugular vein.
On the left fide, the whole of this lymphatic joins
the thoracic dudt of the fame fide •, but, on the right
one, part of it goes into the infide of the jugular vein
a little above the angle ; whilft another joins the tho¬
racic dudt, and with that dudt forms a common trunk,
which opens into the infide of the jugular vein, a little
below’ the angle which that vein makes with the fub¬
clavian. This fyftem in birds differs moft from that of
quadrupeds, in the chyle being tranfparent and colour-
lefs, and in there being no vifible lymp'hatic glands,
neither in the courfe of the ladteals, nor in that of the
lymphatics of the abdomen, nor near the thoracic
dudts.
The
Chap.
Of Birds
276
Kidneys.
277
The organs
of genera¬
tion in the
male.
278
Vitellari-
um.
V. A N A T
The kidneys lie in the hollow excavated in the fide
J of the back-bone, from which there is fent out a bluilh-
coloured canal running along by the fide of the vas de¬
ferens, and terminating direifily in the common cloaca.
This is the ureter, which opens by a peculiar aperture
of its own, and not at the penis. Fowls having no
urinary bladder, it was thought by fome they never paf-
fed any urine, but that it went to the nouriihment 6f
the feathers : but this is falfe ; for that whitilh fub-
ftance that wje fee their greenifh fasces covered with,
and which turns afterwards chalky, is their urine. Let
us next confider the organs of generation of both
fexes, and firll thofe of the male.
The tejlicles are fituated one on each fide of the
back-bone j and are proportionally very large to the
creature’s bulk. From thefe run out the vafa femini-
fera; at firll; firaight j but after they recede farther
from the body of the tefticle, they acquire an undu¬
lated or convoluted form, as the epididymis in man.
Thefe convolutions partly fupply the want of vcficuU
feminales, their coition being at the fame time very
Ihort: Thefe terminate in the penis, of which the cock
has two, one on each fide of the common cloaca,
pointing dire&ly outwards. They open at a diftance
from each other, and are very fmall and Ihort j wdicnce
they have efcaped the notice of anatomifts, who have
often denied their exiftence. In birds there is no pro-
flate gland. This is what is chiefly remarkable in the
organs of the male.
The racemus vitellorum, being analogous to the ova-
ria in the human fubject, is attached by a proper
membrane to the back-bone. This is very fine and
O M Y.
303
Of Birds.
279
thin, and continued down to the uterus. Its orifice
is averfe with refpeft to the ovaria; yet notwithftand-
ing, by the force of the orgafmus venereus, it turns
round and grafps the vite/lus, which in its paffage
through this duft, called the infundibulum, receives
a thick gelatinous liquor, fecreted by certain glands.
This, with what it receives in the uterus, compofes the
■white of the egg. By this tube then it is carried into
the uterus. The fhell is lined with a membrane •, and
in the large end there is a bag full of air, from which
there is no outlet.
The uterus is a large bag, placed at the end of the Uterus
infundibulum, full of wrinkles on its infide j here the
egg is completed, receiving its lart involucrum, and is at
lalt puflied out at an opening on the fide of the com¬
mon cloaca. From the teftes in the male being fo very
large in proportion to the body of the creature, there
muft necelfarily be a great quantity of femen fecreted ;
hence the animal is falacious, and becomes capable of 28o
impregnating many females. The wrant of the vefcultz'F&z want
feminales is in lome meafure fupplied by the convolu-0* the vefi-
tions of the vafa deferentia, and by the fmall diftance
betwixt the fecerning and excretory organs. The twm fupplied,
penes contribute alfo very much to their fliort coition j
at which time the opening of the uterus into the clo¬
aca is very much dilated, that the effeft of the femen
on the vitelli may be the greater.
A hen will of herfelf indeed lay eggs ; but thefe are
not impregnated, and yet appear entirely complete, ex¬
cept that the fmall black fpot, which comes afterwards
to be the rudiments of the chick, is not here to be ob-
ferved.
‘ TABLE of the Proportional Number of Ribs and Vertebra in various fpecies
of Birds.
Species.
Verteb.
of
Neck.
Verteb. 1 Anter.
of | falfe
Back. ’ Ribs.
True
Ribs.
Pofter.
falfe
Ribs.
Vultur. Vulture,
Falco fulvus. Eagle,
 haliaetus. Bald buzzard,
 buteo. Buzzard,
 — nlfus. Sparrow haw7k,
 milvus. Kite,
Strix ulula. Owl,
Mufcicapa g rifula. Fly-catcher,
7 urdus merula. Blackbird,
Tanagra taldo. Tanagar,
Corvus corone. Crow,
 pica. Magpie,
— glandarius. Jay,
Sturnus vulgaris. Starling,
Loxia coccothraufes. Grofbeak,
- pyrrhula. Bulfinch,
Fritigilla domtfica. Sparrow,
- carduelis. Goldfinch,
Purus major. Titmoufe,
Alauda arvenfts. Lark,
!3
!3
J4
11
XI
12
11
10
11
10
*3
T3
12
10
10
10
9
11
11
11
N° of
Ribs.
7
7
7
7
Sacral
Verteb.
II
*7
11
10
11
11
11
10
10
9
*3
13
11
10
12
11
10
11
11
10
Coccyg.
Verteb.
TABLE.
3^4
OfReptiles.
ANATOMY.
TABLE, &c. continued.
Part IT.
OfReptiles.
Species.
Verteb.
of
Neck.
Verteb.
of
Back.
Anter.
falfe
Ribs.
Motacilla 1'ulecula. Redbreaft,
Hirundo urbica. Swallow,
Caprimulgus europans. Goatfucker,
Trochilus pi/la. Topaz humming-bird,
Upupa epops. Hoopoe,
Alcedo ifpida. King’s-fifher,
Picus ’viridis. Woodpecker,
Ramphaftos. Toucan,
Pfittacus crithacus. Parrot,
Columba cenas. Stockdove,
Pavo crijlatus. Peacock,
Phajtamis colchicus. Pheafant,
Mekagris gallo-pavo. Turkey,
Crax nigra. Curaffbw bird. Hoceo.
Struthio camelus. Oftrich,
 cafnartus. Caflawary,
Phcenicopterus. Flamingo,
Ardea cinerea. Heron,
 alba. Stork,
 grus. Crane,
Platalea didia. Spoonbill,
Recurvirojlra. Avofet,
Charadrius pluviahs. Plover,
Pring a vanellus. Lapwing,
Scolopax rujlicata. Woodcock,
   arquata. Curlew,
Hcrmatopus ojlralcgus. Oyfter-catcher,
Rallus crex. Rail,
Fulica atra. Coot,
Parra. Jacana, - - -
Pelicanus onocratalus. Pelican,
 carlo. Cormorant,
Sterna hirundo. Sea fwallow,
Procellaria. Petril,
Anas cygnus. Swan,
 anfer. Goofe,
  bernicla. Bernacle,
 bofchas. Duck,
 tadorna. Sheldrake,
 nigra. Black diver,
Mergus mcrganfer. Merganfer,
Colymbus crijlatus. Grebe,
10
i r
11
12
I 2
12
12
12
I 2
*4
*5
18
TV
18
18
*9
*4
*3
14
18
*3
12
13
13
*4
16
16
H
*4
23
13
18
14
16
*3
J3
T4
8
8
8
9
7
7
8
8
9
7
7
7'
7
8
8
u
7
7
7
9
7
9
8
8
7
8
9
8
9
8
7
9
8
8
11
10
10
8
11
9
8
10
True
Ribs.
Pofter.
fa lie
Ribs.
N° of
Ribs.
Sacral
Verteb.
Coccyg
Verteb.
6
11
7
8
9
11
10
11
11
9
10
8
10
12
11
13
12
13
10
10
20
W
12
10
11
12
J4
10
10
10
13
10
13
*3
7
12
14
14
10
? ?
J4
14
*4
13
11
M
13
13
9
8
8
7
7
9
7 +
8
7
8
3
3
7
9
7
7
7
8
7
8
8
7
7
8
8
o
8
8
7
7
8
8
8
8
7
9
8
9
7
7
7
CHAP. VI. ANATOMY OF REPTILES.
Sect. I. 0/"Reptiles in general.
These animals, like the filhes, have their blood
nearly of the fame temperature with the element in
whidh they live. They have indeed a lung, and re-
fpire air, but their pulmonary vefiels are only branches
of the large general artery and vein, and do not, as in
the hot-blooded animals, form a peculiar fyftem equal
to the vafcular fyltem of the reft of the body.
With refpedl to their organs of motion, reptiles may
be divided into two orders. In the one, the ferpents, \
the body is cylindrical and entirely without limbs,
their motion is a kind of writhing or creeping.
The others have four feet very fimilar in ifrluffure
to thofe of the mammalia, whence thefe animals have
been called oviparous quadrupeds. Such of them as
live in the water have frequently membranes be¬
tween their toes, which they employ like the fns of
fillies for fwimming. One fpecies has a kind of mem¬
branaceous
Chap. vr.
ANATOMY. 30j'
We know two fpecies which are In others the male merely fprinkles with femcn the OfReptilea.
OfReptiles. branaceous wings.
called bipedal reptiles, which are only diftinguilhed
from ferpents in having two very {mall feet. In the
whole clafs the feet are fo (hort, and fo clofe to the
body, that they are not unaptly termed reptiles or
creeping animals.
Their eyes are large and fiery, and are furnilhed
with three lids. Their ear has neither concha nor
external pafiage, and its tympanum lies flat to the
head, and is often covered with fcales or flefh; inter¬
nally it has only one little bone compofed of a plate
furnifhed with a fort of handle. In fome fpecies the
tympanum and its little bone are entirely wanting, as
alfo the cochlea, but they have all femicircular canals,
and a veftibule. Their noftrils are generally fmall.
In the ferpents, whofe tongue is almofl: horny, the
lenfe of tafte cannot be very exquifite, but in the other
fpecies where the tongue is fofter it may be pretty
acute.
Their fkin is naked or covered with fcales. The
tortoifes are remarkable for being covered with a kind
of buckler.
Some fpecies of oviparous quadrupeds have fix toes.
Serpents exercife the fenfe of touch by wrapping their
body round the obje£l which they defire to feel.
The brain of reptiles is very fmall, and divided into
very diflinfl tubercles. Their fenfation feems lefs to
depend on a common centre than in the other animals
which we have been confidering, as they can live for
a long time without the head, and after being depri¬
ved of the heart, and all the vifcera; their limbs when
feparated from the body preferve their irritability for
a confiderable time •, the heart of a frog w-ill beat for
many hours after it has been cut out. Reptiles have
alfo a confiderable power of reprodufh’on. The tail
of a lizard and feveral parts of water falamanders w'ill
grow again after being cutoff. The jaws in thefe animals
are for the molt part armed with teeth which are coni¬
cal and pointed, but fome of them have only flefhy or
horny gums. Their alimentary canal is but fmall
and has no caecum, but it receives fluids fimilar to
thofe of the hot-blooded animals. The urine, which is
fecreted by the kidneys, is received into a bladder, but
is evacuated by the anus.
Their heart has only one ventricle, from which pro¬
ceeds a Angle artery divided into two large branches,
which furnifh each a twig to the lung of that fide,
and are then united to be diftributed to the other parts
of the body. Hence thefe animals can at pleafure
fufpend refpiration without flopping the circulation of
the blood, fo that they can remain a long time under
water, or in a clofe veffel. The cells of the lungs are
much larger than in the hot-blooded animals; and
thefe organs refemble oblong bags, which float in the
fame cavity with the other vifcera, without the inter-
pofition of a diaphragm. Some of thefe animals have
the power of inflating their lungs to a great extent.
They have a windpipe and a larynx, by which they
can produce founds as in other animals which are pro¬
vided writh nerves.
The females of reptiles have a double receptacle for
eggs furnifhed with two tubes, which open at the
anus. In fome fpecies copulation takes place, and
the eggs are covered with a Ihell more or lefs hard.
Vot. II. Part I.
eggs already laid, and thefe are merely covered with
a membrane. Reptiles, no more than other animals
with cold blood, have the power of hatching their
eggs.
Sect. II. Tortoife.
281
The covering of this animal is compofed of a (hell Their fheH
fo remarkably hard and firm in its texture, that a ?r cover-
loaded waggon may go over it without hurting the m&> Sc‘
{hell or the animal within it. In the young animal,
this fhell grows harder in proportion as its contents
expand ; and this creature never changes its fliell as
fome others do : hence it was neceffary for it to be
made up of different pieces ; and thefe are more or
lefs diftin£I in different animals. Their feet are fmall
and weak •, and they are exceedingly flow in motion.
It has neither tongue nor teeth 5 to make up for
which, their lips are fo hard as to be able to break al-
moft the hardeff bodies.
The alimentary canal very much refembles that of
the former clafs.
The principal difference is in the circulation of the
blood. The heart has twTo diftinft auricles, without
any communication ; and under thefe, there is the ap¬
pearance of two ventricles fimilar in fhape to thofe of
the former clafs : but they may be confidered as one
cavity ; for the ventricle fends out not only the pul¬
monary artery, but likewife the aorta ; for there is a
paffage in the feptum, by which the ventricles com¬
municate freely, and the blood paffes from the left
into the right one. From the aorta, the blood re¬
turns into the right auricle, while that from the pulmo¬
nary artery returns to the left auricle, from which
it is fent to the left ventricle, &c. fo that only a part
of the blood is fent to the lungs, the reft going im¬
mediately into the aorta; hence the animal is not un¬
der the neceflity of breathing fo often as otherwife it
would be. . 2g2
I rom the bafe of the right ventricle goes out the Blood veft-
pulmonary artery and aorta. The pulmonary artery fels.
is fpent upon the lungs. The aorta may be faid to be
three in number $ for the aorta finiftra afcends through
the pericardium in company with the pulmonary ar¬
tery ; and afterwards turns down, and fends off a con¬
fiderable branch, which fplits into two 5 one of which
joins the right aorta, wTile the other is diftributed
upon the liver, ftomach, inteftines, &c. What re¬
mains of this aorta runs to the kidneys or pofterior ex¬
tremities of that fide. An aorta defcendens, &c.
after piercing the pericardium, runs down and com¬
municates with the branch already mentioned, is dif¬
tributed upon the right kidney and irtferior extremity,
and alfo upon the bladder and parts of generation.
An aorta afcendens, after getting out of the pericar¬
dium, fuppTes the fore-legs, neck, and head. The
blood in the fuperior part of the body returns to the
right auricle by two jugular veins, which unite after
perforating the pericardium. From the inferior part,
it returns to the fame auricle by two large veins j
one on the right fide receives the blood in the right
lobe of the liver ; the other on the left fide receives
the blood in the left lobe, and alfo a trunk which
Q^q correfponds
. 2S3
Lafteals.
306 , ANA
Of Fifties, correfponds with the inferior vena cava in other ani-
'r^J mals. The pulmonary veffels run in the left auricle
in the common way.
The abforbent fyftem in the turtle, like that in the
former clafs, conffts of la6feals and lymphatics, with
their common trunks the thoracic du6ts •, but differs
from it in having no obvious lymphatic glands on any
part of its body, nor plexus formed at the termination
in the red veins.
The laBeals accompany the blood veffels upon the
mefentery, and form frequent net-works acrofs thefe
veffels : near the root of the mefentery a plexus is
formed, wdiich communicates with the lymphatics
coming from the kidneys and parts near the anus. At
the root of the mefentery on the left ffde of the fpine,
the lymphatics of the fpleen join the la&eals ; and im¬
mediately above this a plexus is formed, which lies
upon the right aorta. From this plexus a large branch
arifes, which paffes behind the right aorta to the left
fide, and gets before the left aorta, where it affifts in
forming a very large receptaculum, which lies upon
that artery.
From this receptaculum arife the thoracic ducffs.
From its right fide goes one trunk, wffiich is joined by
that large branch that came from the plexus t© the left
fide of the right aorta, and then paffes over the fpine.
This trunk is the thoracic duS of the right fide for
having got to the right fide of the fpine, it runs up¬
wards, on the infide of the right aorta, towards the
right fubclavian vein ; and when it has advanced a
little above the lungs, it divides into branches, which
near the fame place are joined by a large branch, that
comes up on the outfide of the aorta. From this part
upwards, thofe veffels divide and fubdivide, and are
afterwards joined by the lymphatics of the neck, which
likewife form branches before they join thofe from be¬
low7. So that between the thoracic duft and the lym¬
phatics of the fame fide of the neck, a very intricate
net-work is formed ; from which a branch goes into
the angle between the jugular vein and the lower part
or trunk of the fubclavian. This branch lies therefore
on the infide of the jugular vein, whilft another gets
T o M y.
Part IT.
to the outfide of it, and feems to terminate in it, a Of Fiflies*
little above the angle, between that vein and the fub- VT—
clavian.
Into the above-mentioned receptaculum, the lym- Lympha-
phatics of the ftomach and duodenum likewife enter, tics.
Thofe of the duodenum run by the fide of the pan¬
creas, and probably receive its lymphatics and a part
of thofe of the liver. The lymphatics of the ftomach
and duodenum have very numerous anaftomofes, and
form a beautiful net-work on the artery which they
accompany. From this receptaculum likew'ife (befides
the trunk already mentioned, which goes to the right
fide) arife tw7o other trunks pretty equal in fize $ one
of which runs upon the left fide, and the other upon
the right fide of the left aorta, till they come within
two or three inches of the left fubclavian vein ; where
they join behind the aorta, and form a number of
branches which are afterwards joined by the lymphatics
of the left fide of the neck *, fo that here a plexus is
formed as upon the right fide. From this plexus .a
branch iffues, which opens into the angle between the
jugular and fubclavian vein.
Sect. III. Serpent and Crocodile.
The circulation in thefe is fimilar to that of the Circulation
turtle ; but we find only one ventricle. The blood in ferpects,
goes from the right auricle to the ventricle which fends &cc'
out the pulmonary artery and aorta j the blood from
the pulmonary artery returns to the left auricle, that
from the aorta going to the right auricle, and both the
auricles opening into the ventricle.
Sect. IV. Frog and Lizard.
These differ from the former animals, in having
only one auricle and a ventricle : and befides, the
ventricle fends out a fingle artery, which afterwards
fplits into two parts j one to fupply the lungs, the
other runs to all the reft of the body: from the lungs
and from the other parts, the blood returns into the
auricle.
CHAP. VII. ANATOMY OF FISHES.
Cuticula, GE thefe wre may firft obferve, that they have a very
likenefs to ftrong thick cuticle, covered with a great number of
the human, fcales, laid one on another like the tiles of houfes.
This among other arguments is fuppofed to prove the
human epidermis to be of a fquamous ftru£lure : but the
fcales refemble the hairs, wool, feathers, &c. of the
creatures that live in air; and below thefe we obferve
their proper cuticula and cutis.
The generality of fifties, particularly thofe jjiaped like
the cod, haddock, &c. have a line running on each fide.
Thefe lines open externally by a number of du£ls, which
throw out a mucous or flimy fubftance that keeps them
foft and clammy, and feems to ferve the fame purpofe
with the mucous glands or dufts which are placed w ith-
in many of our internal organs.
In the next place, thefe creatures have neither at¬
lantal nor facial extremities, as quadrupeds and fowls j
for their progreflion is performed in a different way Swimming,,
from either of thofe fpecies of animals : for this pur- how per-
pofe they are provided with machines, properly confift- formed,
ing of a great number of elaftic beams, connected to Several ufes
one another by firm membranes, and with a tail of the gns tehj
fame texture ; their fpine is very moveable towards the air-bags
pofterior part, and the ftrongeft mufcles of their bodies &-c.
are inferted there. Their tails are fo framed as to
contraft to a narrow fpace wdien drawn together to ei¬
ther fide, and to expand again whendrawm to a ftraight
line with their bodies j fo, by the afliftance of this
broad tail, and the fins on their fides, they make their
progreffion much in the fame way as a boat with oars
on its fides and rudder at its ftern. The perpendicular
fins fituated on the fuperior part of their body keep
them in a'quilibrio, hindering the belly from turning
uppermoft j which it wrould readily do, becaufe of the
air-bag
Chap. vir.
Qf Fifties, air-bag in tbe abdomen rendering their belly fpecifi-
lu~ ' cally lighter than their back j but by the reMance
thefe fins meet with when inclined to either fide, they
are kept with their backs always uppermoft.
It may be next obferved, that thefe creatures have no¬
thing that can be called a nech, feeing they feek their
food in a horizontal way, and can move their bodies
either upwards or downwards, as they have occafion, by
the contraftion or dilatation of the air-bag j a long
neck, as it would hinder their progreflion, would be
Very difadvantageous in the element they live in.
In the bony fifhes the bodies of the vertebrae are
fometimes cylindrical, fometimes angular, and frequent¬
ly comprefled: they are articulated only by their bodies,
as there are no articulatory proceffes. They may be
divided into two clafles ; thofe of the tail, which are
furnifhed with a fpinous procefs both above and below;
and thofe of the belly or back which have it only
above. Thefe lafl: are ufually furnilhed at the fides,
3°7
with tranfverfe procelfes for the attachment of the ribs. Of Fifties..
The fpinous proceifes, both dorfal and fternal, are vexy—y-""'*
long, efpecially in the flat fifli. At the bafe of the
dorfal procelfes there is a canal for lodging the fpinal
marrow, and the blood velfels pafs through a fimilar
canal at the bafe of the fternal procefles. There is near¬
ly the fame ftrudlure in the cartilaginous’filhes; but in
thefe all the cartilages are fo firmly fixed together,
that only the fpinous precedes can be diftinguilhed.
The vertebra of a filh differs from that of other ani¬
mals in the ftrufture of its body, at each extremity of
which there is a conical cavity, fo that between each
pair of vertebrae there is a hollow fpace formed by
thefe two cones joined bafe to bafe, filled with a very
foft cartilaginous or mucous fubftance on which the
motions of the vertebrae are eafily performed. The
annexed table fhows the proportional number of verte¬
bra in feveral fpecies of filh.
A N A T O M Y.
TABLE of the Number of Vertebrae in feveral Species of Fishes.
Species.
Rdia bates. Ray,
Squalus. Shark,
Acdpenfer Jlurio. Sturgeon,
Syngnathut acus. Sea-needle,
   hippocampus. Sea-horfe,
Balijles. - - .
OJlracion quadricornis.
Mur etna anguilla. Eel,
Anarrhichas lupus. Sea-wolf,
Trachinus draco. Sea-dragon,
Uranofcopu/. Uranofcope,
Gadus merlangus. Whiting,
Cottus fcorpius. Sea-fcorpion,
Trigla Idricata.
 cuculus.
 volitans.
Echineis remora.
Pleuronedes platejfa.
Gajlerojleus pungitius
Perea jluviatilis. Perch,
■Zeus faler. Doree,
    r ,
Armed trigla,
Red gurnard,
Flying trigla,
Remora.
Plaice,
Stickle-back,
 •vomer.
Cheetodon cornu.
— te'ira.
Cyprinus carpio.
nafus.
Horned chaetodon.
Striped chaetodon.
Carp,
Clupea harengus. Herring,
Salmo rhombus. Rhomboid falmon,
Ffox lucius. Pike, - -
 brafdienfis. Brafilian pike,
Silurus fells. Sea-cat,
Loricaria. Armour fifh,
Fi/lularia t abac carta. Tobacco-pipe fifli,
Cervical
Vertebra.
Dorfal | Lumbar
Vertebra, i Vertebra.
Coccygian
Vertebra.
Total N° of
Vertebrce.
ilified into
;ne piece.
24
*3
9
*7
8
12
J3
8
12
*3
70
21
9
10
9
9
*5
*9
38
12
35
34
12
6
59
80-f-
10
50
30
*5
32
J5
23
21
12
15
30
22
20
16
13
12
12
16
19
18
20
20
15
3°
28
22
207
28
50+
62
13
*15
55
3i
41
44
44
36
Q.<i2
Thr
3°S
Of Fiflies.
288
Cerebrum.
2S9
Organ of
fmeli.
%90
Optic
nerve.
291
The cry-
ftalline hu¬
mour a
complete
fphere, and
why.
A N A T
The brain in fifties is formed pretty much in the
fame way as that of fowls 5 only we may obferve, that
the pofterior lobes bear a greater proportion to the an¬
terior.
Their organ of fmelling is large \ and they have a
power of contra£!ing and dilating the entry into their
nofe as they have occafion. It feems to be moftly by
their acute fmeli that they difcover their food ; for
their tongue feems not to have been defigned for a
very nice fenfation, being of a pretty firm cartilagi¬
nous fubftance; and common experience evinces, that
their fight is not of fo much ufe to them as their fmeli
in fearching for their nourifhment. If you throw a
frefh worm into the water, a filh will diftinguiih it at
a confiderable diftance 5 and that this is not done by
the eye, is plain from obferving, that after the fame
worm has been a confiderable time in the water, and
loft its fmell, no fifties will come near it; but if you
take out the bait, and make feveral little incifions into
it, fo as to let out more of the odoriferous effluvia, it
will have the fame effect as formerly. Now it is cer¬
tain, that had the creatures difcovered this bait with
their eyes, they would have come equally to it in both
cafes. In confequence of their fmell being the princi¬
pal means which they have of difcovering their food, we
may frequently obferve their allowing themfelves to be
carried down with the ftream, that they may afcend
again leifurely againft the current of the water ; thus
the odoriferous particles fvvimming in that medium,
being applied more forcibly to their fmelling organs,
produce a ftronger fenfation.
The optic nerves in thefe animals are not confounded
with one another in their middle progrefs betwixt their
origin and the orbit, but the one paffes over the other
without any communication ; fo that the nerve that
comes from the left fide of the brain goes diftindlly to
the right eye, and vice verfa.
Indeed it would feem not to be neceffary for the op¬
tic nerves of fifties to have the fame kind of connec¬
tion with each other as thofe of man have : for their
eyes are not placed in the fore part, but in the fides of
their heads 5 and of confequence, they cannot fo con¬
veniently look at any objedl; with both eyes at the fame
time.
The crg/lalline lens is here a complete fphere, and
more denfe than in terreftrial animals, that the rays
of light coming from water might be fufflciently re¬
fracted.
As fifties are continually expofed to injuries in the
uncertain element in which they live, and as they are
in perpetual danger of becoming a prey to the larger
ones, it was neceffary that their eyes fhould never be
ftmt; and as the cornea is fufficiently waftied by the
element they live in, they are not provided with pal-
pebrce : but then, as in the current itfelf the eye muft
be expofed to feveral injuries, there was a neceffity it
ftiould be fufficiently defended ; which in effeCl it is by
a firm pellucid membrane, that feems to be a continua¬
tion of the cuticula, being ftretched over here. The
epidermis is fo very proper for this purpofe, as being
infenfible and deftitute of veffels, and confequently not
liable to obftruftions, or, by that means, of becoming
opaque. In the eye of the Ikate tribe, there is a di-
gited curtain which hangs over the pupil, and may
O M Y. Part IL
Ihut out the light when the animal refts, and it is firm- Of Fiihes.
lar to the tunica adnata of other animals. 1 v
Although it wms formerly much doubted whether 292
fifties poffeffed a fenfe of healing, yet there can be^'S^nso^
little doubt of it now ; fince it is found that they ‘
have a complete organ of hearing as well as other ani¬
mals, and likewife as the water in which they live is
proved to be a good medium. Fifties, particularly
thofe of the Ikate kind, have a bag at fome diftance
behind the eyes, which contains a fluid and a foft cre¬
taceous fubftance, and fupplies the place of vefiibule
and cochlea. There is a nerve diitrihuted upon it,
fimilar to the portio mollis in man. They have three
femicircular canals, which are filled wdth a fluid, and
communicate with the bag : they have likewife, as
the prefent profeffor of anatomy at Edinburgh has
diicovered, a meatus externus, which leads to the in¬
ternal ear. The cod fifti, and others of the fame
fliape, have an organ of hearing fomewkat fimilar to
the former ; but inftead of a foft fubrtance contained
in the bag, there is a hard cretaceous ftone. In this
kind of fifti no meatus externus has been yet obfer-
ved : And Dr Monro is inclined to think that they
really have not one, from the confideration that the
common canal or veftibule, where the three femicircu¬
lar canals communicate, is feparated from the cavity
of the cranium by a thin membrane only } that this ca¬
vity, in the greater number of fifties, contains a watery
liquor in confiderable quantity ; and that, by the
thinnefs of the cranium, the tremor excited by a fo-
norous body may readily and eafily be tranfmitted
through the cranium to the water within it, and fo to
the ear.
The belly is covered on the inferior part with a
black-coloured thin membrane refembling our perito¬
neum. It is divided from the cheft by a thin mem¬
branous partition, which has no mufcular appearance j
fo that we have nowT feen two different forts of animals
that have no mufcular diaphragm. . 293
Thefe creatures are not provided with teeth proper Teeth, for
for breaking their aliment into fmall morfels, as the what made,
food they ufe is generally fmall fifties, or other animals
that need no trituration in the mouth, but fpontaneouf-
ly and gradually diffolve into a liquid chyle. Their
teeth ferve to grafp their prey, and hinder the creatures
they have once catched from efcaping again. For the
fame purpofe, the internal cartilaginous bafis of the
bronchi, and the twro round bodies fituated in the po¬
fterior part of the jawTs, have a great number of tenter¬
hooks fixed into them, in fuch a manner as that any
thing can eafily get down, but is hindered from getting
back. The water that is neceffarily taken in along
with their food in too great quantities to be received
into their jaws in deglutition, paffes betwixt the inter-
ftices of the bronchi and the flap that covers them.
The compreflion of the water on the bronchi is of con¬
fiderable ufe to the creature, as wTe fliall explain by
and by.
The gullet in thefe creatures is very ftiort, andi):geftk,n
fcarcely diftinguiftied from their ftomach, feeing their performed
food lies almoft equally in both. The ftomach is offo'^y t>ya
an oblong figure. There are commonly found fmall men^U1'
fiihes in the ftomach of large ones ftill retaining their
natural form j but when touched, they melt down
into
295
Inteftina.
297
Pancreas,
298
Liver, gall
bladder,
and their
dudts.
Chap. VII. A N A T
Of Fiihcs. into a jelly. From this, and the great quantity of li-
1 v quors poured into their itomachs, we may conclude,
that digeftion is folely brought about in them by the
diffolving power of a menftruum, and that no tritura¬
tion happens here.
The guts in thefe animals are very (hort, making
only three turns ; the leaf! of which ends in the com¬
mon cloaca for the feces, urine, and femen, fituated
about the middle of the inferior part of their bodies.
To what we call pancreas, fome give the name of
intejlinula cceca : it conlifts of a very great number of
fmali threads, like fo many little worms, which all ter¬
minate at la ft in two larger canals that open into the
frrft gut, and pour into it a vifcous liquor much about
the place udiere the biliary duels enter. That kind of
pancreas formed of inteftinula caeca is peculiar to a cer¬
tain kind of fifties j for the cartilaginous, broad, and
flat kind, as the Ikate, foie, flounder, &c. have a
pancreas refembling that of the former clafs of animals.
Their inteftines are connedled to the back bone by a
membrane analogous to a melentery.
Their liver is very large, of a whitifti colour, and
lies almoft in the left fide wholly, and contains a great
deal of fat or oil.
The gall-kladder is fituated a confiderable vray from
their liver ; and fends out a canal, the cyftic du£l,
which joins with the hepatic duel juft at the entry in¬
to the gut. Some fibres being obferved ilretched from
the liver to the gall-bladder, but without any apparent
cavity, the bile was fuppofed not to be carried into
the gall-bladder in the ufual way, but that it muft ei¬
ther be fecerned on the fides of the fac, or regurgitate
into it from the canalis choledochus. It is certain,
however, that hepato-cyftic dudls exift in fiflr as well
as in fowds. This, for example, is very obvious in the
falmon, wdiere large and diftinfl dudls run from the bi¬
liary dudls of the liver, and open into the gall blad¬
der.
The fpleen is placed near the back-bone, and at a
ufe drawn place wdiere it is fubjedled to an alternate preflure from
from ana- the conftriclion and dilatation of the air-bag, which is
fituated in the neighbourhood. Since, in all the dif¬
ferent animals we have dilfedled, wTe find the fpleen
attached to fomewhat that may give it a conquaffation;
as in the human fubjedl and quadrupeds, it is contigu¬
ous to the diaphragm \ in fowds, it is placed betwdxt
the back-bone, the liver, and ftomach *, in fifties, it
lies on the faccus aerius *, and fince wm find it fo well
ferved with blood veffels, and all its blood returning
into the liver 5 \\t muft not conclude the fpleen to be
an inutile pondus, only to ferve as a balance to the ani¬
mal pro (equilibria, but particularly defigned for pre¬
paring the blood to the liver.
The heart is of a triangular form, with its bafe
has but one downwards, and its apex uppermoft ; which fituation
auricle and }las becaufe of the branchia. It has but one auricle
and one ventricle, becaufe they want lungs ; and one
great artery. The fize of the auricle and that of the
ventricle are much the fame; the artery fends out
numberlefs branches to the branchiae or gills. And
what is rather curious, this artery, inftead of fupport-
ing all parts as in the frog, is diftributed entirely up¬
on the gills every branch terminating there, and be¬
coming fo extremely fmali as at laft to efcape the na¬
ked eye.
299
Spleen, its
logy.
300
The heart
one ventri
cle.
O M Y. 309
Thefe creatures have a membranous diaphragm, OTFifLes.
which forms a fac in wdiich the heart is contained. ^ '
It is very tenfe, and almoft perpendicular to the ver- 3DI
tebrse. Diaphragm
The branchice lie in two large flits at each fide of 302
their heads, and feem to be all they have that bears I^bran"
any analogy to lungs. Their form is femicircular :
they have a vaft number of red fibrilke Handing out ture and
on each fide of them like a fringe, and very much re-ufe.
femble the vane of a feather. Thefe branchiae are per¬
petually fubjefted to an alternate motion and preflure
from the water \ and w^e may here remark, that we
have not found any red blood but in places fubjedled
to this alternate preflure. This obfervation will help
us in explaining the adlion of the lungs upon the
blood. Over thefe gills there is a large flap, allow'-
ing a communication externally by which the water
they are obliged to take into their mouths with their
food finds an exit without pafling into their ftomach ;
it is awing to thefe flaps coming fo far down that the
heart is faid commonly to be fituated in their heads.
The blood is collected again from the gills by a vaft
number of fmali veins, fomewhat in the fame manner
as our pulmonary vein ; but inftead of going back to
the heart a fecond time, they immediately unite, and
form an aorta defeendens, without the intervention of
an auricle and ventricle. Hence a young anatomift
may be puzzled to find out the powrer by w'hich the
blood is propelled from the gills to the different parts
of the body ; but the difficulty will be confiderably
leffened wThen wTe confider the manner in which the
blood is carried through the liver from the inteftines
in man and quadrupeds. The aorta in fifties fends off
branches wThich fupply all the parts of the body ex¬
cepting the gills. From the extremity of thofe branch¬
es the blood returns to the heart fomewhat in the fame
manner as in the former clafs of animals j only there
are two inferior ven?e cavae, whereas the former has
but one.
Abforbent Syjlem in Fifhes. We {hall take the had¬
dock as a general example *, for the other fifties, parti¬
cularly thofe of the fame ftiape, wdll be found in gene¬
ral to agree with it. 303
On the middle of the belly of a haddock, imrnedi-Lymphatic
ately below the outer {kin, a lymphatic veffel runs up-ve^e*s’
wards from the anus, and receives branches from the
parietes of the belly, and from the fin below the anus •,
near the head this lymphatic paffes between the two
peftoral fins ; and having got above them, it receives
their lymphatics. It then goes under the fymphyfis of
the two bones which form the thorax, where it opens
into a net-work of very large lymphatics, which lie
clofe to the pericardium, and almoft entirely furrounds
the heart. This net-work, befides that part of it be¬
hind the heart, has a large lymphatic on each fide,
which receives lymphatics from the kidney, runs upon
the bone of the thorax backwards ; and when it has
got as far as the middle of that bone, it fends off a
large branch from its infide to join the thoracic du6l.
After detaching this branch, it is joined by the lym¬
phatics of the thoracic fins, and foon after by a lym¬
phatic which runs upon the fide of the fifti. It is form¬
ed of branches, which give it a beautiful penniform
appearance.
Befides thefe branches, there is another fet deeper
which
3°4
Tlie lac
teals.
3l<? _ A N A T
i ^ ^ * i1.!165'. w]ucl1 accompanies the ribs. After the large lympha¬
tic has been joined by the above-mentioned veflels, it
receives lymphatics from the gills, orbit, nofe, and
mouth. A little below the orbit, another net-work
appears, confiding in part of the veffels above defcrib-
ed, and of the thoracic duff. This net-work is very
complete, fome of its Veflels lie on each fide of the
raufcles of the gills $ and from its internal part a trunk
is fent out, which terminates in the jugular vein.
The lafteala run on each fide of the mefenteric ar-
teries, anaftomofing frequently acrofs thefe veflels.
I he receptaculum into which they enter is very large,
in proportion to them ; and confifts at its lower part
of two branches, of which one lies between the duo¬
denum and domach, and runs a little Way upon the
pancreas, receiving the lymphatics of the liver, pan¬
creas, thofe of the lower part of the domach, and the
la (deals from the greated part of the fmall intedines.
The other branch of the receptaculum receives the
lymphatics from the red of the alimentary canal. The
receptaculum formed by thefe two branches lies on the
right fide of the upper part of the domach, and is
joined by fome lymphatics in that part, and alfo by
fome from the found and gall-bladder, which in this
fifli adheres to the receptaculum. This thoracic du«d
takes its rife from the receptaculum, and lies on the
right flde of the oefophagtis, receiving lymphatics from
that part 5 and running up about half an inch, it di¬
vides into twm dutds, one of which pafies over the oefo-
phagus to the left fide, and the other goes draight
upon the right fide, pafles by the upper part of the
kidney, from which it receives fome fmall branches,
and foon afterwards is joined by a branch from the
large lymphatic that lies above the bone of the tho¬
rax, as formerly mentioned : near this part it likewife
fends off a branch to join the duff of the oppoflte fide j
and then, a little higher, is joined by thofe large lym¬
phatics from the upper part of the gills, and from the
fauces.
The thoracic dufl, after being joined by thefe vef¬
fels, communicates with the net-work near the orbit,
where its lyrnph is mixed with that of the lymphatics
from the poderior part of the gills, and from the fu-
perior fin,s, belly, &c. and then from this net-work a
veffel goes into the jugular vein jud below^ the orbit.
This lad veffel, which may be called the termination
of the whole fydem, is very fmall in proportion to the
net-work from which it rifes and indeed the lympha¬
tics of the part are lb large, as to exceed by far the
lize of the fanguiferous veffels.
The thoracic dud from the left flde, having paffed
under the gullet from the right, runs on the infide of
the vena cava of the left fide, receives a branch from
its fellow of the oppofite fide, and joins the large lym¬
phatics which lie on the left fide of the pericardium,
and a part of thofe which lie behind the heart ; and
afterwards makes, together with the lymphatics from
the gills, upper fins, and fide of the filh, a net-work,
from wdiich a veffel paffes into the jugular vein of this
fide. In a wmrd, the lymphatics of the left fide agree
exadly with thofe of the right fide above defcribed.
Another part of the fyftem is deeper feated, lying be¬
tween the roots of the fpinal proceffes of the back¬
bone. This part confifts of a large trunk that begins
from the lower part of the filh, and as it afcends re-
o M y.
Part 11.
ceives branches from the dorfal fins and adjacent parts OfFiIhe*.
of the body. It goes up near the head, and fends a ' v—
branch to each thoracic duft near its origin.
1 he only organs of generation in this animal are two Organs of
bags fituated in the abdomen uniting near the podex.generation.
Thefe in the male are filled with a whitilh firm fub-
ftance called the milt, and in the female with an infi¬
nite number of little ova cluftered together, of a red-
diih yellow colour, called the roe. Both thefe at
ipawning time we find very much diftended ; whereas
at another time the male organs can fcarce be diftin-
guilhed from the female ; nor is there any proper in-
ftrument in the male for throwing the feed into the or¬
gans of the female, as in other creatures. We ftiall not
take upon us to determine the way whereby the fe¬
male fperm is impregnated : but we find that the
fpawn of frogs confifts in the fmall fpecks wrapped up
in a whitifh glutinous liquor : thefe fpecks are the ru¬
diments of the young frogs, which are nourilhed in
that liquor till they are able to go in fearch of their
food. In the fame way, the ova of fifties are thrown
out and depofited in the fand, the male being for the
molt part ready to impregnate them, and they are in¬
cubated by the heat of the fun. It is curious enough
to remark with what care they feek for a proper place
to depofite their ova, by fwimming to the fliallow,
where they can better enjoy the fun’s rays, and ftiun
the large jaws of other fifties. The river-filhes, again
fpawn in fome creek free from the hazard of the impe¬
tuous ftream. But whether this mixture be brought
about in fifties by a Ample application of the genitals
to each other, or if both of them throw out their li¬
quors at the fame time in one place, and thus bring
about the defired mixture, it is not eafy to determine.
Spallanzani has found, that the eggs of frogs, toads,
and water newts, are not fecundated in the body of
female ; that the male emits his femen upon the fpawn
while it is flowing from the female } and that the foe¬
tus pre-exifts in the body of the female : but whether
impregnation takes place in the fame manner in fifties,
he has not yet been able to determine, though he feems
to think it probable* Thefe creatures are lb Ihy, that
we cannot eafily get to obferve their way of copula¬
tion, and are confequently but little acquainted with
their natural hiltory. Frogs, it is very evident, do
not copulate: at leaft no farther than to allow both
fexes an opportunity of throwing their fperm. Early
in the fpring the male is found for feveral days in dole
contabt upon the back of the female, with his fofe legs
round her body in fuch a manner that makes it very
difficult to feparate them, but there is no communica¬
tion. At this time the female lays her fpawn in fome
place that is moft fecure, while the male emits his
fperm upon the female fpawn.
After raifing Up the black peritoneum in fifties, there The’air.
comes in view an oblong white membranous bag, in bladder,
which there is nothing contained but a quantity of1111(1 its
elaftic air. This is the f’wimming-bladder: it lies clofe u^es’
to the back-bone ; and has a pretty ftrong mufcular
coat, whereby it can contract itfelf. By contrafting
this bag, and condenfing the air within it, they can
make their bodies fpecifically heavier than water, and
fo readily fall to the bottom j whereas the mufcular
fibres ceafing to aft, the air is again dilated, and they
become fpecifically lighter than water, and fo fwim
above.
Chap. VIII,
Of Molluf- above. According to the different degrees of contrac-
, ca’ tion and dilatation of this bladder, they can keep high-
er or lower in the water at pleafure. Hence flounders,
foies, raia or fkate, and fuch other fiflies as want this
fac, are found always grovelling at the bottom of the
water : it is owing to this that dead fifhes (unlefs this
membrane has been previoufly broke) are found fwim-
ming a-top, the mufcular fibres then ceafing to ad,
and that with their bellies uppermoft; for the back¬
bone cannot yield, and the diflended fac is protruded
into the abdomen, and the back is confequently hea-
viell at its upper part, according to their pofture.
There is here placed a glandular fubflance, containing
a good quantity of red blood ; and it is very probable
-07 that the air contained in the fwimming-bladder is de¬
lta procef- rived from this fubftance. From the anterior part of
fus, or com-tl>e bag go out two procejjes or appendices, which, ac-
with the cording to the gentlemen of the French academy, ter-
ventriculus. minate in their fauces: in a variety of other fifhes we
311
find communications with fome parts of the alimentary Of Molluf-
canal, particularly the oefophagus and ftomach. The , c^a'
falmon has an opening from the fore end of the air-bag
into the oefophagus, which is furrounded by a kind of
mufcular fibres. The herring has a funnel-like paffage
leading from the bottom of the ftomach into the air¬
bag } but it is not determined whether the air enters
the air-bag by this opening, or comes out by it: the
latter, however, feems to be the more probable opi¬
nion, as the glandular body is found in all fifhes,
whereas there are feveral without this paffage of com¬
munication. jog
At the fuperior part of this bag there are other red- Ureters,
coloured bodies of a glandular nature, which are con-vefica
ne£ted with the kindeys. From them the ureters g° urethra'
down to their infertion in the vejica urinaria, which
lies in the lower part of the abdomen ; and the ure¬
thra is there produced, which terminates in the po-
dex.
ANATOM Y.
CHAP. VIII. OF MOLLUSCA.
IN thefe animals the mufcles or flefhy fibres are
white, and poffefled of great irritability : they retain
the power of motion even after being cut into fmall
pieces; and many parts of their bodies are capable of
being reproduced after being feparated. Their exter¬
nal furface is always moift, as there commonly exudes
from it a vifcous fluid. It is extremely fenfible, and
is furnifhed with organs called tentacula, which are ca¬
pable of being lengthened out or contraffted, fo as to
enable the animal to feel the better. It is uncertain
tvhether or not thefe animals poffefs the fenfation of
fmell, but if they do, the organ of this fenfe is pro¬
bably fituated at the entrance of their pulmonary vef-
fels. Many of them have eyes, and fome appear to be
poffeffed of ears.
Their body is ufually provided with, or at leaft part¬
ly enveloped by, a membranaceous covering. In ma¬
ny this covering is more or lefs cruftaceous, produced
from a calcareous juice exuding from the furface of the
animal, and forming a fhell compofed of one or more
pieces or valves. The body of the animal is attached
to this fhell by mufcles, which enable it to retire with¬
in the valves, or to fhut thefe together. Thefe mufcles
change their place, feparating from one part, and grow¬
ing to another, fo as always to preferve the fame rela¬
tive pofition, notwithftanding the unequal growth of
the fhell. Moft of thefe animals are inhabitants of
the fea : fome of them refide in frefh water 5 and fome
of them refide entirely on land.
The mollufca may be divided into three orders.
1. The cephalopoda, fo called becaufe their feet, or at
leaft the organs with which they feize their prey, are
fituated in the head. Their body is in the form of a
fack, which, when the external covering is removed,
exhibits the appearance of a compaft network of flefhy
fibres in three diftinft layers. Of thefe the outermoft
are placed lengthwife, the middle in a crofs direction,
and the innermoft in no regular order. By the various
actions of thefe fibres the fack of the animal is length¬
ened, contracted, bent, or twilled in various directions.
Thefe animals are furnifhed below the fkin of the
back with a folid body, which is for the moft part ex¬
ceedingly elaftic and tranfparent, and is fometimes fur¬
rowed longitudinally. In all the fpecies of fepia or
cuttle-fifh, except the *S'. oBopus, which wants it, this
body is a fort of bone, formed of thin concentric plates,
feparated by fmall columns, arranged fo as to form a
quincunx. It is oval and lenticular, or thickeft in the
middle.
The feet in this order are eight in number, and form
a circle round the mouth ; they end in fuckers, by
which the animal fixes itfelf to any fubftance, and are
furnifhed with numerous mufcles, by which they are
moved in every direction. The other fpecies of fepfe.
(except the oBopus and the- calmar), have, befides
thefe eight feet, two others which are longer and
fmaller.
They have three hearts; their refpiration is carried
on in the water by means of branchiae } they have very
large eyes, and organs of hearing fituated within the
head ; their ftomach is very flefhy, fo as to refemble
the gizzard of a fowl, and they have a very large li¬
ver. They are alfo furnifhed with a peculiar gland for
the purpofe of fecreting an inky fluid, which, when
they wifh to conceal themfelves, they throw out, and
thus obfeure the water round them.
2. The gajleropoda, which have upon the belly a
mufcular plane, by the contractions of which they
creep upon the belly, as may be obferved in the fnail;
and hence their name. They have no heart ; their
branchise are fituated fometimes within the body,
fometimes they furround the body, and are often on
the back •, they are naked in the firft cafe, and in the
others are covered with a kind of lid, and are of va¬
rious forms. The common trunk of the blood veffels
is fubdivided for the purpofe of diftributing to the
branchise the blood which has circulated through the
body. The moft of this order are hermaphrodite, but
require reciprocal copulation. There is almoft always
fituated near the matrix a bag, containing a fluid,
which.
3i* ANA
^aCr^a" generally thought to be the fubftance era-
. ployed by the ancients in the dying of purple ; the
ufe of this fluid in thefe animals is unknown. The in-
teftines coniift of a ftomach more or lefs flelhy, and an
alimentary canal j they have a very large liver, and
a confiderable number of them are provided with brain
and nerves.
3. Tile acephala, fo called becaufe they have no
heads. Thefe animals are commonly contained within
two fhells, and have their body entirely enveloped in
a membranaceous covering, which opens either in one
part or two, and to this covering, efpecially at that
part where the water enters, are attached the tentacu-
la, the only external organ of fenfation which the ani-
T O M Y.
Part II.
mals of this order appear to poffefs. Their organs of Of Crufta.
refpiration are compofed of large vaicular lamince, fi- cea.
tuated at the two fides, immediately beneath the co-'
vering ; their heart is placed towards the back. The
ftomach and great part of the inteftinal canal paffes
through the liver. Their mouth, which opens imme¬
diately into the ftomach, is placed between the bran¬
chiae, at the orifice oppofite to that by which the wa¬
ter enters, and round it are placed four triangular bo¬
dies which appear to be tentacula. The brain, where
it is prefent, is placed between the branchice and the
inteftinal canal. They appear to be all hermaphro¬
dites, and do not require copulation.
CHAP. IX. OF THE CRUSTACEA.
THE animals which compofe this order have com¬
monly been ranked among the infefls, but we have
thought it better to feparate them, as they are poflef-
fed of charafter by which they are fufficiently diftin-
guiflied. They have the body enveloped in a fort
of armour compofed of feveral pieces or fcales, and
are ufually provided with a great number of jointed
limbs.
The head in thefe animals Is immoveable, their prin¬
cipal motions being confined to the tail and feet. The
tail forms a confiderable portion of the animal, and is
furnifhed with very large and ftrong mufcles by the
aclion of which the animal is enabled to leap and fwim
with great celerity.
Their feet are of different forms in the feveral fpecies,
and alfo vary in number, and in fome fpecies anfwer
feveral very different purpofes. What in thefe animals
is analogous to the brain, is a long knotted nervous
cord, from the knots of which the nerves are diftri-
buted to the body. Their eyes are hard and complex,
and are ufually placed on a fort of footftalks, which
enable them to move with great facility in all direc¬
tions. They are furniftied with feelers and antenme
as we ftiall fee in infects. Their organs of hearing
are very imperfea:. They have a heart, and both an
arterial and a veinous fyftem of blood veffels. They
breathe by means of branchiae. Their jaws are gene¬
rally numerous, very ftrong, and fituated in a tranf-
verfe dire&ion. They are of diftinft fexes, and the
male has two penes.
CHAP. X. OF INSECTS.
AS under Entomology, now become a ftudy fo
falhionable, and which has been carried to a high de¬
gree of perfection, we propofe to give a particular
account of the ftrufture and economy of infeCts,
we fhall at prefent only offer a Ihort fketch of their
anatomy.
InfeCts differ from the former claffes, by their bodies
being covered with a hard Cruft or fcale, by their having
feelers or antennae arifing from their head, and many of
them breathing the air through lateral pores. As to the
fhape of their bodies, though it fomewhat differs from
that of bifds, being in general not fo fharp before to
cut and make way through the air, yet it is well adapt¬
ed to their manner of life. The bafe of their bodies
is not formed of bone, as in many other animals, but
the hard external covering ferves them for fkin and
bone at the fame time. Their feelers, befide the ufe
of cleaning their eyes, are a guard to them in their
walk or flight. Their legs and wings are well fitted
for their intended fervice $ but the latter vary fo much
in different infeCls, that from them naturalifts have
given names to the feveral orders of the clafs. Asj
firft, the
Coleoptera, or beetle tribe, which have a cruftaceous
elytra or thell, that (huts together, and forms a longi¬
tudinal future down their back.
Hcemiptera—as in cimex, cockroach, bug, &c. which
have the upper wings half cruftaceous and half mem¬
branaceous ; not divided by a longitudinal future, but
incumbent on each other.
Lepidoptera—as the butterfly, have four wings, co¬
vered with fine fcales in the form of powder.
Neuroptera—zs the dragon-fly, fpring-fly, &c. have
four membranaceous tranfparent .naked wings, gene¬
rally reticulated.
Hymenoptera—as rvafps, bees, &c. have four mem¬
branaceous wings, and a tail furniftied with a fling.
Diptera—as the common houfe-fly, have only two
wings.
Aptera—‘?& the fcorpion, fpider, &c. have no
wings.
The ftrudlure of the eye in many infefts is a moft
curious piece of mechanifm. The outer part is re¬
markably hard, to guard againft injuries; and has
commonly a reticular appearance, or the whole may
be looked upon as an affemblage of fmaller eyes ■, but
whether they fee objects multiplied before them, has
not yet been determined.
Linnaeus,
Chap.
Of Worms,
&■€
XI. A N A T
Linnaeus, and feveral others following him, deny
the exiftence of a brain m thefe creatures.
Their ear has been lately difcovered to be placed
at the root of their antennae or feelers, and can be
diftin£Hy feen in fome of the larger kinds.
They have a ftomach, and other organs of digeflion.
They have a heart and blood vefiels, and circulation
is carried on in them fomewhat as in the former clafs ;
but the blood is without red globules ; or, as natu-
ralifts fpeak, is colourlefs. In fome of the larger
kind, when a piece of the fhell is broken, the pulfa-
tion of the heart is feen diftin&ly, and that fometimes
for feveral hours after it has been laid bare.
Lungs. The exiftence of thefe by fome has been
denied. But late experiments and obfervations fliow
that no fpecies want them, or at leaft fomething fimi-
lar to them ; and in many infefts, they are larger in
proportion than in other animals *, in moft of them
they lie on or near thefurface of their body 5 and fend
out lateral pores or tracheae, by wdiich, if the animal
is befmeared with oil, it is inftantly fuffocated.
Generation. The fame difference in fex exifts in in¬
fers as in other animals, and they even appear more
difpofed to increafe their fpecies j many of them, when
become perfe£t, feeming to be created for no other
purpofe but to propagate .their like. Thus the filk-
worm, when it arrives at its perfeft or moth ftate, is
incapable of eating, and can hardly fty ; it endeavours
only to propagate its fpecies : after which the male
immediately dies, and fo does the female as foon as fhe
has depofited her eggs.
Stc.
o M Y. 313
Beftdes thofe of the male and female, a third fex Of Worms;
exifts in fome infedls, which we call neuter. As thefe
have not the diftinguifhing parts of either fex, they
may be conftdered as eunuchs or infertile. We know
of no inftance of this kind in any other clafs of ani¬
mals *, and it is only found among thofe infects,
which form themfelves into focieties, as bees, wafps,
and ants : and here thefe eunuchs are real Haves, as
on them lies the whole bufinels of the economy. No
hermaphrodites have as yet been difcovered among in-
fedts.
Many have imagined that the generality of infects
wTere merely the produftion of putrefaftion, becaufe
they have been obferved to arife from putrified fub-
ftancesj, but a contrary opinion is now more generally
adopted 5 and it is pretty certain, that if putrid bo¬
dies be ftrut up in a clofe veffel, no infedts are ever ge¬
nerated unlefs their ova have been originally depoftted
there. They are oviparous animals, and lay their eggs
in places moft convenient for the nourifhment of their
young ; fome in w'ater, others in flefn j feme in fruit
and leaves: while others make nefts in the earth or in
vrood, and fometimes even in the hardeft ftone. The
eggs of all infedls firft become (larva) caterpillar, or
maggot j from which they are changed into (pupa)
chryfalis or aurelia, fo named from their being inclo-
fed in a cafe ; and thefe dying, or feeming to die, the
(imago) fly, or butterfly, or perfedl ftate, fucceeds; and
during each of thefe changes their appearance differs
w'onderfully.
CHAP. XL OF WORMS.
THE worms form a clafs in’’ the fyftem of Linne,
comprehending the mollufca, and the next affemblage
of which we are to fpeak, viz. the Xoophytes, beftdes
the worms properly fo called.
We have feen that infedls in one part of their exift¬
ence appear in the ftate of larvae, or organized beings
refembling the common caterpillar or larvae of the
butterfly. In fome of tbefe the organs of motion are
very perfeft, and they are furnifhed with regular arti¬
culated members, provided with folid parts. From
thefe there is a gradation to the worms, which have
no feet, but move forwards either by means of briftles
or hairs fixed in the furface of their bodies, as in the
common earth-worm and the lumbricus of the intef-
tines, or they are provided at each extremity with a
circular fucker, as in the leech, by which they faften
one end of their body to the furface on which they
are to move, and proceed forward by the contrac¬
tions of the mufcular rings of which their body is
chiefly compofed. Within their body is found a
wThite nervous cord. Thofe which inhabit the water-
carry on refpiration by means of membranaceous bran¬
chiae; in others there are pores or ftigmata, analo¬
gous to thet racheae of infedls; fome of them are fur-
niftred with feelers. Of the moft important of this
clafs, the worms which inhabit the inteftines of other
animals, wre propofe to give a particular account in a
future article.
CHAP. XII. OF THE ZOOPHYTES.
THE zoophytes form the hnveft clafs of animated
nature ; and many of them bear fo clofe a refemblance
to plants and minerals, that they would feem to be¬
long rather to thefe kingdoms than to that in w-hich
modern naturalifts have agreed to arrange them. The
mollufca poffefs organs of digeftion, fenfation, circula¬
tion, and refpiration, and are furnifhed with vifeera
not very unlike thofe of the vertebrale animals. In-
Vot. II. Part I.
fe£fs form the next degree, which have no diftimT
circulation, and very imperfeft refpiratory organs;
but in them we fee fomething like a brain, and w^ell
marked organs of fenfation. We obferve the fame in
-many worms, in moft of which they probably exift..
But in the zoophytes there is no appearance of circu¬
lation; there are no nerves, and no fenforium or com¬
mon centre of fenfation ; there is but little appearance
R r of
$14 A N A T
Ot Zoophy-of refpiration, and often fcarcely any thing which may
r t^8' be termed an organ of digeftion. Every point of their
body feems independently to attradl nourifhment, and
independently to poffefs the faculty of fenfation ; hence
the extreme degree of irritability, the great power of
vitality, and of reproduftion, which we find in thefe
animals. For propagation, they need only be cut in
pieces, and do not require a difference of fex or organs
of generation to preferve the fpecies : They may be di¬
vided into twro orders; the firfl of -which, as bearing
o M Y. Part II.
a refemblance to both animals and plants, may be pro-Pf Zoophy-
perly called zoophytes; and the lafl, as refembling tes-
both plants and ftones, may be called lithophytes. See v-—*
Lithophytes and Zoophytes. We have in this
comparative view of organized beings, purpofely avoid¬
ed giving any defcription of the anatomy of plants.
This would form a neceffary part of a complete fyftem
of comparative anatomy ; but does not properly fall
to be confidered in a fketch of this kind. It will be
fully detailed in its proper place. See Botany.
index.
Abdomen, n* 8o
ufe of the veficles
in, 272
Air-bladder in fifties, 309
Allantois in cows, 244
arguments for and againft
the human, 245
Amnios in cow's, 246
Amygdals, 181
Anatomy, Comparative, 145
many advantages from the
ftudy of, 146
helps to explain ancient
waiters, 147
diverfities of organization
in, confidered, 148
Angiology, 126
Aorta afcendens in dogs, 204
afcendens and defcendens in a
cow, 236
Animal motion, the fimpleft fun&ion
of, _ # 149
differences in the fenfitive or¬
gans of an, 151
Appendix vcrmiformis, 193
Arm, bones, of the, 58
right, mechanical account of
the fuperior ftrength of, 205
AJlragalus, 65
B
Beaks, the variety in thofe of fowds, 25 ?
Bile, 98
Birds, anatomy of, 246
wings, how furniftied, 247
wings of, v,rhy not placed in the
middle of the body, 248
covering of, 250
carnivorous, 262
Bladder, in dogs, 214
connexion of the, 215
why the human only partly
covered by the peritone¬
um, 216
a ftimulus a principal caufe
of the evacuation of the, 217
in cows, 337
Blood, circulation of,
nature of,
veffels of in tortoifes,
Bone, occipital,
Bones, compofition of,
connexion of,
marrow,
parietal,
temporal,
Bourfe noire in birds,
Brain,
integuments of,
parts of,
Branchix,
Breajls,
Burfx mucofee.
N° 128
129
282
J4
1
2
.5
I3
15
253
132
'33
*37
3°4
8
ffrufture of, compared
with the capfular li¬
gaments of the joints, 9
C
Capfulce atrabilarice, 212
Carpus, 54
Cartilages, 3
Cellular membrane, 83
Cerebrum, 133
Cerebellum, 1 ~6
in fifties, 208
Chejl, 114
Chorion in cows, 242
Circulation, important diflinctions in
the organs of, 154
C/avicuIa, 46
Coitus, 224
Colon, 194
Conception, 112
Cor in birds, 270
Cornua uteri m cows, 240
Cotyledones in cows, 243 ,
Cow, hiflory of, as a ruminant ani¬
mal, 228
has four ftomachs, 229
names of the ftomachs, 230
Cranium, bones of, 11
Crop in birds, 256
Crujlacea, p. 312
Cryjlalline humour in fifties a com¬
plete fphere, 291
Cuticula,
Cutis,
D
N‘74
76
Deglutition,
Dejection,
Diaphragm,
in dogs,
in birds,
in fifties,
Digejlion,
organs of, furnifti u$ with
two great diftindtions,
adlion of the organs of,
forms the chyle,
power of the organs of,
in fifties performed wholly
by a menftruum,
Dog, anatomy of,
brain of,
DuSlus choledochus in birds,
Duodenum,
in a cow,
in birds,
E
107
206
273
300
log
152
*53
161
294
160
165
266
090
232
259
Ear, _ 173
Epidermis, how it inverts the inter¬
nal furface of all the
. cavities and veflels of
the human body, 258
Epiglottis, 184
Eye in birds, 252
Extremities, 43
upper, 44
lower, 57
F
Face, bones of the, 11, 18
Fatus in utero 113
Fat, 8 4
Fibula, 62
Fingers, 56
Fijhcs, anatomy, 285
cuticula fimilar to the human, 286
ufes of the fins, tail, air-bags,
&c. of, 287
teeth of, 293
heart of, has but one auricle
and one ventricle, 299
Foot,
Index.
Fool, N° 63
Fore-arm, bones of, 30
Fowls, peculiar meclianifm in the toes
of> 249
Frog, 285
G
Gall-bladder, gy
Generation, differences in the organs
of, . 157
organs in the males of
birds, 277
organs in fiflies, 304
Glands fynovial, 6
febaceous, 77, 131
Glandulce renales, 100
Glottis in dogs, 183
Gullet in dogs, 186
H
Hair, - 82
Hand, bones of the, 33
Hearing, . . 144
in birds, 254
in fifties, 292
Heart, and its auricles, 125
a£lion of, and its auricles and
arteries, 127
in a dog, 202
in a cow,
Hernia or rupture, whence the falfe
notion of, 219
Hunger, jo6
I
yaws, 179
Jejunum, 191
bigluvies in birds, 263
InfeEls, P* 31*
Integuments, (common), and their ap¬
pendages, N* 73
Intejlina tenuia, 19 2
in a cow, 231
tenuia in birds, 261, 265
in fifties, 295
Intejlines, 93
in dogs, 189
K
Kidneys, of the, lot
in dogs, 209
in birds, 276
L
LaEleals in tortoifes, 283
in fifties, 303
Leg, _ 60
mechanical account of the fupc-
rior ftrength of, 20 ^
Ligaments, 7
Liver, 96
in a dog, 200
in a cow, 234
in birds, 268
gall-bladder, and the du6ts in
fifties, 297
Lizard, 285
Lungs, 120
Lymphatic veffels, 109
fyftem in birds, 275
'ANA T G M Y,
Lymphatics in fifties, N° 302
in tortoifes, 284
M
Mammae, 227
Man, whether a biped or a quadruped, 162
Majlication, 107
Maxilla, inferior, 26
Mediajlinum, 201
Medulla oblongata, 137
fpinalis, 138
Membrana niciitans, 174
Mefentery, 94
in dogs, 196
Metacarpus, 33
Metatarfus, 70
Mollufca, p. 311
Mouth, form and pofition of the, N® 103
Mufcles, 83
Mufculus fufpenforius, 173
N
Nails, 81
Nates and tejles in dogs, 169
Neck, vertebrae of the, 31
of a dog, 178
Nerves, 139
Nofe of a dog, 172
Nutrition, 120
O
Oefophagus, 92
Omentum, 96
in dogs, 187
Optic nerve in fifties, 290
Organisation and functions, variations
which take place a-
mong, 137
inftance of, 138
Organs, male, of generation, no
female, of generation, in
Osf 'ontis, 12
fphenoides, 16
ethmoides, x 7
hy aides, 28
facrum, 3 4
coccyx, 33
ilium, 40
ifehium, 41
pubis, 4 2
humeri, 49
femoris, 38
calcis, 66
naviculare, 67
cuboides, 68
OJfa malarum, 19
maxillaria fuperiora, 20
nqfi, 21
unguis, 2 2
palati, 23
fpongiofa inferior a, . 23
cuneifonnia, 69
fefamoidea, 7 2
Paticreas,
afellii in dogs,
in birds,
in fifties,
95
97
266
296
3i5
Panniculus carnofus, whence the mo¬
tion of, N° 164
Papillce, 210
Pelvis, bones of the, 39
in quadrupeds, 21 r
Penis, 223
Pericardium, 124
Periofeum, 4
Peritoneum, 89
Perfpiration, infenfible, and fweat, 78
difpute whether thefe
are one and the fame
or different excretions, 79
ufes of, 80
Pleura, 116
Proceffus mamillaris, 168
Prof at a, 223
Pu/mones inhxrAs, 271
Pupil la, 176
Q~
Quadrupeds, cuticula, cutis, and pan¬
niculus carnofus in, 163
why molt want clavicles, 163
falx of, 167
R
Radius, 3
Redlum in dogs, 92
Reptiles, 280
Refpiration, of, 121
organs of, difplay ftriking
varieties, 133
and motion, relationbetweeu, 139
Rete mucofum, 73
mirabilegaleni in dogs, 170
PJbs, 38
in dogs, 208
Rotula, 39
S
Scapula, 47
Scrotum, 2 26
VefcuU feminales in cows, 238
Secretions, of, 131
Senfation, differences betxveen the or¬
gans of, and thofe of re¬
fpiration, 160
Senfes, 140
differences in the external, 131
Serpents, circulation in, 283
Shoulder, 43
Skeleton, 1 o
Skin, 7 3
Smelling, 143
in birds, 231
in fifties, 289
Spine, 30
Spleen, 99
in dogs, 199
in cows, 233
in birds, 267
in fifties, 298
Sternum, 3 7
in a dog, 207
Stomach, gi$
in quadrupeds, 188
Swimming of fifties, how performed, 287
R r 2 T
3i6
T
Tape turn,
Tarfus,
Tajle, the fenfe of,
Teeth,
in dogs,
Te/les,
Thirji, of,
Thymus,
Tibia,
Toes,
Tongue,
Tortoife,
fliell and covering of the,
Touch, fenfe of,
Trachea,
Trunk, bones of the,
V
Vafa fpermatica,
ANATOMY.
Veins, lafteal, N° ro8 Vomer,
N3 177 Velum pendulumpalati in dogs, 182
64 Vena cava, 203
142 Ventriculus fuccenturiatus, feu infun-
27 dibulum, in birds, 257, 264
180 its communication with the
222 air-bladder, 306
106 Vertebra of the back, 32
117 lumbar, 33
61 Ve/ica fellis in birds, 269
71 Vejiculee feminales, how the want of
171 them is fupplied, 221
381 how fupplied in birds, 280
ib. Vis injita, 86
141 nervea, 87
119 Vifton, 144
29 Vitellarum in birds, 278
Voice, 1 21
218 differences in the organs of, 156
U
Ulna,
Ureters,
in dogs,
in fifhes,
Urinary bladder.
Urine,
Uterus in dogs,
in cows,
if thicker in time of
tion,
in birds,
Uvula, the ufe of it in man,
W
Wind-pipe in birds,
Worms,
z
Zoophytes,
Index.
N° 24
5i
102
213
308
103
104
226
239
genera-
241
279
185
274
P- 3J3
P- 3I3
ANA
ANA
Anattom,
Anaxago¬
ras.
t.
ANATTO’VT, in Geography, the moft foutherly
ifland of the New Hebrides, in the fouthern Pacific
ocean. S. Lat. 20. 3. E. Long. 170. 4.
ANAXAGORAS, an eminent phiiofopher of an¬
tiquity, was born in the firft year of the 70th Olym¬
piad, or 500 years before Chrift. In confequence of
the eminent talents of this phiiofopher he obtained the
appellation of Mind. Pythagoras reprefents philofo-
phers as mere fpeflators of the affairs of human life,
and who, neglefting all other purfuits, devote their
exertions to the inveftigation of nature, and the fearch
after wifdom. According to this definition of a phiio¬
fopher, Anaxagoras ilriftly merited the honourable
appellation ; for though he was of a refpetffable defcent,
and pofieffed of a confiderable fortune, yet he relin-
quilhed both, fo that, in the language of Cicero, he
might “ give himielf wholly to the divine pleafures of
learning and inquiry.” The fons of wealth, and the
lovers of money will probably unite in the ridicule
caff upon him by the age in which he lived, even
“ that he philofophized very fooiifhly but the mind
of Anaxagoras dilregarded their Icorn, and perfever-
ed in his plan 5 and although the reader may heiitate in
giving applaufe to the man who deprives fociety of the
benefits of his focial talent, yet the eager third of his
mind after knowledge is entitled to becoming credit.
Leaving his lands to be cultivated and enjoyed by
his friends, Anaxagoras placed himfelf under the care
of Anaximenes the Milefian. About the age of
twenty lie went to Athens and entered upon the lludy
of philofophy, where he continued 30 years. Some
fuppofe that he was the firit difciple of the Ionian
fchool, founded by Thales a teacher of philofophy in
Athens. When Anaxagoras affumed the charafter
of a public teacher of philofophy, he quickly rofe to
high eminence, and produced many famous fcholars,
among whom were Euripides the tragedian, Pericles the
llatefman, and the renowned Socrates. This phiiofo¬
pher contented himfelf with ferving the republic in his
own ftation, without interfering in any of the public affairs Anaxago-
of the Hate. Both by the principles of wifdom which he , ras’
infpired into the minds of the Athenian youth, and alfo
by his daily advice in the moft important affairs, parti¬
cularly in the cafe of Pericles, he was of fingular fervice
to his country. But neither the friendihip of the fa¬
mous Pericles, nor his own general difintereftednefs of
charadter, nor his immenfe ftores of learning, could
ward off the fhafts of perfecution. Cleo accufed him
of impiety, and the introduction of new opinions con¬
cerning the gods, becaufe he taught that the fun was
a burning mafs of ftone, or an inanimate fiery fub-
ftance. By this opinion he was faid to rob the fun of
his divinity, becaufe in the popular opinion he was
deemed Apollo, one of the greateft deities. But al¬
though Cleo made religion the avowed caufe of the
accufation of Anaxagoras, it is highly probable that
civil caufes chiefly operated towards his condemna¬
tion. It is, however, abundantly evident, that he did
not hefitate to expofe the vulgar fuperftitions on fe-
veral occafions; but the evidence is not fufficient
which pretends to prove that he was condemned for
teaching the dodlrine of a fupreme intelligence, the
creator of the world. His judges condemned him to
deathy but Pericles appearing in his defence, the fen-
tence was changed from that of death to banilhment
and a pecuniary fine.
It is reported, that when one of his friends regretted
his exile, he replied : “ It is not I who have loft the
Athenians, but the Athenians who have loft me.”
Whilft a fmall degree of vanity appears in this fenti-
ment, it neverthelefs informs pollerity with what calm-
nefs of mind he endured the changes of fortune. But
other fayings tend more fully to unfold his charaCler.
During the courfe of a lefture one day, he was inter¬
rupted with the unpleafant news of the death of a fon :
he calmly replied, “ I knew that I begat him mor¬
tal.” When he received the fentence of condemna¬
tion, he confolcd himfelf by this conftderation : “ Na¬
ture,
ANA
Anaxago- ture, (faxc! he) long ago pronounced the fame fentence
ras. againft me.”
Expelled from Athens, Anaxagoras palled the re¬
mainder of his days at Lampfacus, teaching philofophy
in the fchool of his deceafed mailer Anaximenes, until
the infirmities of nature terminated his ufeful life in
the year 428 before Chrift. Before his death his
friends inquired if they Ihould carry his bones to his
native city : he returned for anfwer, that this was quite
“ unneceffary, the way to the regions below is every-
wThere alike open.” When the magiftrates of Lamp¬
facus fent a meffage to him before his death, requell¬
ing to know in what manner he wilhed them to
honour his memory, he faid, “ Only let the day of my
death be annually kept as a holiday by the boys in
the fchools of Lampfacus.” This was complied with,
and the cullom remained even in the time ol Diogenes
Laertius. This great philofopher died at the advanced
age of 72, and the inhabitants of Lampfacus ere£led
a tomb upon his remains, with the following epitaph.
TrXeirov oiMbeats Trignc*?
O’j^oivnv x.o<rf4iS, kutou Avct^otyo^ois.
This tomb great Anaxagoras confines,
Whofe mind explor’d the paths of heavenly truth.
It is alfo reported, that there was an altar erecled
to his memory, upon wrhich wrere infcribed the words
Truth and Mind.
Many fabulous reports are narrated concerning this
philofopher, of w'hich it appears unnecefiary to take
any particular notice } and Diogenes Laertius has col-
lefted with little care and judgment, after an interval
of more than 700 years, the remains concerning this
philofopher, wdiich wTere fcattered through various
writings. With no fmall degree of diffidence then the
pen mull record a fummary of his dodlrine colle£led
from fuch unfatisfaflory information, efpecially fince
his biographer himfelf has given full proof both of his
ignorance and negligence •, and as the whole narrative
abounds vrith chronological contradictions and other in-
conlillencies.
It appears, however, that in the midll of fome ex¬
travagant conceptions Anaxagoras held opinions which
indicate a confiderable acquaintance with the law’s of
nature. His idea of the heavens appears to have been,
that they w'ere a folid vault, originally compofed of
Hones, elevated from the earth by the violent motion
of the ambient aether, inflamed by its heat, and by the
rapid circular motion of the heavens fixed in their re-
fpeflive places. The tellimonies of feveral writers,
among which is that of the refpedlable Xenophon, unite
in proving that he confidered the fun to be a large
fiery Hone *, and Xenophon introduces Socrates as re¬
futing that dodlrine, and delivering an unfavourable
opinion concerning his other writings. From his per¬
ceiving that the rainbow’ is the eff'eiS of the refledlion
of the folar rays from a dark cloud, and that wind is
produced by the rarefaffion, and found by the percuf-
iton, of the air, Anaxagoras feems to have paid conlider-
able attention to the phenomena of nature. Fie mull
have had fome knowledge of the nature of the atmo-
fphere, and the dodlrine of eclipfes, if, according to re¬
port, he could predial a fall of rain and darknefs at
noonday.
ANA
Our information is more correft concerning his Anaxar-
opinions of the principles of nature and the origin of cnus'
things. He imagined that in nature there are as many
kinds of principles as there are fpecies of compound
bodies, and that the peculiar form of the primary par¬
ticles of which any body is compofed, is the fame
with the quality of the compound body itfelf. For in-
llance, he fuppofed that a piece of gold is compofed of
fmall particles which are themlelves gold, and a bone
of a great number of fmall bones 5 thus, accoiding to
Anaxagoras, bodies of every kind are generated from
fimilar particles. That part of his lyllem is more
agreeable to reafon which explains the adtive principle
in nature. According to Diogenes Laertius, Anaxa¬
goras taught, that “ the univerfe conlills of fmall
bodies compofed of fimilar parts, and that mind is the
beginning of motion.” “ He was the firil, (fays the
fame wTriter), who fuperadded mind to matter, opening
his wrork in this pleafing and fublime language : ‘ All
things w’ere confufed ; then came mind, and difpofed
them in order.” Plato informs us that this philofopher
taught the exiftence of a difpofing mind, the caufe of
all things. Anaxagoras, according to Ariftotle, taught
that mind w-as “ the caufe of the world, and of all order j
and that while all things elfe are compounded, this alone
is pure and unmixed 5 and that “ he aferibes to this prin¬
ciple two powers, to know, and to move, laying, that
mind put the univerfe into motion.” Cicero exprefsly
aflerts, that Anaxagoras w?as the firfl: wffio taught, that
“ the arrangement and order of all things w7as contrived
and accompliflred by the underftanding and pow’er of
an infinite mind.” (Gen. Biog.)
ANAXARCHUS, a Grecian philofopher, who li¬
ved under Philip of Macedon and Alexander, was born
in Abdera, and belonged to the fe6l generally known
by the name of the Eleatic. He is laid to have been
conduced in the progrefs of his early lludies by the
Ikilful hands of Diomenes of Smyrna and Metrodorus
of Chios. He had the honour to be a companion of
Alexander ; and a few anecdotes tranfmitted to polle-
rity concerning him render it evident that he treated
him with the ufual freedom of a friend. This ph.ilo-
fopher candidly checked the Lain glory, of Alexander
(when elated with pride he afpired to the honours of
divinity), by pointing to his finger when it bled, fay¬
ing, “ See the blood of a mortal, not of a god.” It is
likewife reported, that on another occafion, while in¬
dulging immoderately at a banquet, he repeated a verfe
from Euripides, reminding Alexander of his mortality.
It is, however, to be regretted, that the fidelity of the
philofopher was wanting at the time when the mind
of Alexander was tortured with remorfe at having flain
his friend Clitus j for it is reported that he, on that oc¬
cafion, endeavoured to foothe the agitated mind of A-
lexander, by faying, that “ kings, like the gods, could
do no wrong.” It is reported that Nicocreon, king
of Cyprus, expofed him to the torture of being pound¬
ed in a mortar, and that he endured this torture with
incredible patience 5 but as the fame fact is reported
of Zeno the Eleatic, there is reafon to fuppefe that it
is fabulous ^ and it may be added, that this narrative
is inconfillent with the general character of Anaxnr-
chus, who, on account of his eafy and peaceable life,
received the appellation of “ The Fortunate.” (Gen,
Biog.)
[ 317 1
ANAXIMANDER,
ANA [3
ANAXIMA.NDER, a famous Greek philofoplier,
born at Miletus in the 42d Olympiad, in the time of Po¬
lycrates tyrant, of Samos. Pie was the firft who pub¬
licly taugrit philofophy, and wrote upon philofophical
fubjefts. He carried his refearches into nature very
far for the time in which he lived. It is faid, that he
difcovered the obliquity of the zodiac, was the firft
who publiflied a geographical table, invented the gno¬
mon, and fet up the firft fun-dial in an open place at La-
cedxmon. He taught, that infinity of things was the
principal and univerfal element; that this infinite al¬
ways preferved its unity, but that its parts underwent
changes; that all things came from it j and that all
were about to return into it. According to all appear¬
ance, he meant by this obfcure and indeterminate prin¬
ciple the chaos of the other philofophers. Pie afferted,
that there is an infinity of worlds } that the liars are
compofed of air and fire, which are carried in their
fpheres, and that thefe fpheres are gods j and that the
earth is placed in the midft of the univerfe, as in a
common centre. He added, that infinite worlds were
the produft of infinity, and that corruption proceeded
from feparation.
ANAXIMENES, born at Miletus, an eminent
Greek philofopher •, friend, fcholar, and fucceffor of
Anaximander. He diftufed fome degree of light upon
the obfcurity of his mailer’s fyfteln. He made the firft
principle of things to confift in the air, which he con-
lidered as itttmenfe or infinite, and to which he afcribed
a perpetual motion. He afferted, that all things which
-proceeded from it were definite and circumfcribed j
and that this air, therefore, was God, fince the divine
power refided in it and agitated it. Coldnefs and moi-
fture, heat and motion, rendered it vifible, and dreffed
it in different forms, according to the different degrees
of its condenfation. All the elements thus proceed
from heat and cold. The earth was, in his opinion,
one continued flat furface.
Anaximenes, a Greek hiftorian and rhetorician,
was born at Lampfacus about 580 years before Chrift.
Diogenes, the Cynic, laid the principles of erudition in
the mind of this great man. Some writers afcribe to
him “ A Treatife on the principles of Rhetoric,” which
bears the name of Ariftotle ; and it is reported that
Philip of Macedon invited him to his court to inftru£l
his fon Alexander in that fcience. Alexander was at¬
tended in his expedition againft Perfia by this learned
philofopher and many other eminent men. The inha¬
bitants of the city, which had the honour to give him
birth, having efpoufed the caufe of Darius, upon Alex¬
ander’s conquering them, they entreated their country¬
man Anaximenes to intercede with Alexander in their
behalf. He humanely undertook to interpofe for
them; but the king being informed of his intention, as
foon as he came into his prefence, fwore that he would
grant him nothing that he Ihould alk. Pie inftantly
replied, “ I entreat you to deftroy Lampfacus, to burn
its temples, and to fell the inhabitants for Haves.”
Alexander, ftruck with this dexterous reply, kept his
word, and faved the city.
Another pleafing anecdote is related of Anaxime¬
nes. For fome unrecorded caufe, he being difpleafed
with the hiftorian Theopompus, in order to revenge
himfelf, wrote a fevere fatire againft the Spartans and
Thebans, in a ftile exaflly fimilar to that of Theo-
18 j A N C
pompus, and under his name addreffed it to the Athe-An;;x,in:.n-
nians. Theopompus was generally believed to be the ‘hians
author of that work, and confequently it brought upon A ^
him the odium and indignation of all Greece. Whilft ■ r‘ci:‘t{’rq\
this adtion afforded an illuftrious proof of the ftrength
of his talents, it afforded an equal evidence of the qua¬
lity of his heart. The hiftory of Philip, of Alexan¬
der, and likewife twelve books on the early hiftory of
Greece, were the produ&ions of his pen, but are now
unfortunately loft. (Gen. Biog.)
ANAXIM ANDRIANS, in the Hi/} cry of Philofo¬
phy, the followers of Anaximander, the moft ancient of
the philofophical atheifts who admitted of no other
fubftance in nature but matter.
AjS AZ ARB US {Pliny), An At area (Stephanus);
a town of Cilicia, on the river Pyramus, the birth¬
place of Diofcorides, and of the poet Oppian. It
v\as fometimes called Cafarea, in honour either of
Auguftus or of Tiberius. The inhabitants are called
Anaxarbcni (Pliny), and on coins Ana-zarbeis after
the Greek idiom. It was deftroyed by a dreadful
earthquake in the year 525, along with feveral other
important cities : but they were all repaired at a vaft
expence.by the emperor Juftin ; who was fo much af-
feded with their misfortune, that, putting off the dia¬
dem and purple, he appeared for feveral days in fack-
cloth.
ANBERTKEND, in the eaftern language, a ce¬
lebrated book of the Brachmans, wherein the Indian
philofophy and religion are contained. The word in
its literal lenfe denotes the ciftern wherein is the water
of life. The anbertkend is divided into 50 beths or
difeourfes, each of which confifts of 10 chapters. It
has been tranflated from the original Indian into Ara¬
bic, under the title of Moral alMaani, q. d. “ the mar¬
row of intelligence.”
ANCARANO, a town of Italy, in the marquifate
of Ancona. E. Long. 14. 54. N. Lat. 42. 48.
ANCASTER, a town of Lincolnftiire, fituated in
W. Long. 30. N. Lat. 52. 30. It gives title of duke
to the noble family of Bertie.
AN CENTS, a town of France, in the province of
Brittany. W. Long. 1.9. N. Lat. 47. 20.
ANCESTORS, thofe from whom a perfon is de-
feended. in a ftraight line. Phe word is derived from
the Latin anceffor^ contrafted from anteceffor, q. d.
“ goer before.”
Moft nations have paid honours to their anceftors.
It was properly the departed fouls of their forefathers
that the Romans wmrfliipped under the denominations
of lares, lemures, and hoafehold gods. Hence the an¬
cient tombs were a kind of temples, or rather altars,
whereon oblations were made by the kindred of the
deceafed.
The Ruffians have ftill their anniverfary feafts in
memory of their anceftors, which they call roditoli fabot,
q. d. “ kinsfolk’s fabbath wherein they make formal
vjfits to the dead in their graves, and carry them pro-
vifions, eatables, and prefents of divers other kinds.
They interrogate them, with loud lamentable cries,
W hat they are doing ? How they fpend their time ?
What it is they want ? and the like.
The Quojas, a people of Africa, offer facrifices of
rice and wine to their anceftors before ever they un¬
dertake any confiderable action. The anniveifaries of
their
A N C [3
Anccftors. their deaths are always kept by their families with
""v ' great folemnity. The king invokes the foul of his
father and mother to make trade flourifh and the chafe
fucceed.
The Chinefe feem to have diftinguifhed themfelves
above all other nations in the veneration they bear
their anceftors. By the laws of Confucius, part of
the duty which children owe their parents confifts in
worfhipping them when dead. This fervice, which
makes a confiderable part of the natural religion of
the Chinefe, is faid to have been inftituted by the em¬
peror Kun, the fifth in order from the foundation of
that ancient empire. Bibl. Un. tom. vii. The Chinefe
have both a folemn and ordinary worfhip which they
pay their anceftors. The former is held regularly twice
a year, viz. in fpring and autumn, with much pomp.
A perfon who wras prefent at it gives the following ac¬
count of the ceremonies on that occafion : The lacri-
fices were made in a chapel well adorned, w’here there
were fix altars furniftied with cenfers, tapers, and
flowers. There were three minifters, and behind them
two young acolites. The three former xvent wuth a pro¬
found filence, and frequent genuflexions, towards the
five altars, pouring out wine : afterwards they drew
near to the fixth, and when they came to the foot of
the altar, half bowled down, they faid their prayers
with a lowT voice. That being finiihed, the three mi¬
nifters wrent to the altar •, the officiating prieft took up
a veffel full of wine, and drank ; then he lifted up the
bead of a deer or goat *, after which, taking fire from
the altar, they all lighted a bit of paper ; and the mi-
nifter of the ceremonies turning towards the people,
faid wdth a loud voice, That he gave them thanks in
the name of their anceftors for having fo well honour¬
ed them *, and in recompenfe he promifed them, on
their part, a plentiful harveft, a fruitful iiTue, good
health, and long life, and all thofe advantages that are
moft pleafing to men.
The Chinefe gave their anceftors another Ampler
and more private vorftrip. To this end they have in
their houfes a niche or hollow place, wdrere they put
the names of their deceafed fathers, and make prayers
and offerings of perfumes and fpices to them at cer¬
tain times, with bowing, &c. They do the like at
their tombs.
The Jew's fettled in China are faid to w'orflrip their
anceftors like the heathens, and with the fame cere¬
monies, except that they offer not fwines flefti. Near
their fynagogue they have a hall, or court of anceftors,
wherein are niches for Abraham, Ifaac, &c. The ]e-
fuits alfo conformed, and were permitted by their ge¬
neral to conform to this and many other fuperftitious
cuftoms of the Chinefe.
There is one peculiarity of another kind, wherein
the Chinefe fhow' their regard for their anceftors ; in
proportion as any of their defcendants are preferred
to a higher degree or dignity, their dead anceftors are
at the fame time preferred and ennobled with them.
The kings Ven Van, Veu Van, and Cheu Cum, who
w'ere defcended from vaffal kings, when they mounted
the imperial throne, raifed their anceftors from the
vaffal or depending ftate wherein thefe had lived to
the dignity of emperors j fo that the fame honours
were for the future rendered them as if they had been
emperors of China. The fame example was followed
9 1 A N C
by the fubfequent kings, and now obtains among the Anchilops
grandees and literati : all nowr worfhip their anceftors, U
according to the rank which they themfelves hold , °r‘ .
in the wrorld. If the fon be a mandarin, and the fa¬
ther only a doflor, the latter is buried as a doclor, but
facrificed to as a mandarin. The like holds in degra¬
dations, where the condition of the fathers is that of
their fons.
ANCHILOPS, c&yKvXn, contra&ion, and uip, eye;
in Medicine, denotes an abfeefs, or colledlion of mat¬
ter, betwreen the great angle of the eye and the nofe.
If fuffered to remain too long, or unfkilfully managed,
it degenerates, the ftagnating humours corrupt, and
an ulcer is produced. When the tumor is broke, and
the tears flow' involuntarily, w'hilft the os lachrymale is
not carious, it is an agy/ops ; but when the ulcer is of
a long ftanding, deep, fetid, and the os lachrymale be¬
comes carious, it is a fjhila. The cure is by reftric-
tion and excifion, tying it at the root on the glandula
lachrymalis, and, wdien ready, cutting it off. See Sur¬
gery, Index.
ANCHISES, in Fabulous Hijiory, a Trojan prince,
defcended from Dardanus, and the fon of Capys. Ve¬
nus made love to him in the form of a beautiful
nymph ; and bore him iEneas, the hero of Virgil’s
iEneid.
ANCHOR (anchora, Lat. from nyuv^ci, Greek), a
heavy, ftrong, crooked inftrument of iron, dropped '
from a fhip into the bottom of the w'ater, to re¬
tain her in a convenient ftation in a harbour, road, or
river.
The moft ancient anchors are faid to have been of
ftone ; and fometimes of w'ood, to which a great quan¬
tity of lead was ufually fixed. In fome places, balkets
full of ftones, and fades filled with fand, w'ere employ¬
ed for the fame ufe. All thefe w'ere let dowm by cords
into the fea, and by their weight ftayed the courfe of
the fliip. Aftenvards they were compofed of iron,
and furniftied with teeth, wdiich, being fattened to the
bottom of the fea, preferved the veffel immoveable ;
whence o^ovrus and denies are frequently taken for an¬
chors in the Greek and Latin poets. At firft there w'as
only one tooth, whence anchors were called ihgorofioi;
but, in a fliort time, the fecond w'as added by Eupala-
mus, or Anacharfis the Scythian philofapher. 1'he an¬
chors with tw'o teeth wrere called etfi<p&aXot or xp(pura/u,oi;
and from ancient monuments appear to have been much
the fame writh thofe ufed in our days, only the tranf-
verfe piece of wood upon their handles (the flock) is
wanting in all of them. Every fliip had feveral an¬
chors ; one of wdiich, furpafling all the reft in bignefs
and ftrength, was peculiarly termed Up* or facra, and
was never ufed but in extreme danger ; w'hence facram
anchor am fohere, is proverbially applied to fuch as are
forced to their laft refuge.
The anchors now made are contrived fo as to fink
into the ground as foon as they reach it, and to hold
a great ftrain before they can be loofened or diflodged
from their ftation. They are compofed of a ftiank, a
ftock, a ring, and two arms with their flukes. The
flock, which is a long piece of timber fixed acrofs the
ftiank, ferves to guide the flukes in a diredlion perpen¬
dicular to the furface of the ground j fo that one of
them finks into it by its own weight as foon as it falls,
and is ftill preferved fteadily in that pofition by the
flock,.
Plate
XX ill!.
A N C [3
'Anchor, flock, vvnick, together with the {hank, lies flat on the
” bottom. In this fituation it muft neceflarily fuflain a
great effort before it can be dragged through the earth
horizontally. Indeed this can only be effected by the
violence of the wind or tide, or both of them, fome-
times increafed by the turbulence of the lea, and ail¬
ing upon the Ihip fo as to ftretch the cable to its utmoft
tendon, which accordingly may diflodge the anchor
from its bed, efpecially if the ground be foft and oozy,
or rocky. When the anchor is thus difplaced, it is
laid, in the fea phrafe, to come home.
That the figure of this ufeful inflrument may be
Tig. 2 N* 1 more dearly underflood, let us fuppofe a long maffy
beam of iron erefted perpendicularly, by at the lower
end of which are two arms, d e, of equal thicknefs
with the beam (ufually called thefhanh), only that they
taper towards the points, which are elevated above the
horizontal plane at an angle of 30 degrees, or in¬
clined to the fhank at an angle of 60 degrees 5 on the
upper part of each arm (in this pofition) is a fluke or
thick plate of iron, g h, commonly flraped like an ifo-
fceles triangle whofe bafe reaches inwards to the mid¬
dle of the arm. On the upper end of the fhank is fix¬
ed the flock tranfverfed wdth the flukes j the flock is
a long beam of oak,/", in two parts, ftrongly bolted
and hooped together with iron rings. See alfo N° 2.
Clofe above the flock is the ring a, to which the cable
is faftened or bent; the ring is curioufly covered with
a number of pieces of fhort rope, wdiich are twifted
about it fo as to form a very thick texture or covering
called the puddening, and ufed to preferve the cable
from being fretted or chafed by the iron.
Every fhip has, or ought to have, three principal
anchors, with a cable to each, viz. the flieet, ?naitreJJ'e-
aticre (which is the anchor a facra of the ancients); the
beft bower,ancre ; and fmall bower, ancre d' af-
fourche, fo called from their ufual fituation on the fhip’s
bows. There are befides fmaller anchors, for removing
a fliip from place to place in a harbour or river, where
there may not be room or wind for failing j thefe are
the ftrcam anchor, ancre de tone ; the kedge and grap¬
pling, grapin : this lail, however, is chiefly defigned
for boats.
Method of Making sInchors. The goodnefs of the
anchor is a point of great importance. Great care is
therefore to be taken, that the metal it is made of be
neither too foft nor too brittle ; the latter rendering it
liable to break, and the former to ftraighten.
The fhank, arms, and flukes, are firff forged fepa-
rately ; then the hole is made at one end of the ff.ank
for the ring, which being alfo previoufly forged, is
put into the hole of the {hank, and the two ends fliut
together. After which the arms are Ihut to the {hank
one after the other, and the anchor is finiflied.
Proof is made of anchors by raifing them to a great
height, and then letting them fall again on a kind of
iron block placed acrofs for the purpofe. To try whe¬
ther the flukes will turn to the bottom and take hold
of the ground, they place the anchor on an even fur-
face, with the end of one of the flukes, and one of the
ends of the flock refling on the furface : in cafe the
another turns, and the point of the fluke rifes upwards,
the anchor good.
In England, France, and Holland, anchors are
20 ] A N C
made of forged iron ; but in Spain there are fometimes
made of copper, and likewife in feveral parts of the ’
South fea.
For the proportion of anchors, according to Man-
waring, the ihank is to be thrice the length of one of
the flukes, and half the length of the beam. Accord¬
ing to Aubin, the length of the anehor is to be four-
tenths of the greateft breadth of the Ihip ; fo that the
{hank, e. gr. of an anchor in a veffel 30 feet wide, is
to be 12 feet long. When the fliank is, for infiance,
eight feet long, the twTo arms are to be ieven feet
long, meafuring them according to their curvity. As
to the degree of curvity given the arms, there is no
rule for it: the workmen are here left to their own dif-
cretion.
The latter writer obferves, that the anchor of a large
heavy veffel is fmaller in proportion than that of a
leffer and lighter one. The reafon he gives is, that
though the fea employs an equal force againft a fmall
veffel as againft a great one, fuppofing the extent of
wood upon wrhich the water acts to be equal in both,
yet the little veffel, by reafon of its fuperior lightnefs,
does not make fo much refiftance as the greater j the
defedl whereof muft be fupplied by the weight of the
anchor.
From thefe and other hydroftatic principles, the fol¬
lowing table has been formed j w'herein is flrown, by
means of the fhip’s breadth within, how many feet
the beam or flrank ought to be long, giving it four-
tenths or tw’o-fifths of the fliip’s breadth within : by
which proportion might be regulated the length of the
other parts of the anchor. In this table is reprefented
likewife the weight an anchor ought to be for a fliip
from eight feet broad to 45, increafing by one foot’s
breadth ; fuppofmg that all anchors are fimilar, or that
their weights are as the cubes of the lengths of the
{hanks.
Anchor,
cs
o
o
-G
’-O
a
u
PQ
eet.
8
9
10
1 x
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
J9
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
3°
31
Feet,
3r
3r
4
4r
4r
Sr
Sr
6
6t
6#
7r
7r
8
8}
8f
9r
9r
10
xof-
xof
Ilf
Ilf
I 2
- l2f
' Founds.
33
47
64
84
no
140
I75
216
262
3l4
373
439
512
<192
68 x
778
884
1000
1124
1239
14° 5
1562
1728
1906
Breadth
✓
Plate XXXHi.
 mr .ilirMfcii-l
Anchor.
A N G
r Feet. C Feet
<V
o
rG
*->
T3
pp
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
o
-C
o
rG
bo
C
i3f
^ 3t
r4
Mr
Mr
Mf
16
x6f
16 f
T7f
Mr
18
^3
bC
eo <
' Founds.
2097
2500
25I5
2742
2986
3242
3512
4096
4426
4742
5088
5451
15832
[ 32
M. Bouguer, in his Traite de Navire, dire&s to
take the length of the ihank in inches, and to divide
the cube of it by 1160 for the weight. The reafon
is obvious } becaufe the quotient of the cube of 201
inches, which is the length of an anchor weighing
7000 lb. divided by the weight, is 11605 and there¬
fore, by the rule of three, this will be a common di-
vifor for the cube of any length, and a Imgle opera¬
tion will fuffice.
The fame author gives the following dimenfions of
the feveral parts of an anchor. The two arms gene¬
rally form the arch of a circle, whofe centre is thiee-
eighths of the fhank from the vertex, or point where
it is fixed to the fhank 5 and each arm is equal to the
fame length, or the radius 5 fo that the two arms to¬
gether make an arch of 120 degrees : the flukes are
half the length of the arms, and their breadth two-
fifths of the laid length. With refpe£l to the thick-
nefs, the circumference at the throat, or vertex of the
(hank, is generally made about a fifth part of its
length, and the fmall end two-thirds of the throat 5
the fmall end of the arms of the flukes, three-fourths
of the circumference of the fhank at the throat. Thefe
uimenfions fhould be greater when the iron is of a bad
quality, efuecially if call iron is ufed inftead of forged
iron.
Sit Anchor, the fituation of a flap which rides by
her anchor in a road or haven, &c. Plate XXXIII.
fig. 1. N° 3. reprefents the fore part of a fhip as riding
in this fituation. See alfo BuoY-Royc.
To Jifi the Anchor, to draw up the flukes upon the
fhip’s fide after it is catted. See the articles Davit
and Fish.
Fo fleer the fhip to her Anchor, is to fleer the fhip’s
head towards the place 'where the anchor lies when
they are heaving the cable into the fhip 5 that the
cable may thereby enter the haufe with lefs refiflance,
and the fhip advance towards the anchor with greater
facility.
AncHOR-Ground is a bottom which is neither too
deep, too fhallow, nor rocky 5 as in the firfl the cable
bears too nearly perpendicular, and is thereby apt t@
jerk the anchor out of the ground 5 in the fecond, the
ihip’s bottom is apt to llrike at low water, or when
the fea runs high, by which fhe is expofed to the dan¬
ger of finking 5 and in the third, the anchor is liable
to hook the broken and pointed ends of rocks, and
Vox.. II. Part I.
1 ] A N C
tear away its flukes, whilft the cable, from the fame Anchor
caufe, is conflantly in danger of being cut through as AnJenfy>
it rubs on their edges. . u—-y—
Anchor, in ArchiteBure, is a fort of carving,
fomevvhat refembling an anchor. It is commonly placed
as part of the enrichments of the boultins of capitals
of the Tufcan, Doric, and Ionic orders, and alfo of
the boultins of bed mouldings of the Doric, Ionic,
and Corinthian cornices, anchors and eggs being carv¬
ed alternately through the whole building.
Anchors, in Heraldry, are emblems of hope, and
are taken for fuch in a fpiritual as well as a temporal
fenfe.
Anchorage, in Law, is a duty upon fhips for the
ufe of the port or harbour where they call anchor.
ANCHOVY, in Ichthyology, the Englifh name of
the clupea encraficolus. See Clupea, Ichthyology
Index.
ANCHorr-Pear. See Grias.
ANCHUSA, Alkanet or Bugloss. See Bo¬
tany Index.
ANCHYLOBLEPHARON. See Ancyloble-
PHARON.
ANCHYLOPS. See Anchilops.
ANCHYLOSIS. See Ancylosis.
ANCIENT, or Antient, a term applied to things
which exifled long ago 5 thus we fay, ancient nations,
ancient cufloms, &c. See Antiquities.
Ancient, fometimes denotes elderly, or of long
Handing, in oppofition to young, or new 5 thus we
fay, an ancient barrifler, ancient buildings.
Ancient, in a military fenfe, denotes either the
enfign or colours.
Ancient, in fhips of war, the ftreamer or flag
borne in the flern.
ANCIENT demesne, in Englifh Law, is a te¬
nure, whereby all manors belonging to the crown in
William the Conqueror’s and St Edward’s time were
held. The numbers, names, &c. hereof were entered
by the Conqueror, in a book called Dotnefday Book,
yet remaining in the Exchequer 5 fo that fuch lands as
by that book appeared to have belonged to the crown
at that time, are called ancient demefne.—The tenants
in ancient demefne are of two forts 5 one who hold
their lands frankly by charter 5 the other by copy of
court-roll, or by the verge, at the will of the lord, ac¬
cording to the cuftom of the manor.—The advantages
of this tenure are, 1. That tenants holding by charter
cannot be rightfully impleaded out of their manor;
and, when they are, they may abate the writ, by
pleading the tenure. 2. They are free from toll for
all things relating to their livelihood and hufbandry ;
nor can be impannelled on any inqueft.—Thefe tenants
held originally by ploughing the king’s land, plafhing
his hedges, and the like ftrvice, for the maintenance
of his houfehold 5 and it was on this account that fuch
liberties were given them, for which they may have
writs of monjlraverunt to fuch as take the duties of
toll, &c.—No lands are to be accounted ancient de¬
mefne, but fuch as are held in focage. Whether
land be ancient demefne or not, lhall be tried by the
book of Domesday.
ANCIENTY, in fome ancient ftatutes, is ufed for
elderlhip or feniority. The elder filler can dcrnand no
S f there
A. N C [3
Ancillon. more tlian her other fitters, befide the chief mefne, by
s~mmJ reafon of her ancienty. This word is uied in the fta-
tute of Ireland, 14 Henry III.
ANCILLON, David, a minitter of the reformed
church at Metz, where he was born the 1 'jth of March
1617. He ttudied from the ninth or tenth year of his
age in the Jefuits college, where he gave fuch proofs
of his genius, that the heads of the fociety tried every
means to draw him over to their religion and party ;
but he continued firm againft their attacks. He went
to Geneva in 1633 ; and ftudied divinity under Span-
heim, Diodati, and Tronchin, who conceived a very
great etteem for him. He left Geneva in April 1641,
and offered himlelf to the fynod of Charenton in order
to take upon him the office of a minitter : his abilities
were greatly admired by the examiners, and the whole
alfembly were fo highly pleafed with him, that they
gave him the church of Meaux, the moft confiderable
then unprovided for. Here he acquired a vatt reputa¬
tion for his learning, eloquence, and virtue, and was
even highly refpestted by thofe of the Roman Catholic
communion. He returned to his own country in the
year 1653, "'here he remained till the revocation of
the edidf of Nantes in 1685. He retired to Francfort
after this fatal blow •, and having preached in the
French church at Hanau, the whole congregation
were fo edified by it, that they immediately called to¬
gether the heads of the families, in order to propofe
that he might be invited to accept of being minifter
there. The propofition was agreed to; and he began
the exercife of his miniftry in that church about the
end of the year 1685. His preaching made fo great a
nolle at Hanau, that the profeffors of divinity, and the
German and Dutch minifters, attended his fermons
frequently : the count of Hanau himfelf, who had ne¬
ver before been feen in the French church, came thi¬
ther to hear Mr Ancillon : they came from the neigh¬
bouring parts, and even from Francfort; people who
underftood nothing of French flocked together with
great eagernefs, and faid they loved to fee him fpeak.
This occafioned a great jealoufy in the two other mi¬
nifters ; which tended to make his fituation uneafy.
He therefore went to Berlin ; where he met with a
kind reception from his highnefs the eleftor, and was
made minifter of the city. Here he had the pleafure
of feeing his eldeft fon made judge and director of the
French in the fame city, and his other fon rewarded v
with a penfion and entertained at the univerfity of
Francfort upon the Oder. He had likewife the fatis-
faftion of feeing his brother made judge of all the
french in the ftates of Brandenburg ; and Mr Cayart
his fon-in-law, engineer to his elefiforal highnefs. He
enjoyed thefe agreeable circumfiances, and feveral
others, till his death, which happened at Berlin the
3d of September 1692, when he was 7; years of age.
—Mr Ancillon having got a confiderable fortune by
marriage, was enabled thereby to gratify his paftion
for books ; his library was accordingly very curious
and large, and he increafed it every day with all that
appeared new and impoitant in the republic of letters,
fo that at la ft it was One of the nobleft colleftions in
the hands of any private perfon in the kingdom. Fie
publiftied a book, in quarto, in which the whole dif-
pute concerning-Traditions is fully examined : he alfo
22 ] A N C
wrote an apology for Luther, Zuinglius, Calvin, and Anclarn
Beza, and feveral other pieces. H
AN CLAM, a ftrong town of Germany, in the cir- Ancony.
cle of Upper Saxony, and duchy of Pomerania, re-" ' v
markable for its excellent paftures. It is feated on the
river Pene. E. Long. 14. if. N. Lat. 34. 10.
ANCLE, or Ankle. See Ankle.
ANCONA, Marquisate of, a province in the
pope’s territories in Italy. It lies between the gulf of
Venice and the Appenines, which bound it on the
north ; Abruzzo on the eaft ; the duchy of Spoletto,
and that of Urbino, on the -weft. The air is indiffer¬
ent ; but the foil is fruitful, particularly in hemp and
flax ; and there is great plenty of wax and honey. It
contains feveral large towns, as Fermo, Loretto, Re-
canati, Macerata, Jefi, Tolentino, Afcoli, Ofimo, St
Severino, Monte Alto, Camerino, and Ripatranfone,
which are all archiepifcopal or epifcopal fees.
Ancona, a fea-port town of Italy, the capital of
the marquilate of that name, and the fee of a biftiop.
It wras formerly the fineft port in all Italy, being built
by the emperor Trajan, about the year 115 ; but was-
almoft ruined, and its trade loft : however, it has again
begun to revive. Its harbour is the beft in all the-
pope’s dominions. The town lies round it on two
hills ; one of which is at the point of Cape St Syriaco,
from whence there is a delightful profpe&. On the
other Hands the citadel, which commands the town
and harbour. 1 he ftreets of this city are narrow- and
uneven ; and the public and private buildings infeiior
to thofe of the other great towms in Italy. ^ The ca¬
thedral is a low dark ftru&ure ; and though the front
is covered with fine marble, the architefture has nei¬
ther beauty nor regularity. The church of St Domi¬
nic, and that of the Francifcans, have each an excellent
picture by T itian. The exchange, where the mer¬
chants meet, is a handfome fquare portico, in wdiich is
an equeftrian ftatue of Trajan, who firft built the port.
At the four corners are four other ftatues. The trium¬
phal arch of Trajan remains almoft entire, with its in-
feription. The common people in this town are a lit¬
tle particular and fantaftical in their drefs, but the bet-'
ter fort follow the French mode. It is a great tho¬
roughfare from the north of Italy to Loretto ; which
renders provifions very dear. The tide does not rife
here above a foot, and near the Mediterranean it is
fcarce vifible. E. Long. 15. 5. N. Lat. 43. 36.
ANCONES, in Architecture, the corners or quoins
of vval!s, crols-beams, or rafters.—Vitruvius ' calls the
confoles by the fame name.
ANCONY, in the iron-works, a piece of half-
wrought iron, of about three-quarters of 100 weight,
and of the ffiape of a bar in the middle, but rude and
unwTrought at the ends. The procefs for bringing the
iron to this ftate is this: T hey firft melt off a piece
from a fow of caft iron, of the proper fize ; this they
hammer at the forge into a mafs of two feet long, and
of a fquare Ihape, which they call a bloom; wffien this
is done, they fend it to the finery; where, after two or
three heats and workings, they bring it to this figure,
and call it an ancony. The middle part beat out at the
finery, is about three feet long, and of the fhape and
thicknefs the whole is to be ; this is then fent to the
chafery, and there the ends are wrought to the ftiape
of
'* A N C [
Ancor&mm! of the middle, and the whole made into a bar.
!l
Aucyle.
Bar.
ANCORARUM urbs, ILa*?, a city in
the Nomos Aphroditopolites, towards the Red fea •, fo
called becaufe there was in the neighbourhood a ftone
quarry, in which they hewed Hone anchors (Ptolemy)
before iron anchors came to be ufed. The gentilitious
name is Ancyropoittes (Stephanus).
ANCOURT, Florent Carton d’, an eminent
French aftor and dramatic writer, wras born at Fon-
tainbleau, Oftober 1661. He ftudied in the Jefuits
college at Paris under Father de la Rue ; who, difco-
vering in him a remarkable vivacity and capacity for
learning, was extremely defirous of engaging him in
their order •, but Ancourt’s averfion to a religious life
rendered all his efforts ineffeftual. After he had gone
through a courfe of philofophy, he applied himfelf to
the civil lawr, and w7as admitted advocate at 17 years
of age. But falling in love wdth an aftrefs, he was
induced to go upon the Hage, and he married her.
As he had all the qualifications neceffary for the thea¬
tre, he foon greatly diftinguifhed himfelf: and not be¬
ing fatisfied with the applaufe only of an adtor, he be¬
gan to w'rite pieces for the ftage ; many of wdiich had
fuch prodigious fuccefs, that moft of the players grew
rich from the profits of them. His merit in this way
procured him a very favourable reception at court 5
and Louis XIV. fhowed him many marks of his fa¬
vour. His fprightly converfation and polite behaviour
made his company-agreeable to all the men of figure
both at court and in the city, and the moft confidera-
ble perfons were extremely pleafed to have him at their
houfes. Having taken a journey to Dunkirk, to fee
his eldeft daughter wrho lived there, he took the op¬
portunity of paying his compliments to the eledtor of
Bavaria, who was then at Bruffels: this prince recei¬
ved him with the utmoft civility, and having detained
him a confiderable time, difmiffed him with a prefent
of a diamond valued at (000 piftoles : he likewife re¬
warded him in a very generous manner, when, upon
his coming to Paris, Ancourt compofed an entertain¬
ment for his diverfion. Ancourt began at length to
grow weary of the theatre, which he quitted in Lent
1718, and retired to his eftate of Courcelles le Roy,
in Berry, where he applied himfelf wholly to devotion,
and compofed a tranflation of David’s Pfalms in verfe,
and a facred tragedy, wdiich were never printed. He
died the 6th of December 1726, being 65 years of
age.—The plays which he wrote are 52 in all; moft
of which were printed feparately at the time w hen they
were firft reprefented: they were aftenvards collefted
into five volumes, then into feven, and at laft into nine.
This laft edition is the moft complete.
ANCRE, a final 1 town of France, in Picardy, with
the title of a marquifate, feated on a little river of the
lame name. E. Long. 2. 45. N. Lat. 49. 59.
ANGUS Martius, the fourth king of the Ro¬
mans, fucceeded by Tullus Hoftilius, 639 years before
Chrift. He defeated the Latins, fubdued the Fide-
nates, conquered the Sabines, Volfci, and Veientines,
enlarged Rome by joining to it Mount Janiculum, and
made the harbour of Oftia. He died about 615 years
before the Chriftian era.
ANCYLE, in Antiquity* a kind of fhield that fell,
323 ] A N c
See as was pretended, from heaven, in the reign of Numa
Pompiliusj at wdiich time, likewife, a voice was heard
declaring that Rome Ihould be mill reft of the wmrld as
long as (he Ihould preferve this holy buckler. It was
kept with great care in the temple of Mars, under the
direction of twelve priefts; and left any Ihould attempt
to fteal it, eleven others were made fo like, as not to
be diftinguilhed from the facred one. Thefe ancylia
were carried in proceflion every year round the city of
Rome.
Ancyle, in Surgery. See Ancylosis.
ANCYLOBLEPHARON, (from bent,
and an eyelid); a difeafe of the eye, which
clofes the eyelids. Sometimes the eyelids grow to¬
gether, and alfo to the tunica albuginea of the eye,
from careleflhefs when there is an ulcer in thefe parts.
Both thefe cafes are called ancyloblepharon by the
Greeks. This diforder muft be diftinguiflied from
that coalition of the eyelids which happens from vif-
cid matter gluing them together. If the cohefion is
on the corner, the fight is inevitably loft. This hath
fometimes happened in the fmall pox. If there is
only a growing together of the eyelids, they may be
feparated with the fpecillum, and pledgets kept be¬
tween them to prevent their reunion. If the eyelids
adhere to the eye, they are to be feparated by a fine
edged knife *, and their reunion is to be prevented by
a proper ufe of injedlions, and lint placed between
them, after dipping it in fome proper liniment.
ANCYLOGLOSSUM, (from atyxvAe?, crooked, and
yXas-irx, the tongue); a contraftion of the ligaments of
the tongue. Some have this imperfeftion from their
birth, others from fome difeafe. In the firft cafe, the
membrane -which fupports the tongue is too ftiort or
too hard : in the latter, an ulcer under the tongue,
healing and forming a cicatrix, is fometimes the
caufe : Thefe fpeak wuth fome difficulty. The ancy-
loglofii by nature are late before they fpeak ; but
when they begin, they foon fpeak properly. Thefe
we call tongue-tied. Mauriceau fays, that in this cafe
it is a fmall membranous produdlion, which extends
from the frsenulum to the tip of tongue, that hinders
the child from lucking, &c. He juftly condemns
the cruel praftice among nurfes, of tearing this mem¬
brane writh their nails •, for thus ulcers are fometimes
formed, which are of difficult cure : he advifes to fnip
it with fciffars in two or three places, taking care not
to extend the points of the fciffars fo far as the fraenu-
lum. The inftances rarely occur wffiich require any
kind of alhftance ; for if the child can thruft the tip
of its tongue to the outer edge of its lip, this difeafe
Ancyle;
II
Ancyra.
does not exift \ and if the tongue is not greatly re-
ftrained, the frcenulum will ftretch by the child’s fuck¬
ing and crying.
ANCYLOSIS, in Surgery, implies a diftortion or
ftiffnefs of the joints, caufed by a fettlement of the hu¬
mours, or a diftention of the nerves ; and therefore re¬
medies of a mollifying and relaxing nature are re¬
quired.
ANCYRA, the capital of Galatia, (Livy, Pliny,
Ptolemy); at no great diftance from the river Halys,
(Livy): faid to be built by Midas, king of Phrygia,
and to take its name from an anchor found there (Pau-
fanias). It was greatly improved by Auguftus, deem-
S f 2 ed
AND [ 3
Aneyflrum cd the fecond founder of it, as appears from the Mar-
Andely. Ancyranum. It is now called Angara, or Angoura.
- - -,1^ E*Long. 33°. N.Lat. 41. 20.
ANC\ SI RUM. See Botany Index.
ANDABAT^dE, in Antiquity, a fort of gladiators,
who, mounted on horfeback or in chariots, fought
^ hoodwinked, having a helmet that covered their eyes.
ANDALUSIA, is the moft wellem province of
Spain, having Eftremadura and La Pvlancha on the
north ; the kingdom of Granada, the ftraits of Gibral¬
tar, and the ocean, on the eart and fouth ; and on
the weft, the kingdom of Algarva in Portugal, from
which it is feparated by the river Guadiana. It is
about 182 miles long, and 150 broad. The chief
cities and towns are Seville the capital, Baeza, Gib¬
raltar, Cordova, Cadiz, Medina Sidonia, ]aen, Port
St Mary, &c. It is the beft, moft fruitful, and the
richeft part of all Spain. There is a good air, a fe-
rene Iky, a fertile foil, and a great extent of fea coaft
fit for commerce.
New Andalusia, a divifion of the province of Ter¬
ra Firma in South America, whofe boundaries cannot
be wrell afcertained, as the Spaniards pretend a right to
countries in which they have never eftabliftied any fet-
tlements. According to the moft; reafonable limits, it
extends in length 500 miles from north to fouth, and
about 270 in breadth from eaft to weft. The interior
country is woody and mountainous, variegated with Hne
valleys that yield corn and pafturage. The produce of
the country confifts chiefly in dying drugs, gums, me¬
dicinal roots, brazil wood, fugar, tobacco, and fome
valuable timber. To this province alfo belonged five
valuable pearl fifheries. The capital of New Andalu-
fia is Comana, Cumana, or New Corduba, fituated in
N. Lat. 9. 55. about nine miles from the north fea.
Here the Spaniards laid the foundation of a town in
the year 1520. I he place is ftrong by nature, and
fortified by a caftle capable of making a vigorous de¬
fence j as appeared in the year 1670, when it was af-
faulted by the Bucaniers, who were repulfed with very
great flaughter.
ANDAMAN, or Andeman Ifland.s, in the Eaft
Indies, fituated about 80 leagues diftance from Tanaf-
ferim on the coaft of Siam. They are but little known.
The Eaft India {hips fometimes touch at them, and are
{applied by the natives with rice, herbs, and fruits.
The inhabitants are by fome reprefented as a harmlefs
inoffenfive race of men, and by others as cannibals.
E. Long. 92. o. N. Lat. from io° to 150.
ANDAN1 E, in Mujic, fignifies a movement mode¬
rately flow, between largo and allegro.
ANDECAVI, (Tacitus) ; Andegavi, (Pliny) ;
Andes, (Caefar); Andi, (Lucan): A people of Gal¬
lia Celtic a, having the Turones to the eart, the Namne-
tes to the weft, the Pidones to the fouth, and the Au-
lerci Coenomani to the north: now Anjou.
ANDEGAVI, or Andegavus, a town of Gallia
Celtica, (Pliny, Ptolemy) 5 now Anglers. Called ^/z-
decavi, (Tacitus). W. Long. 30. N. Lat. 47. 30.
ANDELY, a town of Normandy in France, parted
in two by a paved caufeway. Here is a fountain to
which pilgrims flock from all parts, to be cured of
their diforders, on the feaft day of the faint to which
it is dedicated. It is 20 miles fouth-eaft of Rouen,
H ] AND
and five north-weft of Paris. E. Long. 1. 30. N. Lat. AncW
49* ||
ANDENA, in old writings, denotes the fwath Al,derfon-
made in mowing of hay, or as much ground as a man "v" '_f
could ftride over at once.
ANDEOL, Saint, a town of France, in the Vi-
varais, five miles louth of St Viviers, whofe bifhop
formerly refided there. E. Long. 2. 50. N. Lat 44
24.
ANDERAB, the moft fouthern city of the pro¬
vince of Balkh, poflefied by the Ufbeck Tartars. It
is very rich and populous, but a place of no great
ftrength. The neighbouring mountains yield excel¬
lent quarries of lapis lazuli, in which the Bukhars
drive a great trade with Perfia and India.—This city
is fituated at the foot of the mountains dividing the do¬
minions of the Great Mogul and Perfia from Great
Bukharia. As there is no other way of croflin? thefe
mountains but by the road through this city, all tra¬
vellers with goods muft pay 4 per cent. On this ac¬
count the khan of Balkh maintains a good number of
foldiers in the place.
ANDERNACHT, a city of Cologne, in the circle
of the Lower Rhine. It is fituated in a plain on the
river Rhine 5 and is fortified with a wall, caftle, and
bulwarks. It has a trade in ftone jugs and pitchers,
which are fent to the mineral waters at Dunchftein.
There are three monafteries here and feveral churches.
E. Long. 7. 4. N. Lat. 50. 27.
ANDERO, Saint, a fea-port town in the bay of
Biicay, in Old Caftile, feated on a fifnall peninfula.
It is a trading town, and contains about 700 houfes,
two parifti churches, and four monafteries. Here the
Spaniards build and lay up fome of their men of war»
W. Long. 4. 30. N. Lat. 43. 20.
ANDERSON, Sir Edmund, a younger fon of an
ancient Scotch family fettled in Lincolnftiire. Fie
was fome time a ftudent of Lincoln-college, Oxford j
and removed from thence to the Inner Temple, where
he applied himfelf diligently to the ftudy of the law,
and became a barrifter. In the ninth of Queen Eliza¬
beth he wras both Lent and Summer reader, and in the
16th double reader. He was appointed her majefty’s
lerjeant at law in the 19th year of her reign; and fome
time after, one of the juftices of the aflize. In 1 <?82
he was made lord chief juftice of the common pleas,
and in the year following was knighted. He held his
office to the end of his life, died in the year 160^,
and was buried at Eyworth in Bedfordlhire. He was
an able, but punftilious lawyer 5 a fcourge to the Pu¬
ritans j and a ftrenuous fupporter of the eftabliftied
church. His works are, 1. Reports of many princi¬
pal cafes argued and adjudged in the time of Queen
Elizabeth in the common bench. Lend. 1644, fol.
2. Refolutions and judgments on the cafes and matter,
agitated in all the courts of Weftminfter, in the latter
end of the reign of Queen Elizabeth. Publiflied by
John Goldfborough, Efqj Lond. 1653, 4t0* Lefides
thefe, there is a manufeript copy of his readings ftill
in being.
Anderson, Adam, a native of Scotland, wms bro¬
ther to the reverend James Anderfon, D. D. editor
of the Diplomata Scotia- and Royal Genealogies, many
years fince minifter of the Scots Prelhyterian church
in
AND F 325 ] AND
Anderfon, in Svvallow-ftreet, Piccadilly, and well known in thole
Andes. (iayS among the people of that perfuafion refident in
London by the name of Bilhop Anderlbn, a learned
but imprudent man, who loll a confiderable part of his
property in the fatal year 1720. He married, and had*
iffue a fon, and a daughter who was the wife of an
officer in the army.
Adam Anderfon was for 40 years a clerk in the
South Sea Houfe •, and at length arrived at his acme
there, being appointed chief clerk of the Stock and
New Annuities, which office he retained till his death.
He was appointed one of the truftees for ellablilhing
the colony of Georgia in America } and was alfo one
of the court of affillants of the Scots corporation in
London. The time of the publication of his “ Hillo-
rical and Chronological Deduftion of Trade and Com¬
merce,” a work replete with ufeful information, was
about the year 1762. He was twice married j by
the fir ft wife he had iffue a daughter, married to one
Mr Hardy, an apothecary in the Strand, who are both
dead without iffue •, he aftenvards became the third
hufband of the widow of Mr Coulter, formerly a whole-
lale linendraper in Cornhill, by whom he had no iffue.
She was, like him, tall and graceful; and her face has
been thought to have fome refemblance to that of the
ever-living countefs of Defmond, given in Mr Pen¬
nant’s firft Tour in Scotland. Mr Anderfon died at
his houfe in Red Lion-ftreet, Clerkenwell, January 10.
177^. He had a good library of books, which wTere
fold by his widow', who furvivedhim feveral years, and
died in 1781. ,
ANDES, a great chain of mountains in South A-
merica, which running from the moil northern part of
Peru to the ftraits of Magellan, between 3000 and 4000
miles, are the longeft and moll remarkable in the
world. The Spaniards call them the Cordillera de los
Andes. They form two ridges, the lowermoft of which
is overfpread with wmods and groves, and the upper-
mod covered with everlafting fnow. Thofe who have
' been at the top, affirm, that the Iky is always ferene
and bright j the air cold and piercing •, and yet fo thin,
that they W'ere fcarce able to breathe, and the refpiration,
was much quicker than ordinary } and this is attended
with retching and vomiting •, which, however, has
been confidered by fome as merely accidental. When
they looked downwards, the country was hid by the
clouds that hovered on the mountains fides. The moun¬
tains juft mentioned, which have been frequently af-
cended, are much inferior in height to many others
in this enormous chain. The following is the account
given of the mountain called Pichincha, by the mathe¬
maticians fent by the kings of France and Spain to make
obfervations in relation to the figure of the earth.
„ Soon after our artifts arrived at Quito, they deter¬
mined to continue the feries of the triangles for mea-
furing an arch of the meridian to the fouth of that city :
the company accordingly divided themfelves into two
bodies, confiding of French and Spaniards, and each
retired to the part affigned them. £)on George Juan
and M. Godin, who were at the head of one party,
went to the mountain of Pambamarca j while M.
Bouguer, de la Condamine, and Don Ulloa, together
with their affiftants, climbed up to the highell fummit
of Pichincha. Both parties fuffered extremely, as well
from the feverity of the cold as from the impetuofity
of the winds, which on thefe heights blow with incef- Andes,
fant violence 5 difficulties the more painful, as theyk—*“"v ■
had been little ufed to fuch fenfations. Thus in the
torrid zone, nearly under the equinoflial, where it is
natural to fuppofe they had moft to fear from the heat,
their greateft pain was caufed by the exceffivenefs of
the cold.
Their firft fcheme for fhelter and lodging in thefe
uncomfortable regions, w’as to pitch a field-tent for
each company j but on Pichincha this could not be
done from the narrowmefs of the fummit j they were
therefore obliged to be contented ivith a hut fo fmall
that they could hardly all creep into it. Nor will this
appear ftrange, if the reader confiders the bad difpofi-
tion and fmallnefs of the place, it being one of the
loftieft crags of a rocky mountain, 100 fathoms above
the higheft part of the defert of Pichincha. Such was
the fituation of their manfion, which, like all the other
adjacent parts, foon became covered with ice and fnow.
The afcent up this ftupendous rock, from the bafe, or
the place wdiere the mules could come, to their habita¬
tion was fo craggy as only to be climbed on foot4 and
to perform it coll them four hours continual labour and
pain, from the violent efforts of the body, and the fub-
tlety of the air •, the latter being fueh as to render re¬
fpiration difficult.
The ftrange manner of living to which our artifts
■were reduced during the time they were employed in
a geometrical menfuration of fome degrees of the me¬
ridian, may not perhaps prove unentertaining to the
reader 5 and therefore the following account is given
as a fpecimen of it. The defert of Pichincha, both
with regard to the operations performed there and its
inconveniences, differing very little from others, an
idea may be very eafily formed of the fatigues, hard-
fliips, and dangers, to which they were continually
expofed during the time they were profecuting the en-
terprile, with the conduft of which they had been ho¬
noured. The principal difference between the feveral
deferts confilled in their greater or leffer diftance from
places wdiere they could procure provifions 5 and in the
inclemency of the weather, which was proportionate to
the height of the mountains, and the feafon of the
year.
They generally kept within their hut. Indeed they
were obliged to do this, both on account of the in-
tenfenefs of the cold, the violence of the wind, and
their being continually involved in fo thick a fog, that
an obje<ft at fix or eight paces was hardly difcernible,
When the fog cleared up, the clouds by their gravity
moved nearer to the furface of the earth, and on all
fides furrounded the mountains to a vaft diftance, re-
prefenting the fea, with their rock like an ifland in the
centre of it. When this happened, they heard the
horrid noifes of the tempefts, which then difcharged
themfelves on Quito and the neighbouring country.
They faw the lightnings iffue from the clouds, and
heard the thunders roll far beneath them : and whilft
the lower parts were involved in tempefts of thunder
and rain they enjoyed a delightful ferenity ; the wind •
•was abated, the iky clear, and the enlivening rays of
the fun moderated the feverity of the cold. But their
circumftances were very different when the clouds rofe:
their thicknefs rendered refpiration difficult 5 the fnow
and hail fell continuallv • and the mnd returned, with
all-
AND
Andes.
^ ail its violence j lo that it was impoffible entirely to
overcome the fears of being, together with their hut,
blown down the precipice, on whole edge it was built,
or of being buried under it by the daily accumulations
of ice and fnow.
The wind wms often fo violent in thefe regions, that
its velocity dazzled the fight, whilft their fears w'ere
increafed from the dreadful concullions of the preci¬
pice, cauled by the fall of enormous fragments of
rocks. Thefe craflies were the more alarming, as no
other noifes are heard in thefe deferts 5 and during the
night, their reft, which they fo greatly wanted,& was
frequently difturbed by fuch fudden founds. When
the weather was any thing fair with them, and the
clouds gathered about fome of the other mountains
which had a connexion with their obfervations, fo that
they could not make all the ufe they defired of this in¬
terval of good weather, they left their hut to exercife
themfelves. Sometimes they defeended to fome fmall
diftance j and at others, amufed themfelves with roll¬
ing large fragments of rocks down the precipice } and
thefe frequently required the joint ftrength of them
all, though they often faw the fame effedled by the
mere force of the wind. But they always took care in
their excurfions not to go fo far out, but that on the
lead appearance of the clouds gathering about their
cottage, which often happened very fuddenly, they
could regain their ihelter. The door of their hut was
faftened with thongs of leather, and on the infide not
the fmalleft crevice was left unftopped ; befides which
it was very compaftly coygred with ftraw : but not-
withftanding all their care, the wfind penetrated through.
The days were often little better than the nights ; and
all the light they enjoyed was that of a lamp or two,
which they kept continually burning.
Though their hut was fmall, and crowded with in¬
habitants, befides the heat of the lamps j yet the intenfe-
nefs of the cold was fuch, that every one of them was
obliged to have a chafing-difti of coals. Thefe precau¬
tions would have rendered the rigour of the climate
fupportable, had not the imminent danger of perifhing
by being blown down the precipice roufed them, every
time it fnowed, to encour^er the feverity of the out¬
ward air, and fally out with (hovels to free the roof of
their hut from the mafles of fnow which were gather¬
ing on it. Nor would it, without this precaution, have
been able to fupport the weight. They were not in¬
deed without fervants and Indians 5 but thefe were fo
benumbed with the cold, that it was with great diffi¬
culty they could get them out of a fmall tent, where
they kept a continual fire. So that all our artifts could
obtain from them was to take their turns in this la¬
bour ; and even then they went very unwillingly about
it, and confequently performed it (lowly.
It may eafily be conceived what this company fuf-
fered from the afperities of fuch a climate. Their feet
were fwelled, and fo tender, that they could not even
bear the heat j and walking was attended with extreme
pain. Their hands were covered with chilblains ; their
lips fwelled and chopped •, fo that every motion in
ipeaking, or the like, drew blood } confequently thev
were obliged to ftrieft taciturnity, and little difpofed to
laugh, as, by caufing an extenfion of the lips, it pro¬
duced fuch fiffures as were very painful for two or
three days after.
[ 326 ]
and
Tiieir common food in this mhofpitable region was
a little nee boiled with fome flefli or fowfi procured
from Quito j and, mftead of fluid w'ater, their pot was
filled with ice. They had the fame refource with re¬
gard to what they drank : and while they were eating-
every one was obliged to keep ,his plate over a chafing-
difo of coals, to prevent his provifions from freezing.
I he (ame was done with regard to the water. At
firft they imagined the drinking ftrong liquors would
diftuie a heat through the body, and confequently ren¬
der it lefs fenfible of the painful (harpnefs of the cold •
but, to their furprife, they felt no manner of ftrenoth
m (uch liquars, nor were they any greater prefervative
againft the cold than common wTater.
At the fame time, they found it impoftible to keep
the Indians_ together. On their firft feeling of the
climate, their thoughts were immediately turned on
deferting their matters. The firft inttance they had of
this kind was fo unexpefted, that, had not one, of a
better difpofition than the reft, ttaid and acquainted
them of their defign, it might have proved of very bad
confequence. The affair was this ; There being on the
top of the rock no room for pitching a tent for’the In¬
dians, they ufed every evening to retire to a cave at the
foot of the mountain j where, befides a natural diminu¬
tion of the cold, they could keep a continual fire 5 and
confequently enjoyed more comfortable quarters than
their mailers. Before they withdrew at night, they
faftened on the outfide the door of the hut, which was
fo low that it was impoflible to go in or out without
(looping j and as every night the hail and fnow which
had fahen foimea a wall againft the door, it was the
bufinefs of one or two of the Indians to come early and
remove this obftru&ion. For though the negro fervants
were lodged in a little tent, their hands and feet were fo
covered with chilblains, that they would rather have
fuffered themfelves to have been killed than move. The
Indians therefore came conftantly up to defpatch this
work betwixt nine and ten in the morning : but they
had not been there above four or five days, when they
w ere not a little alarmed to fee ten, eleven, and twelve
o’clock come, without any news of their labourers :
when they were relieved by the honeft fervant men¬
tioned above, who had withftood the fedu&ion of
his countrymen, and informed his mafters of the de-
fertion of the four others. As foon as the fnow was
cleared awray from the door, they defpatched the In¬
dian to the corregidor of Quito, who with equal de¬
fpatch lent other Indians, threatening to chaftife them
feverely if they w^ere wanting in their duty.
But the fear of puniftiment was not fufficient to in¬
duce them to fupport the rigour of this fituation •, for
within two days they deferted. The corregidor there¬
fore, to prevent any other inconvenience, fent four In¬
dians under the care of an alcade, and gave orders for
their being relieved every fourth day.
Twenty-three tedious days our artifts fpent on this
rock, viz. to the 6th of September, and even without
any poflibility of finilhing their obfervations of the
angles : for when it was fair and clear weather with
them, the others, on whofe fummits the fignals which
formed the triangles for meafuring the degrees of the
meridian, were hid in the clouds j and when thole were.
clear, Picnincha was involved in clouds. It was there¬
fore neceffary to ered their fignals in a lower fituation,
and
Andes.
Andes.
AND [ 327 ] AND
and in a more favourable region. This, however, did
not produce any change in their habitation till the be¬
ginning of December •, when, having finilhed the ob-
fervations which particularly concerned Pichincha,
they proceeded to others : but with no abatement ei¬
ther of inconveniences, cold, or fatigue ; tor the pla¬
ces where they made their obfervations being neceffa-
rily on the higheft parts of the defects, the only refpite
in which they enjoyed fome little eafe was during the
fhort interval of puffing from one to the other.
In all their flations fubfequent to that on Pichincha,
during their fatiguing menfuration of the degrees of
the meridian, each company lodged in a field-tent,
which, though fmall, they found lefs inconvenient than
the hut on Pichincha j though at the fame time they
had more trouble, being oftener obliged to clear it
from the fnow, as the weight of it would otherwife
have demoliihed the tent. At firft, indeed, they pitch¬
ed it in the moft (heltered places ; but on taking a re-
folution that the tents themfelves ihould ferve for fig-
nals, to prevent the inconvenience of having others of
tvood, they removed them to a more expofed fituation,
where the irapetuofity of the winds fometimes tore up
the piquets, and blew them down.
Though this mountain is famous for its great height,
it is confiderably lower than the mountain of Cotopaxi:
but it is impoffible to conceive the coldnefs of the fum-
r.it of the lad mentioned mountain from that felt on
this } fince it muft exceed every idea that can be form¬
ed by the human mind, though they are both feated
in the midft of the torrid zone. In all this range of
mountains, there is faid to be a conftant inferior boun¬
dary, beyond which the fnow never melts : this boun¬
dary, in the midft of the torrid zone, is faid by fome
-to be 2434 fathoms above the level of the fea •, by
others, only 2400 feet. The fnow indeed falls much
lower, but then it is fubjeft to be melted the very
lame day. It is affirmed, that there are in the Andes
16 volcanoes or burning mountains, which throw out
fire and fmoke with a terrible noife. The height of
Chimborazo, faid to be the higheft peak of the Andes,
has been determined by geometrical calculations to be
20,282 feet. But the great difterences between the
calculators of the height of mountains in other parts of
the world, muft very much diminilh the credit of fuch
calculations. Inftances of this we have already given
under the article AAna. No lefs remarkable are the
differences concerning the height of the Peak of Te-
neriffe ; which, according to the calculations of Vare-
nius, is three miles and three quarters, or 19,800 feet;
and according to thofe of Dr Heberden, it is only
15,396 feet ; and according to thofe of M. Feuille, is
no more than 13,128 feet. From thefe fpecimens, -we
can fcarce avoid concluding, that all the methods hi¬
therto invented for calculating the exaff height of
mountains are infufficient.
As all or moft rivers have their fource in mountains,
it is no wonder a great number run dowm the fides of
the Andes. Some hurry along with a prodigious ra¬
pidity ; while others form beautiful cafcades, or run
through holes in rocks, which look like bridges of a
ftupendous height. There is a public road through
the mountains, looo miles in length, part of which
runs from Quito to Cufco..
Andrapo-
docapeli.
Andes, a hamlet of Mantua in Italy, the birthplace Andetbum
of Virgil. Hence the epithet Andinus (Silius Italicus).
Now called Pietola, two miles to the w eft of Mantua.
ANDETRIUM ; Andretium (Strabo): Ande-
crium, oi'Andrecium (Ptolemy) : An inland town
of Dalmatia. The genuine name is Slndetrium (In-
fcription). It is defcribed as fituated near Salonae, on
a naturally ftrong and inacceffible rock, furrounded
with deep valleys, with rapid torrents ; from which it
appears to be the citadel now called CUJfa. E. Long.
17. 46. N. Lat. 43. 20.
ANDEUSE, a city of Languedoc in France, fi¬
tuated in E. Long. 3. 40. and N. Lat. 43. 45.
ANDOMADUNUM ; Andomatunum (Ptole¬
my) ; and Antematunum (Antonine) ; Civitas
Lingonum (Tacitus): A city of Gallia Belgica;
now Langres in Champagne, fituated on an eminence
(wdfich feems tojuftify the termination dunum'), on the
borders of Burgundy, at the fprings of the Marne.
Tacitus calls an inhabitant Lingon. E. Long-, c. 22.
N. Lat. 48. o.
ANDOVER, a large market town in Hampfhire,
wdrich is fituated on a branch of the river Teft. It
has feveral inns, which afford good accommodation for
travellers; and has a market on Saturday, wTeil flock¬
ed with provifions. It is governed by a bailiff, a flew -
atd, a recorder, ten approved men, and twrenty-two
capital burgeffes, wLo yearly choofe the bailiff, and
he clefts two ferjeants at mace to attend him. The
living is a vicarage, valued at 17x1. 4s. 4d. in the
king’s books. W. Long. o. 56. N. Lat. 51. 20.
ANDRACHNE, bastard orpine. See Bota ¬
ny Index.
ANDRADA, Diego de Payya d’, or Andra-
dius, a learned Portuguefe, born at Coimbra, who
diftinguiftied himfelf at the council of Trent, where
King Sebaftian fent him as one of his divines. There
is fcarce any Catholic author w’ho has been more quot¬
ed by the Proteftants than he, becaufe he maintained
fome opinions a little extravagant concerning the fal-
vation of the Heathens. Andrada w-as efteemed an
excellent preacher. His fermons were publiftied in
three parts, the fecond of which wTas tranflated into
Spanilh by Benedift de Alcoran. Many encomiums
have been beftowed upon Andrada. Oforius in his
preface to the “ Orthodox Explanations of Andra-
dius,” gives him the charafter of a man of wit, vaft
application, great knowledge in the languages, with
all the zeal and eloquence neceffary to a good preach¬
er ; and Rofweidus fays, that he brought to the coun¬
cil of Trent the underftanding of a moft profound di¬
vine, and the eloquence of a confummate orator.
ANDRAPODISMUS, in Ancient Writers, the
felling of perfons for llaves. Hence alfo andrapodijies,
a dealer in Haves, more particularly a kidnapper, who
fteals men or children to fell them ; a crime for which
the Theffalians were noted.
ANDRAPODOCAPELI, in Antiquity, a kind
of dealers in fiaves. The Andrapodocapeli had a parti¬
cular procels for taking off moles and the likie disfi¬
gurements on the faces of the flaves they kept for fale,
by rubbing them with bran. At Athens, feveral
places in the forum were appointed for the fale of flaves.
Upon the firft day of every month, the merchants call¬
ed
A N I) t 3
Andreas’ A-yd^ct"6^0)iei7n>^ei brought them into the market, and
 reas. expoied them to i'ale j the crier Handing upon a Hone
eredded for that purpofe, called the people together.
ANDREA, St, a fmall village on the Malabar
coaft in the Eaft Indies, founded originally by the Por-
tuguefe. It takes its name from a church dedicated
to St Andrew, and ferved by the prieils of St Tho¬
mas.—-On the Ihore of St Andrea, about half a league
out in the fea, lies Mud-bay, a place which few in
the world can parallel. It is open to the wide ocean,
and has neither idand nor bank to break the force of
the billows, which come rolling with great violence
from all parts, in the fouth-weft monfoons : but on
this bank of mud they lofe themfelves in a moment j
and drips lie on it as fecure as in the bed harbour,
without motion or didurbance. It reaches about a
mile along drore, and has been obferved to drift its
place from the northward about three miles in 30
years. From St Andrea to Krangan6r, about 12
leagues to the fouth, the water has the bad property
of cauling fwellings in the legs of thofe wdro drink it
condantly. Some it afiedls in one leg, and fome in
koth. It caufes no pain, but itching $ nor does the
dwelled leg feem heavier to the owner than the fmall
one, though fome have been feen a yard in circumfe¬
rence at the ancle. The Romidr legends impute the
caufe of this didemper (for which no preventive or
cure hath been hitherto found) to a curfe laid by St
Thomas upon his murderers and their poderity j though,
according to the Romans themfelves, St Thomas was
killed by the Tillinga prieds at Meliaphftr, on the
coad of Coromandel, about 400 miles aidant, and
where the natives have not this didemper.
ANDREAS, John, a celebrated canonid in the
14th century, was born at Mugello, near Florence $
and was profelfor of canon law7 at Padua, Pifa, and af¬
terwards at Bologna. It is faid that he macerated his
body w’ith fading } and lay upon the bare ground every
night for 20 years together, covered only with the
dun of a bear. This is atteded by very good authors j
but if the dory w;hich Poggius tells of him in his jeds
be true, he mud afterwards have relaxed much of this
continency : “ Joannem Andream (lays he), do<do-
rem Bonnonienfem, cujus fama admodum vulgata ed,
fubagitantem ancillam domedicam uxor deprehendit :
re infueta dupefa&a mulier in virum verfa, Ubi nunc,
ait, Joannes, ed fapientia vedra ? Ille nil amplius lo-
cutus, In vulva jdius, refpondit, loco admodum fapien-
tiae accommodato.” The French trandation of this
perhaps will not be difpleafing.
Jean, dit Andre, famenx Doffeur des Loix,
Fut pns un jour au peche d'amourette:
Jl acolloit une jeune foubrette.
Sa femme vint, ft unfgne de ctoix.
Ho ho, dit el/e, ef ce vous ? non je penfe !
Vous, don! par-tout en Xante la prudence.
Qu'efl devenu cet efprit f fubtil?
Le bon Andre, pourfuivant fon ncgoce,
Honteux pourtant, tna foi, repondit-il.
Prudence, efprit, tout git dans Cette foffe.
Since it is agreed that John Andreas had a badard,
this dory is at the bottom very probable ; and it w7as
perhaps with the mother of Banicontius that his wife
found him. Andreas had a beautiful daughter, named
28 ] AND
Novella, whom he loved extremely : and he is faid to Andrea’,
have indrudted her fo wrell in all parts of learning, that "
when he was engaged in any affair which hindered him
from reading ledures to his fcholars, he fent his daugh¬
ter in his room j and led her beauty drould prevent the
attention of the hearers, die had a little curtain drawn
before her. To perpetuate the memory of this daugh¬
ter, he entitled his commentary upon the Decretals of
Gregory IX. the Novellce. He married her to John
Calderinus, a learned canonid. The fird work of An¬
dreas was his Glofs upon the Sixth Book of the De¬
cretals, wdiich he wrote when he was very young. He
wrote alfo Gloffes upon the Clementines; and a Com¬
mentary in regular Sexti, wdiich he entitled Mercuria-
les, becaufe he either engaged in it on Wednefdays
{diebus Mercurn), or becauie he inlerted his Wednef¬
days difputes in it. He enlarged the Speculum of Du¬
rant, in the year 1347. This is all which Mr Bayle
mentions of his waitings, though he wrote many more.
Andreas died of the plague at Bologna in 1348, after
he had been a profeffor 45 years *, and was buried in
the church of the Dominicans. Many eulogiums have
been bedowed upon him. He has been called Archi-
doBor decretorum : In his epitaph, Rabbi doBorum ;
lux, cenfor, normaque morum ; “ Rabbi of the doctors,
the light, cenfor, and rule of manners And it is faid,
that Pope Boniface called him lufnen mundi, “ the
light of the wrorld.”
Andreas, 'John, was born a Mahometan, at Xati-
va in the kingdom of Valencia, and fucceeded his fa¬
ther in the dignity of alfaqui of that city. He was
enlightened with the knowdedge of the Chridian reli¬
gion by being prefent at a fermon in the great church
of Valencia on the day of Affumption of the Bleffed
Virgin, in the year 1487. Upon this he defired to be
baptized ; and, in memory of the calling of St John
and St Andrew, he received the name John Andreas.
“ Having received holy orders (fays he), and from
an alfaqui and a Have of Lucifer, become a pried and
minider of Chrid j I began, like St Paul, to preach
and publifh the contrary of wdrat I had erroneoufly be¬
lieved and afferted j and, with the adidance of Al¬
mighty God, I converted at fird a great many fouls of
the Moors, who w’ere in danger of hell, and under the
dominion of Lucifer, and conduced them into the tvay
of falvation. After this, I was fent for by the mod
catholic princes King Ferdinand and Queen Ifabella,
in order to preach in Grenada to the Moors of that
kingdom, which their majedies had conquered : by
God’s blefiing on my preaching, an infinite number of
Moors w7ere brought to abjure Mahomet, and to turn
to Chrid. A little after this, I was made a canon by
their grace \ and fent for again by the mod Chridian
Queen Ifabella to Arragon, that I might be employed
in the converfion of the Moors of thofe kingdoms, who
dill perfided in their errors, to the great contempt and
difhonour of our crucified Saviour, and the prodigious
lofs and danger of all Chridian princes. But this ex¬
cellent and pious defign of her majedy was rendered
ineffe6tual by her death.” At the defire of Martin
Garcia, bidiop of Barcelona, he undertook to tranf-
late from the Arabic, into the language of Arragon,
the whole law of the Moors%, and after having finhhed
this undertaking, he compofed his famous w7ork of The
Confufon of the SeB of Mahumed; it contains twelve
chapters,
Andrew.
AND [ 329 '
Andreini chapters, wherein he has collefled the fabulous ftories, &c.)
impoftures, forgeries, brutalities, follies, obfcenities, ab-
furdities, impoffibilities, lies, and contradiflions, which
Mahomet, in order to deceive the fimple people, has
difperfed in the writings of that fe£l, and efpecially in
the Alcoran, which, as he fays, was revealed to him
in one night by an angel, in the city of Meke •, though
in another place he contradi&s himfelf, and affirms that
he was 20 years in compofing it. Andreas tells us, he
wrote this work, that not only the learned amonglt
Chriftians, but even the common people, might know
the different belief and doftrine of the Moors; and on
the one hand might laugh and ridicule fuch infolent
and brutal notions, and on the other might lament
their blindnefs and dangerous condition. This book,
which was publiffied at firft in Spaniffi, has been tranf-
lated into feveral languages •, all thofe who write
againft the Mahometans quote it very much.
ANDREINI, Isabella, a native of Padua, was
an excellent poetefs, and one of the belt comedians in
Italy, towards the beginning of the 17th century.
The Intenti of Pavia thought they did their fociety an
honour by admitting her a member of it; and (he, in
acknowledgment of this honour, never forgot to men¬
tion amongff her titles that of Acadcmica Infanta ; her
titles were thefe, “ Ifabella Andreini, comica gelofa,
academica infanta, detta Pacceffa.” She was alfo a
tvoman of extraordinary beauty 5 which, added to a
fine voice, made her1 charm both the eyes and ears of
the audience. She died of a mifcarriage, at Lyons, the
10th of June 1604, in the 42d year of her age. Her
death being a matter of general concern and lamenta¬
tion, there were many Latin and Italian elegies print¬
ed to her memory : feveral of thefe pieces were placed
before her poems in the edition of Milan, in 1605.
Befides her fonnets, madrigals, fongs, and eclogues,’
there is a paftoral of hers entitled Myrtilla, and let¬
ters, printed at Venice in 1610. She fung extremely
well, played admirably on feveral inftruments, under-
llood the French and Spaniffi languages, and was not
unacquainted with philofophy.
ANDRELINUS, Puflius Faustus, born at
Forli in Italy. He was long time profeffor of poetry
and philofophy in the univerfityof Paris. Louis XII.
of France made him his poet laureat $ and Erafmus
tells us he was likewife poet to the queen. His pen
was not wholly employed in making verfes *, for he
wrote alfo moral and proverbial letters in profe, which
wrere printed feveral times. His poems, which are
chiefly in Latin, are inferted in vol. i. of the Delicue
Poetarum Italorum. M. de la Monnoie tells us, “ that
Andrelinus, when he was but 22 years old, received
the crown of laurel : That his love verfes, divided in¬
to four books, entitled Livia, from the name of his
miftrefs, were eftcemed fo fine by the Roman Acade¬
my, that they adjudged the prize of the Latin elegy
to the author.” He died in 1518. This author’s
manner of life was not very exemplary •, yet he was fo
fortunate, fays Erafmus, that though he took the li¬
berty of rallying the divines, he was never brought in¬
to trouble about it.
ANDREW, St, the apoffle, born at Bethfaida in
Galilee, brother to Simon Peter. He had been a dif-
ciple of John the Baptifl, and followed Jefus upon the
teftimony given of him by the Baptifl. (John i. 30, 37,
Vol. II. Part I.
AND
He followed our Saviour with another of John’s
difciples, and went into the houfe where Jefus lodged j
here he continued from about four o’clock in the after¬
noon till it was night. This was the firft difciple
whom our Saviour received into his train. Andrew
introduced his brother Simon, and they paffed a day
with Chrift, after which they wTent to the marriage irt
Cana (id. ii.), and at laft returned to their ordinary
occupation. Some months after, Jefus meeting them
while they were both fiffiing together, called them to
him, and promifed to make them fifliers of men. Im¬
mediately they left their nets, followed him (Mat. iv.
19.), and never afterwards feparated from him.
After our Saviour’s afeenfion, his apoftles having
determined by lot wffiat parts of the world they fhould
feverally take, Scythia and the neighbouring countries
fell to St Andrew, who, according to Eufebius, after
he had planted the gofpel in feveral places, came to"
Patrse in Achaia, where, endeavouring to convert the
proconful ALgeas, he was by that governor’s orders
fcourged, and then crucified. The particular time of
his fuffering martyrdom is not known ; but all the an¬
cient and modern martyrologies, both of the Greeks and
Latins, agree in celebrating his feftival upon the 30th
of November. His body was embalmed, and decently
interred at Patrae by Maximilla, a lady of great quali¬
ty and eftate. Afterwards it was removed to Conftan-
tinople by Conftantine the Great, and buried in the
great church, which he had built to the honour of the
apoftles. There is a crofs to be feen at this day in the
church of St Victor at Marfeilles, which is believed by
the Remanifts to be the fame that St Andrew' was faft-
ened to. It is in the ffiape of the letter X, and is en-
clofed in a filver ftirine. Peter Chryfologus fays, that
he was crucified upon a tree } and the fpurious Hip-
polytus affures us it was an olive tree.
Andrew, or Knights of St Andrew, an order of
knights, more ufually called the order of the thiftle.
See Thistle.
Knights of St Andrew, is alfo an order inftituted by
Peter the Great of Mufcovy in 1698 j the badge of
which is a golden medal; on one fide wffiereof is re-
prefented St Andrew’s crofs, with thefe words, Caxar
Pierre monarque de tout le Rufie. This medal, being
faftened to a blue ribbon, is fufpended from the right
flioulder.
St Andrew's Crofs, one in form of the letter X.
See Cross.
St Andrew's P)ay, a feftival of the Chriftian church,
celebrated on the 30th of November, in honour of the
apoftle St Andrew.
ANDREW’S, St, a towm of Fifefliire in Scotland,
once the metropolis of the Piftifh kingdom, lying in
W. Long. 2. 25. N. Lat. 56. 18. If W'e may credit
legend, St Andrew’s ow?es its origin to a Angular ac¬
cident. St Regulus (or St Rule, as he is likewdfe call¬
ed), a Greek of Achaia, wTas warned by a vifion to leave
his native country, and vifit Albion, an ifle placed in
the remoteft part of the w orld $ and to take with him
the arm-bone, three fingers, and three toes, of St An¬
drew'. He obeyed, and fet fail with his companions,
but had a very tempeftuous paffage. After being toffed
for fome time on a ftormy fea, he was at laft Ihipwreck-
ed on the coaft of Otholania, in the territories of Her-
guftus king of the Pifts, in the year 370. On hear-
T t ’ i”g
Andrew
It
A ndrew’s.
Andrew
V A N D [ o
’s. ing of the arrival^ of the ftrangers, with their precious
relics, the king immediately gave orders for their re¬
ception, afterwards prefenting the faint with his own
palace, and building near it the church, which Hill
bears the name of St Regtilus.
At this time the place was ftyled Mucrofs, or the
land of boars : all round v?as foreft, and the lands be-
ftow'ed on the faint were called Byrehid. The boars
equalled in fize the ancient Erymanthian j as a proof
of which, two tulks, each iixteen inches long and four
thick, tvere chained to the altar of St Andrew’s. St
Regulus changed the name to Kilrymont; and eftabliih-
ed here the firft Chriftian priefts of the country, called
Culdees. The church was fupreme in the kingdom of
the Pidts; ling its having granted to God and St An¬
drew, that it ihould be the head and mother of all the
churches in his dominions. He alfo dire&ed that the
crofs of St Andrew ihould become the badge of the
country. In 518, after the conqueft of the Pifts, he
removed the epiicopal fee to St Andrew’s, and the bi-
fhop was ityled maximus Scotorum epifcopus. In 14 .11
it was erefted into an archbiihopric by Sextus IV. at
the interceffion of James III. In 1606, the priory was
fuppreffed ; and, in 1617, the power of eleftion was
transferred to eight biihops, the principal of St Leo¬
nard’s college, the archdeacon, the vicars of St An¬
drew s, Leuchars, anci Cupar. 1 nis fee contained the
greateft part of the (hire of Fife, with a part of Perth,
Forfar, and Kincardine (hires, and a great number of
pariihes, churches, and chapels in other diocefes.
The town of St Andrew’s was ere&ed into a royal
borough by David I. in the year 1140, and its pri¬
vileges afterwards confirmed. The charter of Mal¬
colm II. is preferved in the tolbooth ; and appears writ -
ten on a bit of parchment, but the contents equally
valid with what would at this time require whole (kins.
3fere alfo are kept the filver keys of the city 5 which,
for form’s fake, are delivered to the king, if he ihouhf
yifit the place, or to a vidlorious enemy, in token of
fubmiiTion. In this place, likewife, is to be feen the
monitrous axe which, in 1646, took off the heads of
Sir Robert Spotfwood and other diftinguifhed loyalifts.
The town underwent a fiege in 1337 ; at which time
it was poffeffed by the Engliih and other partizans of
Raliol; but the loyalifts, under the earls of March and
Fife, made themfelves mafters of it in three weeks, by
the help of their battering machines.
St Andrew’s is now greatly reduced in the number
of its inhabitants j at prefent fcarcely exceeding 2000.
It is impoflible to afcertain the fum when it was the
feat of the primate : all that can be known is, that
during the period of its fplendour, there were between
fixty and feventy bakers; but now nine or ten are fuf-
ficient for the place. It is a mile in circuit, and con¬
tains three principal ftreets. On entering the weft
port, a-well built ftreet, ftraight, and of a vaft length
and breadth appears ; but io grafs-grown, and prefent¬
ing fuch a dreary folitude, that it forms the perfecft idea
of having been laid wafte by the peftilence.
The cathedral of St Andrew’s was founded by Bi-
fhop Arnold in 1161, but did not attain its full mag¬
nificence till J318. Its length from eaft to weft was
370 feet ; that of the tranfept, 322. But though this
\laft pile was 157 years in building, John Knox, in
June^-59? effefted its demolition in a fingle day • and
3° ] and
fo e fie finally has it been deftroyed, that nothing now Andre»\
remains but part of the eaft and weft ends, and of the ^ y—
fouth fide.
Neai^the eaft end is the chapel of St Regulus j the
tower of wdiich is a lofty equilateral triangle, of 20 feet
each fide, and 103 feet high; the body of the chapel
remains, but the two fide chapels are "ruined. The
arches of the windows and doors are round, and fome
even more than femicircles ; an undoubted proof of
their antiquity.
The priory was founded by Alexander I. in 1122 ;
and the monks (canons regular of St Auguftine) were
brought from Scone, in 1140, by Robert bilhop of this
fee. By an aft of parliament, in the time of James I.
the prior had precedence of all abbots and priors, and
on the days of feftival wore a mitre and all epifcopal
ornaments. Dependent on this priory were thofe of
Lochleven, Portmoak, Monimufk, the I He of May, and
Pittenweem, each originally a leat of the Culdees. The
revenues of tne houfe were vaft, viz. In money 2237I.
2s. ic-yd. ; 38 chalders 1 boll 3 firlots of wheat; 132
ch. 7 bolls of bear; 114 ch. 3 bolls 1 peck of meal;
151 ch. 10 bolls 1 firlot 1 peck and a Half of oats;
3 ch. 7 bolls of peafe and beans : 480 acres of land
alfo belonged to it. Nothing remains of the priory ex¬
cept the walls of the precinff, which (how its vaft ex¬
tent. In one part is a molt artlefs gate-ay, formed
only of feven ftones. This enclofure begins near the
cathedral, and extends to the Ihore.
1 he other religious hordes were, one of Dominicans
founded in 1 274, by Bilhop Wilhart; another of Ob-
fervantines, founded by Bilhop Kennedv, and finilhed
by his fuccefior Patrick Graham m 1478 • and, accor¬
ding to fome, the Carmelites had a fourth.
Immediately above the harbour flood the collegiate
church of Kirk-heugh, originally founded by Conftan-
tine 111. who, retiring from the world, became here
a Culdee. From its having been firft built on a rock,
it was ftyled, Brapoftura Santi a: Mamie dc rape.
On the ep.ft fide of the city are the poor remains of
the caftle, on a rock overlooking the fea. This fortrefs
was founded in 1401, by Bilhcp Trail, who was bu¬
ried near the high altar of the cathedral, with this lin¬
gular epitaph :
Hie fmt ecclefce direBa column a, fenefra
Lucula, tounbulum vcdolens^ campana fonora.
The caftle wras the refidence of Cardinal Beaton ;
W'ho, after the death of George Wifhart, apprehending
fome danger, caufed it to be fortified fo ftrongly as to
be at that time deemed impregnable. In this fortrefs,
however, he was furprifed and affaffinated by Norman
Lefiy with 15 others. They feized on the gate of the
caftle early in the morning of May 29. 1546; it hav¬
ing been left open for the workmen who were fimlhlng
tne fortifications : and having placed fentinels at the
door of the cardinal’s apartment, they awakened his
numerous domeftics one by one ; and, turning them
out of the caftle, they, without violence, tumult, or of¬
fering an injury to any other perfon, infli&ed on Bea¬
ton the death he juftly merited. T he confpirators were
immediately befieged in this caftle by the regent, earl
of Arran ; and notwithftanding they had acquired no
greater ftrength than 150 men, they refilled all his ef¬
forts for five months. Fliis, however, w'as owing to
the
f
AND [ 33i ] AND
Andrew’s, the unfldlfulnefs of the beiiegers more than to the
ftrength of the place or the valour of the befieged j
for in 1547 the caftle was reduced and demoliihed.
The entrance of it is ftill to be leen •, and'the window
is ihown, out of which it is faid the cardinal leaned to
glut his eyes with the cruel martyrdom of George
Wilhart, who was burnt on a fpot beneath.
In the church of St Salvator is a moft beautiful tomb
of Biihop Kennedy, who died, an honour to his fatally,
in 1466. The Gothic work is uncommonly elegant.
Within the tomb were difeovered fix magnificent maces,
which had been concealed here in troublefome times.
One was given to each of the other three Scotch uni-
verfities, and three are preferved here. In the top is
reprefented our Saviour j around are angels, -with the
inftruments of the paffion.
With thefe are (hown fome filver arrows, with large
fiiver plates affixed to them, on which are inferibed the
arms and names of the noble youth, vi£lors in the an¬
nual competitions in the generous art of archery, which
were dropt but a few years ago ; and golf is now the
reigning game. That fport, and foot-ball, were for¬
merly prohibited, as ufelefs and unprofitable to the pub¬
lic 5 and at all weapon fchawings, or review's of the
people, it wras ordered, that fute-Lall andgolfe be utter¬
ly cryed down, end that bow-markes be made at ilk pa-
rifh kirk, a pair of butts and fchutting be ufed; and
■that ilk man fchutte fex Jhottes at leaf, under the paine
to be raiped upon them that cummis not, at leaf twa
pennyes to be given to them that cummis to the bow-
markes to drink.
The celebrated univerfity of this city wras founded
in 1411, by Bilhop Wardlaw. It confifted once of
three colleges. I. St Salvator’s, founded in 1458, by
Biffiop Kennedy. This is a handfome building, with
a court or quadrangle within : on one fide is the
church, on another the library } the third contains
apartments for Undents : the fourth is unfinifhed.
2. St Leonard’s college wTas founded by Prior Hep¬
burn, in 1522. This is now united with the laft, and
the buildings fold, and converted into private houfes.
3. The newq or St Mary’s college, was eftablifhed by
Archbifhop Hamilton in 1553 but the houfe was built
by James and David Bethune, or Beaton, wffio did not
live to complete it. This is faid to have been the fite of
a fchola illufris long before the efiablilhment even of
the univerfity, where feveral eminent clergymen taught,
gratis, the fciences and languages. But it was called
the new college, becaufe of its late eredlion into a divi¬
nity college by the archbiffiop.
The univerfity is governed by a chancellor, an office
originafly defigned to be perpetually veiled in thte arch-
bilhops of St Andrew’s but fince the Reformation, he
is elebled by the two principals, and the profeffors of
both the colleges.
The reflor is the next great officer ; to whofe care
are committed the privileges, difeipline, and llatutes of
the univerfity. The colleges have their redlors, and
profeffors of different fciences, who are indefatigable in
their attention to the inftruftion of the iludents, and
to that effential article their morals. This place pof-
feifes feveral very great advantages refpebting the edu¬
cation of youth. The air is pure and falubrious 5 the
place for exercife, dry and extenfive ; the exercifes
themfelves are healthy and innocent. The univerfity
is fixed in a peninfulated country 5 remote from all Andrew’s,
commerce w'ith the world, the haunt of diffipation. Andrews.
From the fmallnefs of the fociety, every fiudent’s cha- "
rafter is perfeftly known. No little irregularity can
be committed, but it is inllantly difeovered and check¬
ed : vice cannot attain a head in this place, for the in¬
corrigible are never permitted to remain the corrupters
of the reft.
The trade of St Andrew’s was once very confider-
able. So late as the reign of Charles I. this place had
thirty or forty trading vefiels, and carried on a confi-
derable herring and white fiffiery, by means of bulfes,
in deep w’ater ; w hich fiiheries had for ages been the
grand fource of their commerce, w ealth, and fplendour.
After the death of the king, this whole coaft, and St
Andrew’s in particular, became a feene of murder,
plunder, and rapine : every town fuffered in propor¬
tion to its magnitude and opulence. Nor were thofe
hypocritical ruffians fatisfied with the flapping, mer-
chandife, plate, cattle, and w'hatever came within their
fight they alfo laid the whole coaft under contribu¬
tion. St Andrew’s was required to pay xoool.j but
the inhabitants not being able to raife that fum after
being thus plundered, the general compounded for
500I. w'hich wras raifed by a loan at intereft, and hath
remained a burden upon the corporation, it is believed,
ever fince.
The harbour is artificial, guarded by piers, with a
narrow entrance, to give flicker to veffels from the vio¬
lence of a very heavy fea, by the encroachments of
which it has fuffered much. The rnanufaftures this
city might in former times poffefs, are now reduced to
one, that of golf balls 5 which, trifling as it may feem,
maintains a great number of people. It is, how'ever,
commonly fatal to the artifts •, for the balls are made
by fluffing a great quantity of feathers into a leathern
cafe, by help of an iron rod, w'ith a wooden handle,
preffed againft the breart, which feldom fails to bring
on a confumption.
Andrews, Lancelot, bifliop of Winchefter, was
born at London in 1555, and educated at Cambridge.
After feveral preferments, he was made bifliop, firft of
Chichefter, then of Fly, and, in 1618, was raifed to
the fee of Winchefter. This very learned prelate, who
w'as diftinguiftied by his piety, charity, and integrity,
may be juftly ranked with the belt preachers and com¬
pleted: fcholars of his age j he appeared to much great¬
er advantage in the pulpit than he does now in his
wmrks, which abound w'ith Latin quotations and trivial
witticifms. His fermons, though full of puns, were
fluted to the tafte of the times he which he lived, and
were confequently greatly admired. He was a man of
polite manners and lively converfation : and could quote
Greek and Latin authors, or even pun, with King fames.
There is a pleafant ftory related of him in the life of
Waller the poet. When that gentleman was young, he
had the curiofity to go to court, and flood in the circle
to fee King James dine ; where, among other company,
there fat at table twm biffiops, Neale and Andrews.
The king propofed aloud this queftion, Whether he
might not take his fubjefts money when he needed it,
without all this formality of parliament ? Neale replied,
“ God forbid you fltould not 5 for you are the breath
of our noftrils.” Whereupon the king turned, and faid
to the bifliop of Winchefter, “ Well, my lord, w'hat
T t 2 fay
AND
Andrews
fay you ?” “ Sir Crepled the bifliop), I have no {kill
Androgeus. t0 jUcl£e of Parliar«entary cafes.” The king anfwer-
-■ i. • etij u No put-offs, my lord ; anfwer me prefently.”
“ Then, Sir (faid he), I think it lawful for you to take
my brother Neale’s money, for he offers it.” Mr Wal¬
ler fays, the company was pleafed with this anfwer, but
the wit of it leemed to affedl the king ; for a certain
lord coming foon after, his majefty cried out, “ O, my
lord, they fay you lig with my lady.” “ No, Sir (fays
his lordlhip, in confufion), but I like her company
becaufe fire has fo much wit.” “ Why then (fays the
king) do not you lig with my lord of Winchefter
there r” '1 his great prelate was in no lefs reputation
and efteem with King Charles I. than he had been with
his predeceffors. He died at Winchefter houfe in
Southwark, September 27. 1626, in the 71ft year of
his age ; and was buried in the parifh church of St Sa¬
viour’s, ■where his executors eredfed to him a very fair
monument of marble and alabafter, on wftiich is an ele¬
gant infcription, in Latin, written by one of his cha¬
plains. Mr Milton alfo, at 17 years of age, wrote a
beautiful elegy on his death, in the fame language. Bi-
fliop Andrews had, 1. A fliare in the tranflation of the
Pentateuch, and the hifxorical books from Jofhuato the
firft book of Chronicles exclufively. He alfo wrote,
2. Tortura Torti, in anfwer to a work of Cardinal Bel-
larmine, in which that cardinal affumes the name of
Matthew Tortus. 3. A Manual of Private Devotions ;
and, 4. A Manual of Directions for the Vifitation of
the Sick 5 beftdes the Sermons and Tracts, in Englifti
and Latin, publiftied after his death.
ANDRIA, in Grecian Antiquity, public entertain¬
ments firft inftituted by Minos of Crete, and, after his
example, appointed by Lycurgus at Sparta, at which
a whole city or a tribe afiifted. They were managed
with the utmoft frugality 5 and perfons of all ages were
admitted, the younger fort being obliged by the law¬
giver to repair thither as to fchools of temperance and
fobriety.
Andria, a city and a biftiop’s fee in the territory
of Bari, in the kingdom of Naples. It is pretty large,
, well peopled, and feated in a fpacious plain, four miles
from the Adriatic coaft. E. Long. 17.4. N. Lat.41.15.
ANDRISCUS, a man of mean extraction, who,
pretending to be the fon of Perfeus laft king of Mace¬
donia, took upon him the name of Philip, for which
reafon he was called Pfeudo-Philippus, the Falfe Philip.
After a complete victory over Juventus, the Roman
praetor fcnt againft him, he aflumed kingly power, but
exercifed it with vaft cruelty. At laft, the Romans
obliged him to fly into Thrace, where he wras betrayed
^nd delivered into the hands of Metellus. This vic¬
tory gained Macedonia once more into the powder of
the Romans, and to Metellus the name of Macedonicus,
but coft the Romans 25,000 men. Andrifcus adorned
the triumph of Metellus, walking in chains before the
general’s chariot.
ANDROAS, or Androdamas, among Ancient Na-
turalifls, a kind of pyrita:, to which they attributed cer¬
tain magical virtues.
ANDROGEUS, in Fabulous Hi/lory, the fon of
Minos king of Crete, was murdered by the Athenian
youth and thofe of Megara, who envied his being al¬
ways victor at the Attic games. But Minos having
[ ]
AND
taken Athens and Megara, obliged the inhabitants to Androgy-
fend him an annual tribute of feven young men and as nes-
many virgins, to be devoured by the Minotaur j but * ” f
Thefeus delivered them from that tribute.
ANDROGYNES, in Natural Hi/lory, a name giv¬
en to thofe living creatures which, by a monftrous for¬
mation of their generative parts, feem (for it is only
feeming) to unite in themfelves the two fexes, that of
the male and of the female. This lufus tiaturce, this
defeft, or perhaps redundancy, in the animal ftrufture,
is defcribed by medical authors in the following man¬
ner : “ There is a depravation in the ftrufture of the
parts intended by nature for propagation, when, be-
fides thofe concealed parts that are found neceflary for
the difcharge of prolific functions, the pudenda of the
other fex likewife appear. This monftrous produ&ion
of nature is diverfified in four different ways; of
which three appear in males and one in females. In
men, the female pudendum, clothed with hair, fome-
times appears contiguous to the perinteum $ at other
times, in the middle of the fcrotum j at other timesr
which conftitutes the third diverfity, through that part
itfelf which in the midft of the fcrotum exhibits the
form of a pudendum, urine is emitted. Near that part
which is the teft of puberty, and above the pudendum,
even in females, the mafculine genitals appear in fome,
confpicuous in all their three forms, one refembling
the verctrum or yard, the other like the tw-o tefticles :
but for the moft part it happens, that, of the two in-
ftruments of generation, one is feeble and inert; and
it is extremely rare that both are found fufticiently va¬
lid and proper for feats of love ; nay, even in a great
many, both thefe members are deficient and impotent,
fo that they can perform the office neither of a male
nor of a female.”
With refpedl to them, it appears, from a collation
of all the circumftances wfliich have been obferved by
naturalifts wurthy of credit, that there is no fuch thing
as a perfeft androgyne, or real hem aphrodite ; that
is to fay, a living creature, which, by its unnatural, or
rather preternatural ftru&ure, poffeffes the genuine
powers of both fexes, in fuch a manner as to be qua¬
lified for performing the functions of either with fuc-
cefs : the irregularity of their fabrication almoft always
confifts in fomething fuperfluous added to one of the
two fexes, which gives it the appearance of the other,
u’ithout beftowing the real and charadteriftical diftinc-
tion ; and every hermaphrodite is almoft always a very
woman. Since this monftrous exhibition of nature is
not fuch as to abrogate the rights or deftroy the cha-
rafter of humanity amongft human beings, this invo¬
luntary misfortune implies no right to depri ’« thofe
upon whom it is infiifted by nature of the privileges
natural to every citizen ; and as this deficiency is no
more infeflious than any other corporeal mutilation, it
is not eafy to fee wky marriage ftrould be prohibited to
one of thefe unhappy beings, merely on account of its
equivocal appearance, which acts in the charadter of its
prevailing fex. If fuch a creature, by the defeft of its
conftrudtion, fhculd be barren, this does not infer any
right of diffolving the marriage which it may have con-
tradled, more than the farce fterility proceeding from
any caufe w'hether known or-unknown, if his or her
confort ftiould not on that account require a divorce-
It
AND [ 333 ] AND
It is only the licentious abufe either of one or the other
fex which can be fubjebled to the animadverlion of the
police. See Hermaphrodite.
Such are the lentiments of the authors of the French
Encyclopedic. After all, we cannot forbear to add,
that from fuch heterogeneous matches nature feems to
recoil with innate and inextinguifhable horror. Nor are
any of thefe invincible averfions implanted in our frame
without a final caufe worthy of its Author. We would
gladly afk thefe free-thinking gentlemen, In cafes
where the fexes are fo unnaturally confounded, how
the police can, by its moll fevere and rigorous animad-
verfions, either detedl or prevent thofe licentious abufes
againft which they remonflrate ? Since, therefore,
an evil fo baneful to human fociety could no otherwife
be prevented than by the fanftion of Nature againft
fuch horrible conjundlions, the inftindlive antipathy
which they infpire was highly worthy of her wifdom
and purity.
Androgynes, in Ancient Mythology, creatures of
wdiom according to the fable, each individual poffefled
the powers and charafters of both fexes, having two
heads, four arms, and two feet. The word itfelf is
compounded of two Greek radical words j «v»g, in ge¬
nitive a male; and yw)), a female. Many of the
rabbinical writers pretend, that Adam was created
double, one body being male, the other female, which
in their origin not being effentially joined, God after¬
wards did nothing but feparate them.
The gods, fays Plato in his Banquet, had formed
the ftrufture of man round, with two bodies and two
fexes. This fantaftic being, poffefting in itfelf the
wThole human fyflem, was endowed with a gigantic
force, which rendered it infolent, infomuch that it re-
folved to make war againft the gods. Jupiter, ex-
afperated, was going to deftroy it 5 but, forry at the
fame time to annihilate the human race, he fatisfied him-
felf with debilitating this double being, by disjoining
the male from the female, and leaving each half to fub-
fift with its own powers alone. He afligned to Apollo
the talk of repolilhing thefe two half bodies, and of
extending their Ikins fo that the whole furface might
be covered. Apollo obeyed, and faftened it at the um¬
bilicus : If this half fhould ftill rebel, it was once more
to be fubdivided by another fedlion, which would on¬
ly leave it one of the parts of which it was then con-
ftituted j and even this fourth of a man ivas to be an¬
nihilated, if it Ihould perlift in its obftinacy and mif-
chief. The idea of thefe androgynes might well be
borrowed from a paffage in Mofes, where that hifto-
rian of the birth and infancy of nature, defcribes
Adam as calling Eve bone of his bone and flejh of his
fle/h. However this may be, the fable of Plato has
been ufed with great ingenuity by a French poet, who
has been rendered almoft as confpieuous by his misfor¬
tunes as by his verfes. With the ancient philofcpher,
he attributes the propenlity which attracts one of the
fexes towards the other, to the natural ardour which
each half of the androgynes feels for reunion ; and
their inconftancy, to the difficulty which each of the
feparated parts encounters in its efforts to recover its
px-oper and original half. If a woman appears to us
amiable, we inftantly imagine her to be that moiety
with whom we ftiould only have conftituted one whole,
had it not been for the infolence of our original double- Arcfrogy-
fexed progenitor: ■' AnV°roides.
The heart, with fond credulity imprefs’d,
Tells us the half is found, and hopes for reft;
But ’tis our curfe, that fad experience fhow's,
We neither find our half, nor gain repofe.
ANDROGYNOUS, in Zoology, an appellation
given to animals which have both the male and female
fex in the fame individual.—In Botany, the term is ap¬
plied to fuch plants as bear both male and female
flowers on the lame root.
ANDROIDES, in Mechanics, a human figure,
which, by certain fprings or other movements, is
capable of performing fome of the natural motions
of a living man. The motions of the human body-
are more complicated, and confequently more difficult
to be imitated, than thofe of any other creature ;
whence the conftruftion of an androides, in fuch a
manner as to imitate any of thefe adlions with tolera¬
ble exa&nefs, is juftly fuppofed to indicate a greater
{kill in mechanics than any other piece of workman-
fhip whatever.
A very remarkable figure of this kind appeared
in Paris, in the year 1738. It reprefented a fiute-
player, and was capable of performing many different
pieces of mufic on the German flute 3 w hich, confider-
ing the difficulty of blowing that inftrument, the dif¬
ferent contradlions of the lips neceffary to produce the
diftinftions between the high and low notes, and the
complicated motions of the fingers, muft appear truly
wonderful.
This machine was the invention of M. Vaucanfon,
member of the Royal Academy of Sciences 5 and a par¬
ticular defeription of it w?as publiflied in the Memoirs
of the Academy for that year.
The figure itfelf was about five feet and a half in
height, fituatedatthe end of,an artificial rock, and pla¬
ced upon a fquare pedeftal four feet and a half high
and three and a half broad. The air entered the body
by three pipes feparated one from the other. It was
conveyed to them by nine pair of bellows, three of
which were placed above and fix below. Thefe w ere
made to expand and contraft regularly in fucceffion by
means of an axis of fteel turned round by fome clock¬
work. On this axis were different protuberances at
proper diftances, to which were fixed cords thrown
over pulleys, and terminating in the upper boards of the
bellows, fo that, as the axis turned, thefe boards were
alternately railed and let down. A contrivance was
alfo ufed to prevent the difagreeable hilling fluttering
noife ufually attending the motion of bellow's. This
w as by making the cord, by which the bellows was
moved, prefs, in its defeent, upon one end of a fmaller
lever, the other end of which alcending forced open
the fmall leathern valve that admitted the air, and kept
it fo, till, the cord being relaxed by the defeent of the
upper board, the lever fell, and the air was forced out..
Thus the bellow's performing their funclions conftantly
without the leaft hilling, or other noife? by which it
could be judged in what manner the air was conveyed
to the machine. The upper boards of three of the
pairs of bellows were prefled down by a weight of four-
pounds, that of three others by a weight of two pounds*
t
A M D
An:!ronles. and tliofe of the three remaining ones by nothing but
v ” their own weight.
i he tnree tubes, by which the air entered, terminat¬
ed in three fmall refervoirs in the trunk of the figure.
I here they united, and, afcending towards the throat,
formed the cavity of the mouth, which terminated in
two Jmall lips adapted in lome meafure to perform their
proper funftions. Within this cavity alfo was a fmall
moveable tongue; which, by its play, at proper pe¬
riods, admitted the air, or intercepted its pafiaee to
the flute.
The fingers, lips, and tongue, received their pro¬
per directions by means of a fteel cylinder turned by
clock-work. It was divided into 15 equal parts, which
by means of pegs, preffing upon the ends of 15 differ¬
ent levers, caufed the other extremities to afcend. Se¬
ven of thefe levers directed the fingers, having wires
and chains affixed to their afcending extremities, which
being attached to the’-fingers, caufed them afcend in
proportion as the other extremity was prelfed down by
the motion of the cylinder, and vice verfa. Thus the
afcent or defcent of one end of a lever produced a fimi-
lar afcent or defcent in the correfponding finger, by
■which one of the holes of the flute was occafionally
opened or flopped, as by a living performer. Three
of the levers ferved to regulate the ingrefs of the air,
being contrived fo as to open and fhut, by means of
valves, the three refervoirs of air above-mentioned, fo
that more or lefs ftrength might be given, and a higher
or lower note produced as occafion required. The lips
were, by a fimilar mechanifm, direCted by four levers,
one of which opened them, to give the air a freer paf-
fage; the other contracted them; the third drew them
backward 5 and the fourth puffied them forward. The
lips were projected upon that part of the flute which
receives the air; and, by the different motions already
mentioned, modified the tone in a proper manner. 
The remaining lever was employed in the direction of
the tongue, which it eafily moved fo as to fhut or
open the mouth of the flute.
.Thus we fee how all the motions neceffary for a
German flute player could be performed by this ma¬
chine ; but a confiderable difficulty ftill remains, name¬
ly, how to regulate thefe motions properly, and make
each of them follow in juft fucceffion. This, however,
was effected by the following Ample method. The
extremity of the axis of the cylinder was terminated on
the right fide by an endlefs fcrerv, confifting of twelve
threads, each placed at the diftance of a line and a
half from the other. Above this fcrew ivas fixed a
piece of copper, and in it a fteel pivot, which, falling
in between the threads of the fcrew, obliged the cy¬
linder to follow the threads, and, inltead of turning
direCtly round, it u’as continually puffied to one fide.
Hence, if a lever was moved, by a peg placed on the
cylinder, in any one revolution, it could not be moved
by the fame peg in the fucceeding revolution, becaufe
the peg would be moved a line and a half beyond it
by the lateral motion of the cylinder. Thus, by an ar¬
tificial difpcfition of thofe pegs in different parts of
the cylinder, the Itatue was made, by the fucceffive
elevation of the proper levers, to exhibit all the dif¬
ferent motions of a flute-player, to the admiration of
every one who faw it.
The couftruClion of machines capable of imitating
334 1 AND
even the mechanical aCtions of the human body, ffiow 'Andro
exquifite fkib ; but what ffiall we fay of one capable,
not only of imitating aCtions of this kind, but of aCt-
ing as external circumftances require, as though it were
endued with life and reafon > This, neverthelefs,
has been done. M. de Kempelen, a gentleman of Pref-
burg in Hungary, excited by the performances of M.
de Vaucanfon, at firfl: endeavoured to imitate them,
and at laft far excelled them. This gentleman con-
ftruCfed an Androides capable of playing at chefs ! 
Every one who is in the leaf! acquainted with this game
mull know, that it is fo far from being mechanically
performed, as to require a greater exertion of the judg¬
ment and rational faculties than is fufficient to accom-
plifli many matters of greater importance. An attempt,
therefore, to make a wooden chefs-player, muff appear
as ridiculous as to make a wooden preacher or coun-
fellor of ftate. That this machine really was made,
however, the public hav^ had ocular demonftration.
The inventor came over to Britain in 1783, where he
remained above a year with his automaton.
It is a figure as large as life, in a Turkiffi drefs, fit¬
ting behind a table, with doors of three feet and a half
in length, twro in depth, and two and a half in height,
I he chair on which it fits is fixed to the table, which
runs on four vffieels. The automaton leans its right
arm on the table, and in its left hand holds a pipe :
with this hand it plays after the pipe is removed. A
chefs board of 18 inches is fixed before it. This table,
or rather cupboard, contains wheels, levers, cylinders,
and other pieces of mechanifm; all which are publicly
difplayed. The veftments of the automaton are then
lifted over its head, and the body is feen full of fimilar
wheels and levers. There is a little door in its thigh,
wffiich is likewife opened ; and with this, and the table
alfo open, and the automatoh uncovered, the whole is
wheeled about the room. The doors are then ffiut,
and the automaton is ready to phy ; and it always
takes the firft move.
At every motion the wheels are heard j'the image
moves its head, and looks over every part of the chefs
board. When it checks the queen, it fhakes its head
twice, and thrice in giving check to the king. It
likewife ffiakes its head wffien a falfe move is made, re¬
places the piece, and makes its own move ; by which
means the advcriary lofes one.
M. de Kempelen remarks as the moft lurprifing cir-
cumftance attending his automaton, that it had been
exhibited at Preffiurg, Vienna, Paris, and London, to
thoufands, many of wffiom w^ere mathematicians and
chefs-players, and yet the fecret by wfliich he governed
the motion of its arm was never difcovered. He prided
himfelf folely on the conftru&ion of the mechanical
powrers, by which the arm could perform ten or tw;elve
moves. It then required to be w'ound up like a watch,
after which it wras capable of continuing the fame num¬
ber of motions.
The automaton could not play unlefs M. de Kem¬
pelen or his fubftitute wns near it to diredff its moves.
A fmall fquare box, during the game, was frequently
confulted by the exhibiter ; and herein confifted the
fecret, which he find he could in a moment commu¬
nicate. He who could beat M. de Kempelen was,
of courfe, certain of conquering the automaton. It
was made in 1769. His own account of it was:
“ C’eft
AND
Androrsa.
Androlepfy « C’efi: une bagatelle qui u’elt pas fans merite du cote
du mechanifme tnais les effets n’en paroiflent Ij mer-
  veilleux que par la hardielfe de Pidee, et par Pheureux
cholx des moyens employes pour laire iilufion.”
The ftrongell and belt armed loadftone was allowed to
be placed on the machine by any of the fpeclators.
As the inventor of this admirable piece of mechanifm
hath not yet thought proper to communicate to the
public the means by which it is actuated, it is in vain
for any, except thofe who are exquiiitely {killed in me¬
chanics, to form conjeftures concerning them.—Many
other curious imitations of the human body, as well as
that of other animals, have been exhibited, though none
of th em equal to the laid mentioned one. See the ar¬
ticle Automaton.
ANDROLEPSY, in Grecian Antiquity, an aftion
allowed by the Athenians againft fuch as protefted
perfons guilty of murder. The relations of the deceaf-
ed were empowered to feize three men in the city or
houfe whither the malefaftor had fled, till he were
either furrendered, or fatisfa&ion made fome way or
other for the murder.
ANDROMACHE, the wife of the valiant Heddor,
the mother of Afdyanax, and daughter of Eetion king
of Thebes in Cilicia. After the death of He dor and
the deftrudion of Troy, {he married Pyrrhus j and af¬
terwards Helenas the fon of Priam, with whom {he
reigned over part of Epirus.
ANDROMEDA, in AJlronomy, a northern con-
ftellation, behind Pegafus, Cafliopeia, and Perfeus. It
reprefents the figure of a woman chained ; and is
fabled to have been formed in memory of Andromeda,
daughter of Cepheus and Cafliopeia, and wife of Per¬
feus, by whom fhe had been delivered from a fea mon-
Iler, to which fire had been expofed to be devoured
for her mother’s pride. Minerva tranflated her into
the heavens.
The liars in the conllellation Andromeda, in Ptole¬
my’s catalogue are 23, in Tycho’s 22, in Bayer’s 27,
in Mr Flamfted’s no lefs than 84.
Andromeda, the name of a celebrated tragedy of
Euripides, admired by the ancients above all the other
compofitions of that poet, but now loll.
It was the reprefentation of this play, in a hot fum-
mer day, that occafioned that epidemic fever, or phren-
fy, for which the Abderites are often mentioned, where¬
in they walked about the llreets, rehearfing verfes, and
afling parts of this piece. See Aedera.
Andromeda, or Marjh Cyjlus. See Botany Index.
ANDRON, in Grecian Antiquity, denotes the
apartment in houfes defigned for the ufe of men ; in
which fenfe it Hands oppofed to Gynceceum.—The
Greeks alfo gave their dining-rooms the title of an-
dron, becaufe the women had no admittance to fealls
with the men.
ANDRONA, in ancient writers, denotes a llreet,
or public place, where people met and converfed toge¬
ther. In fome writers, androna is more exprefsly ufed
for the fpace between two hnufes-, in which fenfe, the
Greeks alfo ufe the term for the way or paf-
fage between two apartments.
Androna is alfo ufed, in ecclefialtical writers, for
that part in churches dellined for the men. Anciently
it w’as the cuftom for the men and women to have fepa-
rate apartments in places of worfhip, where they per-
33J ]
AND
formed their devotions afunder j which method is Hill Androni-
religioufly obferved in the Greek church. The ™s-
or androna, was in the fouthern fide of the church, and v
the women’s apartment on the northern.
ANDRONICUS I. Comnenus, emperor ofthe Eafl,
was the ion of Ifaac, and grandfon of Alexus Com¬
nenus. Naturally endowed with a vigorous habit of
body, and a firm mind, adlive, temperate, martial, and
eloquent, he Ihines as one of the molt confpicuous
charadlers of his age. Folloiving the bent of his incli¬
nation, he attended the Roman army in their retreat 5
but in their march through Alia Minor, wandering in¬
to the mountains, he fell into the hands of fome Tur-
kifh huntfmen, was carried to the fultan, and remained
his prifoner. But regaining his liberty, both his virtues
and vices foon recommended him to the favour of his
coufin Manuel, the reigning emperor. The vicious
heart of Andronicus manifested itfelf clearly in main¬
taining a licentious correfpondence with Eudocia the
the emperor’s niece, while the emperor himfelf lived in
public inceft with her filter Theodora. His martial
fpirit gained him a confiderable command in Cilicia,
where he laid fiege to Mopfueftia ; but by a fuccefsfui
fally of the enemy, he was obliged to raife the fiege,
and retire in confiderable diforder. Inflamed with a
defire of revenging the infamy of their filter in his
blood, the brothers of Eudocia made an unfuccefsful
attempt to aflaflinate Andronicus at midnight in his
tent; but being providentially awakened, he defended
himfelf with furprifing bravery, forced his way throup-h
his enemies, and efcaped in Safety. Afterwards en-
gagmg in a treafonable correfpondence, with the em¬
peror of Germany and the king of Hungary, he was
arrefted, and thrown into confinement. He remained
in this ftate about twelve years, and after feveral re¬
peated attempts to efcape, he at laft effectuated his pur-
pofe, and fled for refuge to the court of the great duke
of Ruflia. The cunning of Andronicus foon found
means to regain his favour with the emperor Manuel ;
for having exerted all his influence, he fucceeded in
obtaining the Ruffian prince, to engage to join his troops
with thofe ol Manuel, in the invafion of Hungary.
Accordingly, on account of his important fervice, he ob¬
tained a free pardon from the emperor, and after an
expedition to the Danube, returned with him to Con-
ftantinople. He again fell under the difpleafure of the
emperor, by refufing to take an oath of allegiance 1a
the prince of Hungary, his intended fon-in-law, and
confequently prefumptive heir to the crown, and was
thereupon, returned to his former command in Cilicia.
While refiding here, his powerful addrefs captivated
the heart of Philippa, daughter of the Latin prince of
Antioch, and filter to the emprefs Maria ; and in her
company, he fpent his time in all the amufements that
country could afford, till the emperor’s refentment put
a Hop to their correfpondence. Thus circumltanced,
he colleCtcd a band of adventurers, and undertook a
pilgrimage to the holy land, where by his infinuating
turn of mind, he fo far fucceeded in gaining the favour
of the king and clergy, as to be ii cited with the
lordfhip of Berytus on the coaff of Phoenicia. In this
neighbourhood, Theodora the beautiful widow of Bald¬
win, king of Jerufalem, and nearly allied in blood to
him, refided. The perfonal acccmplilLments and ad-
dreis of Andronicus captivated her heart, and fhe be-
\ > came
AND [
Androrti- cam^ tlie third vicHm to his artful fedu£Hon,
cu3, lived publicly as his concubine. Still purfued by
the emperor with unabating refentment, he was forced
to take refuge in Damafcus, and then in feveral other
places in the eaft, till at length he fettled in Afia
Minor. While refiding here, he made frequent in-
curfions into the province of Trebizond, and feldom re¬
turned without fuccefs. After feveral occurrences,
Theodora was made captive, by the governor of Trebi¬
zond, along wuth her two children, and fent to Con-
ftantinople : upon wdiich Andronicus implored and ob¬
tained pardon. He adled the affe£ted penitent in fuch
a manner, that he again ingratiated himfelf into the
favours both of the church and Hate : but was fent to
dwrell at Oenoe, a town htuated on the Euxine coaft.
In the year 1177 Manuel died, and was fucceeded
by his fon Alexius II. a youth about twelve or fourteen
years of a^ge, without wifdom or experience, by which
the ambition of Andronicus wras again called into ac¬
tion. A civil war having been occafioned, by the
mifconduft of the emprefs in Conftantinople, the pub¬
lic mind was directed towards Andronicus, as the only
perfon wdiofe rank and accomplilhments could reftore
the public tranquillity. Incited by the patriarchs and
patricians, he marched towards Conftantinople, which
he entered, took poffeflion of the palace, confined the
emprefs, configned her minifter to death, aflumed the
office of proteftor, put to death many perfons of dillinc-
tion, tried and executed the queen, on a charge of cor-
refponding with the king of Hungary, and vowed fi¬
delity to the young emperor upon his coronation, at
the fame time teaching the neceflity of an experienced
ruler, to afluage the evils that threatened the empire 5
upon which his adherents called out “ Long live Alex¬
ius and Andronicus, Roman emperors.” While he
affe&ed reluctance, he was elevated to a partnerihip in
the empire. This conjundion of the royal powder was
loon difiblved, by the murder of the unfortunate Alex¬
ius. The body of the deceafed being brought into his
prefence, ftriking it with his foot, he laid, “ Thy father
was a knave, thy mother a whore, and thyfelf a fool.”
Having arrived at the dignity of foie emperor, A. D.
1183, he continued to fwTay the fceptre, with a mixture
of iuftice and bounty towards his fubje&s at large, but
thofe whom he feared or hated he governed with the
moft cruel tyranny. The noble families that were either
„ it off, or exiled by him, were all allied to the Comneni.
Some of thefe were engaged in revolt j and the public ca¬
lamity was heightened, by an invafion of the Sicilians, in
which they took and facked Theffalonica. A rival with¬
out merit, and a people without arms, at laft overturned
his throne. A defcendant from the firft Alexius, in
the female line, named Ifaac Angelus, being fingled
out by Andronicus, as a vi&im to his cruelty, he with
courage and refolution defended his life and liberty,
ilew his executioner, fled to the church of St Sophia,
and there took refuge with feveral of his friends. Ifaac
was inftantly raifed by the populace, from a fanftuary
to a throne. When this event took place, Andronicus
was abfent from Conftantinople; but he no fooner heard
of it, than he with the utmoft fpeed returned. Upon
his arrival there, he found himfelf deferted by all, and
was feized, and dragged in chains before the new em¬
peror. All the eloquence he difplayed was of no avail;
for Ifaac delivered him into the hands oi thofe whom
336 1 AND
and he had injured, and for the fpace of three days, he en¬
dured with uncommon patience, all the infults and tor¬
ments that were inflifted upon him. In the midft of
thefe he would frequently cry out, “ Lord have mercy t
upon me,” and, “ why will you bruife a broken reed.”
At laft, twm friendly or furious Italians, plunging their
fwords into his body put a period to his life. His death
in the 73d year of his age, terminated the dynafty of
the Cdmneni. (Gen. Biog.')
sIndronicus of Cyrrhus, an Athenian aftronomer,
built at Athens an odtagon tower, with figures carved
on each fide, reprefenting the eight principal winds.
A brafs Triton at the fummit, with a rod in its hand,
turned round by the wind, pointed to the quarter
from wffience it blewu From this model is derived the
cuftom of placing tveathercocks on fteeples.
ANUROPHAGI, in Ancient Geography, the name
of a nation whofe country, according to Herodotus,
w7as adjacent to Scythia, Their name, compounded of
two Greek words, fignifies ?nan-eaters. Herodotus
does not inform us whether their manner of fubfifting
correfponded with their name : whether they wrere ip
favage as to eat human flefh. See the article Anthro¬
pophagi. They are reprefented, however, as the
moft barbarous and fierce of all nations. They wTere
not governed by laws : the care of their cattle wTas
their chief employment. Their drefs was like that of
the Scythians ) and they had a language peculiar to
themfelves.
ANDROPOGON, or Man’s-beard. See Bo¬
tany Index.
ANDROS, one of the ancient Cyclades, lying be¬
tween Tenedos and Euboea : being one mile diftant
from the former, and ten from the latter. The ancients
gave it various names, viz. Cauros, Lafia, Nonagria,
Epagris, Antandros, and Hydrufia. The name of
Andros it received from one Andreus, appointed, ac¬
cording to Diodorus Siculus, by Rhadamanthus, one
of the generals, to govern the Cyclades, after they had
of their own accord fubmitted to him. As to the name
of Antandros, the fame author tells us, that Afcanius
the fon of Afneas, being taken- prifoner by the Pelaf-
gians, gave them this ifland for his ranfom, which on
that account was called Antandros, or “ delivered for
one man.” The name of Hydrufa it obtained in com¬
mon with other places well fupplied with water. It
had formerly a city of great note, bearing the fame
name, and fituated very advantageoufty on the brow
of a hill, which commanded the wffiole coaft. In this
city, according to Strabo and Pliny, flood a famous
temple dedicated to Bacchus. Near this temple, Mu-
tianus, as quoted by Pliny, tells us, there was a fpring
called the gift of Jupiter ; the wrater of -which had the
tafte of wine in the month of January, during the
feaft of Bacchus, which lafted feven days. The fame
author adds, that the waters, if carried to a place
wffience the temple could not be feen, loft their mira¬
culous tafte. Paufanias makes no mention of this
fpring •, but fays, that, during the feaft of Bacchus,
wine flowed, or was at leaft by the Andrians believed
to flow, from the temple of that god. The priefts, no
doubt, found their account in keeping up this belief,
by conveying, through fecret conduits, a great quan¬
tity of wine into the temple.
The Andrians were the firft of all the ifianders who
joined
AndrciiS-
cus
If
Andros.
AND
Andros, joined the Perfians at the time Xerxes invaded Greece j
and therefore Themiftocles, after the viftory at Sala-
mis, refolved to attack the city of Andros, and oblige
the inhabitants to pay large contributions for the main¬
tenance of his fleet. Having landed his men on the
ifland, he fent heralds to the magiftrates, acquainting
them, that the Athenians were coming againft them
with two powerful divinities, perfuajion andyorce ; and
therefore they mull part with their money by fair
means or foul. The Andrians replied, That they like-
wife had two mighty deities who were very fond of
their ifland, viz. poverty and impojjibility; and there¬
fore could give no money. Themiilocles, not fatisfied
with this anfwer, laid flege to the town ; which he
probably made himfelf mailer of and deftroyed, as we
are informed by Plutarch, that Pericles, a few years
after, fent thither a colony of 250 Athenians. It was,
however, foon retaken by the Perfians; and, on the
overthrow of that empire by Alexander the Great,
Submitted to him, along with the other iflands. On
his death it fided with Antigonus, who was driven out
by Ptolemy. The fucceflbrs of the lalt mentioned
prince held it to the times of the Romans 5 when At¬
tains, king of Pergamus, befieged the metropolis at
the head of a Roman army j and, having taken it,
was by them put in pofieflion of the whole ifland. Up¬
on the death of Attalus, the republic claimed this
ifland, as well as his other dominions, in virtue of his
laid will.
Andros is now fubjeft to the Turks j and contains
a town of the fame name, wdth a great many villages.
It is the moil fruitful ifland in all the Archipelago,
and yields a great quantity of filk. There are faid to
be about 12,000 inhabitants, befides thofe of the vil¬
lages Arni and Amoldeos, who are about two hundred,
have a different language and cuftoms, and are called
Albanois. There are feven monafteries, a great num¬
ber of churches, and a cathedral for the bilhops of the
Roman Catholic perfuafion •, but mold of the inhabi¬
tants are of the Greek communion. The Jefuits had
a houfe and a church in this ifland •, but they were
forced to quit them long ago. Here are fome delight¬
ful valleys } but the air is bad, and the water of the
city worfe. The -women would be agreeable enough,
if it was not for their drefs, which is very unbecoming •,
for they fluff out their clothes without the leafd regard
to their fliape : but the Albanefe w'omen make a much
better appearance. The peafants make wicker-bafk-
ets, wherewith they fupply the greatefd part of the Ar¬
chipelago. They have all forts of game in the woods
and mountains, but know' not how to takei them for
want of guns. Their principal food is goats flefli; for
there is no fifh to be met with on their coafls. When
they are fick, they are obliged to let the difeafe take
its natural courfe, having neither phyfician nor furgeon
on the ifland. A cadi, aflifded by a few of the prin¬
cipal perfons of the iiland, has the management of ci¬
vil affairs, and his refidence is in the caftle : an aga,
who prefides over the military force, lives in a tower
without the city. About two miles from the prefent
towm are fdill to be feen the ruins of a ftrong wall with
the fragments of many columns, chapiters, bafes, bro¬
ken fdatues, and feveral infcriptions, fome of wdiich
.mention the fenate and people of Andros, and the
Vol. II. Part L
C 337 1 A N E
priefls of Bacchus ; from which it is probable that this
wras the fite of the ancient city. E. Long. 25. 30.
N. Lat. 37. 50. _ _ ^
Andros, in Ancient Geography, an ifland in the
Irifh fea (Pliny), called Hedros by Ptolemy. Now
Bardfey, difdant about a mile from the coafd of North
Wales.
ANDROSACE. See Botany Index.
ANDRUM, a kind of hydrocele, to which the
people of Malabar are very fubjeft.—Its origin is de¬
rived from the bad quality of the country waters, im¬
pregnated with certain falts, the fource of mold other
difeafes that affefd the Malabarians. Its figns, or fymp-
toms, are an eryfipelas of the ferotum, returning every
new moon, by which the lymphatics, being eroded,
pour a ferous faline humour into its cavity. The an-
drum is incurable 3 thofe once feized with it have it
for life : but it is not dangerous, nor very trouble-
fome to thofe ufed to it j though fometimes it dege¬
nerates into an hydrofarcocele. The method of pre¬
vention is by a heap of fand fetched from a river of
the province Mangatti, and fdrewed in the w'ells. This
is praddifed by the rich. As to the cure, they have
only a palliative one ; which is by incifion, or tapping,
and draw ing off the w’ater from the ferotum, once in
a month or twro.
ANDRYALA, downy sow-thistle. See Bo¬
tany Index.
ANDUXAR, a city in the province of Andalufia,
in Spain, feated on the Guadalquiver. It is pretty
large, indifferently rich, and defended by a good cai-
tle. It is adorned wdth handfome churches and feve¬
ral religious houfes, and inhabited by many families of
high rank. The land about it abounds in corn, wine,
oil, honey, and fruit of all forts 3 and the inhabitants
carry on a confiderable trade in filk. W. Long. 4. 2.
N. Lat. 37. 45.
ANDUZE, a town of France, in the department of
the Gard, feated on the river Garden. It carries on
a confiderable trade in ferges and woollen cloth. E.
Long. 3. 42. N. Lat. 43. 39.
ANECDOTE, Anecdota, a term ufed by fome
authors for the titles of Secret Htjlories ; but it more
properly denotes a relation of detached and interefting
particulars. The w'ord is Greek, avixScrx, q. d. things
not yet known or hitherto kept fecret. Procopius gives
this title to a book which he publiflied againfl: Jufiini-
an and his wife Theodora 3 and he feems to be the
only perfon among the ancients wdio has reprefented
princes fuch as they are in their domeldic relation.—
Varillas has publifhed Anecdotes of the Houfe of Me-
dicis.
Anecdotes is alfo an appellation given to fuch
works of the ancients as have not yet been publiflied.
In which fenfe, M. Muratori gives the name Anecdota
Grceca to feveral waitings of the Greek fathers, found
in the libraries, and firft publilhed by him.—F. Mar¬
lene has given a Thefaurus Anecdotarum Novas, in fo¬
lio, 5 vols.
ANEE, in Commerce, a meafure for grain, ufed in
fome provinces of France. At Lyons, it fignifies alfo
a certain quantity of wine, which is the load an afs can
carry at once : which is fixed at 80 Englilh quarts,
wine meafure.
U u ANEMOMETER,
Andros
Anee.
A N E [ 338 ] A N E
Anemome- ANEMOMETER, in Mechanics^ implies a ma-
t|j1 chine for meafuring the force and velocity of the
Anemo- wind.
fcope. Various machines of this kind have been invented
1" v' ■ ' at different times, and by different perfons. The fol¬
lowing has been often experienced, and found to an-
fwer the intention.
* Plate An open frame of wood, ABCDEFGHI *, is fup-
XXXIII. ported by the (haft or arbor I. In the two crois-pieces
2‘ HK, LM, is moved a horizontal axis QM, by means
of the four fails ab, cm, Of, gb, expofed to the wind
in a proper manner. Upon this axis is fixed a cone of
wood, MNO •, upon which, as the fails move round, a
■weight R, or S, is raifed by a firing round its fuper-
ficies, proceeding from the fmaller to the larger end
NO. Upon this larger end or bafe of the cone, is
fixed a rocket •wheel k, in whofe teeth the click X
falls, to prevent any retrograde motion from the de¬
pending weight.
The flrufture of this machine fufficiently fhows that
it may be accommodated to eflimate the variable force
of the wind •, becaufe the force of the weight will con¬
tinually increafe as the firing advances on the conical
furface, by afling at a greater diflance from the axis
of motion ; confequently, if fuch a weight be added
on the fmaller part M, as will juft keep the machine
in equilibrio in the weakeft wind, the weight to be
raifed, as the wind becomes ftronger, will be increafed
in proportion, and the diameter of the cone NO may
be fo large in comparifon to that of the fmaller end at
M, that the ftrongeft wind fhall but juft raife the
weight at the greater end.
If, for example, the diameter of the axis be to that
of the bafe of the cone NO as I to 28 j then, if S be
a weight of one pound at M on the axis, it will be equi¬
valent to 28 pounds when raifed to the greater end :
if therefore, when the wind is wTeakeft, it fupports one
pound on the axis, it muft be 28 times as ftrong to
raife the w'eight to the bafe of the cone. If therefore
a line of fcale of 28 equal parts be drawn on the fide
of the cone, the ftrength of the wind will be indicated
by that number on which the firing refts.
ANEMONE, wind-flower. See Botany In¬
dex.
Sea-Ankmoxk. See AnimAt-Flower.
ANEMOSCOPE, a machine that {hows either the
courfe or velocity of the wind. (See alfo the article
Wind Gauge.)
The machine which (hows the courfe of the wind,
or from what point of the compafs it blow^s, confifts
of an index moving about an upright circular plate,
like the dial of a clock, on which the 32 points of
the compafs are drawn inftead of the hours. The in¬
dex, which points to the divifions on the dial, is turn¬
ed by a horizontal axis, having a trundle-head at its
external extremity. This trundle-head is moved by a
cog-wheel on a perpendicular axis •, on the top of which
a vane is fixed, that moves with the courfe of the wind,
and puts the whole machine in motion. The whole
contrivance is extremely fimple 5 and nothing required
in the conftruftion, but that the number of cogs in the
wheel, and rounds in the trundle-head, be equal 3 be¬
caufe it is neceffary, that, when the vane moves en¬
tirely round, the index of the dial alfo make a com¬
plete revolution.^..An anemofcope of this kind is placed
in one of the turrets of the queen’s palace. The ane- Anemo-
mofcope, calculated for indicating the force or veloci- ^C0Pe-
ty of the wind, is the fame with w'hat moll writers ’ v
call an anemometer; and we have accordingly de-
fcribed one of thofe machines under that article. We
fhall here add another, contrived by the late Mr Pick¬
ering, and publifhed in the Philofophical Tranfaflions,
N° 473. This anemofcope is a machine four feet and
a quarter high, confifting of a broad and weighty pe-
deftal, a pillar faftened into it, and an iron axis of about
half an inch diameter faftened into the pillar. Upon
this axis turns a wooden tube 3 at the top of w hich is
placed a vane, of the fame materials, 21 inches long,
confifting of a quadrant, graduated, and fhod with an
iron rim, notched to each degree 3 and a counterpoife
of wood, as in the figure, on the other. Through the
centre of the quadrant runs an iron pin, upon which
are faftened two fmall round pieces of wood, which
ferve as moveable radii to deferibe the degrees upon
the quadrant, and as handles to a velum or fail, whofe
pane is one foot Iquare, made of canvas, ftretched up¬
on four battens, and painted. On the upper batten,
next to the fliod rim of the quadrant, is a fmall
fpring which catches at every notch correfponding to
each degree, as the wind fhall, by prefiing againft the
fail, raife it up 3 and prevents the falling back of the
fail, upon leffening of the force of the wind. At the
bottom of the wooden tube, is an iron index, which
moves round a circular piece of wood faflened to the
top of the pillar on the pedeftal, on which are deferib-
ed the 32 points of the compafs. The figure of this
machine is given on Plate XXXIII. fig. 3, where c is
the pedeftal 3 b, the pillar on which the iron axis is fit¬
ted 3 c, the circle of wood, on w hich are deferiled the
32 points of the compafs 3 e, the wooden tube upon its
axis; f the velum 3 g, the graduated quadrant 5 h, the
counterpoife of the vane. The adjoining figure repre-
fents the velum, w'hich takes off: a is the plane of the
velum 3 b, the fpring 3 cc, the wooden radii 3 dd, the
holes through which the pin in the centre of the qua¬
drant goes. Its ufes are the following :
X. Having a circular motion round the iron axis,
and being furnifhed with a vane at top and index at
the bottom, when once you have fixed the artificial
cardinal points, deferibed on the round piece of wood
on the pillar, to the fame quarters of the heavens, it
gives a faithful account of that quarter from w hich the
wind blowys. 2. By having a velum or fail elevated
by the wind along the arch of the quadrant to a
height proportionable to the powrer of the column of
wind preffing againft it, the relative force of the wind,
and its comparative pow'er, at any two times of exami¬
nation, may be accurately taken. 3. By having a
fpring fitted to the notches of the iron with which the
quadrant is fhod, the velum is prevented from return¬
ing back upon the fall of the wind 3 and the machine
gives the force to the higheft blaft, fince the lafl time
of examination, without the' trouble of watching it.
The ingenious contriver of this machine tells us,
that he carefully examined what dependence may be
had upon it, during the florms of February 1743-4,
and found that it anfwered exceedingly well 3 for that,
in fuch winds as the failors call violent forms, the ma¬
chine had fix degrees to fpare for a more violent gufl,
before it comes to a horizontal pofition. It is cer¬
tainly
A N G [ 339 J A N G
Anethum tainly to be depended upon in ordinary weather, the
tl velum being hung fo tenderly as to feel the molt gen-
. Angd- tie j3reeze> There is however reafon to fear, that the
v ~' expofing the anemofcope to all winds for continu¬
ance, mull diforder it, efpecialiy irregular blafts and
fqualls. It may not therefore be amifs, in violent
weather, for the obferver to take the tube with its
vane and velum in his hand, in order to know the
force of the wind ; and when he has finilhed his obfer-
vations, to carry the machine into the houfe, till the
violence of the llorm is abated, when it may be re¬
placed in its former fituation.
ANETHUM, dill and fennel. See Botany
Index.
ANEURISM, in Surgery, a throbbing tumor, di-
ftended with blood, and formed by a dilatation or rup¬
ture of an artery. See Surgery Index.
ANGARJ, or Angarii, in Antiquity, denote pu¬
blic couriers, appointed for the carrying of meffages.
The ancient Perfians, Budams obferves, had their
*tyyflegs<#y which was a fet of couriers on horfe-
back, polled at certain llages or dillances, always in
readinefs to receive the deipatches from one, and for¬
ward them to another, with wonderful celerity, anfwer-
ing to w’hat the moderns call pojls, q. d. pojiti, as being
polled at certain places or ftages. The angari wrere
alfo called by the Perfians ajlanda; by the Greeks
on account of the long journeys they made
in one day, w'h'ich, according to Suidas, amounted not
to lefs than I 500 lladia.
ANGARIA, in Roman Antiquity, a kind of public
fervice impofed on the provincials, which confilled in
providing horfes and carriages for the conveyance of
military llores and other public burdens. It is fome-
times alfo ufed for a guard of foldiers, polled for the
defence of a place. In a more general fenfe it is ufed
for any kind of oppreffion or fervices performed through
compulfion.
ANGAZYA, one of the Comora iflands, lying
between the north end of Madagafcar and the coall
of Zanguebar in Africa, from Lat. io° to 150 S. It
is inhabited by Moors, who trade with divers parts of
the continent, in cattle, fruits, and other commodities
of the illand 5 which they exchange for callicoes and
other cotton cloths. The houfes here are built of Hone,
and lime made of calcined oyller Ihells ; with which
the walls and roof are plallered in a very elegant man¬
ner. The government of Angazya is a pure aritlocra-
cy ; the illand being fubjedl to 10 lords, who have all
the title of Sultan. The people are very careful of
1 their women •, never permitting llrangers to fee them,
without permiffion from a fultan, or an order wdiich
the llranger brings with him. Many of them read and
write Arabic with great facility •, and fome even under¬
hand Portuguefe, w'hicli they learn from their inter-
courfe with Mofambique, whither they trade in veffels
of 40 tons burthen.
ANGEIOTOMY, in Surgery, implies the opening
a vein or artery, as in bleeding •, and confequently in¬
cludes both arteriotomy and phlebotomy.
ANGEL, a fpiritual intelligent fubllance, the firll
in rank and dignity among created beings. The word
angel is Greek, and fignifies a mcjfenger: the Hebrew
nxbn fignifies the fame thing. The angels are in Da¬
niel (chap. iv. ver. 13, &c.) called or watchers,
from their vigilance : for the fame reafon they are, in Angel,
the remains we have of the prophecy attributed to " '
Enoch, named Egregori; which w’ord imports the lame
in Greek.
Angels, therefore, in the proper fignification of the
word, do not import the nature of any being, but only
the office to which they are appointed, efpecially by
way of meffage or intercourfe between God and his
creatures j in wffiich fenfe they are called the minijlers
of God, who do his pleafure, and minijlering fpirits fent
forth to miniller for them who lhall be heirs of falva-
tion. That there are Inch beings as we call angels,
that is, certain permanent fubllances, invilible and im¬
perceptible to our fenfes, endued with underllanding
and powTer fuperior to that of human nature, created by
God, and fubjedl to him as the Supreme Being mi-
niltring to his divine providence in the government of
the world by his appointment, and more efpecially at¬
tending the affairs of mankind ; is a truth fo fully at-
telled by Scripture, that it cannot be doubted. Nay,
the exillence of fuch invifible beings was generally
acknowledged by the ancient heathens, though under
different appellations : the Greeks called them demons;
and the Romans genii, or lares. Epicurus feems to
have been the only one among the old philofophers
who abfolutely rejedled them. Indeed, the belief o£
middle intelligences influencing the affairs of the world,
and ferving as miniilers or interpreters between God
and man, is as extenfive as the belief of a God j having
never, fo far as we know, been called in queftion by
thofe who had any religion at all.
The creation of angels is not indeed exprefsly men-when creaa
tioned by Mofes in the firft of Genefis, yet it is gene-ted.
rally coniidered by judicious expofitors as implied. The
reafon why the facred hifforian is filent on this fubjecl,
is fuppofed by Berrington to be the natural pronenefs
of the Gentile world, and even of the Jews, to idolatry *. * the
And it is thought, if they worshipped mere mzttxidi Creation,
elements, which was the cafe, much more might theyP- 8l- .
be inclined to worfliip fuch fuperior and fublime beings See.al<<
. ^ r • 1 • 1 verianus on
as angels. But a better reaion is perhaps given by ^ Qrca.
other writers, viz. that this firft hiftory was purpofely tion.
and principally for information concerning the vifible
world ; the invifible, of which we know but in part,
being referved for a better life f. f AJfem-
On wffiat day they were created has been matter of My * Annou
conjedlure. It is a point on which learned men have13" Cen.\.
differed. The Socinians, indeed, hold, fays Bifliop50,
Hopkins J, that it was long before the account given f Works,
by Mofes: but it mull have been within the fix days P- S0S*
creation ; becaufe, as we are informed, that within this
fpace God made heaven and earth, and all things that
are therein. All the writers that we have feen on this
fubjedl, think they were included in the firft day’s work*
when the heavens were framed.
It has been thought by fome perfons, that the words
of Job, “ When the morning ftars fang together, and
all the fons of God ftiouted for joy,” militate" againft
the creation of angels within the fix days. About the
meaning of thefe words, however, expofitors are not
agreed j but admitting that they refer literally to an¬
gels, Dr Lightfoot, Caryl, and others, fee no difficulty
in the paffage. The Doftor thinks they w^ere created
on the firft day, with the heavens ; and that they were
fpe&ators-of God’s works in the other parts of creation,
U u 2 and
Angel.
|| Bod- Di-
win. vol. i.
j>. 422.
* IVorh,
"wl. i. 112.
A N G [ 34° ]
and praifed and magnified the Lord for his works all llrange and inaccurate
along j finging and ihouting when God laid the foun¬
dation of the temple, Ezra iii.
On a fubjedt of this nature, it would be imprudent
to indulge a fpirit of conjecture : Scripture is the only
ftandard by which truth and error can be tried, and to
this we muft ultimately appeal. In is acknowledged
that Mofes has not exprefsly mentioned angels by name 5
yet, as we have remarked, their creation is undoubted¬
ly implied 5 for the heavens muft include all that are in
them ; and therefore it is that the divine penman fays,
in the conclufion of his narrative, “ Thus the heavens
and the earth were finifhed, and all the hoft of them.”
Of the hojl of heaven, the angels muft form a confider-
able part j they are exprefsly called the heavenly hojl,
and the armies of heaven, Dan. iv. 35. Luke ii. 13.
And if divine authority be admitted as decifive, the
reafons adduced by Jehovah for the fanftification of a
fabbath, demonftrate that they did not exift previous
to the creation of the heavens. It is, furely, aflerted
with propriety, that in Jim days the Lord made heaven
and earth, the fea, and all that in them is. Similar
to which is a declaration of the divine hiftorian relating
to the fame faft.—“ And God blefied the feventh dav,
and fandtified it; hecaufe that in it he had refted from
all his work which God created and made,” Gen.
ii. 3. Now if angels exifted prior to the fix days of
creation, the language of Mofes is far from being ac¬
curate and intelligible 5 and efpecially when it is con-
fidered that the obfcurity might have been removed by
adding, “ from all the work which God had then crea¬
ted and made.”
But if angels were created before the heavens, where
could they exift >. For, as the learned Gill || has remark¬
ed, “ though angels have no bodies, and fo are not in
place circumfcriptively 5 yet as they are creatures, they
muft have an ubi, a fomewhere in which they are de¬
finitively j fo that they are here, and not there, and
much lefs everywhere : Now where was there an ubi, a
fomewhere, for them to exift in, before the heavens and
the earth w'ere made ? It is moft reafonable, therefore,
to conclude, that as God prepared an habitation for all
the living creatures before he made them j as the fea
for the fifties, the expanfe, or air, for the fowls, and the
earth for men and beafts ; fo he made the heavens firft,
and then the angels to dwell in them.”
That this wras the faff, will appear very evident, if
the words of Mofes be impartially confidered. “ In
the beginning (fays he), God created the heavens and
the earth j” which words muft refer to either the be¬
ginning of creation or of time: if to the former, and
angels previoufly exifted, the language is neither intel¬
ligible nor conformable to truth ; if to the latter, the
difficulty remains j for what is time but the meafure of
created exiftence. “ Time (fays the judicious Char-
nock *) began with the foundation of the w’orld : be¬
fore the beginning of the creation and the beginning
time, there could be nothing but eternity 5 nothing
but what was uncreated, that is, nothing but wftiat was
without beginning.” But if angels were in a pte-exift-
ent ftate, the hiftorian’s language is unaccountably
A N G
„ for if the phrafe in the begin- Angel.
ning, which is remarkably emphatical, refer, to the'—^r—'
creation of the heavens and the earth only, they are
unhappily expreffed 5 fo expreffed, indeed, as to con¬
vey no meaning to thofe who confider words as the
vehicle of thought, and as intended to exprefs clearly
to others the meaning of the w riter. For the natural
obvious fenfe is as follows—“ In the beginning of the
creation of the heavens and the earth, God created
the heavens and the earth $” which language is not on¬
ly a departure from that perfpicuity and precifion which
diftinguifh all his narrations, but entirely irrational and
abfurd.
That the words in the beginning refer to the firft:
creation, cannot be doubted, if it be remembered, that
Jehovah himfelf founds a claim to eternity on this
very ground : “ Before the day was, I am he.” 
“ Before the mountains were brought forth, or ever
thou had ft formed the earth and the world, even from
everlafting to everlafting, thou art God,” If. xliii. 13.
Pf. ix. 2. See alfo Prov. viii. 22, 23, &c. Now
there could be no propriety in this kind of reafoning,
if angels or any other creature exifted before the crea¬
tion of the world, becaule all claims to eternity from
fuch premifes would apply even to Gabriel as wTell as
to Jehovah. “ Before the wTorld was,” is, in Scrip¬
ture language, a phrafe always exprefiive of eternity.;
and on this principle the evangeliit John afferts the di¬
vinity of Jefus Chrift in the firft chapter of his hiftory.
For this purpofe he alludes to the words of Mofes, and
introduces his divine mafter to notice by celebrating
the firft aft of his creative power. “ In the beginning
(fays he) was the Word ;” that is, Dr Doddridge re¬
marks §, before the foundation of the world, or the § Family
firft produftion of any creature : and Dr Sherlock % is Expofitor.
clearly of opinion, that the words, in their moft com- f Script.
mon and ufual acceptation, fignify the firft creation oi Proof of
all things, and are a demonftration of the divinity of c,jrifs
Chrift. Of the fame mind was Dr Owen. He fays,
that if the phrafe beginning does not abfolutely and for- alfo Whit-
mally exprefs eternity, yet it doth a pre-exiftence to thefy on Joint
whole creation, which amounts to the fame thing; for'- I-
nothing can pre-exift before all creatures but the nature
of God, wffich is eternal, unlefs we fuppofe a creature
before the creation of any. But wdrat is meant by this
expreflion is fully declared by other paffages of Scrip¬
ture : “ I was fet up from everlafting, before the be¬
ginning, or ever the earth was;” “ Glorify thou me
with thine own felf, with the glory which I had wdth
thee before the world was;” both which paffages not
only explain the text, but undeniably prove the pre-
exiftence of Chrift the Son of God*. It ftiould be * Qn tie
remembered, that, in the paffage under confideration, 'Trinity,
the evangelift’s arg ument for the divinity of Jefus Chrift P- 43*
is grounded on his pre-exifting the creation of the
w-orld ; and it is confequently afferted, that he is the
creator of all things : but if angels had a being before
the period to wdiich he alludes, the argument lofes all
its force, and no more proves the divinity of Chrift than
the divinity of an angel (a).
If, therefore, the words of Mofes be impartially
viewed
(a) Of this Socinus and his followers were aware; and therefore artfully endeavoured to evade the force or
the
A N G [ 341 1 A N G
Ang^l. viewed in their obvious natural meaning, and compared
'"•“•"Y with other paffiges o‘ Scripture that relate to the fame
fubjed, .ve have no Joubt but every unprejudiced mind
will perceive, that as he intended to give a fummary
hiftory of the creation of all things both in heaven and
in earth, he has done it in language intelligible and ac¬
curate, and in terms fufficiently explicit.
Their na- nature Qf thefe beings, we are told, that
empioy-'2 'they are fpirits : but whether pure fpirits divefted of all
ment, &c. matter, or united to fome thin bodies, or corporeal ve¬
hicles, has been a controverfy of long Handing. Not
only the ancient philofophers, but fome of the Chriftian
fathers, were of opinion, that angels were clothed with
ethereal or fiery bodies, of the fame nature with thofe
which we lhall one day have when we come to be equal
to them. But the more general opinion, efpecially of
later times, has been, that they are fubftances entirely
fpiritual, though they can at any time affume bodies,
and appear in human or other fhapes.
That the angelical powers and abilities vaftly excel
thofe of man, cannot be denied, if wre confider, that
their faculties are not clogged or impeded, as ours
are, by any of thofe imperfections which are infeparable
from corporeal being : fo that their underftandings are
always in perfeCt vigour •, their inclinations regular ;
their motions ftrong and quick ; their actions irrefift-
ible by material bodies, whofe natural qualities they
can controul, or manage to their purpofes, and occa-
lion either bleflfmgs or calamities, public or private,
here below ; inftances of which are too numerous to
mention.
Befides their attendance on God, and their waiting
and executing of his commands, they are alfo prefumed
to be employed in taking care of mankind and their
concerns : and that every man had fuch a tutelar or
guardian angel, even from his birth, was a firm belief
and tradition among the Jews ; and our Saviour him-
felf feems to have been of the fame fentiment. The
heathens were alfo of the fame perfuafion, and thought
it a crime to negleCf the admonitions of fo divine a
guide. Socrates publicly confefled himfelf to be un¬
der the direftion of fuch an angel, or demon, as feve-
ral others have fince done. And in this tutelar ge¬
nius of each perfon they believed his happinefs and for¬
tune depended. Every genius did his bell for the in-
terelt of his client •, and if a man came by the world,
it was a fign the ftrength of his genius was inferior to
that of his opponent, that is, of an inferior order;
and this was governed by chance. There were fome
genii, whofe afcendant vras fo great over others, that
their very prefence entirely difconcerted them •, which
was the cafe of that of Auguftus in refpeCl of that of
Mark Anthony j and for the fame reafon, perhaps, fome
perfons have wit, and fpeak well, when others are ab-
ient, in whofe prefence they are confounded, and out
of countenance. The Romans thought the tutelar ge¬
nii of thofe who attained the empire, to be of an emi¬
nent order j on which account they had great honours
Ihown them. Nations and cities alio had their feveral Angel,
genii. The ancient Perfians fo firmly believed the mi- ' v "'J
niltry of angels, and their fuperintendance over human
affairs, that they gave their names to their months, and
the days of their month •, and affigned them diltinCl of¬
fices and provinces : and it is from them the Jews con-
fefs to have received the names of the months and an¬
gels, which they brought with them when they return¬
ed from the Babylonilh captivity. After which, we
find they alfo affigned charges to the angels, and in
particular the patronage of empires and nations 5 Mi¬
chael being the prince of the Jewrs, as Raphael is fup-
pofed to have been of the Perfians.
The Mahometans have fo great a refpefd for the
angels, that they account a man an infidel wffio either
denies their exiftence, or loves them not. They believe
them to be free from fin, enjoying the prefence of God,
to wffiom they are never difobedient: that they have
fubtle pure bodies, being created of light j and have
no diftinftion of fexes, nor do they need the refreffi-
ment of food or fleep. They fuppofe them to have dif¬
ferent forms and offices : That fome adore God in fe¬
veral poftures j others ling his praifes, and intercede
for men ; fome carry and encompafs his throne ; others
write the aftions of men, and are affigned guardians
to them.
As the numbers of thefe celeftial fpirits are very
great, it is likewife reafonable to believe that there
are feveral orders and degrees among them ; which is
alfo confirmed by Scripture; whence fome fpeculative
men have diffributed them into nine orders, according
to the different names by wffiich they are there called 5
and reduced thofe orders into three hierarchies, as they
call them ; to the firft of wdiich belong feraphim, che¬
rubim, and thrones \ to the fecond, dominions, virtues,
and powders ; and to the third principalities, archan¬
gels, and angels. They imagine farther, that there
are fome wTho conftantly refide in heaven j others who
are minifters, and fent forth, as there is occafion, to
execute the orders they receive from God by the form¬
er. The Jews reckon but four orders or companies
of angels, each headed by an archangel j the firlt order
being that of Michael, the fecond of Gabriel, the third
of Uriel, and the fourth of Raphael; but though the
Jews believe them to be four, yet it feems there were
rather feven. The Perfians alfo held, there wrere fub-
ordinate degrees among the angels.
Although the angels were originally created perfeft, Of the far-
good, and obedient to their Mailer’s will, yet fome of len angels^
them finned, and kept not their firll eftate, but left
their habitation ; and fo, of the moll blefled and glori¬
ous, became the moft vile and miferable of all God’s
creatures. They were expelled the regions of light,
and call dowm to hell, to be referved in everlaftinp-
chains under darknefs, until the day of judgment.
With heaven they loll their heavenly difpofition, which
delighted once in doing good and praifing God ; and
fell into a fettled rancour againll him, and malice
againft
the anoffle’s reafoning, by interpreting the phrafe in the beginning either in a figurative fenfe, or as referring to
the beginning of John the Baptift’s miniftry. We wall only fubjoin, that we do not remember to have feen any
writer deviate from the primary obvious meaning of the paffage, who had not fome hypothefis tofupport iuimicai
to truth.
A N G [ 342 ] A N G
Angel, agamfi: men : their inward peace was gone *, all defire
ot doing good departed from them j and, inftead there¬
of, revengeful thoughts and defpair took poffeffion of
them, and created an eternal hell within them.
When, and for what offence, thele apollate fpirits
fell from heaven, and plunged themfelves into fuch an
abyfs of wickednefs and woe, are queflions very hard,
if not impoffible, to be determined by any clear evi¬
dence of Scripture. As to the time, wre are certain
that it could not be before the fixth day of creation ;
becaufe on that day it is faid, “ God law every thing
that he had made, and behold it wras very good but
that it was not long after it is very probable, as it muff
have preceded the fall of our firfit parents. Some have
imagined it to have been after •, and that carnality, or
luffing to converfe with women upon earth, wras the
ffn wThich ruined them : an opinion (B) built upon a
miftaken interpretation of Scripture, as if angels were
tneant by the fans of God who are faid to have begotten
the mighty men of old on the daughters of men. O-
thers have fuppofed, that the angels, being informed of
God’s intention to create man after his own image,
and to dignify his nature by Chriff’s affuming of it,
and thinking their glory to be eclipfed thereby, en¬
vied man’s happinefs, and fo revolted 5 and with this
opinion that of the Mahometans has fome affinity ;
who are taught, that the devil, wdro was once one of
thofe angels who are neareft to God’s prefence, and
named A-zar.il, forfeited paradife for refufing to pay
homage to Adam at the command of God. But on
what occafion foever it firft Ihowed itfelf, pride feems
to have been the leading fin of the angels j who, ad¬
miring and valuing themfelves too much on the ex¬
cellence of their nature and the height of their ftation,
came at length to entertain fo little refpeft for their
Creator, as to be guilty of downright rebellion and
apoftafy.
It is certain from Scripture, that thefe fallen angels
were in great numbers, and that there were alfo fome
order and fubordination preferved among them ; one
efpecially being confidered as their prince, and called
by feveral names, Beelzebub, Satan, or Sammael by the
Jews •, Ahdrimam by the Perfians; and Eblis by the
Mahometans. Their conftant employment it not only
doing evil themfelves, but endeavouring by all arts and
means to feduce and pervert mankind, by tempting
them to all kind of fin, and thereby bringing them in¬
to the fame defperate date wdth themfelves.
Angel is likewife a title given to bilhops of feveral
churches. In this fenfe St Paul is underftood by fome
authors, where he fays, Women ought to be covered in
the church, becaufe of the angels. The learned Dr Angel
Pndeaux obferves, that the rainiller of the fynagogue, II
who officiated in offering up the public prayers, being ’:te's'
the mouth of the congregation, delegated by them as ''
their reprefentative, meffenger, or angel, to fptak to
God in prayer for them, w'as therefore, in the He¬
brew' language, called the angel of the church j and
from thence the bifhops of the ieven churches of Afia
are, by a name borrowed from the fynagogue, called
the angels of thofe churches.
Angel, in Commerce, the name of a gold coin for¬
merly current in England. It had its name from the
figure of an angel reprefented upon it, weighed four
pennyweights, and wras twenty-three and a half carats
fine. It had different values in different reigns 5 but
is at prefent only an imaginary fum, or money of ac¬
count, implying ten fhillings.
ANGSL-Fi/h. See Squalus, Ichthyology Index,
ANGELIC, or Angelical, fomething belonging
to, or that partakes of, the nature of angels. We fay
an angelical life, &c. St Thomas is ftyled the angelical
doSlor. The angelical falutation is called by the Ro-
manifts Avc Maria ; fometimes limply angelus.
Angelic Garment {Angelica ve/hsf among our an-
ceftors, was a monkilh garment, which laymen put on
a little before their death, that they might have the
benefit of the prayers of the monks. It wTas from them
called angelical, becaufe they were called angeli, who by
thefe prayers anima falutifuccurrebant. Hence, where
wre read the phrafe monachus ad fuccurrendum in our
old books, it muff be underftood of one wTo had put
on the habit rvhen he wras at the point of death.
ANGELICA. See Botany Index.
ANGELICS, Angelici, in Church Hi/lory, an an¬
cient febl of heretics, fuppofed by fome to have got this
appellation from their exceflive veneration of angels j
and by others, from their maintaining that the vrorld
was created by angels.
Angelics is alfo the name of an order of knights,
inftituted in 1191, by Angelus Flavius Comnenus em¬
peror of Conftantinople.
Angelics is alfo a congregation of nuns, founded
at Milan in 1534, by Louifa Torelli, countefs of Gua-
ftalla. They ebferve the rule of St Auguftine.
ANGELITES, in Ilcclefajlical Hifory, a feft of
Chriftian heretics, in the reign of the emperor Anatta-
fius, and the pontificate of Symmachus, about the year
494, fo called from Angelium, a place in the city of
Alexandria, where they held their firft meetings. They
were called likewife Severites, from one Severus, .who
was the head of their fe£t 5 as alfo Theodofans, from
one
(b) This opinion feems to have been originally occafioned by fome copies of the Septuagint, which, in the
days of St Auftin, had in this place the angels of God. Laftantius fuppofes the angels, who were guilty of this
enormity, had been fent dowm by God to guard and take care of mankind ; and being endued wTith free-will,
were charged by him not to forfeit the dignity of their celeftial nature, by defiling themfelves with the corrup-
tiohs of the earth ; but that the devil at length enticed them to debauch themfelves with women. He adds, that,
not being admitted into heaven by reafon of the wickednefs into which they had plunged themfelves, they fell
down to the earth, and became the devil’s minifters j but that thofe who were begotten by them, being neither
angels nor men, but of a middle nature, w7ere not received into hell, no more than their parents were into hea¬
ven. Hence arofe two kinds of demons, celeftial and terreftrial. Thefe are unclean fpirits, the authors of what¬
ever evils are committed, and whofe prince is the devil. From hence very probably proceeded the notions cf
Incubi, or demons who are fuppofed to have carnal knowledge of women.
A N G [ 343 ] A N G
Angelo, one among them named Theodofius, whom they made
Angelos, pope at Alexandria. They held, that the perfons of
v~ ' the Trinity are not the fame j that none of them ex-
ilts of himfelf, and of his own nature j but that there
is a common god or deity exifting in them all, and
that each is God, by a participation of this deity.
ANGELO, Michael. There were five celebrated
Italian painters of this name, who flouriflied in the i6th
and i yth centuries ; but the two moft diftinguilhed of
them are thefe.—Firft, Michael Angelo Buonarotti,
who was a moft incomparable painter, fculptor, and
architeft, born in 1474, in the territory of Arezzi in
Tufcany. He was the difciple of Dominico Ghirlan¬
daio*, and erected an academy of painting and fculpture
in Florence, under the protection of Lorenzo di Me-
dicis j which, upon the troubles of that houfe, was obli¬
ged to remove to Bologna. About this time he made
an image of Cupid, which he carried to Rome, broke
off one of its arms, and buried the image in a place he
knew would foon be dug up, keeping the arm by him.
It was accordingly found, and fold to Cardinal St Gre¬
gory for an antique ; until Michael, to their confufion
and his own credit, difcovered his artifice, and con¬
firmed it by the deficient arm which he produced : it
is rather unufual for the manufacturers of antiques to
be fo ingenuous. His reputation was'fb great at Rome,
that he was employed by Pope Sixtus to paint his cha¬
pel •, and by the command of Pope Paul III. executed
his moft celebrated piece, The LaJ} "Judgment. He has
the charaffer of being the greateft defigner that ever
lived 5 and it is univerfally allowed that no painter ever
underftood anatomy fo well. He died immenfely rich
at Rome, in 1564.—Secondly, Michael Angelo de
Caravaggio, born at that village in Milan, in 1
He was at firft no more than a brickldyer’s labourer ;
but he was fo charmed with feeing fome painters at
work, that he immediately applied himfelf to the art;
and made fuch progrefs in a few years, that he was
admired as the author of a new ftyle of painting. It
was obfcrved of Michael Angelo Buonarotti, that he
was incomparable in defigning, but knew little of co¬
louring 5 and of Caravaggio, that he had as good a
gout in colouring as he had a bad one in defigning.
There is one picture of his in the Dominican church
at Antwerp, which Rubens ufed to call his mafter. It
is laid of this painter, that he was fo ftrangely conten¬
tious, that the pencil was no fooner out of his hand
but his fword was in it. He died in 1609.
A.NGELO, Sr, a fmall but ftrong town of Italy,
in the Capitanata. There are feveral other towns and
caitles of the fame name in Italy, and particularly the
caftle of St Angelo at Rome. E. Long. 15. 56. N.
Lat. 41. 43.
ANGELOS, Los, a province of Mexico, the an¬
cient republic of Tlafcala, of which a city called Tlaf-
cala was once the capital. That city is now' reduced
to an ineonfiderable village, and has given place to
another called Puebla des los Angelos, or the city of
Angels. It is fituated in W.' Long. 103. 12. and
N. Lat. 19. 13. It was formerly an Indian town j
but in 1530 was entirely abandoned by the natives, on
account of the cruelties of the Spaniards. A fuc-
ceeding viceroy of Mexico, by a milder treatment,
recalled them j and the town is now exceedingly rich
and populous, fo as even to vie with Mexico itfidf in
magnificence. It is fituated on the river Zacatula, in Argelot,
2. fine valley, about 25 leagues to the eaftward of Mex- , Anger- ,
ico. In the middle is a beautiful and fpacious fquare, v
from whence run the principal ftreets in diredf lines,
which are croffed by others at right angles. One fide
is almoft entirely occupied by the magnificent front of
the cathedral; while the other three confift of piaz¬
zas, under wdrich are the fhops of tradefmen. The
city is the fee of a bifliop, fuffragan to the archbifhop
of Mexico, and wTe may form a judgment of the wealth
of the place by the revenue of the cathedral and chap¬
ter, wLich amounts to 300,000 pieces of eight annual¬
ly. It muft be remembered, however, that in all po-
pifh countries the wealth of the laity by no means
bears the fame proportion to that of the clergy as in
Britain. "What contributes greatly to increafe the
riches of this province is, that here is fituated the city
of Vera Cruz, the natural centre of all the American
treafures belonging to" Spain. See Vera Cruz.
ANGELOT, an ancient Englifti gold coin, ftruck
at Paris, while under fubjeblion to the Englifti. It
was thus called from the figure of an angel fupporting
the fcutcheon of the arms of England and France.
There was another coin of the lame denomination
ftruck under Philip de Valois.
Angelot is alfo ufed in Commerce to denote a
fmall, fat, rich fort of cheefe, brought from Normandy.
Skinner fuppofes it to have been thus called from the
name of the perfon who firft made it up in that form,
and perhaps ftamped it with his own name. Menage
takes it to have been denominated from the refemblance
it bears to the Englifti coin called angelot. It is made
chiefly in the Pays de Bray, whence it is alfo denomi¬
nated angelot de Bray. It is commonly made in vats,
either fquare or fliaped like a heart.
ANGER, a violent paffion of the mind, confifting
in a propenfity to take vengeance on the author of
fome real or fuppofed injury done the offended party.
Anger is either deliberative or inftindtive ; and the
latter kind is ralh and ungovernable, becaufe it operates
blindly, without affording time for deliberation or fore¬
fight. Bifliop Butler very juftly obferves, that an¬
ger is far from being a felfiftr paflion, fince it is natu¬
rally excited by injuries offered to others as W'ell as to
ourfelves j and w'as defigned by the Author of nature
not only to excite us to a£l vigoroufly in defending
ourfelves from evil, but to intereft us in the defence or
refeue of the injured and helplefs, and to raife us above
the fear of the proud and mighty oppreffor.
Neither, therefore, is all anger finful: hence the
precept, “ Be ye angry and fin not.”—It becomes fin¬
ful, however, and contradifts the rule of Scripture,
when it is conceived upon flight .~nd inadequate provo¬
cations, and when it continues long. It is then con¬
trary to the amiable fpirit of charity, which “ fuffereth
long, and is not eafily provoked.” Hence thefe other
precepts, “ Let every man be flow' to anger j” and,
“ Let not the fun go dowm upon your wrath.”
Thefe precepts, and all reafoning indeed upon the
fubjeft, fuppofe the paflion of anger to be within our
power : and this pow'er confifts not fo much in any fa¬
culty we have of appeafing our wrath at the time (for
W’e are paflive under the fmart which an injury or af¬
front occafions, and all we can then do is to prevent
its breaking out into a6!ion), as in fo mollifying our
minds
A N G [ 344 1 A N G
Anger, minds by babits of juft reflection, as to be lefs irritated
' ' y 1 by impreflions of injury, and to be fooner pacified.
As reflections proper for this purpofe, and which
may be called the fed a lives of anger, the following are
fuggefted by Archdeacon Paley in his excellent treatife
* Book III. of Moral and Political Philofophy *—The poffibility of
Part ii. miftaking the motives from which the conduCt that of-
chap, y. fen(is us proceeded •, how often our offences have been
the effeCt of inadvertency, when they were miftaken for
malice ; the inducement wfliich prompted our adverfary
to nCt as he did, and howr powerfully the fame induce¬
ment has, at one time or other, operated upon our-
felves ; that he is fuffering perhaps under a contrition,
which he is aftiamed, or wants opportunity, to confefs j
•and how ungenerous it is to triumph by coldnefs or in-
fult over a fpirit already humbled in fecret; that the
returns of kindnefs are fweet, and that there is neither
honour nor virtue nor ufe in refilling them—-for fome
perfons think themfeves bound to cherilh and keep
alive their indignation, when they find it dying away of
itfelf. We may remember that others have their paf-’
fions, their prejudices, their favourite aims, their fears,
their cautions, their interefts, their hidden impulfes,
their varieties of apprehenlion, as wrell as we : we may
recolleCl what hath fometimes paffed in our own minds,
when w-e have got on the wrong fide of a quarrel, and
imagine the fame to be palling in our adverfary’s mind
now1; when we became fenfible of our milhehaviour,
what palliations we perceived in it, and expeCled others
to perceive j how we were affected by the kindnefs, and
felt the fuperiority, of a generous reception and ready
forgivenefs j how perfecution revived our fpirits with
our enmity, and feemed to juftify the conduCt in our-
felves which we before blamed. Add to this, the in¬
decency of extravagant anger ; howT it renders us,
whilft it lafts, the fcorn and fport of all about us, of
■which it leaves us, when it ceafes, fenfible and alham-
ed ; the inconveniences- and irretrievable mifcondufl
into which our irrafcibility has fometimes betrayed us ;
the friendfhips it has loft us $ the diftreffes and embar-
raffments in W'hich we have been involved by it, and
the fore repentance which on one account or other it
always colls us.
“ But the refleflion calculated above all others to
allay that haughtinefs of temper which is ever finding
out provocations, and which renders anger fo impetu¬
ous, is that wrhich the gofpel propofes ; namely, that
wTe ourfelves are, or Ihortly lhall be, fuppliants for mer¬
cy and pardon at the judgment feat of God. Imagine
our fecret fins all dilclofed and brought to light; ima¬
gine us thus humbled and expofed *, trembling under
the hand of God j calling ourfelves on his compaflion •,
crying out for mercy.—imagine luch a creature to talk
of fatisfaftion and revenge, refufing to be entreated,
difdaining to fsrgive, extreme to mark and to refent
W'hat is done amifs *, imagine, I fay, this j and you can
hardly feign to yourfelf an inllance of more impious
and unnatural arrogance.”
Phyficians and naturalifts have recorded inftances of
very extraordinary effe£ls of this paflion. Borrichius
cured a v'oman of an inveterate tertian ague, which had
baffled the art of phyfic, by putting the patient in a
furious fit of anger. Valencia made ufe of the fame
means, with the dike fuccefs, in a quartan ague. The
fame paflion has been equally-Talutary to paralytic,
gouty, and even dumb perfons j to which laft it has Anger
fometimes given the ule of fpeech. Etmulier gives !i
divers inftances of very lingular cures wrought by iAl-£^n'ria*,
anger 5 among others, he mentions a perfon laid up in
the gout, who being provoked by his phylician, flew
upon him, and wras cured. It is true, the remedy is
fomewhat dangerous in the application, when a patient
does not know how to ufe it with moderation. We
meet with feveral inftances of princes to whom it has
proved mortal; e. g. Valentinian the firft, Wenceflaus,
Matthius Corvinus king of Hungary, and others. There
are alfo inftances wherein it has produced the epilepfy,
jaundice, cholera morbus, diarrhoea, &.c. In fadl,
this paflion is of fuch a nature, that it quickly throws
the whole nervous fyftem into preternatural commo¬
tions, by a violent ftriclure of the nervous and mufcu-
lar parts : and furpriiingly augments not only the fyftole
of the heart and of its contiguous veffels, but alfo the
tone of the fibrous parts in the whole body. It is alfo
certain, that this paflion, by the fpafmodic ftridlure it
produces in the parts, exerts its power principally on
the llomach and intellines, which are highly nervous
and membranous parts 5 whence the fymptoms are
more dangerous, in proportion to the greater confent
of the llomach and inteftines, wdth the other nervous
parts, and almoft with the whole body. The unhap¬
py influence of anger likewufe, on the biliary and hepa¬
tic dudls, is very furprifing j fince by an intenfe con-
llridlion of thefe, the liver is not only rendered fcir-
rhous, but Hones alfo are often generated in the gall¬
bladder and biliary dufts : thefe accidents have fcarce-
ly any other origin than an obftru£tion of the free mo¬
tion and efflux of the bile, by means of this violent
ftridfture. From fuch a ftridlure of thefe duffs likewife
proceeds the jalmdice, which in procefs of time lays a
foundation for calculous concretions in the gall-blad¬
der. Laftly, By increafing the motion of the fluid, or
the fpafms of the fibrous parts, by means of anger, a
larger quantity of blood is propelled with an impetus
to certain parts ; whence it happens that they are too
much diftended, and the orifices of the veins diftributed
there opened. It is evident from experience, that
auger has a great tendency to excite enormous he¬
morrhages, either from the nofe, the aperture of the
pulmonary artery, the veins of the anus j or in women,
from the uterus, efpecially in thofe previoufly ac-
cuftomed and difpofed to fuch evacuations.
ANGERMANNIA, or Angermanland, a pro¬
vince of Sweden, bounded on the north by Lapland
and Bothnia, on the eaft by the gulf of Bothnia and
Medelpadia, and on the weft by Jempti and Herndel.
It is full of rocks, mountains, and forefts ; and there
is one very high mountain called Scull. It has ex¬
cellent iron works, and lakes abounding with fiih.
ANGERMOND, a town of the duchy of Berg, in
Germany, on the eaft fide of the Rhine, fubjefl to the
Eleflor Palatine. E. Long. 6. 20. N. Lat. 51. 10.
ANGERONA, in Mythology, the name of a Pa¬
gan deity wdiom the Romans prayed to for the cure
of the quinfy, in Latin, angina. Pliny calls her ^the
goddefs of filence and calnmejs of mind, w ho banifties
all uneafinefs and melancholy. She is reprefented
with her mouth covered, to denote patience and re¬
fraining from complaints. Her ftatue was fet up, and
facrificed to, in the temple of the goddefs Volupia, to
{how
A N G
Angerorm
II
Anghiera.
fhow that a patient enduring of affliction leads to plea-
fure.
ANG ERONALI A, in Antiquity, folemn feafts held
;by the Romans the 2lit of December, in honour of
Angerona, or Angeronia, the goddefg of patience and
lilence. Feftus and Julius Modeftus, quoted by Ma-
crobius, Saturn. Lib. I. cap. 10. derive the name from
angina, “ quinfy 5” and fuppofe the goddefs to have
been thus denominated, becaufe (lie prefided over that
difeafe.—Others fuppofe it formed from angor, “grief,
pain to intimate that (he gave relief to thofe afflicted
therewith.—Others deduce it from angeo, “ I prefs, I
clofe,” as being reputed the goddefs of (ilence, &c.
ANGERS, a city of France, and capital of the
former duchy of Anjou, now the department of the
Maine and Loire. It is feated a little above the place
where the Sarte and the Loire lofe themfelves in the
Maine. This lad river divides the city into two equal
parts, called the High and the Low Town. There
are twelve paridres in the city, and four in the fuburbs,
which contain upwards of 36,000 inhabitants. Be-
fides thefe, there are eight chapters, and a great num¬
ber of convents for both fexes. Its greateft extent is
along the declivity of a hill, which reaches quite
down to the river fide. The caftle was built by St
Louis, about the middle of the 13th century. The
walls, foffes, and numerous towers which yet fubfift,
evince its former magnificence : and its fituation in
the centre of the city, on a rock overhanging the river,
conduces ^to give it an air of grandeur, though at pre-
fent in decay. It was the principal refidence of the
kings of Sicily, as dukes of Anjou, but is now in a
Hate of total ruin. The cathedral of Angers is a ve¬
nerable ftruflure; and although it has undergone
many alterations in the courfe of ages fince its con-
ilrudlion, yet the architefture is fingular, and deferves
attention. Here lies interred with her anceftors the
renowned Margaret, daughter of Rene king of Sicily,
and queen of Henry VI. of England, She expired,
after her many intrepid, but ineffectual, efforts, to re¬
place her hufband on the throne, in the year 1482,
at the caftle of Dampierre in Anjou. Near the church
of St Michael is the handfomeft fquare in the city, from
whence runs a ftreet which has the name of the church.
On one fide of this ftreet is the town-houfe ; which has
a fine tower, with a clock, raifed upon an arch, which
ferves for a paffage into the great fquare. There are
two large bridges, which keep up a communication
between the two parts of the city ; and in the lefier of
thefe there is another fquare, which ferves for a mar¬
ket. The univerfity of Angers was founded in 1398,
and the academy of belles lettres in 1685. This lad
confifts of thirty academicians. At the end of the
(uburb 6f Brefigny are the quarries of Angers, fo
famous for the fine (late which is got from thence.
Hie pieces are of the thicknefs of a crown piece, and
a foot fquare. All the houfes in Angers are covered
with this (late, which has gained it the appellation of
the Black City. The walls vrith wdiich King John of
Englarid furrounded it in 1214 remain nearly entire,
•and are of very great circumference. W. Long. o. 30.
N. Lat. 47. 28.
ANGHIERA, a town of Italy, in the duchy of
Milan, and capital of a county of the fame name. It
Vol. II. Part I.
[ 345 ]
A N G
is feated on the eaffern fide of the lake Maggiore, in
E. Long. 9. 3. N. Lat. 45. 42.
ANGINA, in Medicine, a violent inflaihrnation of,
the throat, otherwife called quinfy. See Medicine
Index.
Angina Pe&oris. See Medicine Index.
ANGIOSPERMIA, in the Linnaean fiyftem of bo¬
tany, the fecond order in the clafs didynamia. It
confills of thofe plants, of that clafs, wrhofe feeds are
enclofed in a pericarpium. In this order the ftigma is
generally obtufe. Thefe are faeperfonatioi Tournefort.
ANGITLE lucus or nemus, (Virg.), fituated
on the weft fide of the Lacus Fucinus. The inhabi¬
tants are called Lucenfes, by Pliny. Angitia was filter
of Medea, who taught antidotes againlt poifon and
ferpents, according to Sil. Italicus. But Servius on
Virgil fays, that the inhabitants called Medea by this
name for the fame reafon. The town is now called
Luca.
ANGLE, the inclination of twro lines meeting one
another in a point. See Geometry.
Angle of Incidence, in Optics, the angle which a
ray of light makes with a perpendicular to that point
of the furface of any medium on wfflich it falls j though
it is fometimes underffood of the angle which it makes
with the furface itfelf.
Angle of RefraBion now generally means the angle
which a ray of light, refrafted by any medium, makes
with a perpendicular to that point of the furface on
which it was incident; but has fometimes been under-
ftood of the angle which it makes with the furface of
the refracting medium itfelf.
ANGLER, a perfon who praftifes the art of ang¬
ling, whether as a diverfion or otherwife. See the ar¬
ticle Angling.
Angler, the Englilh name of a fpecies of lophus.
See Lophus, Ichthyology Index.
ANGLES, an ancient German nation, originally
a branch of the Suevi ; who, after various migrations,
fettled in that part of Denmark, and duchy of Slef-
wick, which to this day is called Angel, and of which
the city of Flenfburgh is the capital. Here they were
known, even in the time of Tacitus, by the name of
Angli. The origin of this name is varioufly accounted
for. According to Saxo-Grammaticus, they were
called Angli, from one Angulus, fon to Humblus king
of Denmark. Widifchind, a Saxon writer, will have
them to be called Angli, from an ifland in the corner
or angle of the fea, which they conquered. Goropius
derives their name from the Saxon word Angel or En~
gel, fignifying a fi(h-hook 5 the Angles, like the other
Saxon nations, being greatly addifted to piracy, and
on that account being fo named by the neighbouring
nations •, as if, like hooks, they caught all that was in
the fea. To this nation the Brithh ambaffadors are
faid to have applied, when foliciting fuccours againft
the Scots and Pifts. The Angles, therefore, came over
in greater numbers than any other Saxon nation ; and
accordingly had the honour of giving the name of An¬
glia to England. See England.
ANGLESEY, Isle of , is the mod weftern county
of North Wales. It is 24 miles in length, 18 m
breadth, and fends one member to parliament. It is
feparated from Caernarvonfiiire by a ftrait called
X x Menai.
Angina
II
A ngle'c y.
A N G [ 346 ] A N G
Anglefey. Menai, and on eveiy other fide is furrounded by the
fea. It is a fertile fpot, and abounds in corn, cattle,
tlelh, fifh, and fowls.
At Port Aethwy, the moft general ferry into the
ifland, there is a great paffage of cattle. It is computed
that the ifland fends forth annually from 12,000 to
I ',,000 head, and multitudes of fheep and hogs. It
is alfo computed that the remaining Hock of cattle is
30,000. In 1770 upwards of 90,000 bulhels of corn
were exported, exclufive of wheat. The improvement
in hufbandry has greatly increafed fince the fuppreflion
of fmuggling from the ifle of Man : before that time
every farmer was mounted on fome high promontory,
expe&ing the veflel with illicit trade j but fince that
period, he fets in earneft to induftry and cultivation.
Not but that the ifland was in the moft remote times
famous for its fertility : Mon, Mam Gymry, the Nur-
fiug mother of Wales, was a title it affumed even in
the 12th century.
This ifland is divided into 74 pariflies, of rvhich
moft of the churches are fituated near the fhores.
By an account given on the 13th of Augult 1563,
there were 2010 houfeholds, or families, in Angle-
fey ; allowing five to a family, the whole number of
inhabitants at that period was 10,050. In 1776, the
number of houfes in Anglefey was about 3956 : al¬
lowing five perfons to a family, the wdiole number of
inhabitants was at that time 19,7805 which -wants
only 340 of doubling the number of inhabitants in the
intervening fpace. The chief town is Beaumaris.
In ancient times this ifland was called Mon, Mona ox
Moneg. It was the great nurfery of the religion of
the Druids 5 being the refidence of the grand druid,
or chief pontiff, and confequently of all the learned
doctors in that religion.
Many ancient monuments of druidifm fiill remain
in the ifland.—At Tie’r Dryw, or the habitation of the
arch druid, are feveral mutilated remains, which have
been defcribed by Mr Rowlands. His Bryn Gwyn, or
Brein Gwyn, or royal tribunal, is a circular hollow of
] 80 feet in diameter, furrounded by an immenfe agger
of earth and Hones, evidently brought from fome other
place, there not being any mark of their being taken
from the fpot. It has only a Angle entrance. This is
fuppofed to have been the- grand confiflory of the
druidical adminiHration.—Not far from it was one of
the Gorfeddau, now in a manner difperfed, but which
once confided of a great copped heap of Hones, on
which fat aloft a druid, inHruCling the furrounding
people mult a de Deorum immortaliuvi vi ct potejlate dij-
putare, et juventuti tradunt; Csef. Lib. 6.—Here were
alfo the relicks of a circle of Hones, with the cromlech
in the midH 5 but all extremely imperfecl. Twto of
the Hones are very large 5 one, which ferves at prefent
as part of the end of a houfe, is 1 2 feet 7 inches high,
and 8 feet broad 5 and another 11 feet high, and
23 feet in girth. Someiefler Hones yet remain. This
circle, when complete, was one of the temples of the
druids, in which their religious rites were performed.
It is the conjefture of Mr Rowlands, that the whole
of thefe remains were furrounded with a circle of oaks,
and formed a deep and facred grove : 'Jam per fe ro-
borum elegant lucos, neque ulla facra fine ea fronde
confciunt ; (Plin. Plifl. Nat. xv. 44.) — Near this
is Caer Leb, or the moated intrenchment j of a
fquare form, -with a double rampart, and broad ditcRAnglefey.
intervening, and a leffer on the outfide. Within
are foundations of circular and of fquare buildings.
This Mr Rowland fuppofes to have been the refidence
of the arch druid, and to have given the name, Tre’r
Dryw, to the townlhip in which it Hands. At Trev
Wry are feveral faint traces of circles of Hones, and
other vefliges of buildings 5 but all fo dilapidated, or
hid in weeds, as to become almoH formlefs. Bod-
druddn, or the habitation of the druids, Irdr-Beirdd,
or that of the bard, and Bodowyr, or that of the
prieHs, are all of them hamlets, nearly furrounding the
leat of the chief druid, compofing the effential part of
his fuite. At the lafl is a thick cromlech, refling on
three Hones.
The flrore near Porthamel, not far from hence, is
famed for being the place where Suetonius landed, and
put an end in this ifland to the druid reign. His in¬
fantry paffed over in flat-bottomed boats, perhaps at
the fpot Hill called Bant yr Yfcraph 'ie, or the valley of
Sliffs. His cavalry croffed partly by fording, partly
by fwimming. Of the conflidl on this occafion we
have the following animated defcription by Tacitus* :* Annal.
“ Stat pro littore diverfa acies, denfa armis virifque, xiv- 3°-
intercurfantibus fceminis in modum furiarum, vefle fe-
rali, crinibus dejedlis, faces perferebant 5 druideeque cir-
cum, preces diras fublatis ad coelum manibus funden-
tes. Novitate afpedlus percutere militem, ut quafi hae-
rentibus membris, immobile corpus vulneribus prsebe-
rent. Dein cohortationibus ducis, et fe ipfe Himulantes,
ne muiiebre et fanaticum agmen pavefcerent, inferunt
figna, flernuntque obvios et igni fuo involvunt. Prte-
fidium poflhac impofitum vicis, excifique luci, fmvi fu-
perflitionibus facri. Nam cruore captivo adolere aras,
et hominum fibris confulere decs fas habebant.”—Thus
Engliflied : “ On the fliore flood a motley army in
clofe array, and well armed 5 with women running
■wildly about in black attire with diflievelled hair, and
like the furies brandifliing their torches 5 furrounded by
the druids, lifting up their hands to heaven, and pour¬
ing forth the mofl dreadful imprecations. The foldier
flood aflomlhed with the novelty of the fight. His
limbs grew7 torpid, and his body remaining motionlefs
refigned to every wround. At length, animated by
their leader, and roufing one another not to be inti¬
midated with a womanly and fanatic band, they dif-
played their enfigns, overthrew all who oppofed themr
and flung them into their own fires. After the battle,
they placed garrifons in the towms, and cut down the
groves confecrated to the mofl horrible fuperflitions :
for the Britons held it right to facrifice on their altars-
with the blood of their captives, and to confult the
gods by the infpedlicn of human eqtrails.” There are
no traces of any Roman w7orks left in this country.
Their flay was lo fliort, that they had not time to form
any thing permanent.
Near the ferry of Moel y Don appear the fine w7cods
of Sir Nicholas Bayley, fkirting the Menai for a con-
fiderable way. The w7ooded part of the ifland is on
this fide. It commences at Llanidan, and recals the
ancient Britifh name of Anglefey, Ynys Dywyll, or the.
Dark Ifand, on account of the deep fliade of its
groves ; but at prefent it is (except in this part) entirely
divefled of trees 5 and the climate fo averle to their
grow7th, that in mofl parts it is with great difficulty
A N G t 347 ] A N G
Anglefey. the gentry can raife a plantation round their houfes.
p|as Newydd, the feat of Sir Nicholas Bayley, lies
clofe upon the water, protefled on three fides by vene-
raole oaks and allies. The view up and down this
magnificent river-like ftrait is extremely fine. The
Ihores are rocky j thofe on the oppolite fide covered
with woods -y and beyond foar a long range of Snow-
donian Alps. Here Hood a houfe built by Gwenllian,
a defcendant of Cadrod Hardd. The manfion has
been improved, and altered to a caftellated form by
the prefent owner.
In the woods are fome very remarkable druidical
antiquities. Behind the houfe are to be feen two vail
cromlechs. The upper (tone of one is 12 feet 7
inches long, 1 2 broad, and four thick, fupported by
five tall Hones. The other is but barely feparated from
the firft : is almolt a fquare, of five feet and a half,
and fupported by four Hones. The number of fup-
porters to cromlechs is merely accidental, and de¬
pends on the fize or form of the incumbent Hone.
Thefe are the moil: magnificent we have, and the high-
efi from the ground ; for a middle-fized horfe may ea-
fily pafs under the largefi. In the lands of Llugwy,
indeed, there is a moH Hupendous one of a rhomboi-
dal form. The greateH diagonal is 1 feet, the lef-
ler 15, and the thicknefs three feet nine inches 5 but
its height from the ground is only two feet : it was
fupported by feveral Hones. The Welfli, who afcribe
every thing Hupendous to our famous Britilh king,
call it Arthur's ^uoit. In the woods at this place are
fome druidical circles nearly contiguous to each other.
At a fmall diHance from Beaumaris, on the fhore,
Hand the remains of Llanvaes-, or the Friars. It was
founded by Prince Llewelyn ap JerWerth, and accord¬
ing to the general tradition of the country, over the
grave of his wife Joan, daughter of King John, who
died in 1237, and was interred on the fpot. Here alfo
were interred a fon of a Danifh king, Lord Clifford,
and many barons and knights who fell in the WelHi
wars. It was dedicated to St Francis, and confecrated
by Howel bilhop of Bangor, a prelate who died in
1240. The religious were Francifcans, or minor friars.
Their church and houfe w7ere deHroyed, and their lands
waffed, in the infurreftion made foon after the death
bf Llewelyn, laff Welflr prince, by his relation Madoc.
Edward II. in confideration of their misfortunes, re¬
mitted to them the payment of the taxes due to him,
W’hich before the war wTere levied at the rate of 12I 10s.
Thefe friars wrere ffrong favourers of Owen Glendwrr.
Henry IV. in his firff march againff Owen, plundered
the convent, put feveral of the friars to the fwmrd,
and carried away the refi 5 but afterwards fet them at
liberty, made reHitution to the place, but peopled it
with Englifh reclufes. It poffibly wTas again reduced
to ruin : for Henry V. by patent, effabliihes here eight
friars, but direfts that only two (hould be Welih. At
the diffolution, Henry VIII. fold the convent and its
poffeflions to one of his courtiers. They became in
later days the property of a family of the name of
White (now extinfl), who built here a good manfion.
It of late became, by purchafe, the property of Lord
Bulkeley. The church is turned into a barn, and the
coffin of the princefs Joan now7 ferves for a watering
trough.—A little farther is Caffell Aber Llienawg, a
i’mall fquare fort, with the remains of a little round
tower at each corner. In the middle Hood a Angldey,
fquare tower. A foffe furrounds the whole. A hoi- v“-“~
low way is carried quite to the Ihore, and at its extre¬
mity is a large mound of earth, defigned to cover the
landing. This caltle w7as founded by Hugh Lupus
earl of Chefler, and Hugh the Red earl of ShrewT-
bury, in 1098, when they made an invafion, and com¬
mitted more favage barbarities on the poor natives,
efpecially on one Kenred a prieff, than ever itained the
annals of any country. Providence fent Magnus king
of Norway to revenge the cruelties. His coming was
to all appearance cafual. He offered to land, but wms
oppofed by the earls. Magnus Hood in the prow of
his fhip, and calling to him a moff expert bowman,
they at once direfted their arrows at the earl of Shrewf.
bury, who flood all armed on the fhore. An arrow
pierced his brain through one of his eyes, the only
defencelefs part. The viftor, feeing him fpring up in
the agonies of death, infultingly cried out in his own
language, Leite loupe, “ Let him dance.” This fort
w7as garrifoned fo lately as the time of Charles I.
when it was kept for the parliament by Sir Thomas
Cheadle j but was taken by Colonel Robinfon in 1645.
Above Llanddona is a high hill* called Bwrdd Ar¬
thur, or Arthur’s round table : the true name wTas pro¬
bably Dm, or Dmas Su/wy : for a church immediate¬
ly beneath bears that of Llanvihangle Din-Sulvey. On
the top of it is a great Britifti poff, furrounded by a
double row of rude Hones with their (harp points up-
permoft ; and in fome parts the ramparts are formed of
fmall Hones. In the area are vefliges of oval build¬
ings j the largeff is formed with twx) rows of flat Hones
fet on end. Thefe had been the temporary habitations
of the poffefibrs. It had been a place of vaff Hrength :
for, belides the artificial defence, the hill {lopes fleep-
ly on all fides, and the brink next to the ramparts is
moflly precipitous. It is wrorth while to afeend this
hill for the fake of the vaff profpect 5 and intermixture
of fea, rock, and alps, moff favagely great.
About two miles fouth of Plas Gwyn, the feat of
Paul Panton, Efq. was fituated Penmynnydd, once the
refidence of the anceflors of Owen Tudor, fecond huf-
band to Catherine of France, queen dowager of Hen¬
ry V. 5 “ who beyng (as honeff Halle informs us)
young and luflye, folowyng more her owne appetyte
than frendely confaill, and regardyng more her pri¬
vate affeiStion than her open honour, toke to hufband
privily (in 1428) a goodly gentylman, and a beauti¬
ful perfon, garniged with manye godly gyftes both of
nature and of grace, called Owen Teuther, a man
brought forth and come of the noble lignage and aun-
cient lyne of Cadwaladar, the laff kynge of the Bri-
tonnes.” The match, important in its confequences,
reflored the Britilh race of princes to this kingdom :
Thefe reigned long, under the title of the Houfe of
Tudor ; the mixed race having ceafed on the accef-
fion of Henry VII. grandfon to our illuflrious country¬
man. The remains of the refidence of the Tudors are,
the door of the gateway : part of the houfe, and the
great chimneypiece of the hall, are to be feen in the
prefent farm-houfe. Some coats of arms, and dates of
the building or time of repairs, are to be feen, with
the initial letters of the names of the owners. The
Tudors, for a confiderable fpace before the extinftion
of their race, affujned the name of Owen. Richard
X x 2 was
A N G
^ 'Tour in
JVaUt, II.
263.
-Anglefej-. was the lall: male of the family, and was {heriff of the
county in 1657. Margaret, heirefs of the houfe, mar¬
ried Coningfby Williams, Efq. of Gian y gors, in this
ifland, who poffeffed it during his life. It was after¬
wards fold to Lord Bulkeley, in whofe defcendant it
ftill continues. In the church of Penmynndydd is a
moll magnificent monument of white alaballer, remo¬
ved at the dififolution from the abbey of Llanvaes to
this place ; probably eredled in memory of one of the
Houfe of Tudor, who had been interred there. On
it is the figure of a man in complete armour, a conic
helm, and mail guard down to his bread ; his lady is
in a thick angular hood \ their feet red on lions, and
their heads are fuppdrted by angels.
On the wedern point of the bay is a fmall cape, flat
at top, called Cajlell maxvr, joined to the land by a
low ifthmus. It is compofed of limedone, which is
carried to diilant parts in fmall veffels, which lie in a
fmall channel near the rock, and by their numbers fre¬
quently enliven the view. Roman coins have been
found in this neighbourhood j but there are no vediges
of there having been any llation. Beyond Cadlemawr,
on the fhore, are vad blocks of black marble filled with
fhells, corralloids, and fungitae.
At Tryfclwyn mountain is the mod confiderable
body of copper ore perhaps ever known. The part of
Tryfclwyn which contains it is called Parys mountain.
Of this mountain, and the works there carried on, v’e
have the following very curious and particular account
by Mr Pennant * :—“ The external afpedl of the hill
is extremely rude, and rifes into enormous rocks of
coarfe white quartz. The ore is lodged in a bafon, or
hollow, and has on one fide a fmall lake, on whofe
waters, didadeful as thofe of Avernus, no bird is
known to alight. The wdrole afpeft of this tradl has,
by the mineral operations, affumed a mod favage ap¬
pearance. Suffocating fumes of the burning heaps of
copper arife in all parts, and extend their baneful in¬
fluence for miles round. In the adjacent parts vege¬
tation is nearly dedroyed : even the moffes and lichens
of the rgcks have perifhed *, and nothing feems capable
of refiding the fumes but the purple melic grafs, which
flouriflies in abundance. It is thought that the ore
had been worked in a very diflant period. Vediges
of the ancient operations appear in feveral parts, car-
tied on by trenching, and by heating the rocks in-
tenfely, then luddenly pouring on water, fo as to caufe
them to crack or fcale j thus awkwardly fupplying the
ufe of gunpowder. Pieces of charcoal were alfo found,
which proves that wood was made ui’e of for that pur-
pofe. As the Britons imported all works in brafs, it
is certain that the Romans were the undertakers of
thefe mines ; and it is very probable that they lent the
ore to Caerhen to be {melted, the place where the fa¬
mous cake of copper was difcovered. They might
likewife have had a fmelting hearth in this iiland *, for
a round cake of copper was difcovered at Llanvaethlle,
a few miles from this place. Its weight was fifty
pounds, and it had on it a mark refembling an L.
“ In the year 1762, one Alexander Frazer came
into Anglefey in fearch of mines. He vifited Parys
mountain \ called on Sir Nicholas BayleVj and gave
him fo flattering an account of the profpeid, as in¬
duced him to make a trial, and fink fliafts. Ore was
difcovered j but before any quantity could be gotten,
[ 348 1
A N G
the mines tvere overpowered with water. In about Anglefey.
two years after, Meffrs. Roe and Co. of Macclesfield ' v——J
applied to Sir Nicholas for a leafe of Penrhyn ddu mine
in Caernarvonfliire j with which they were, much
againft their wills, compelled to take a leafe of part of
this mountain, and to carry on a level, and make a fair
trial. The trial was accordingly made j ore was dif¬
covered ; but the expences overbalanced the profits.
They continued working to great lofs ; and at length
determined to give the affair up. They gave their
agent orders for that purpofe : but he, as a final at¬
tempt, divided his men into ten feveral companies, of
three or four in a partnerlhip, and let them fink fliafts
in various places, about eight hundred yards ealtward
of a place called the Golden Venture, on a prefumption
that a fpring, which iffued from near the place, muft
come from a body of mineral. His conjeflure was
right ; for in lefs than two days they met with, at the
depth of feven feet from the furface, the folid mineral,
which proved to be that vaft body which has flnce been
worked to fuch advantage. The day that this dif-
covery was made was March 2. 1768 : which has ever
fince been obferved as a feftival by the miners. Soon
after this dilcovery, another adventure was begun by
the reverend Mr Edward Hughes, owner of part of
the mountain, in right of his wife Mary Lewis of Llys
Dulas ; fo that the whole of the treafure is the pro¬
perty of Sir Nicholas Bayley and himfelf. The body
of copper ore is of unknown extent. The thicknefs
has been afcertained in fome places by the driving of a
level under it, feveral years ago, and it was found to
be in lome places twenty-four yards. The ore is moft-
ly of the kind called by Cronfted, Pyrites cupriflavo
viridefcens, and contains vaft quantities of fulphur. It
varies in degrees of goodnefs; fome of it is rich, but
the greater part poor in quality.
“ There are other fpecies of copper ore found here.
Of late a vein of the Pyrites cvprigrifetts of Cronfted,
about feven yards wide, has been diicovered near the
weft end of the mountain : fome is of an iron gray,
fome quite black \ the firft contains fixteen lb. of cop¬
per per loolb. the laft forty. An ore has been lately
found, in form of loofe earth, of a dark purplilh co¬
lour ; and the heft of it has produced better than eight
in twenty. Some years ago, above thirty pounds of
native copper were found in driving a level through a
turbery; fome was in form of mofs, fome in very thin
leaves.
“ It is quarried out of the bed in vaft maffes j is
broken into fmall pieces : and the moft pure part is
fold raw, at the rate of about 3I. to 61. per ton, or
fent to the fmeiting-houfes of the refpefHve companies
to be melted into metal. Mr Hughes has great fur¬
naces of his own at Ravenhead near Liverpool, and at
Swanfey in South Wales. An idea of the wealth of
thefe mines may be formed, by confidering that the
Macclesfield Company have had at once fourteen thou-
fand tons of ore upon bank, and Mr Hughes thirty
thoufand.
“ The more impure ore is alfo broken to the fize of
about hens eggs j but in order to clear it from the quan¬
tity of fulphur with which it abounds, as well as other
adventitious matter, it muft undergo the operation of
burning. For that purpofe it is placed between two
parallel walls of vaft length : fome kilns arc 20, others
4°»-
A N G f 349 ] A N G
Anglefey. 40, and 50 yards in length 5 feme 10, others 20, feet
wide, and above four feet in height. The fpace be¬
tween is not only filled, but the ore is piled many feet
higher, in a convex form, from end to end. The
whole is then covered with flat ftones, clofely luted
with clay 5 and above is placed a general integument
of clay, and fmall rubbilh of the work, in order to
prevent any of the fumes from evaporating. Of late,
fome kilns have been conftrucfed with brick arches
over the ore, which is found to be the beft method of
burning. Within thefe few years, attempts are made
to preferve the fulphur from flying away j and that is
done by flues made of brick whofe tops are in form of
a Gothic arch, many fcores of feet in length. One
end of thefe opens into the beds of copper which are
to be burnt. Thofe beds are fet on fire by a very fmall
quantity of coal, for all the reft is effe&ed by its own
phlogifton. The volatile part is confined, and direct¬
ed to the flues •, in its courfe the fulphureous particles
ftrike againft their roofs, and fall to the bottom in form
of the fineft brimftone 5 which is collected and carried
to adjacent houfes, where it is melted into what is cal¬
led in the {\\o^s j?one-brirn/lone.
“ The beds of copper, thus piled for burning, are
of vaft extent. Some contain 400 tons of ore, others
2000. The firft require four months to be completely
burnt, the laft near ten. Thus burnt, it is carried to
proper places to be dreffed, or walhed, and made mer¬
chantable. By this procefs the ore is reduced to a
fourth part in quantity, but confiderably improved in
quality : and by this means the water is ftrongly or
richly impregnated with copper, which is ditTolved by
the acid quality of the fulphur ; and is collefted or
precipitated again by iron in the above-deferibed pits.
The iron is all diffolved.
“ But a far richer produce of copper is difeovered
from the water lodged in the bottom of the bed of ore,
which is highly faturated with the precious metal.
This is drawn up, either by means of whimfies or
windmills, to the furface, and then diftributed into
numbers of rectangular pits 36 feet long, fome pits
more fome lefs, 12 to 15 feet broad and 20 inches
deep. To fpeak in the language of the adept, Venus
muft make an aflignation wdth Mars, or this folution
will have no effeCt. In plain Englilh, a quantity of
iron muft be immerfed in the rvater. The kind of iron
is of no moment j old pots, hoops, anchors, or any re-
fufe, will fuffice •, but of late, for the convenience of
management, the adventurers procure new- plates, four
feet long, one and a half broad, and three quarters of
nn inch thick. Thefe they immerfe into the pits.
The particles of copper inftantly are precipitated by
the iron, and the iron is gradually diflblved into a yel¬
low ochre. Great part of it floats off by the rvater,
and links to the bottom. The plates, or the old iron
(as it happens), are frequently taken out, and the cop- -t
per feraped off; and this is repeated till the whole of
the iron is confumed. The copper thus procured dif¬
fers little from native copper, and is prized according¬
ly, and fold for prices from 2^1. to 41ft. a ton.
“ This difeovery is far from new : it has been prac-
tifed long in the Wicklow mines in Ireland ; and above
a century in thofe of Hern-grundt in Hungary, where
it is called viiment copper. The waters of the Hunga¬
rian mines are much more ftrongly impregnated with
copper than thofe of Parys mountain. The nrft ef- Anglefey.
fedfs its operation in 1 2 or about 20 days, the laft re- ' -■
quires tveo months. Horfe fhoes, iron made in fhape
of hearts, and other forms, are put into the foreign wa¬
ters \ and when perfectly tranfmuted, are given as pre-
fents to curious ftrangers.
“ The ore is not got in the common manner of min¬
ing, but is cut out of the bed in the fame manner as
ftone is out of a quarry. A hollow is now formed in
the folid ore open to the day, and extends about 100
yards in length, about 40 yards in breadth, and 24
yards in depth. The ends are at prefent undermined,
but fupported by vaft pillars and magnificent arches,
all metallic 5 and thefe caverns meander far under¬
ground. Thefe will foon difappear, and thoufands of
tons of ore be gotten from both the columns and roofs.
The fides of this vaft hollow are moftly perpendicular,
and accefs to the bottom is only to be bad by fmail
fteps cut in the ore 5 and the curious vifitor muft trull
to them and a rope, till he reaches fome ladders, which
will conduft him the reft of the defeent. On the
edges of the chafms are wooden platforms, which pro¬
ject far 5 on them are windlaffes, by which the work¬
men are lowered to tranfadl their bufinefs on the face
of the precipice. There fufpended, they work in mid
air, pick a fmall place for a footing, cut out the ore
in vaft maffes, and tumble it to the bottom with great
noife. In fuch fituations they form caverns, and there
appear fafely lodged till the rope is lowered to convey
them up again. Much of the ore is blafted with gun¬
powder, eight tons of which are faid to be annually
ufed for the purpofe.
“ Nature hath been profufe in beftowing her mine'*!
ral favours on this fpot : for above the copper ore, and
not more than three quarters of a yard beneath the
common foil, is a bed of yellowifh greafy clay, from
one to four yards thick, containing lead ore, and
yielding from 600 to 1000 pounds weight of lead from
one ton 5 and one ton of the metal yields not lefs than
57 ounces of filver. Mixed with the earth, are fre¬
quently certain parts of the colour of cinnabar. Whe¬
ther thefe are fymptomatic of the fulphureous arfenical
filver ores or of quickfilver, I will not pretend to de¬
cide. Something interferes with the fuccefsful Imelt-
ing of this earth in the grate ; infomuch that it has
not yet been of that profit to the adventurers which
might reafonably be expefted from the crucible affays
of it, and they have at this time about 8000 tons on
bank undifpofed of. This place has been worked for
lead or^ in very diftant times. In the bottom of the
pool was found an ancient fmelting hearth of grit
ftone, and feveral bits of fmelted lead, of about four
inches in length, two in breadth, and half an inch
thick.
“ Thefe works have added greatly to the popula¬
tion of the ifland ; for about 1 f;co perfons are employ¬
ed ; who, with their families, are fuppofed to make
near 8000 perfons, getting their bread from thefe
mines. The little village of Amlwch, the port of the
place, is increafmg fall, and the market grows con-
liderable. At the feafon of the greateft work, Mr
Hughes’s men alone receive for many weeks 200I. in
one week, and x 50I. in another, merely for fubfiftence.
The port Is no more than a great chafm between two
rocks, running far into land, and dry at low water y
A N C [ 350
^Angling, ^nto which {loops run, and lie fecure to receive their
lading.”
Near Kemlyn bay is a quarry of marble, common
to this place, fome parts of Italy, and to Corfica, and
known in the Ihops by the name of Verde di Corjica.
Its colours are green, black, white, and dull purple,
irregularly dilpofed. In different blocks one or other
of the colours is frequently wanting j but among the
green parts are oftener found narrow veins of a moft
elegant and filky white afbeftos. It is a compound
fpecies of marble : part is calcareous, and may be aft-
ed on by aquafortis. The green parts partake of the
nature of jafper. It is apt to be interfefted by fmall
cracks, or by afbeftine veins, therefore incapable of ta¬
king a high polifh. This quarry lies on the lands of
Monachty, in the parifh of Llan-Fair-Ynghornwy ;
and it is found again in the ifle of Skerries, off this pa-
rilh. Neither the quarry nor the afbeftos are at pre-
fent in ufe. In Rhofcolyn parifh, a green amianthus,
or brittle afbeftos, is met with in great plenty in a
green marble fimilar to the above ; but by reafon of
the inflexible quality of its fibres not applicable to the
fame ufe.
ANGLING, among fportfmen, the art of fifhing
with a rod, to which are fitted a line, hook, and bait.
See Fi$HiNG-Rod, FisniNo-Hook, Fishing-F/j.
The angler’s firft bufinefs is to attraft the fifh to the
place intended for angling. The method of doing this,
in Handing waters* by throwing in grains, chopped
worms, and the like, is well known : but the chief dif¬
ficulty is in running rivers and'brooks. The method,
in this cafe, is to prepare a tin box capable of holding
fome hundreds of worms, bored on all lides, and full
of holes of fuch a fize as they may be juft able to
crawl out at ; there muft be a plummet faftened to this
box to fink it, and a line to draw' it back at pleafure 3
in this cafe it is to be thrown into the water in a pro¬
per place, above which the angler may Hand under co¬
ver. The worms will ilowly and gradually crawl out
of this box, and the fifh will be gathered about to feed
on them ; the baited hook is to be thrown in higher
up and carried down by the ftream. If this method
do not bring the fifh about the place in a little time,
there is reafon to fufpeft that fome pike lies lurking
thereabout, and deters them : in this cafe, it is proper
to throw out a baited hook, and he will generally be
taken 3 after this the attempt will fucceed.
When the angler takes his Hand, he is to fhelter
himfelf under fome tree or bufh, or ftand fo far from
the brink of the water that he can only difcern his
float 3 as the fifh are timorous and eafily frightened
awray. The angling rod muft be kept in a moderate
Hate, neither too dry nor too moift : in the firft cafe,
it will be brittle : in the other, rotten. When paftes
are ufed, it is proper to mix a little tow wfith them,
and rub them over with honey 3 finally, a fmall anoint¬
ing with butter is of great ufe to keep them from waftr¬
ing off the hook. The eyes of any fifh that is taken
are an excellent bait for almoft any other kind of fifh.
The beft wTay of angling with the fly is down the ri¬
ver, and not up 3 neither need the angler ever make
above half a dozen of trials in one place, either wuth
fly or ground bait, when he angles for trout: by that
time the fifh will either offer to take, or refufe the bait
and not ftir at all.
] A N G
In a pond, the beft place for the angler to take his
ftand is ufuaily that where the cattk go up into water :
in rivers, if breams are fifhed for, it ihould be in the
deepeft and moft quiet places ; if eels, under the banks
of rivers that hang over 3 perch are to be expe&ed in
dean places, where the ftream is fwift 3 and chub in
deep ftraded holes: roach are moftly found where the
perch are, and trout only in fwift and clear ftreams.
Places where there are many weeds, or old flumps of
trees, harbour fifh in great numbers, and they uiually
bite freely there 3 but there is danger of entangling the
line, or fattening the hook to the weeds. In cafe of
this accident, recourfe is to be had to a ring of lead,
of about fix inches round, faftened to a fmall pack¬
thread : this ring is to be thruft over the rod, and let
fall into the water. It will defcend to the place where
the hook is entangled 3 and then, by pulling the pack-
thread gently, the hook will be foon difengaged, or
at the worft it can only be broke off near the end of
the line 3 whereas, when this is not employed, the rod
itfelf is fometimes broken, or the line nearer its upper
end.
Deep waters are beft for angling in, for the fifh do
not love to be difturbed by wind and weather.
The openings of fluices and mill dams always bring
fifh up the current to feek for the food which is brought
with the ftream 3 and angling in thefe places is ufuaily
fuccefsful.
The beft feafon is from April to O&ober ; for, in
very cold ftormy weather, the filh will not bite 3 the
beft times of the day are from three till nine in the
morning, and from three in the afternoon till funfet.
In an eafterly wind, there is never much fport for the
angler 3 the foutherly winds are the beft for his pur-
pofe, and a warm but lowering day is moft of all to be
chofen 3 a gentle wind, after a hidden fhower, to di-
fturb the water, makes a veiy good opportunity for
the angler : the cooler the weather in the hotteft
months, the better 3 but in winter, on the contrary,
the warmer the day the better. A cloudy day, after
a bright moonlight night, is always a good day for
fport 3 for the fifh do not care for going after prey in
the bright moonfhine, and are therefore hungry the
next morning.
Thofe who are fond of angling might fave themfelves
fome fruitlefs trouble by obferving when fmall fifh in a
jar take or refufe food. See Fish.
The feveral methods of angling for falmon, trout,
carp, tench, perch, pike, dace, gudgeons, roach, floun¬
der, &c. may be feen under the article Fishing.
ANGLO-Calvinists, a name given by fome wri¬
ters to the members of the church of England, as
agreeing with the other Calvinifts in moft points ex¬
cept church government*
SlNGLO-Saxon, an appellation given to the language
fpoken by the Engliih Saxons 3 in contradiftinftion
from the true Saxon, as well as from the modern
Englifh.
ANGLES, Th omas, an Englifh prieft, well knowm
for the Angularity of his opinions, and feveral little
trafts which he wrote in the 1 yth century. He went
by feveral names. Mr Baillet fays his true name wras
White ; but that he ufed to diiguife it under that of
Candidas, Albus, Bianchi, and Richworth ; but he wras
inoft known in France by the name of Thomas Anglns.
Des
Angol,
Angola.
A N G T 35
Des Cartes generai'/ cal ed him Mr Vitus. He paf-
fed fome time in moft countries of Europe ; but his
v longeft Hay was at Rome and Paris. When he was in
England, he lived a confiderable time in the family of
Sir Kenelm Digby ; and feems to have had a great
etteem for the opinions of this gentleman, as may be
feen in his writings, particularly in the Preface to his
Latin work concerning the Inftitutions of the Peripa¬
tetic Philofophy, according to the hypothefis of Sir Ke¬
nelm. He was a great advocate for the Peripatetic
philofophy. He attempted even to make the princi¬
ples of Ariftotle fubfervient to the explaining the moft
impenetrable myfteries of religion ; and with this view
he engaged in the difcuffion of predeftination, free will,
and grace. Mr Baillet fays, “ What he wrote upon
this fubject refembles the ancient oracles for obfcurity.”
In fuch abftrufe points as we have mentioned, he wras
much embarrafled j and, by giving too great fcope to
his own thoughts, he pleafed neither the Molinifts nor
Janfenifts. He is allowed, however, to have been a
man of an extenlive and penetrating genius. On the
loth of June 1658, the congregation of the Index Ex-
purgatorius at Rome condemned fome treatifes of
Thomas Anglus. The doftors of Douay cenfured alfo
22 proportions extrafted from his Sacred Inftitutions.
He publiftied his Supplicatio pojlulativa jujlitice, in op-
pofition to their cenfure j wherein he complains that
they had given him a vague undetermined cenfure,
without taxing any particular propofition. He died
fome time after the reftoration of Charles II. but in
what year is uncertain.
ANGOL, a city of Chili in South America, fitua-
ted in W. Long. 72. 5. S. Lat. 37. 36.
ANGOLA, a kingdom on the weftern coaft of
Africa, lying, according to the moft probable accounts,
between Lat. 8. 3®. and 16. 21. S. forming a coaft of
upwards of 480 miles ; but how far it extends from
■weft to eaft, has never been exadlly determined. An¬
gola Proper is bounded on the north by the river Dan-
da, which feparates it from Congo ; and on the fouth
by the Coanza, by which it is feparated from Bengue-
la. This laft, however, is now' included in the king¬
dom of Angola, having been conquered by its mo-
narchs, though it ftill retains the name of kingdom,
and is included in the dimenfions we have juft now gi¬
ven. The air here is very hot and unw'holefome, and
tbe country mountainous ; there being but few plains
to be met with in it, except on the fea coaft, and be-
x tween the huge ridges of mountains.
Originally a I hat part of the kingdom w'hich we have diftinguiih-
roTo^ °f ec^ ky the name of Angola Proper, was fubjefl to the
kings of Congo in the year 1484, when the Portuguefe
hr ft difcovered the country : but how long it had been
lb before that time, is not known ; the inhabitants be¬
ing utterly deftitute of chronology, and having no other
way of diftinguiftiing paft events, but by faying they
happened in fuch a king’s reign. Neither, though An¬
gola became a diftimft kingdom ftnce its difcovery by
the Portuguefe, is it known with more certainty at
what time that revolution happened •, or whether the
Portuguefe wrere not concerned in affifting the viceroy
of the king of Congo, who governed the province of
Angola, to fet up for himfelf.
All accounts agree, that this kingdom was founded
by one Ngola or Angola, from whom it took its name.
i ] A N G
According to the tradition of the country, this Ngola Angola,
was a ftnith, and the inventor of that trade, in which 1 *
he had been inftrufted by the demons of the country.-j-radition
In confequence of this, he became exceeding rich, not concerning
in gold, fiver, or ftrell money, w'hich w'ere not at that’ts tec°m*
time in ufe, but in corn, cattle, and fruits, which were (qf cqCv-'
then exchanged in traffic. The country being not longciow
after vifited by a grievous famine, Ngola generoufty re- •
lieved his diftreffed countrymen, and laved the lives of
fome thoufands. In gratitude for this generofity, he
wras unanimoully chofen king ; and hence the fmith’s
trade is reckoned among the royal arts of Angola. 3
According to other accounts, which can be more de- More im¬
pended upon, Ngola was the king of Congo’s viceroy ; tlient’c ac“
wdio, having become powerful by the redudlion of feve-
ral of the neighbouring ftates, was induced to fet up
for himfelf. Dreading, neverthelefs, the pow er of his
old mafter, he chofe to fend him the ufual tribute and
prefents annually, till he reckoned himfelf firmly feated
on the throne, and had fecured it to his defeendants.
His meafures were greatly facilitated by the w'ars which
the king of Congo was then engaged in wuth the Gia-
gas, a barbarous nation in the neighbourhood. Thefe
made fuch a powerful inroad into his dominions that he
was glad to alk affiftance from Ngola 5 not as a fub-
je£l, but as a friend and ally. This was readily grant -
ed ; and the twm monarchs continued ever after fend¬
ing prefents and affiftance to each other, and encoura¬
ging a mutual commerce between their fubje&s. * 4
Ngola lived to a great age, highly refpefted by his t^ie
fubjecis, and in alliance w'ith the king of Congo andfiU
the Portuguefe, whofe numerous fettlements on the
coaft had made them become very powerful. Accord¬
ing to the cuftom of the country, he had many wives
and concubines. By his chief favourite he had three
daughters, Zunda Riangola, Tumba Riangola, and ano¬
ther wffiofe name is unknown. Towards the latter
part of his life, the king’s chief care was to fecure the
crowm to the eldeft of thefe 5 for which purpofe he con-
fulted his beloved queen, who encouraged him in the
defign with all the eloquence in her power. By her
advice, he fent for his lieutenant-general, a favourite
flave, whom he had created viceroy over the whole king¬
dom, to acquaint him w'ith his refolution. The artful
minifter did not fail to applaud his defign, though his
intention wras to defraud the princefs, and feize the
throne for himfelf. He accordingly took the opportu¬
nity, one day, wffien that princefs and the whole court
were employed in fowing their lands, to fpread a re¬
port that the Angolic enemies had entered the king¬
dom, and were deftroying every thing with fire and
fw'ord. In this confufion, the treacherous viceroy con-
dufted the three princeftes to the royal palace , and ac¬
quainting Ngola w'ith the pretended danger, urged him
to betake himfelf to a fpeedy flight. The frighted mo¬
narch, unable to ftir with age, defired his minifter to
take the moft proper means for his fafety : whereupon,
being a ftout young fellow', he takes his majefty on his
back, and carries him into a neighbouring wood 5 w here
he no fooner had him in a convenient place, than he
ftabbed him with a dagger. This ftratagem was too Murdered
fhallow to remain long concealed; the murderer wasbyhisprime
quickly difcovered, and many of the nobles rofe in arms minIfter>
againft him ; but finding his party too ftrong to bo op-
pofed, they were at laft obliged to fubmit, and fuffer
him
A N G [ 352 ]
An^ola'1, Win quietly to afcend the throne, upon his publicly de
A N G
angola.
7
Murders
her ne¬
phew.
8
Is herfelf
murdered
by her lif¬
ter.
daring that he had not feized it but with a view of fe-
curing it to the princefs Zunda Riangola.
1 o this princefs the ulurper palliated his conduct in
the beft manner he could ; and ihe had art enough to
6 difguife her refentment fo effe&ually, that he never
Deathofthe di^OTcrcd the fmalleft occafion for jealoufy. At lalt,
ulurper, his hidden death gave Zunda an opportunity of afcend-
ecededv" ^ lhe t.hrone peaceably j when (he behaved with fuch
Zunda Ri. moderation and juftice as to gain the love and affec¬
tion of all her fubjecls. Her jealous temper prevent¬
ed her from marrying; and, by giving too much tvay
to it, fne came at laft to dread as rivals the two Ions
of her youngeft filler Tumba, and to form dcfigns
againfl their life. I o accomplifh her purpofes, fhe or¬
dered them to be brought to court, pretending to have
them educated udder her own eye. This was declined
for home time ; but at length the queen prevailed fo far
as to have the eldeft feut to her 5 w-hom Ihe no fooner
got into her power, than Ihecaufed him to be maffacred,
with all his attendants ; only one efcaping, all covered
with -wounds, to carry the dreadful news to the prin¬
cefs and her hulband.
On hearing of this bloody aft, tbe afflifted parents
immediately fallied forth at the head of all their vaffals.
They were waited for by Queen Zunda at the head of
a numerous army *, but no fooner did her foldiers per¬
ceive the parents of the deceafed prince, than they im¬
mediately abandoned the queen to their refentment.-
Tumba immediately ruflied upon her filler, and flab-
bed her to the heart; after which, Ihe commanded her
entrails to be taken out, and thrown into the hole in
which her fon’s body had been call. Upon this Tumba
-was crowned queen of Angola, and invited her huf-
band to participate with her in the management of
public affairs. This offer he was too -wife to accept;
and Tumba, upon his refufal, refigned the crown into
the hands of her furviving fon, named Angola Chilvag-
He proved a great and wife prince, extending his
dominions by conquell, and gaining the love of his fub-
jefts by the moderation and equity of his government
9 He was fucceeded by one of his younger fons, named
Dambi An- Bambi Angoh ; who no fooner afcended the throne,
gola a cruel than he put all his brethren to death, left they Ihould
ijnun. unite in favour of the eldeft. The reft of his reign
proved conformable to fuch a beginning. He wras a
monfter of cruelty, avarice, lewdnefs, and perfidy.
Death, however, in a Ihort time, happily delivered his
fubjefts from this tyrant*, who, notwithftanding his
infamous life, was buried with the greateft magnifi¬
cence ; and a mount was erefted over his grave, con¬
fining, according to the cuftom of the country, of a
to prodigious number of human viftims which had been
NgolaChi- facrificed to bis ghoft. Dambi Angola was fucceeded
livasn.. as hy Ngola Chilivagni, a warlike and cruel prince. He
conquered many nations, and made tbe moll dreadful
inroads into tbe kingdom of Congo, along the rivers of
Danda, Lucalla, Zanda, and Coanza : whofe waters
were often tinged with the blood of thoufands whom
he maffacred in his excurfions. Notwithftanding thefe
butcheries, Ngola Chilivagni Ihowed fuch generofity to
thofe who readily fubmitted to him, that he was lure
to conquer, not only wherever he came, but wherever
he feemed to direft his forces. At laft, as if weary
of conqueft, he planted a tree on the banks of the
conquefts.
Coanza, about eight leagues from Loanda San Paulo, Angola.
as a boundary to his ravages. This tree the Portuguefe v'' 1
called //amla, or IJondttura; and afterwards erefted a
fortrefs near it. j r
The fame folly and infolence which took place in the Dancies
breaft ot Alexander the Great, on account of his rapid
conquefts, foon puffed up the mind of this petty Afri-g0‘l‘
can tyrant. Becaufe he had conquered and ravaged
fome of the neighbouring countries, and brought un¬
der his fubjeftion a few cowardly barbarians ; he firft
fancied himfelf invincible, and then that he was a god.
He demanded the fame adoration and refpeft that was
paid to their other deities *, and with this demand his
fubjefts were fervile enough to comply. This pretend¬
ed deity, however, -was forced to fubmit to the fate of
other mortals, and died without leaving a fucceffor be¬
hind him.
On the deceafe of Ngola Chilivagni, the ftates eleft-
ed Ngingha-Angola-Chilombo-Kickafanda, great ne¬
phew to Queen Tumba’s huftmnd, as his fucceffor. He
proved fuch a rapacious and cruel tyrant, that his fub¬
jefts univerfally wilhed for his death j which, luckily,
for them, foon happened. He was interred with the
ufual pomp and folemnities, particularly that of having
a whole hecatomb of human viftims facrificed upon his
grave. His fon Bandi Angola, who fucceeded him,
proved yet a greater tyrant than his father ; fo that he n
foon became intolerable to his fubjefts. A general re- Revolt a-
voltenfued, in which his fubjefts called in the cannibalf.air,ft B,ari'
Giagas to their affiftance. Thefe immediately poured01 Ari§0ia'
in like a band of hungry dogs haftening to feed upon
a carcafs ; and having defeated and devoured the forces
of the tyrant, belieged him in an inacceffible mountain;
where, not being able to come at him, they refolved to 13
reduce him by iamine. Bandi Angola applied to the Quest'd by-
king of Congo for affiftance. As it was the intereftthe
of that prince to hinder the ravenous Giagas from fcn-y‘CC°fthe
tering into the Angolic dominions, w hence they could Congo and
fo eafily pafs into his own, he did not hefitate at grant-the Portu-
ing his requeft ; and ordered a ftrong reinforcement ofguefe*
the Portuguefe, of whofe valour he had a high opinion,
and of whom he entertained a great number at his
court, to march to the afiiftance of the king of Ango¬
la. The command of the army was given to one of
the molt experienced Portuguefe officers; who, de¬
pending more on the handful of Europeans he had un¬
der his command than on the Congoefe, attacked the re¬
bels, though greatly luperior in number *, and having
utterly defeated them, reftored the king of Angola to
his throne.
This effential piece of fervice fo endeared the Portu¬
guefe to Bandi Angola, that he took them into his fer- T4
vice, and even into his council. Their general became The king's
a great favourite of the king, but much more fo of histiaugllter
daughter, who conceived a violent paffion for him.^,1^1"^6
Unfortunately for them both, the amour was carried PortugUefe
on with fo little precaution on her part, that the king general;
quickly difeovered it; and immediately formed a refo-
lution of exterminating the Portuguefe all at once.
Such violent meafures, however, could not be concert¬
ed fo privately but the princefs got fome intelligence of 13
it ; and having apprifed her lover of his danger, he im-wbo retires
mediately withdrew into Congo, taking with him astoConS°*
many of his countrymen as he conveniently could. The
king of Congo expreffed fuch ftrong refentment againft
Bandi
A N G
Angola. Band! Angola for his ingratitude, that the Portuguefe
'“■'-■v 1 general would have probably prevailed upon him to de¬
clare war againft Angola, had he not been obliged to
defend his own dominions againft a neighbouring prince
who then made an invafion. This afforded that gene¬
ral a fair pretence of afking leave to return home 5 pro-
miilng to come with fuch reinforcements as would en¬
able the king of Congo to revenge himfelf for the af¬
front put upon him by the Angolic monarch. His real
intention, however, was, to give the king of Portugal
an opportunity of feizing upon the kingdom of An-
,<S g°la-
Lays a plan his return to Lifhon, the Portuguefe general hav-
forthe con-ing laid his plan before the king, it was fo well reliih-
queft of
Angola be
fore the
king of
Portugal.
ed, that an armament was ordered to be fitted out, well
futTiilhed with every neceflary for building fortreffes,
&c. and a fufficient number of men. The wind proving
favourable all the way back, the Portuguefe foon ar¬
rived fafe at Loanda San Paulo ; whence the general
defpatched a meffenger to acquaint the king of Congo
with his arrival, and to make him fome rich prefents.
Thefe were no fooner gone than the admiral failed up
the Coanza ; and, landing without oppofition in the
• kingdom of Angola, fet about erefting a fortrefs in
a convenient fituation, which was completed in a few
days.
The king being informed of the return of the Por-
tuguefe, and of their fortifying themfelves on advan-
ry tageous ground, gathered together a numerous army :
^Defeats the but his forces, though upwards of 100,000 in number,
Angolans. were utterly defeated by the Portuguefe; vaft, num¬
bers killed, and many more carried into fiavery. The
admiral now ravaged the whole country, putting all to
fire and iword, and making himfelf mafter of every ad¬
vantageous fpot of ground. The king, however, had
ftill the good luck to efcape all the ftratagems that
were laid for him ; and once more got fafe to his inac-
ceftible fortrefs.
All this time Band! Angola had himfelf tyrannized,
and allowed his favourites to tyrannize, in fuch a man¬
ner, that his fubjefts were become no lefs weary of his
government than when they formerly revolted. Being
now exafperated beyond meafiire at the calamitous war
of which he had been the occafion, they formed a de-
fign of putting an end to his life; and in order to draw
him out of his retreat, where he wallowed in all manner
of debauchery, they had recourfe to the following
ftratagem : A deputation was fent, acquainting him
with the revolt of one Cuculo Cabazzo; who, at the
head of a numerous band, committed the moft cruel
ravages. They befought his majefty, either to levy a
fufficient number of troops, and march in perfon againft
him, or to allow them to arm themfelves againft him.
The credulous king complied with this laft propofal;
and granted them leave to raife what forces might be
thought neceffary. Four days after, notice was fent to
the king, that his fubjefts had attacked the rebels, and
had been repulfed with lofs ; but that, if his majefty
would but condefcend to animate them with his pre-
fence, the fight of him would infpire them with fuch
courage, that they would affuredly prove vi&orious.
This had the defired effeff; and the king fet out a few
days after, without any other precaution than his own
guards, to head his army which was encamped on the
banks of the Lucalla. He no fooner appeared in view
Vol. II. Part I,
3S3 1 A N G
than all the chief officers came out to meet him; and Angola,
having, under pretence of paying their refpedls, gra-
dually feparated him from his guards, they fell upon Bancjj
him and defpatched him at once. gpia mur-
Bandi Angola was fucceeded by his fon Ngola Ban-dered.
di, whofe mother had been a Have, and whofe title to
the crown was confequently dilputable, according to I9
the laws of the country. Of this the new king being Cruelty of
well apprifed, thought proper to begin his reign by the new
murdering every perfon who had oppofed his eledtionA111#*
He began with the Tendula, or commander of the
king’s rear guard ; who, by his office, is the chief of
the eledlors, and the perlon who governs the kingdom
during the interregnum. Him he ordered to be put
to death, with all his family. Thefe were followed by
the principal officers of his father’s court ; all his con¬
cubines, together with their parents and near relations,
whom he caufed to be butchered ; together with his
half-brother, his father’s fon by a favourite concubine,
and then but an infant. He did not fpare even the
fon of his After Zingha Bandi, whom ffie had by one
of her paramours. The intereft of his fifter had con¬
tributed greatly to raife this tyrant to the throne ; and
his ingratitude, with the murder of her Ion, fo exaf-
perated her, that the fwore to be revenged on him
in the fame wray. 20
The Portuguefe were the next objefts of his refent-Makes war
ment. Thefe he fo much dreaded on account of theiron tfieTor'
valour and policy, that he immediately declared war? and'^redu
refolving not to lay dowm his arms till he had extermi- ceci t0
nated them to the laft man, or driven them totally outgreatdi-
of his dominions. His rafhnefs, however, coft him dear.;ire^s-
Myriads of the Angolic poltroons were overthrown by
an handful of Portuguefe ; and the king himfelf was
forced to fly, firft into the ifland of Chiconda in the ri¬
ver Coanza, and then into the deferts of Oacco. Here
his conquerors, out of great clemency, allowed him to
live among the wild beafts, without any other fuften-
ance than what the deferts afforded. He had the mif-
fortune alfo to lofe his queen and twro lifters Cambi
and Fungi, who were taken prifoners by the Portu-
gueie, but honourably treated.
The king being informed of this, fent an embaffy to
treat of their ranfom and an exchange of prifeners.
The propofal rvas readily agreed to ; and the princef- 2I
fes were fent back, laden with prefents. The king, His treach-
however, refufed to perform his part of the agreement,ery.
and thereby plunged himfelf into ftill greater difficul¬
ties. A new Portuguefe viceroy being arrived about
this time, Ngola w’as quite at a lofs howr to excufe the 22
non-performance of his part of the treaty. At laft he Sends his
had recourfe to his exafperated fifter Zingha; and hav-!lfter Zing"
ing excufed, as well as he could,- the murder of her^j
fon, propofed to fend her on a fplendid embaffy to the
viceroy. Having confented, but without forgetting
her refentment, fhe fet out, as plenipotentiary for the
king of Angola, with a magnificent retinue; w’as re¬
ceived with all the honour due to her rank, and lodged
in a fplendid palace prepared for her. 23
At the firft audience Zingha had of Don John ftheHer haugh-
Portuguefe viceroy), fhe wras greatfy furprifed to find^^'11-
a ftately elbowr chair prepared for him to fit upon, andvlour*
for herfelf only a rich tapeftry fpread on the floor, w ith
a velvet cuftiion embroidered with gold, and placed over
againft the chair of ftate. Diffembling her difpleafure,
Y y however.
Angola,
24
•Embraces
the Chri-
ftian reli¬
gion.
25
W ar again
declared a-
gainft the
Fortuguefe.
26
The king
poiioned.
A N G [ ^^4
^ however, ihe beckoned to one of the ladles of her re¬
tinue, commanded her to lay herfelf down on her el¬
bows and knees upon the carpet, and fat herfelf upon
her back during the whole time of the audience. She
behaved with fuch addrefs and dignity, as to gain the
admiration of the whole council. A propdfal was made
of entering into an alliance olfenfive and defenfive with
the king of Angola, provided he acknowledged him-
felf the vaffal of the king of Portugal, and fubmitted
to pay a yearly tribute. To this Zingha replied, that
fuch conditions were indeed fit to be impofed upon
thofe who had been conquered by the fword j but not
upon a great and powerful monarch, who only fought
their friendfhip and alliance : upon which the treaty
was concluded on both fides, without any other con¬
ditions than the exchange of prifoners. The audience
being over, Don John took notice to Zingha, as he
conduced her out of the hall, that the lady who had
ferved her as a feat, continued Hill in the fame poilure;
upon which (he replied, That it did not become the
ambafladrefs of a great monarch to make ufe of the
fame chair trvice, fo flic looked upon her as a piece of
caft-oflf goods not worthy of further notice.
Zingha was fo taken with the honours done her by
the Portuguefe, and fo intent upon obferving the or¬
der, drefs, arms, &c. of their troops, that fhe ftaid at
Loanda a confiderable time ; during which (lie was in-
ftructed in the Chriftian religion, and confented to be
baptized. Don John and his fpoufe were her fponfors :
who difmiffed her foon after, with all poflible honours,
and highly fatisfied with her reception and fuccefs.
At her return, fhe took care to have the articles rati¬
fied by her brother ; wdio expreffed his approbation of
them, and the higheft obligations to her. He even wxnt
fo far as to defire the viceroy to fend him fome pro¬
per perfons to inftruft him in the Chriftian religion,
which he faid he was very defirous of embracing. This
requeft was immediately granted ; and Don Denis de
Faria, a negro prieft, a native of Angola, was de-
fpatched, along with an officer of diftinSion, to ftand
godfather to the king. Thefe met at firft with a
gracious reception : but when they came to talk of
baptifm, Ngola altered his tone, and told them it w'as
too much below his dignity to receive it from the fon
of one of his flaves, and lent them both back. This
was cried up by the courtiers as a princely aft : but
Zingha reprefented, that it could not fail to exafperate
the viceroy 5 and tried all poffible means to difluade
him from it, but in vain. He fuffered, however, his
other two fillers, Cambi and Fungi, to be baptized ;
which was performed in 1625, with a fplendour fuited
to their dignity.
As no experience feems to have been a fuflicient an¬
tidote againft the innate folly of Ngola Bandi, he foon
after took it into his head to make war on the Portu¬
guefe, and invaded fome of their territories. This laft
aftion proved his ruin: his troops were all cut off, and
himfelf forced to fwim for his life to a fmall ifland in
the Coanza, about a mile long, and two bowr-fhots in
breadth; whither the Portuguefe purfued and fur-
rounded him 5 fo that he had no other chance, but
either to fall into their hands, or be devoured by the
wild beafts with which the place fwarmed. From both
thefe dangers he was relieved by a dofe of poifon, given
him, as was fuppofed, by his filter Zingha. Before this
] A N G
time, however, he had taken care to fend his eldeft Angola,
fon to the country of the Giagas, and put him under —y——
the care of one of their chiefs, called Giaga Caz.a, whom
he befought to take care of him, and proteft him from
his aunt Zingha, as he rightly imagined file would not
fail of attempting his life, in order to fecure herfelf on
the throne.
Zingha Bandi was crowned queen of Angola, wdth-Z’ngha
out oppofition, in 1627.—She was a very artful woman Bandi ,
endowed with great prefence of mind, firm in her refo-queen
lutions, of an intrepid courage, and a great miftrefs in
tne art of diflimulatiori. She inherited a large fliare of
her brother’s jealous and cruel temper, to which Ihe
wmuld not hefitate to facrifice her neareft relations, if
they gave her the leaft umbrage.—To this jealoufy,
therefore, fhe refolved to facrifice her nephew, as well
know’ing he had a better title to the crown than herfelf.
She made ufe of the moft folemn oaths to draw him out
of the hands of his guardian, protefting that ftie had
accepted pi the throne with no other view than to pre-
ferve it for him. But Giaga, being well acquainted
with her temper, w-as proof againft all her oaths and
fair fpeeches.—Zingha, finding this method ineffeftual,
pretended a defire of refigning the crown to her nephew,
to which ftie faid fhe had no other objeftion, than that
fhe was afraid he was yet incapable of afluming the
reins of government. She therefore defired an inter¬
view wuth him, though ever fo Ihort, that fhe might
fatisfy herfelf in this particular, and promifed to de¬
tain him no longer than Giaga fhould think neceflary.
Giaga thought there could be no danger in confenting
to a fhort interview; and therefore fent the unfortunate
prince to her, attended by a magnificent retinue. The 28
cruel queen no fooner got him in her power, than fhe She rnur-
murdered him with her own hand, and caufed his body ders *ier
to be thrown into the Coanza, ridding herfelf, by thatnepheW*
inhuman aft, of a dangerous rival,.as well as reveng¬
ing herfelf on her brother, as fhe had fworn to do, for
the murder of her fon.
Zingha’s next fcheme was to rid herfelf of the Por¬
tuguefe, who had eftablilhed themfelves in fuch a man¬
ner as to be almoft entire mafters of the country. They
had built fortreffes on every convenient fpot that fuited
them, efpecially near her principal towns, which they
could level with the ground with the greateft eafe.
They had engrofled all her commerce, were become
very wealthy, and their numbers increafed daily ; fo
that they were dreaded not only by her fubjefts, but
by all the neighbouring nations. As Zingha was of
a martial temper, fhe did not long hefitate. She quick- zp
ly made all neceflary provifions, ftrengthened herfelfDeclares
by alliances with the Giagas, and other idolatrous na- ^Jportu
tions, and even with the Dutch and the king of Congo, guefe^ U~
With this combined force fhe attacked the Portuguefe*
fo fuddenly and unexpectedly, that fhe gained fome
advantages over them : and the Dutch made them¬
felves mafters of San Paulo de Loando, and foon after
of fome of the beft provinces in the kingdom. This
happened in the year 1641; and the Portuguefe did
not recover thefe places till the year 1648, when the
Dutch were entirely driven out of Angola. 30
Zingha’s fucceffes proved ftill more fhort lived. HerHer bad
allies the Congoefe were fo completely overthrown, ^ucce^*
that they were forced to fue for peace; which the
Portuguefe did not grant till they had obtained a fuf-
ficient
Angola.
A N G [ 355 ]
ficient number of hoftages, and obliged the Congoefe out of it
Angola
Refufes to
become tri
butary to
them.
3Z
They fet
up a king.
33
Zingha’s a-
poftafy and
horrid bar-
-iarity.
to deliver up to them fome confiderable polls, upon
which they immediately erefled fortreffes. Zingha’s
troops were now defeated in every battle •, and thefe
defeats followed on another fo clofe, that (he was fooU
abandoned, not only by her allies, but by her own
troops. She was now conitrained to abandon her do¬
minions, and retire to fome of the eaftern deferts, whi¬
ther the Portuguefe did not think it worth while to
follow her.
Zingha being reduced to fuch diftrefs, the Portu¬
guefe, after giving her fome time to ruminate on her
lituation, fent her propofals of peace, upon condi¬
tion that die ihould become tributary to-the crown of
of Portugal. This propofal die rejected with fcorn j
and let them know, that, however her daftardly fubjedls
might fubmidively and diamefully behave towards them,
their queen difdained fubjedlion to any foreign power.
On this haughty anfwer the Portuguefe, to mortify
her dill more, fet up a king in her place. The per-
fon they niched upon was named Angola Oarij, or
Aaru, who was of the royal family. Before he was
crowned, the Portuguefe obliged him to turn Chridian 5
and he was accordingly baptized by the name of John.
The new king, however, foon died of grief, at feeing
himfelf fo hardly treated by his maders the Portu¬
guefe. They quickly fet up another, named Philip;
who bore the yoke with more patience, and lived to
the year 1660.
In the mean time Zingha, exafperated at feeing
herfelf deprived of eleven of the bed provinces in her
dominions, and her authority in the remaining fix
greatly weakened, renounced the Chridian religion,
and embraced all the horrid and bloody cudoms of the
Giagas, whom die outdid even in their own barbarity.
—We have already hinted the barbarity of this nation
in eating human flefh. In this Zingha not only join¬
ed them, but took pleafure in devouring the raw fiedi
of human victims, and drinking their blood while warm
both at her facrifices and at her public meals.—She
affected a martial and heroic fpirit, together with an
utter averfion to the male lex 5 but, according to the
Portuguefe, maintained a number of the dronged and
ludied youths, in wdiofe embraces die gave a full fcope
to her inclinations, and managed matters with fuch fe-
crecythat her intrigues could never be difcovered. At
the fame time die ordered many of her own fex to be
ripped up, when their incontinency wTas manifeded by
their pregnancy ; and their bodies with thofe of the
infants to be cad to wild beads.
But what made her mod admired, as well as dreaded,
by her iubjefts, was a notion that die had by various
ftratagems inculcated upon them, of her being able to
penetrate into the mod fecret thoughts. To keep up
this apprehenfion die ordered the bones of her deceafed
brother to be brought from the ifiand w'here he was
poifoned, locked up in a died covered wuth coarfe plates
of filver, and laid on a fine Carpet upon a pededal. A
number of finghillos or prieds were ordered to offer
facrifices to thefe bones, and to keep lamps continually
burning before them. To this place die herfelf fre¬
quently repaired, to afiid at thofe rites, which, as die
gave out, and every body believed, engaged the fpirit
ot the deceafed to inform her oi every thing that wTas
done, laid, or even defigned, either in the kingdom or
34
A N G
To procure, however, as much real intelli¬
gence as podible, die kept vad numbers of fpies all
over the kingdom, who condantly gave her notice of
wdiat happened in their refpeflive circles j and tills
die fo cunningly improved to her own ends, that her
fubjedls looked upon her as a kind of deity from whom
nothing could be concealed.
By fuch means as thefe, Zingha gained fuch autho- Her influ-
rity over the Giagas, that they wTere ready, at the very e,nce °ver
fird indication of her wull, to follow her through theUie ®‘aSa>'
mod dreadful dangers, and to engage in the mod def-
perate enterprifes. She now made many drenuous and
daring efforts to drive out the Portuguefe ; but though
die had, in all probability, more valour and fkill than
her enemies, their fire arms gave them fuch an advantage,
that die wTas always defeated with great lofs. Per¬
ceiving therefore the folly of attempts of this kind,
die contented herfelf with making continual inroads
into their country, carrying off or dedroying every --
thing that fell in her way. Though die fpared nei-Her terri-
ther Europeans, nor blacks, who were fubjefls of the ^ rava£es*
mock monarchs fet up by the Portuguefe, yet the cafe
of the former w7as peculiarly dreadful when they hap¬
pened to be taken prifoners. They were either roaded . -
by a dow fire, or had their dedi cut off in pieces, and
devoured before their faces, in the manner related by
Mr Bruce of the Abyfiinian oxen*. In this manner * See
die infeded the Portuguefe territories for 28 years,
fcarce ever allowing them a moment’s ceffation of arms.
Their mock-kings were often obliged to dielter them-
felves from her fury in an inaccedible rock called
Maopongd ; and they themfelves could never hope to
enjoy their dominions with any kind of peace fo
long as this furious queen continued alive. They in
vain exhauded all their politics either to reduce her
by force, or to mollify her by prefents and fair offers.
The one die rejefled with difdain, and always found
means to baffle the other. Nor would die hearken to
any terms, unlefs they confented to refign all their
conqueds. The refufal of this demand was fo com¬
monly followed by fome marks of her refentment, that
it was wfith the utmod difficulty the Portuguefe could
prevail on any body to carry their propofals to her ;
and as for Zingha, die difdained to make any to them,
except thofe of the hodile kind. The terror of her
arms procured her a free paffage wherever die diredled
her courfe 5 all the inhabitants of a province making
no lefs hade to abandon, than die to invade it. Thus
die continued to advance, till at length die w as got fo
far as the fmall iiland of Dangii in the river Coanza.
The Portuguefe now found themfelves under the ne-
cedity of raifing an army of negroes, in order to drive
her out of it. Accordingly they furrounded the ifland,
and intrenched themfelves along the banks on both fides
of the river ; but while they w’ere bufy at their work,
Zingha attacked them with fuch advantage, that die
killed and w'ounded feveral hundreds of the blacks,
and fome of the white men. Elated with this advan¬
tage, die was preparing for another attack ; when die
perceived, to herfurprife, that the Portuguefe had drawn
their lines fo clofe, and raifed them to fuch a height,
that they overlooked her whole camp, and could fire
upon her naked foldiers as if they diet at a mark.—
Thus great numbers of her men were cut off, particu¬
larly her chief officers. The queen, nowr perceiving the
Y y 2 danger
A N G
Angola,
3?
Outwits
the Portu
guefe.
„ 37
Her com¬
plicated
misfor¬
tunes.
38
'I he Portu-
guefe fend
an embaffy
to her.
39
Their pro-
pofals re-
Sedted.
danger of Iter fituation, amufed the Portuguefe with
propofals of an accommodation ; and having obtained
a truce for three days, croffed the river in the dead of
, the night, and led her forces to the province of Oacco.
The next morning, the Portugnefe, feeing no human
creature upon the illand, began to apprehend fome
new ftratagem; but, upon landing fome of their troops,
they perceived themfelves over-reached, and deprived
of the faireft opportunity they ever had of forcing her
to furrender at difcretion.
Zingha ftaid no longer in the province whither die
had retired, than till die was adured that the Portu¬
guefe were retired from the Coanza ; and then, eroding
that river once more, marched direftly towards the
kingdom o£ Metamba, which had been invaded by
fome of the neighbouring princes. The fpeed with
which die led her forces thither, and recruited her armv
with multitudes of Giagas, who were all emulous of
fighting under her banner, quickly enabled her to re¬
cover lome of her territories in that kingdom. Begin¬
ning now to think herfelf fuccefsful, die again attacked
the Portuguefe ; but was defeated with great lofs, fo as
to be obliged to lend for fredi troops. To complete
her misfortune, die received news that the Giaga Caf-
fangi had taken the advantage of her abfence, to en¬
ter the kingdom of Metamba with a numerous army,
had carried oft' the greateft part of the inhabitants, de-
droyed all the fruits of the earth, plundered the towns
of all that was valuable, and let fire to the red, lea¬
ving that kingdom in a manner defolate. To add to
aU this, her troops, exafperated at the lofs of their
wives, children, and goods, which were carried to the
fartheft corner of Benguela, were all on the point of
revolting.
Notwithftanding thefe difafters, Zingha behaved
with fuch refolution and addrefs, that the Portuguefe,
who, according to chara&er, had probably inftigated
the Giaga againft her, were fo much afraid of her
joining with him in alliance againft them, that they
defpatched one Anthony Coglio, a learned prieft and
an excellent negotiator, with Don Gafpar Borgia an
eminent officer, under pretence of negotiating a peace
between them, firft to the Giaga, and afterwards to
the queen. They met with a very civil reception from
the firft, who told them that he was very willing to
live at peace with that princefs, and even to let her
enjoy the kingdom of Metamba, though he was the
rightful heir to it, provided {he would lay down her
arms. This anfwer encouraged the prieft to try whe¬
ther he could prevail on him to embrace the Chriftian
religion; but that was declined by*the Giaga in fuch
ftrong terms, that the prieft thought proper to defift,
and fet out for Zingha’s camp.
The ambafladors, at their firft arrival, met with fuch
a polite reception, as made them hope for fuccefs; but
after ffie had heard their propofals, fire aflumed a
haughty threatening tone, and told them in the conclu-
fion of her fpeech, “ That it did not become her dig¬
nity to lay down her arms, till ffie had brought the war
{lie had begun to an honourable conclufion : that as to
the Giagas, whofe fedl (lie had embraced fome years
before, and who had furniftied her with fuch a prodi¬
gious number of forces to fight in her defence, her ho¬
nour and intereft required that fhe ffiould ftill keep
them in her fervice, and under her prote&ion: and
[ .3 56 ]
A N G
Angola.
laftly, that as to herfelf, fhe remembered, indeed, that
ffie had formerly embraced Chriftianity; but that it was 1
not now a proper feafon to prepofe her returning to it,
and they ought to remember that they themfelves were
the caufe of her abandoning it.”
Borgia, perceiving that ffie was not to be wrought
uion by religious motives, ffiifted the topic ; and told
her, that ffie had gained honour enough m war, and
that it was now high time to think of granting peace
and tranquillity to the fubje&s of two fuch powerful
kingdoms, and accept of the favour and friendffiip of
the king of Portugal, which was offered her by his
viceroy. To this the queen made anfwer, that ftie was
perie&ly well acquainted with the valour and ftrength
of the Portuguefe, and ffiould efteem it an honour to
be allied to that monarch ; but that ffie thought it juft
that their refpeaive claims to the dominions which
file juftly inherited from her anceftors, and of which
he had unjuftly deprived her, ffiould firft of all be
decided, either by the {'word or by fome equitable
judges. .
Borgia, vainly imagining that he had now obtained
enough, fet off immediately for Loanda San Paulo;
but left the prieft, on fome pretence or other, to fee
whether, in the time of ficknefs, he could make any
impreffion on the indexible mind of Zingha, who now
laboured under a lingering diieafe. Coglio, however,
found all his arts to no purpoie ; and, upon the queen’s
recovery, ffie recommenced the war with more fury than
ever.
For fome time hoftilities were carried on with va- Zingha’s
rious fuccefs ; Zingha being fometimes victorious and narrow
fometimes defeated. In one attempt of the latter kind, c^caPc*
before the fortrefs of Maffangana, die not only loft a
great number of men, but had her two filters Cambi
and Fungi taken prifoners, ffie herfelf efcaping with the
utmoft difficulty. Exalperated by this lofs, fhe led her
troops into fome of the beft provinces of the Portu¬
guefe, and reduced them to a mere wildernefs. Still,
however, {he had the mortification to find her Ioffes
vaftly greater than what flie gained ; and had now the
additional misfortune of lofing her fifter Fungi, who
was put to death by the Portuguefe for treachery, and
feeing her allies the Dutch totally expelled out of An-
g°la: . . . 41
Zingha being thus oppreffed with a complication ofBegins#®.
misfortunes, and confcious of the crimes {he had com- relt>nt i
mitted, began ferioufly to confider whether fuch a con¬
tinued feries of dilafters was not owing to the difpleafure
of the God of the Chriftians. To this opinion fhe
feemed to have inclined ; and therefore began to treat
with more lenity fuch Chriftians as fell into her hands,
efpecially if they happened to be priefts or monks. To
thefe ffie now began to liften with fome attention ; and
ordered them, under fevere penalties, to be treated with
all poffible refpeCl; yet without lofing in the leaft that
invincible hatred fhe had conceived againft thofe who
had ftripped her of her dominions, or dropping her
refolution never to make peace till ftie had recovered
them.
The viceroy, Don Salvador Correa, who had driven T)nt ^ re.
out the Dutch, being apprifed of the regard ffiown tofiftsthe ar-
the clergy by Queen Zingha, thought proper to fend tifices of
fome Capuchins to her, in hopes that they might nowt5ie P01111*
find her more trafrable. But Zingha was ftill proof£l‘c^e*
againli.
A N G [ 357 ] . . A N
'Angola, agalnft tlieir utmoft art •, obfervlng, bowever, that if ply through motives of religion
G
43
Their infa¬
mous con-
dudt.
44
She returns
Chriftia-
nity.
4S
Treaty
with the
Portuguefe
propoi'ed.
they would confent to reftore what they had unjuftly
taken from het, Hie would not only return to the
Chriftian religion, but encourage it to the utmoft of
her powrer.
The viceroy, being now afraid that Zingha might
make an alliance againft him wTith the king of Congo,
firft raifed a powerful army, and then acquainted that
monarch, that, if he defigned to prevent the total ruin
of his dominions, he muft immediately make repara¬
tion for all the damage he had caufedtothe Portuguefe
by his alliance with the Dutch. The fame of the Por¬
tuguefe valour fo intimidated the king, that he fubmit-
ted to a treaty almoft on the viceroy’s own terms; and
as foon as this treaty was concluded, Don Ruy Pegado,
an old experienced officer, was defpatched to Zingha,
offering a firm and lafting alliance with her, provided
ihe renounced the Giaghan fe£l, and returned to the bo-
fom of the church. To this embaffy fire returned the
old anfwer, namely, that the Portuguefe themfelves had
been the occafion of all that had happened ; as they
had not only ftripped her of her hereditary dominions,
but dared to proclaim one of her vaffals king of An¬
gola ; but, provided thefe dominions were reftored, fire
would immediately embrace Chriftianity. /
All this time the furious Queen Zingha went on wuth
her ravages, notwuthrtanding the viceroy kept plying
her with letters for near three years. At laft he had
fecourfe to the artifice of taking advantage of the re-
morfe for her crimes with which Zingha was fometimes
affe&ed, in order to procure the peaceable enjoyment
of his own ill-gotten conquefts.
It is eafy to fee, that had this viceroy, or the priefts
he employed, really intended to convert Zingha to
Chriftianity, they ought to have fo far let her an ex¬
ample, as at leaft to abandon part of the countries of
which they had robbed her : but, inftead of this,, they
impioufly made ufe of the facred name of our Saviour,
in order to deter a poor favage African from recovering
what juftly belonged to her.
Queen Zingha, at laft, came to incline fo much to
return to the Chriftian religion, that a general mur¬
mur ran through her army. But having, by various
artifices, reconciled the minds of her fubjefts to this
event, Ihe explained her cfefign in a fet fpeech ; offer¬
ing at the fame time liberty to thofe wffio chofe to
abandon her on this account to go where they wmuld ;
and fuch was their attachment to her, that even on fuch
a hidden and important change ,in her refolutions they
expreffed no uneafinefs, but on the contrary applauded
her to the higheft degree.
The Portuguefe, after having been haraffed in a ter¬
rible manner for 28 years, and at laft obliged to pro¬
fane the name of their Saviour to procure a peace, be¬
gan now freely to enjoy the fruits of their villany. A
treaty wras let on foot between the viceroy and Zing¬
ha 5 wffiich, however, was not eafily concluded. She
demanded the releafe of her filler Cambi, whofe Chri¬
ftian name was Donna Barbara *, and the Portuguefe
demanded a ranfom of 200 Haves or an equivalent in
money. This Zingha did not well reliffi ; and, being
preffed to a compliance, threatened them with a more
furious wTar than any they had yet experienced. Upon
this the viceroy was obliged to have recourfe to the
ufiial method of fending priefts to perfuade her to com-
Thefe hypocrites ef- Angola.,
fecled their purpofe j and the llaves w’ere lent, as if'^^~v 1
Chriftianity required the delivering up innocent people
to thofe who had no lawful authority over them : but
not being able to conclude a lafting peace about the
ceflion of the Angolic provinces, they wrere forced to
conclude a ffiort truce, and fent back her lifter.
This princefs was received by Zingha in a very af¬
fectionate manner : and, fome time after, the queen,
her mind being probably weakened through the infir¬
mities of old age, not only was thoroughly reconciled
to the Portuguefe, but looked upon them as her belt
friends. She encouraged the Chriftian religion 5 had
a church built in her capital j made feveral laws againft
Paganifm 3 and, io encourage marriage, ihe herfelf wed¬
ded a handfome young fellow in the 75th year of her
age.
The Portuguefe now imagining they would at laft
gain their point, propofed to her the following terms,
as the balls of a lafting treaty between the two nations.
1. “ That they fhould yield to her, as a prefent, fome The For.,
of the countries of which they had already robbed her. tuguefc
2. That, in confideration of the faid prefent, whichterms*
fhould in noways be interpreted as an inveftiture, the
queen Ihould pay yearly a certain acknowledgement to
the king of Portugal, wffio Ihould be at liberty to with¬
draw the faid prefent whenever file failed of making
the faid acknowledgement. 3. That a free commerce
Ihould be opened between thofe two ftates, as wyell for
llaves as for other merchandifes. 4. That tiie queen
Ihould moleft none of the lords that were feudatory to
the Portuguefe, whatever damages or ravages they
might have committed during the late wars between
them. 5. That Ihe Ihould reftore all the Portuguefe
Haves that had taken refuge in her dominions. 6. That
Ihe Hiould deliver up the Giaga Colanda, wffio had re¬
volted from the Portuguefe, upon condition that his
crime Ihould go unpunilhed.”
The queen, having now a thorough view’of the deep-
rooted villany of thofe with whom Ihe had to do, con¬
ceived fuch difpleafure againft the Portuguefe, that Ihe
fell fick. During this ficknefs, Father Anthony, her
chief confidant, and a creature of the viceroy, never
left oft' foliciting her to make her peace with God, and
to accept of the terms offered her by the Portuguefe :
but Zingha, though worn out with age and ficknefs,
had ftill the good fenfe to perceive, that there w7as no
connexion between making her peace with God and
complying with fuch infamous terms; and therefore 47
gave the following anfwer, wffiich, under fuch circum-The queens
fiances, Hiows a magnanimity fcarce equalled in anync>blean-
age or in any country. 1. “ That as to her conver-fwer"
lion, as it was neither owing to any defire of obtaining
a peace, or other worldly motives, but the Divine
grace by wffiich Ihe was recalled, Hue was refolved to
perfevere in it to her laft breath. 2. That as to her
going over to the Giagan fe£l, Hie had in a great mea-
fure been forced to it by the Portuguefe viceroy.
3. That the king of Portugal would do a generous
adl in reftoring fome of her Angolic dominions; but
it would be more fo, were he to reftore them alft
4. That as to her paying homage to him, neither her
mind nor heart were bafe enough to confent to it; and
that as file had refufed the propofal while file lived
among the Giagas, much more did file think herfelf
abovs?
A N G
Angola.
.48
Articles of
the treaty.
^ 49
The peace
‘figned.
So
Zingha’s
honourable
behaviour.
above it now ftie was a Chriftian queen, and owed nei¬
ther tribute nor homage to any but to the Supreme
Power, from whom Ihe had received both her being
and her kingdom: That, neverthelefs, if die could be
convinced that there was any thing in her dominions
that would be acceptable to his Portuguefe majefty,
Hie would voluntarily make him a prefent of it; and as
to the reft of the articles, fuch was her defire of making
a firm and lafting peace with them, that die fliould
make no difficulty of confenting to them.”
_ This anfwer was not altogether fatisfa&ory to the
viceroy 5 but the prieft, finding it impoffihle to make
any impreffion upon her mind, eafily prevailed upon
him to confent to the following terms. 1. “ That
the river Lucalla ftiould be the boundary between the
dominions of the Portuguefe and of Queen Zingha.
2. That neither fide ftiould thenceforth give any re¬
ception to the fugitive flaves of the other, but fend
them back without any delay, together with the pri-
loners which had been taken during the'Iaft year.
3. That the queen ffiould remain wholly free and ex¬
empt from all tribute and homage whatever, provided
file agreed to the other articles.”
Thefe terms were at laft figned by the queen and
viceroy in the month of April 1657, and ratified by
the king of Portugal in the month of November the
lame year.—The only difficulty the queen had con¬
cerning this treaty was with regard to the Giaga Co-
landa : and the manner in which file extricated her-
felf from it, with her fubfequent behaviour, cannot fail
to give us an high idea of the mental abilities of this
African heroine.
This Giagan chief, weary of the Portuguefe yoke)
had retired from them, at the head of 1000 ftout fol-
diers, and a much greater number of flaves, fome
leagues beyond the river Lucalla, and put himfelf un-
dfer the queen’s protection. This file readily granted,
as he was very able to be ferviceable to her in cafe the
perfidious conduCt of the Portuguefe ffiould oblige her
to renew the war. She could not therefore but look
upon it as unjuft and dilhonourable, to deliver up a
brave chief who had devoted himfelf to her fervice, and
whom ffie had taken under her fpecial protection, to a
nation with whofe perfidy ffie was fo well acquainted.
To fave her honour, therefore, fome time before the
ratification of the treaty, ftie fent privately for the Gia¬
ga, and acquainted him with the demand of the Portu¬
guefe ; telling him, at the fame time, that though ffie
doubted not of the viceroy’s keeping his word, and
forgiving his offence, yet ffie advifed him to go out of
her dominions, and fettle himfelf and his men in fome
country diftant from the Portuguefe frontiers ; but for¬
bade him, on pain of her higheft difpleafure, to com¬
mit the leaft outrage or hoftility within their domi¬
nions.
The Giaga thanked her majefty, and feemed to ac-
quiefce with her advice, but did not follow it. On the
contrary, he had no fooner reached his fortrefs, than he
let himfelf about fortifying it in fuch a manner as look¬
ed rather like defiance than defence : and, having ga¬
thered a confiderable army, foon fpread a general ter¬
ror around him. Of this the Portuguefe failed not to
complain to the queen: who immediately marched
■Againft him, furpriled and defeated his army ; and he
35^ ] A N G •
himfelf being killed in the aClion, his head was cut oft* Angola,
and fent to the Portuguefe.
Phis was among the laft memorable aftions perform-.
ed by this famous queen j who, now finding herfelf un- kills^he^
fit for the fatigues of war, contented herfelf (in 1658) Giaga Co-
wdth detpatching an old experienced general againft a^anda*
neighbouring prince who had invaded her territories.
He proved no lefs fuccefsful than herfelf, and quickly ,z
forced the aggreffor to fubmit to her terms. She now Encourage*
gave herfelf up to ftudy the belt method of propagating diriftia-
Chriftianity among'her fubjeds ; and for this purpofe mtr'
fent a folemn embaffy to Rome, to pay homage to the
Pope in her name, and to requeft a freftr fupply of mif-
fionaries. To this letter ffie received an anfwer from
his Holinefs in 1662 j and it was read in the church,
that fame year, in the moft public and folemn manner.
The day appointed was the 15th of July; on which fhe
repaired to the church at the head of a numerous reti¬
nue, and having the letter hanging about her neck in
a purfe made of cloth of gold. The concourfe was fo
great, that the church could not contain one half of the
people, fo that none were admitted but perfons of rank.
The father having finilhed the mafs, read the latter at
the altar in the Portuguefe language; and the fecretary
interpreted it in that of the country. The queen, who
had flood all the while it w7as reading, went towards
the altar, and on her knees received it from the fa¬
ther ; and having killed it, and fworn afreih upon the
gofpel to continue in obedience to the church of Rome, 53
kiffed the letter again, put it into the purfe, and re- Ceremonies
turned to the palace amidft the fiiouts and acclamations at receiv-
of many thoufands of her fubjecls. On that day Ihe
gave a magnificent treat to the Portuguefe refident, and pope,
to all her court, in two great porticos, and Ihe herfelf
vouchfafed to eat after the European manner; that is,
fitting on a ftately elbow' chair, with a high table be¬
fore her, covered with the fineft linen, and with diffies,
plates, knives, and forks, all of filver gilt. She be¬
llowed fome largeffes upon her chief officers, releafed
a good number of flaves, and at night appeared at the
head of her ladies of honour, both fhe and they dreffed
in the Amazonian manner. They performed a kind of
combat, in which the queen, though upwards of eighty
years of age, behaved with all the vigour and a£fi-
vity of a women of thirty.
Her life, however, was not lengthened in proportion Zinjftia
to her vigour and adlivity : for in the month of Sep- dies,
tember ihe w>as feized with an inflammation in her
throat; wffiich, in December, having feized her breaft
and lungs, ffie expired on the 17th of that month, and
was fucceeded by her filler Barbara.
The deceafed queen was buried with extraordinary Succeeded
pomp ; and, out of regard to her, Barbara was inau- by her
gurated a fecond and third titne, with the greatefter ^arbara‘
pomp, and the moft joyful acclamations. She wras a
very zealous Chriftian, but wanted her filler’s abilities,
and had the misfortune of being in the decline of life,
lame, and almoll blind. Befides this, Ihe had been
married to a proud ill-natured huffiand, named Mona
Zingha ; who, though to her he owed all his fortune
and advancement, being himfelf no more than the fon
of a Have, ufed her with fuch cruelty, even in the late huf
queen’s life, that ihe was obliged to take refuge in the band Mona
palace, from whence he had the infolence immediately Zingha to
to hcr-
A N G
57
He accufes
Father An-
thony:
58
who re¬
primands
the queen
Angola, to fetch her. This fo exafperated Queen Zingha, that
—-v—-1 flie had well nigh ordered him to be cut in pieces be¬
fore her face ; but pardoned him at the requeft of Fa¬
ther Anthony, who probably knew he was privy to
fome religious fecrets which he might, in cafe of fuch
emergency, have difclofed. On Barbara’s acceflion to
the throne, however, he not only redoubled his cruelty
to her, in hopes of getting the management of affairs
entirely into his 'own hands, but invented accufations
againft Anthony himfelf, with a defign to extirpate
both him and his religion. He gave out that the late
queen had been poifoned by fome favourite European
difhes, with which Brother Ignatio ufed to regale her
during her laff illnefs y and attributed his wife’s lame-
nefs and blindnefs to fome forceries or charms ufed by
the convent againft her. He had even perfuaded, or
rather forced, his queen to confent that fome of the
finghillos or priefts ihould be brought to counter-charm
her diftemper.
Father Anthony, far from being intimidated at the
accufations brought againft him, repaired immediately
to the palace ; where he boldly reprimanded the queen
for giving ear to thefe jugglers, threatening at the fame
time to leave her dominions, and carry off with him all
the croffes, and other religious utenflls, from which
alone they could have any benefit. The queen return¬
ed a very fubmiflive anfwer •, and promifed to deliver up
the counter-charms which ihe at that time had upon
her, before funfet ; which fhe accordingly did, and fent
them to the convent by the hands of her fecretary. This
fo exafperated her hufband, and all the Giagan fefl:,
that they refolved upon the deftruttion of all the priefts
and Europeans, and even the queen herfelf. This,
however, was found improper to be attempted 5 and
Mona Zingha was fo much chagrined at his difappoint-
ment, that he retired to his own eftate *, giving out,
that he defigned to meddle no more with ftate affairs ;
but, in reality, to concert meafures for engrofling the
fovereignty to himfelf, and to deprive his wife of her
life and crown.
To accompli(h his purpofe, he fent a meffenger to
her, defiring her to repair to his houfe, where he had
fomething of importance to communicate ; but {he de¬
clining the invitation by the advice of Father Anthony,
he found himfelf difappointed, and begged leave to
retire to a neighbouring province, which was under
his government. He was again difappointed, and
forbid to ftir out of the province of Metamba. The
queen was, however, guilty of an error not long after,
in fending Mona Zingha, at the head of an army, to
quell a revolt on the fronties. On his returning vic¬
torious, he thought himfelf ftrong enough to revive the
ancient Giagan rites, and therefore ordered 100 flaves
to be facrificed to the manes of the deceafed queen.
Though the queen was immediately apprifed of his in¬
tention, and defpatched a meffenger exprefsly command¬
ing him to defift; yet Mona, by diftributing fome pre-
fents, particularly fome European wines, among the
counfellors, effedfed his purpofe with impunity. He did
not forget to fend fome of this wine to Father Anthony:
but to prevent fufpicion, prefented him only with a fmall
quantity, to be ufed, as he faid, at the mafs ; adding,
that if it proved agreeable, he would fupply him with
a larger quantity. The unfufpeaing prieft drank
about two glaffes of it; and in about a quarter of an
[ 359 1
A N G
„ 59 .
Mona Zin¬
gha revives
the Giagan
rites;
Angola.
60
anti poi-
fons Father
Anthony.
hour was feized with violent convulfions in his bowels,
and other fymptoms of being poifoned. By proper
afliftance, however, he recovered : yet fo far was he
difabled by this dole, that he was obliged to abandon
his miflion. ^
The queen’s infirmities in the mean time daily in- The queen
creafing, Mona Zingha was foon delivered from all fur- dies,
ther oppofition on her part, by her death, which hap¬
pened on the 24th of March 1666. Upon this, Mona
Zingha made all poflible hafte to get himfelf eledled
king ; and immediately renounced the Chriftian reli¬
gion, railing a perfecution at the fame time againft its
profeffors. He even wrote to the Portuguefe viceroy,
acquainting him with his having renounced Chriftianity,
which he had only embraced out of complaifance to his
queen, and with his defign to revive the Giagan rites. 62
To ftiow that he meant to be as good as his word, he Cruelties of
ordered all the children under fix years of age, that Mona zin"
could be found, to be facrificed in honour of their in-gha’
fernal deities. He alfo recalled the finghillos, and
heaped many favours upon them ; fo that they became
entirely devoted to his purpofes. He likewife caufed
many of his fubjefts to be privately poifoned ; and then
gave out, that their unaccountable deaths were owing to
their having abandoned the religion of their anceftors,
and embraced Chriftianity; which he ftyled the religion
of a parcel of familhed ftrangers, who through their ex¬
treme mifery, had been forced to leave their native
country, and feek for a livelihood in the richeft pro¬
vinces of Africa.
By thefe and fuch like ftratagems'he almoft entirely
extirpated Chriftianity, and any appearances of civili¬
zation which had been introduced among his fubjedls.
His career, however, was flopped by Don John the
princefs Barbara’s firft hulband, from whom {he had
been divorced on account of his having another wife.
He foon compelled the ufurper to fly into an iffand in
the Coanza ; but not having the precaution to reduce
him entirely, Mona Zingha found means to retrieve his
affairs, and at laft defeated and killed Don John him¬
felf, by which he became mafter of the throne without
any further oppofition. He was no fooner re-eftablifh-
ed, than he began to purfue his butcheries with more
fury than ever; when on a fudden, Don Francifco,
the fon of Don John, appeared at the head of an army 6
in oppofition to the ufurper ; and in the firft engage- He is de¬
ment Mona Zingha being defeated and killed, Don Seated and
Francifco became foie mafter of the empire. killed.
It is not known whether this prince kept to the
terms of the alliance made by Queen Zingha with the
Portuguefe or not. Thefe, however, have preferved
their conquefts, and for fome time they allowed the
natives to chooie a king for themfelves, or rather they 64-
chofe him for them, as we have already noticed. Thefe Low ftate
kings enjoyed only a mere ftiadow of royalty ; their of tJie kinS5
whole grandeur confifting in being allowed to breed by
peacocks, and adorn themfelves with their feathers, Lefe0^'
which wras forbidden to their fubje&s under pain of
perpetual flavery. The laft of thefe kings was named
Ngola Sedefio, who, diffiking an empty name of roy¬
alty, revolted from the Portuguefe, and carried on a
long war with them ; but being at laft defeated and
killed, his head was cut off, faked, and fent to Lilborx
in pickle. After this the Portuguefe feem not to have
thought it fafe to truft their Angolic fubjedts even with
the
Angola,
Angon.
. 65
Divifion
into pro¬
vinces.
66
Rivers.
A N G [ 360 ] A N G
the name of a king of their own, but have vefted the
power entirely in their viceroy; but as to the extent of
his dominions, and how matters ftand between him and
that race of Angolic princes who have prelerved their
liberty, we are entirely in the dark.
When in its greateft fplendour, the kingdom of An¬
gola contained the 17 following provinces: Cheffama,
Sumbi, Benguela, Rimba, Sietta, High and Low Bem-
bea, Temba, Oacco, Cabezzo, Lubolo, Loanda, Ben-
go, Danda, Mofiche, Higher and Lower Ilamba,
Oraij, and Embacca. The provinces conquered by
the Portuguefe during the wrars above mentioned w^ere,
Danda, Mofiche, Bengo, the Higher and Lower Ilam¬
ba, Oraij, Embacca, Benguela, Sietta, Cabezzo, Lu¬
bolo, and Oacco.
The principal rivers are thofe already mentioned,
viz. the Danda and Coanza. The Coanza is large,
deep, and rapid. It empties itfelf into the Atlantic
ocean about latitude 90 20' fouth, twelve leagues fouth
of Loando the capital of the kingdom. It is navigable
for 150 miles, and abounds wuth variety of fifh. It
forms feveral iflands, has fome catara&s, and one in
particular wdiich bears its name. As for its fource,
and the length of ground it crofles from eaft to w^eft
before it comes to the Portuguefe fettlement, it is ab-
folutely unknown, as well as the countries through
which it runs. Its mouth, w7hich runs between the
capes Palmerino and Lego, is above a league wide ;
the northern flrore is the deepeft, and along which the
veffels fail. The fall of this river into the ocean is fo
rapid, that the fea appears quite muddy for two or
three leagues below it. Its mouth is not eafily per¬
ceived from the open fea, by reafon of an ifiand quite
covered with high trees which lies juft before it. The
twro principal iflands formed by this river are called
Majfander and Motchiamia. The one is fix leagues
long, and about twro miles broad : it is very fertile in
maize, millet, and fome other grains, which are reaped
at three different fealons of the year. It produces like-
wife vaft quantities of manhioc, a root, of wrhich they
make a coarfe kind of meal, which ferves inftead of
bread. Here alfo grow great numbers of palm and
other fruit trees of various kinds. The ifland of Mot¬
chiamia is four or five miles long, and one in breadth,
moftly plain, and producing variety of roots and herbs.
It likewife abounds in cattle ; and there were formerly
five or fix Portuguefe families fettled upon it, urho
drove a confiderable trade in thefe commodities, and
likewife in flaves.
Concerning the river Danda wre know little or no¬
thing : only, that though its mouth is not above 70 or
80 miles diftant from that of the Coanza, yet their di*
ftance growrs fo confiderably wider as you penetrate
further into the inlands, as to be much above twice if
not thrice that fpace ; though how much, is not exact¬
ly know'n.
The manners, religion, and drefs, Sec. of the inha¬
bitants, are much the fame w'ith the Congoefe. See
Congo.
Angola or Pigeon pea. See Cytisus, Bo¬
tany Index.
ANGON, in the Ancient Military Art, a kind of
javelin ufed by the French. They darted it at a con¬
fiderable diftance. The iron head of this weapon re-
fembled a fleur-de-luce. It is the opinion of fume
waiters, that the arms of France are not flenrs-de-luce, Angef
but the iron point of the angon or javelin of the an- II
cient French. , •^nRoy‘
ANGOR, among Ancient Phyjicians, a concentra¬
tion of the natural heat: the confequcnee of which is
a pain of the head, palpitation, and fadnefs.
ANGOT, a province or kingdom of Abyflinia, for¬
merly rich and fertile, but almoft ruined by the Gallas,
a wandering nation in the internal parts of Africa,
who difpoffeffed the Abyfimian monarchs of all that
was worth poffefling.
ANGOULESME, a city of France, the capital of
the former duchy of Angoumois, now the department
of Charente, and the fee of a biflhop. It is feated on
the top of a hill, furrounded with rocks, at the foot of
which runs the river Charente. The inhabitants are
faid to be about 8000, and have a confiderable trade
in paper, which they manufa&ure. E. Long. o. 10.
Lat. 45. 39.
ANGOUMOIS, formerly a province of France,
now a diftrift, bounded on the north by Poitou, on
the eaft by Limofin and Marche, on the fouth by Pe-
rigord, and on the weft by Saintonge. Through this
province run the rivers Touvre and Charente. This
laft is full of excellent fifh ; and though it often over¬
flows its banks, it is fo far from doing any damage,
that it greatly enriches the foil. The Touvre is full
of trouts. The air is generally warmer than at Paris,
though the country is hilly. The foil produces plenty
of wheat, rye, oats, Spanifh corn, faffron, grapes, and
all forts of fruits. Here are feveral iron mines, which
yield a very good fort of iron.
ANGOURA, Angora, or Angori, a city of A-
fia, in Anatolia, formerly called Ancyra, and ftill full
of remarkable antiquities, which are fo many marks of
its ancient magnificence. It is at prefent one of the
beft cities in Anatolia ; its ftreets are full of pillars
and old marbles, among which are fome of porphyry
and jafper. The greateft part of the pillars are fmooth
and cylindrical ; fome are channelled fpirally ; but
the moft lingular are oval, with plate bands before
and behind from the top to the bottom of the pedeftal.
The houfes are now made of clay, which is fometimes
intermixed with fine pieces of marble. The walls of
the city are low, with very mean battlements. The
mafonry of the walls is intermixed with pillars, archi¬
traves, capitals, and other ancient fragments, efpecial-
ly that of the towers and gates. The caftle of Ango¬
ra has a triple enclofure ; and the walls are of large
pieces of white marble, and a ftone much like por-
phyry. ,
The balha of Angora has about 30 purfes income;
and there are here about 300 janizaries, under the
command of a fardar. The Turks are faid to be 43,000,
the Armenians 4000 or 5000, and the Greeks 600.
The Armenians have feven churches, befides a mona-
ftery, and the Greeks two. They breed the fineft
goats in the world ; and their hair, which is of a daz¬
zling white, is almoft as fine as filk, and nine inches in
length : it is worked into very fine fluffs, particularly
camblet. All the inhabitants are employed in this ma-
nufaflure. Several large caravans pafs through this
city to different places. E. Long. 32. 5. N. Lat. 39.
30. See/NCYRA
ANGOY, a kingdom of Loango in Africa, bound¬
ed
An gey.
A N G [ 3S1 ] A N G
ed on the north by Cacongo, and on the fouth by Con¬
go ; from the former of which it is feparated by the
river Cabinda, and from the latter by the river Zaire.
It is but of fmall extent $ being only a valTal province
of Cacongo, till the mani or prince, who had married
a Portuguefe’s daughter, was pertuaded by his father-
in-law to make himielf independent. This he effected
at- a favourable juncture, the king of Loango having
but juft before revolted from the king of Congo, and
the king of Cacongo from the new king of Loango.
The country is full of woods and thickets j and has no
towns of any note, except one called Bomangoy, litu-
ated on the north banks of the Zaire, and not far from
its mouth. Its chief port is Cabinda, called alfo Ka-
benda, or Cubenda, fituated on the mouth of a river of
the fame name about five leagues north of Cape Pal-
merino, on the north fide of the Zaire’s mouth. The
bay is very commodious for trade, or wooding and wa¬
tering along the Ihore. It is flat and marfihy in fome
places j but afeends gradually about three miles-inland,
and then forms itfelf into a ridge of hills. On the afeent
of thefe is fituated a towm belonging to the father-in-
law of the king above mentioned, -where he conftantly
kept a flock of wood ready cut, to fell to foreign {hips
at an eafy rate. From thefe wood piles, fouth-weft
along the bay, lie fcattered a number of fifhermen’s
huts, on each fide a fmall freih water river which falls
into the bay ; and thence all the water for fhips is
brought in calks to the mouth of the river, which is fo
{hallow, that even at full flood it can only be entered
by a yawl carrying a calk or two. The town ftands
on the round point of the bay looking to the weft-
ward ; and the Englith have a fa&ory on the fouth-weft
of the road.
The country round the bay is moftly barren owing
chiefly to the lazinefs of the inhabitants, which often
occafions a fcarcity of provifions. The wild beafts
fwarm fo in the woods, that they deftroy all the tame
kinds fo there are no cattle bred here but hogs. From
the woods in this country fome monkeys have been
brought away, which in ftiape and ftature refembled the
human fpecies. Civet cats abound here in great plenty,
and parrots may be bought for three or four ordinary
knives. The coafts abound fo with oyft^-s, that the
Tailors quickly load their boats with them ; they being
found lying in great heaps like fmall rocks. The na¬
tives follow the occupation of fiihing more than any
other. They filh both on the fea and in the rivers,
making ufe of drag nets, which have long canes fixed
at equal diftances, inftead of corks, to Ihow when any
fifli is caught. Thefe nets are made of a peculiar kind
of root, which, after being beaten, may be fpun like
hemp. *
The drefs of the inhabitants is the fame with that of
the Congoefe. They allow polygamy, and the beft be¬
loved wife hath the command of the reft ; but is no lefs
liable to be turned out, if fire proves unfaithful. The
ladies of the blood-royal have the privilege of choofing
their hufbands out of any, even the meaneft rank ; and
have even the power of life and death over them *, as
likewife over their paramours, if any cf them are caught
tripping : but the hufbands are by- no means entitled to
expeft the fame fidelity from their royal ladies. Wo¬
men of the lower rank are obliged, when they receive
a ftranger, to admit him for a night or two into their
• Vol. II. Part I.
embraces. This obliged the miflionaries, who travel¬
led through this country, to give notice of their ap¬
proach to any of their houfes, that none of the female
fex might enter within their doors.—Their religion
confifts chiefly in a variety of fuperftitious cuftoms j
fuch as powdering their public and domeftic idols with
the duft of a kind of red wood, on the firfl: day of the
moon, and paying a kind of worftup to that planet.
If, on that night, it happens to ftiine clear and bright,
they cry out, “ Thus may I renew my life as thou
doft but if the air is cloudy, they imagine the moon
hath loft her virtue, and pay her no refpefr. We do
not hear of their offering any facrifices to their idols ;
though they commonly confult them about the fuccefs
of their enterprifes, thefts, or fuch like. The king of
Congo ftill ftyles himfelf fovereign of Angoy ; but the
king of this little ftate pays neither tribute nor homage
to any foreign pow-er.
ANGRA, a city of Tercera one of the Azores ; the
capital, hot only of that ifland, but of all the reft,
and the refidence of the governor. It is feated on the
fouth fide, near the middle of the longeft diameter of
the ifland, on the edge of the fea. The harbour is
the only tolerable one in the whole ifland, being equal¬
ly fecured againft ftorms and the efforts of an ene¬
my. It is of the form of a crefcent j the extremities
of wfliich are defended by two high rocks, that run fo
far into the fea as to render the entrance narrowy and
eafily covered by the batteries on each fide. From
this harbour the town is faid to derive its name, the
word Angra fignifying a creek, bay, or ftation for {hip¬
ping ; and this is the only convenient one among all the
Azores. The opening of the port is from the eaft to
the, fouth-weft ; and, according to Frezier, it is not
above four cables length in breadth, and not two of
good bottom. Here (hips may ride in great fafety du¬
ring the fummer ; but as foon as the -winter begins, the
ftorms are fo furious, that the only fafety for {hipping
is the putting to fea with all poflible expedition. Hap¬
pily, however, thefe ftorms are preceded by infallible
figns, with which experience has made the inhabitants
perfectly well acquainted. On thefe occafions the Pico,
a high mountain in another of the Azores, is overcaft
with thick clouds, and grows exceedingly dark ; but
what they look upon as the moft certain fign is the
fluttering and chirping of flocks of birds round the city
for fome days before the ftorm begins.
The town is well built and populous, is the fee of a
biihop, under the jurifdiflion of the archbilhop of Lif-
bon. It hath five parifhes, a cathedral, four monafteries,
as many nunneries, befides an inquifltion and bifliop’s
court, which extends its jurifdiftion over all the A-
zores, Flores, and Corvo. It is furrounded by a good
wall, a dry ditch of great depth and breadth, and de¬
fended by a ftrong caftle rendered famous bv the im-
prifonment of King Alphonfo by his brother Peter in
1668. Though moft of the public and private build¬
ings have a good appearance externally, they are but
indifferently furniftred within ; but for this poverty the
Portuguefe excufe themfelves, by faying, that too much
furniture would prove inconvenient in fo warm a cli¬
mate.
‘At Angra are kept the royal magazines for anchors,
cables, fails, and other ftores for the royal navy, or oc-
cafionally fqr merchantmen in great, diitrefs. All ma-
Z z ritime
A N G
[ 3<5
Angrivam ritime affairs are under the inrpe£tion of an officer call-
11. ed Defembergrador, who hath fubordinate officers and
. pilots for condubling ihips into the harbour, or to pro¬
per watering places. The Englifh, French, and Dutch,
have each a conful reliding here, though the commerce
of any of thefe nations with the Azores is very incon-
liderable.
ANGRIVARII, (Tacitus) j a people of Germany,
fftuated between the Wefer and the Ems, and e aft ward
reaching beyond the Wefer, as far as the Cherufci, on
which fide they raifed a rampart (Tacitus) j to the
fouth, having the Tubantes on the Ems, and on the
Wefer where it bends to the foreft Bacemis ^ to the
weft, the Ems and the confines of the Brufleri j and
to the north, the territory of the Angrivarii lay be¬
tween the Chamavi and Anfibarii. Ptolemy places
them between the Cauchi and Suevi or Catti. Sup-
pofed now to contain a part of the county of Schaum¬
burg, the half of the biftiopric or principality of Min-
den to the fouth, the greateft part of the biftiopric of
Ofnaburg, the north part of the country of Teclenburg,
and a part of the county of Raveniberg. A trace of
the name of the people ftill remains in the appellation
Energn, a fmall town in the county of Ravenfberg.
ANGUILLA, one of the Weft India or Carribbee
iflands, lying in about 1 j° N. Lat. It has its name
from its fnake-like form ; and is about ten leagues in
length and three in breadth. It was firft difcovered by
the Engliftr in 1650, when it was filled with alligators
and other noxious animals ; but they, finding the foil
fruitful, and proper for railing tobacco and corn, fettled
a colony on it, and imported live cattle, which have
fince multiplied exceedingly. But the colony not being
fettled under any public encouragement, each planter
laboured for himfelf, and the iftand became a prey to
every rapacious invader, which dilheartened the inhabi¬
tants fo much, that all induftry was loft among them.
Their chief fufferings were from a party of wild Irifh,
who landed here after the Revolution, and treated them
worfe than any of the French pirates who had attacked
them before. The people of Barbadoes, and other En-
gliih Caribbees, knowing the value of the foil, feveral
of them removed to Anguilla, where they remained for
many years, and even carried on a profitable trade,
though without any government either civil or eccle-
fiaftical. In 1745, their militia, though not exceeding
100 men, defended a breaftwork againft 1000 French
who came to attack them} and at laft obliged them to
retire with the lofs of 150 men, befides carrying off
fume of their arms and colours as trophies of their vic¬
tory. Since that time the inhabitants have fubfifted
mottly by farming} though they ftill plant fugar, and
the iftand is faid to be capable of great improvements.
ANGUILLIFORM, an appellation given by zoo-
logifts, not only to the different, fpecies of eels, but to
other animals refembling them in (hape.
ANGU1NA. See Tricosahthes.
ANGUINUIVLovum, a fabulous kind of egg, faid
to be produced by the faliva of a clufter of ierpents,
and pofieffed of certain magical virtues. The fuper-
ftition in refpeft to thefe was very prevalent among the
ancient Britons, and there ftill remains a ftrong tradi-
, tion of it in Wales. The account Pliny * gives of it
is as follows : “ Praeterea eft ovorum genus in magna
3.
“ Gailiarum iama, onuffum G racers.
Angues innume-
] A N H
“ ri seftate convoluti, falivis faucium corporumque fpu- Angyinum
“ mis artifici complexu glomerantur ; anguinum appel- II
“ latur. Druidae libilis id dicunt in lublime jadlari, , ,
“ fagoque oportere intercipi, ne tellurem attingat ?
“ profugere raptorem equo : ferpentes enim infequi,
“ donee arceantur amnis alicujus interventu.”—Of
which the following may ferve as a tranllation : (from
Mqfon's CaraRacus i the perfon fpeaking, a Druid.)
But tell me yet
From the grot of charms and fpells,
Where our matron filler dwells,
Brennus, has thy holy hand
Safely brought the Druid wand,
And the potent Adder-Jlone,
Gender’d ’fore th’ autumnal moon ?
When, in undulatinp1 twine,
I he foaming Inakes prolific join ;
When they hifs, and when they bear
Their wond’rous egg aloof in air :
Thence before to earth it fall,
The Druid in his hallow’d palf
Receives the prize,
And inftant flies,
Follow’d by th’ envenom’d brood,
’Till he crofs the cryftal flood.
This wondrous egg feems to be nothing more than
a bead of glafs, ufed by the Druids as a charm to ifu- *
pole on the vulgar, whom they taught to believe, that
the poiTeffor would be fortunate in all his attempts, and
that it would gain him the favour of the great.
Our modern Druidefles (fays Mr Pennant, from
whom we extrafl) give much the fame account of the
ovum anguinum, glain naidr, as the Wellh call it, or
the adder gem, as the Roman philofopher does •, but
feem not to have fo exalted an opinion of its powers,
ufmg it only to aflift children in cutting their teeth, or
to cure the chincough, or to drive away an ague.
Thefe beads are of a very rich blue colour ; fome
plain, others ftreaked. For their figure, fee Plate
XXXVI. fig. 22. N° I, 2, 3.
ANGUIS, or Snake, in "Zoology, a genus belong¬
ing to the order of amphibia ferpentes. See Ophio-
logy Index.
ANGURIA, the water melon. See Botany
Index.
ANGUS, a diftrift of the county of Forfar in
Scotland. It was an earldom belonging to the Dou-
glaffes, now extinfl.
ANGUSTICLAVIA, in Roman Antiquity, a tu¬
nica embroidered with little purple ftuds. It was worn
by the Roman knights, as the laticlavia was by the
fenators.
ANHALT, a principality of Germany, in the cir¬
cle of Upper Saxony, is a long narrow trafl, lituated
for the moft part betwixt the rivers Elbe and Saal,
about 90 miles in length from eaft to weft, but of un¬
equal breadth, the greateft being on the eaft fide,
which is but 35 miles. The houfe of Anhalt, from
whence the eleflors of Saxony and Brandenburg are
faid to derive their original, is a very ancient and ho¬
nourable family. The beft genealogifts deduce their
origin from Berenthobaldus, who made war upon the
Thuringi».ns in the fixth century : it has produced ma¬
ny princes who make a great figure in the German hi-
I
A N I [ 363 1 AN!
Anlielatio ftory. Joachim Erneft, who died in 1586, left five
.11 fons, who divided the principality among them. All
'Anjengo. having children, and being of equal authority,
they unanimouily agreed to fubmit to the eldeft of the
family, who has the fupreme government, which is
Anhalt Dejfau. The others are, Anhalt Bernburg,
Anhalt Schaumburg, Anhalt Coethen, and Anhalt Tlerbjl.
The Saxons acknowledge that the inhabitants of thefe
little independent fovereignties live in the land of milk
and honey. Thefe petty princes pofiefs lands fufficient
for their expences, the revenues being reckoned about
half a million of dollars. The tax on lands is four
per cent, which, rating them at 20 years purchafe, is
not quite one (hilling in the pound. Upon an emer¬
gency the fubjedls are able to raile half a million ex¬
traordinary. The towns in thefe little Hates are not
fo numerous in proportion to the extent of country as
In Saxony, but better peopled. It is bounded on the
fouth by the county of Mansfield, on the wreft by the
duchy of Halberlladt, on the eaft by the duchy of
Saxony, and on the north by the duchy of Magde¬
burg. It abounds in corn, and is watered by the Sadie
and Mulda j its principal trade is in beer.
ANHELATIO, or Anhelitus, among Bhyfi-
Aans, a fhortnefs of breath.
ANHINGA. See Ornithology Index.
ANHOLT, an ifiand of Denmark, in North Jut¬
land, lying in the Categat, eight miles from the coall
of Jutland, ten from Seeland, and feven from Halland.
It is dangerous for feamen, for which reafon there is a
lighthoufe.
ANIAN, the name of a (trait formerly fuppofed
to lie between the north-eaft of Alia and the north-weft
of America •, but now found to exift only in imagination.
Anian is alfi* the name of a barren fandy defert ly¬
ing on the eaft coaft of Africa. It is fo exceflively hot
and otherwife inhofpitable, that it contains but very
1 few inhabitants, except fome wandering Arabs who live
in camps.
ANIELLO, or Massaniello. 'See Hiftory of
Naples.
AN fENGO, a fmall town and factory, with a fort,
on the coaft of Malabar, in the peninfula on this fide
the Ganges, belonging to the Eaft India Company.
The fort is fmall, but neat and ftrong *, it is a fquare
■with four baftions, having eight guns mounted on each,
carrying a ball of 18 pounds. Two of thefe baftions
face the fea, the other two the country. Befides thefe,
there is a line of 18 or 20 guns pointing towards the
fea, of 18 and 24 pounders. About a piftol (hot from
the back of the fort runs a river, which, befides being
a fecurity to the factory, adds much to the agreeable
(ituation of the place. This river has its fource in fome
diftant mountains •, and, defcending in a courfe from
the north and eaft, it afterwards turns in feveral plea-
fing meanders fo far to the weft as to wafh the bottom
of our fa&ory’s garden, and at laft winding to the
fouth, it empties itfelf into the fea. Several beautiful
fmall illands too, which are walked by its current, di-
\rerlify the fcenery, and greatly heighten the beauty
of the profpeft. This fettlement fupplies our Eaft In¬
dia Company with pepper ; and its fituation is alfo very
convenient for giving proper intelligence to our (hips
touching here from Europe, or from any part of India.
E. Long. 76. i. N. Lat. 7. o.
ANIL, in Botany, a fynonyme of a fpecies of indi- Anil
gofera. See Indigofera, Botany/Wea;. ^ P ^
An ima, among (Ihemijls, denotes the volatile orfpi- !‘n‘
rituous parts of bodies,
AN1MA, among Divines and Naturaljls, denotes
the foul, or principle of life, in animals. See Soul.
Anima Hepatis, is a name by wdiich fome call fal
martis, or fait of iron, on account of its (uppofed ef¬
ficacy in difeafes of the liver.
Anima Mundi, a certain pure ethereal fubftance or
fpint, diffufed, according to many of the ancient phi-
lofophers, through the mafs of the world, informing,
actuating, and uniting the divers parts thereof into
one great, perfefr, organical, and vital body or ani¬
mal. Plato treats at large of the -^vyjA tv xetrftv, in
his Dimceus ; and is even luppofed to be the author of
the dogma ; yet are interpreters much at a lofs about
his meaning. Ariftotle, however, taking it in the
common and obvious fenfe, ftrenuoufly oppofes it. The
modern Platonifts explain their mafter’s anima mundi
by a certain univerfal ethereal fpirit, which in the hea¬
vens exifts perfeftly pure, as retaining its proper na¬
ture $ but on earth pervading elementary bodies, and
intimately mixing with all the minute atoms thereof, it
aflumes fomewhat of their nature, and becomes of a pe¬
culiar kind.—So the poet:
Spiritus intus alit, totofque infufa per artus
Mens agitat mclem, et magno fe corpora mifcet.
They add, that this anima mundi, which more imme ¬
diately refides in the celeftial regions as its proper feat,
moves and governs the heavens in fuch a manner, as
that the heavens themfelves firft received their exift-
ence from the fecundity of the fame fpirit: for that
this anima, being the primary fource of life, every¬
where breathed a fpirit like itfelf, by virtue whereof
various kinds of things were framed conformable to
the divine ideas.
Anima Saturni, a white pow'der obtained by pour¬
ing diltilled vinegar on litharge, of confiderable ufe in
enamelling. See Enamel.
ANIMADVERSION, in matters of literature, is
ufed to fignify, fometimes corredlion, fometimes re¬
marks upon a book, &c. and fometimes a ferious con-
fideration upon any point.
ANIMAL, in Natural Hi/lory, an organized and
living body, which is alfo endowed with (enfation :
thus, minerals are faid to grow or increafe, plants
to grow and live, but animals alone to have fenfa-
tion.
It is this property of fenfation alone that can be
deemed the elfential charadlerirtic of an animal; and
by which the animal and vegetable kingdoms feem to
be fo effentially feparated, that we cannot even ima¬
gine the lead approximation of the one to the other.
Thofe naturalifts, indeed, wfoo have fuppofed the di-
ftindlion between animals and vegetables to confift in
any thing elfe than what wTe have already mentioned,
have found themfelves greatly embarraffed ; and have
generally agreed, that it was extremely difficult, if not
impofiible, to fettle the boundaries between the animal
and vegetable kingdoms. But this difficulty will be
eafily feen to arife from their taking the charafleriftic
marks of the animal kingdom, from fomething that
was evidently common to both. Thus Bcerhaave at-
Z z 2 tempted
A N I
[ 364 ] A N I
Animal, tempted to diftinguilh an animal from a vegetable, by
 * the former having a mouth, which the latter has not :
but here, as the mouth of an animal is only the inftru-
ment by which nourilhment is conveyed to its body, it
is evident that this can be no effential diftimflion, be-
caufe vegetables alfo require nourifhment, and have in-
ftruments proper for conveying it into their bodies j
and where the end is the fame, a difference in the means
can never be eifential. The fixing the difference in an
animal’s having a gula, ftomach, and inteflines, as is
done by Dr Tyfon, is as little to the purpofe.
The power of moving from one place to another,
hath by many been thought to conllitute their differ¬
ence j and indeed, in moil cafes, it is the obvious mark
by which we diftinguifh an animal from a vegetable :
but Lord Karnes hath given feveral very curious in-
flances of the locomotive power of plants ; fome of
which, as he fays, would do honour to an animal.—
“ Upon the flighted: touch, the fenfitive plant fhrinks
back and folds up its leaves, fimilar to a fnail ; which
on the flighted: touch retires within its diell. A new
fpecies of the fenfitive plant hath been lately difcover-
ed. See Dion^ea. If a fly perch upon one of its
flower leaves, it clofes inilantly, and crufhes the infeft
to death. 1'here is not an article in botany more ad¬
mirable than a contrivance, vifible in many plants, to
take advantage of good weather, and to proteft them-
felves againfl bad. They open and clofe their flowers
and leaves in different circumflances; fome clofe be¬
fore funfet, fome after: fome open to receive rain,
fome clofe to avoid it. The petals of many flowers
expand in the fun j but contraft at night, or on the
approach of rain. After the feeds are fecundated, the
petals no longer contradl. All the trefoils may ferve
as a barometer to the hufbandman j they always
contract their leaves on an impending dorm. Some
plants follow the fun, others turn from it. Many plants,
on the fun’s recefs, vary the pofition of their leaves,
A fpecies which is dyled the Jleep of plants. A Angular plant *
of the He- was lately difcovered in Bengal. Its leaves are in
dyfarum. continual motion all day long •, but when night ap¬
proaches, they fall down from an ere£t podure to red.'
“ A plant has a power of diredding its roots for pro¬
curing food. The red whortleberry, a low evergreen
plant, grows naturally on the tops of our highed hills,
among dones and gravel. This flirub was planted in
an edging to a rich border, under a fruit wall. In two
or three years, it overran the adjoining deep laid gra¬
vel walk : and feemed to fly from the border, in which
not a Angle runner appeared. An eflbrt to come at
food in a bad Atuation, is extremely remarkable in the
following indance : Among the ruins of Newabbey,
formerly a qjonaftery in Galloway, there grows on the
top of a wall a plane tree about 20 feet high. Strait¬
ened for nourifliment in that barren Atuation, it ieve-
ral years ago dire&ed roots down the flde of the wall,
till they reached the ground ten feet below j and now
. the nourifhment it afforded to thofe roots during the
time of their defcendlng is amply repaid, having every
year flnee that time made vigorous flioots. From the
top of the wall to the furface of the earth, thefe roots
have not thrown out a Angle flbre ; but are now united
in a Angle root.
“ Plants, when forced from their natural pofltion,
are endowed with a power to reflore tbemfelves. A
hop plant, twiding round a dick, direUs its courfe Animal,
from fouth to wed, as the fun does. Untwid it, and v—
tie it in the oppoAte direction : it dies. Leave it loofe
in the wrong direction : it recovers its natural direc¬
tion in a Angle night. Twid a branch of a tree fo as
to invert its leaves, and Ax it in that poAtion : if left
in any degree loofe, it untwids itfelf gradually, till the
leaves be redored to their natural poAtion. What bet¬
ter can an animal do for its welfare ? A root of a tree
meeting with a ditch in its progrefs, is laid open to the
air. What follows ? It alters its courfe like a rational
being, dips into the ground, furrounds the ditch, riles
on the oppoAte Ade to its wonted didance from the fur-
face, and then proceeds in its original direftion. Lay
a w et fponge near a root laid open to the air y the root
vdll direCb its courfe to the fponge. Change the place
of the fponge j the root varies its direftion. Thrud a
pole into the ground at a moderate didance from a
fcandent plant: the plant direcls its courfe to the pole,
lays hold of it, and riles on it to its natural height. A
honeyfuckle proceeds in its courfe, till it be too long
for fupporting its weight} and then drengthens itfelf
by Oiooting into a fpiral. If it meet with another plant
of the fame kind, they coalefce for mutual fupport j the
one ferewing to the right, the other to the left. If a
honeyfuckle twig meets with a dead branch, it ferews
from the right to the left. The clafpers of briony dioot
into a fpiral, and lay hold of w hatever comes in their,
w ay for fupport. If, after completing a fpiral of three
rounds, they meet with nothing, they try again by al¬
tering their courfe.” 
By comparing thefe and other indances of feeming
voluntary motion in plants, with that diare of life
wherewith fome of the inferior kinds of animals are
endowed, we can fcarce heAtate at vferibing the fu-
periority to the former ; that is, putting fen fat ion out
of the quedion. Mufcles, for indance, are Axed to
one place as much as plants are 5 nor have they any
power of motion, beAdes that of opening and (hutting
their diells : and in this refpeft they have no fuperio-
rity over the motion of the fenAtive plant; nor doth
their a£lion dilcover more lagacity, or even lb much,
as the roots of the plane tree mentioned by Lord
Kames.
Mr Buffon, who feems to be deArous of confound¬
ing the animal and vegetable kingdoms, denies lenfa-
tion to be any effential didindfion. “ Senfation (fays
he) more effentially didinguiihes animals from vege¬
tables : but fenfation is a complex idea, and requires-
fome explication. For if fenfation implied no more
than motion confequent upon a droke or an impulfe,
the fenAtive plant enjoys this pow7er. But if, by fen-
fation, we mean the faculty of perceiving and compar¬
ing ideas, it is uncertain whether brute animals are
endowed with it. If it fhould be allowed to dogs,
elephants, &c. whofe aUions feem to proceed from
motives Amilar to thofe by which men are aftilated, it
mud be denied to many fpecies of animals, particularly
to thofe which appear not to poffefs the faculty of pre-
gredive motion. If the fenfation of an oyder, for ex¬
ample, didered only in degree from that of a dog ;
why do we not aferibe the lame fenfation to vegetables,
though in a degree dill inferior ? This didinclion,
therefore, between the animal and vegetable, is nei¬
ther fufficiently general nor determined.
“ From.
A N I f 365 ] AN!
tl From this jnveftigation we are led to conclude,
that there is no abfolute and efiential diftinction be¬
tween the animal and vegetable kingdoms ; but that
nature proceeds, by imperceptible degrees, from the
moft perfect to the moft imperfedl animal, and from
that to the vegetables; and the frefli water polypus may
be regarded as the lad of animals and the firit of plants.”
It were to be wilhed, that philofophers would on
fome occalions confider, that a fubjedf may be dark as
well on account of their inability to fee, as when it
really affords no light. Our author boldly concludes,
that there is no effential difference between a plant
and an animal, becaufe we afcribe fenfation to an oy-
fler, and none to the fenlitive plant 5 but we ought to
remember, that though we cannot perceive a dillinc-
tion, it may neverthelefs exift. Before Mr Buffon,
therefore, had concluded in this manner, he ought to
have proved that fome vegetable's were endowed with
fenfation.
It is no doubt, however, as much incumbent on
thofe who take the contrary fide of the queftion, to
prove that vegetables are not endowed with fenfation,
as it was incumbent on Mr Buffon to have proved that
they are. But a little attention will fliowr us, that the
difficulty here proceeds entirely from our inability to
lee the principle of fenfation. We perceive this prin¬
ciple in ourfelves, but no man can perceive it in ano¬
ther. Why then does every individual of mankind
conclude that his neighbour has the fame fenfations
with himfelf ? It can only be from analogy. Every
man perceives his neighbour formed in a manner fimi-
lar to himfelf j he adts in a limilar manner on fimilar
occalions, &c. Juft fo it is with brute animals. It
is no more doubtful that they have fenfations, than
that we have them ourfelves. If a man is wounded
with a knife, for inftance, he expreffes a fenfe of pain,
and endeavours to avoid a repetition of the injury.
Wound a dog in the fame manner, he will alfo ex-
prefs a fenfe of pain •, and, if you offer to ftrike him
again, rvill endeavour to efcape, before he feels the
ftroke. To conclude here, that the adtion of the dog
proceeded from a principle different from that of the
man, would be abfurd and unphilofophical to the laft
degree.
We muft further take notice, that there are fenfa¬
tions effentially diftinft from one another; and in
proportion as an animal is endowed with more or few¬
er of thefe difterent fenfes, it is more or lefs perfedl
as an animal : but, as long as one of them remains, it
makes not the leaft approach to the vegetable king¬
dom ; and, when they are all taken away, is fo far
from becoming a vegetable, that it is only a mafs
of dead matter. The lenfes of a perfedt animal, for
inftance, are five in number. Take away one of them,
fuppofe fight; he becomes then a lefs. perfedt animal,
but is as unlike a vegetable as before. Suppofe him
next deprived of hearing : his refemblance to a vege¬
table would be as little as before ; becaufe a vegeta¬
ble can neither feel, tafte, nor fmell, and we fuppofe
him ftill to enjoy thefe three fenfes. Let us, laftly,
fuppofe him endowed only with the fenfe of feeling,
which, however, feems to include that of tafte, and
he is no more a vegetable than formerly, but only an
imperfedt animal. If this fenfe is then taken away,
we connedl him not with the vegetable kingdom, but
with what Mr Buffon calls brute matter. It is to this Animal,
kingdom, and not to the vegetable, that animals ■“
plainly approximate as they defeend. Indeed, to fup¬
pofe an approximation between the vegetable and ani¬
mal kingdoms, is very abfurd : for, at that rate, the
moft imperfedt animal ought to be the moft perfect
plant; but wTe ©bferve no fuch thing. All animals,,
from the higheft to the loweft, are pofleffed of vegeta¬
ble life 5 and that, as far as wre can perceive, in an
equal degree, whether the animal life is perfedt or im¬
perfedt : nor doth there feem to be the fmalleft con¬
nexion between the higheft degree of vegetation and
the loweft degree of fenfation. Though all animals,
therefore, are poffeffed of vegetable life, thefe two
feem to be as perfedtly diftindt and incommenfurate to
one another as any two things we can poffibly imagine.
The power of vegetation, for inftance, is as perfedt;
in an onion or leek, as in a dog, an elephant, or a
man : and yet, though you threaten a leek or an onion
ever fo much, it pays no regard to your words, as a
dog would do ; nor, though you wound it, does it
avoid a fecond ftroke. It is this principle of felf-pre-
fervation in all animals, which, being the moft power¬
ful one in their nature, is generally taken, and with
very good reafon, as the true charadteriftic of animal
life. This principle is undoubtedly a confequence of
fenfation ; and as it is never obferved to take place in
vegetables, we have a right to fay that the foundation
of it, namely fenfation, belongs not to them. There
is no animal, which makes any motion in confequence
of external impulfe wffiere danger is threatened, but
what puts itfelf in a pofture of defence ; but no vege¬
table whatever does fo. A mufcle, wdten it is touch¬
ed, immediately fliuts its ftiell; and as this action puts
it in a ftate of defence, wre conclude that it proceeded
from the principle of fclf-prefervation. When the fen-
fitive plant contradls from a touch, it is no more in a
ftate of defence than before ; for whatever would have
deftroyed it in its expanded ftate, will alfo do it in its
contradfed ftate. We conclude, therefore, that the
motion of the fenfitive plant proceeds only from a cer¬
tain property called by phyficians irritability; and
which, though our bodies poffefs it in an eminent degree,
is a charadferiftic neither of animal nor vegetable life,
but belongs to us in common wdth brute matter. It
is certain, that an eledtrified filk thread ffiow’S a much
greater variety of motions than any fenfitive plant. If
a bit of filk thread is dropt on an eledtrified metal
plate, it immediately eredts itfelf j fpreads out the
fmall fibres like arms 5 and, if not detained, will fly
off. If a finger is brought near it, the thread feems
greedily to catch at it. If a candle approaches, it
clafps clofe to the plate, as if afraid of it.—Why do
wTe not conclude that the thread in this cafe is really
afraid of the candle ? For this plain reafon, That its
feeming flight is not to get away from the candle, but
to get towards the eledirified metal; and, if allowed
to remain there, will fuffer itfelf to be burnt without of¬
fering to ftir.—The fenfitive plant, in like manner, af¬
ter it has contradfed, will fuffer itfelf to be cut in pieces,,
without making the leaft effort to efcape. The cafe is
not fo with the meaneft animal. A hedgehog, when
alarmed, draw's its body together, and expands its
prickles, thereby putting itfelf in a pofture of defence.
Throw it into water t and the fame principle of felf-
prefervation
Animal.
A N I
preferyatiofl prompts it to expand its body and*fwim
^ A fnail, when touched, withdraws itfelf into its ftieil j
but if a little quicklime is Iprinkled upon it, fo that its
ihell is no longer a place of fafety, it is thrown into
agonies, and endeavours to avail itlelf of its locomo¬
tive power in order to eicape the danger. In mufcles
and oyfters, indeed, we cannot obferve this principle
of felf-prefervation fo ftrongly, as nature has deprived
them of the power of ptogreffive motion : but, as we
obferve them conftantly to ufe the means which nature
has given them for felf-prefervation, we can have no
reafon to think that they are deftitute of that principle
upon which it is founded.
But there is no need of arguments drawn from the
inferior creation. We ourfelves arc po.ffeffed both of
the animal and vegetable life, and certainly muft know
whether there is any connexion between vegetation
and lenfation, or not.—We are confcious that we exift 5
that we hear, fee, &c. : but of our vegetation we are
abfolutely unconicious. We feel a pleafure, for in-
ftance, in gratifying the calls of hunger and third 5
but of the procefs by which our aliment is formed into
chyle, the chyle mixed with the blood, the circula¬
tion of that fluid, and the feparation of all the humours
from it, we are altogether ignorant. If we then, who
are more perfeft than other vegetables, are utterly
infenflble of our own vegetable life, why fhould we
imagine that the lefs perfect vegetables are fenfible
of it ?
To illuftrate our reafoning here by an example.—
The direction of the roots of the plane tree mentioned
by Lord Kames, Ihows as much fagacity, if we are to
look only to the outward adtion, as can be obferved in
any motion of the molt perfe£t animal whatever 5 ne-
verthelefs, we have not the lead fufpicion, either that
the tree faw the ground at a didance, or that it was
informed of its being there by the red of its roots. If
a wound is made in the body of a man, and a lofs of
fubdance is to be repaired, the fame fagacity will be
obferved in the arrangement of the fibres, not only as
if they were animated, but they will difpofe of them-
felves feemingly with a degree of wifdom far fuperior
to what we have any idea of; yet this is done without
rmr having the lead knowledge either how it is done,
or of its being done at all. We have therefore in our¬
felves a demondration, that vegetable life a£ls without
knowdng what it does : and if vegetables are ignorant
of their mod fagacious ablions, why Ihould wTe fufpeft
that they have a fenfation, let it be ever fo obfcure,
of any of their inferior ones, fuch as contrafting from
ft touch, turning towards the fun, or advancing to meet
a pole ?
Thus we may eafily give Mr Buffon a reafon why
we afcribe fenfation to an oyder, and none to a vege¬
table ; namely, becaufe wre perceive the vegetable do
nothing but wdtat is alfo performed in our own bodies,
without our having the lead fenfation of it •, wTereas
an oyder puts itfelf in a defenlive podure on the ap¬
proach of danger ; and this being an aftion fimilar to
our own upon a like occafion, we conclude that it
proceeds from the fame principle of fenfation. Here
it may alfo be obierved, that though the inferior ani¬
mals are deficient in the number, they are by no means
fo in the acutenefs of their fenfations; on the contra-
*v, though a mufcle or an oyder is probably endowed
[ 366 1
A N I
with no other fenfe than that of feeling, yet this fenfe
is fo exquifite, that it will contradl upon the llighted
touch, fuch as we wmuld be altogether infeniible oi.
As to that powrer of contractility, or irritability,
which is obferved in fome plants •, our folids have it,
when deprived both of vegetable and animal life : for
a mufcle, cut out of a living body, will continue to
contrad, if it is irritated by pricking it, after it has
neither lenfation nor vegetation.
A very good moral reafon may alfo be adduced why
we do not believe vegetables to be endowed with fen¬
fation.—Had they been fo, we mud fuppofe them to
differ pain when they are cut or dedroyed •, and, if fo,
wrhat an unhappy date mud they be in, who have not
the lead power to avoid the injuries daily offered them ?
In faCf, the goodnefs of the Deity is very confpicuous
in not giving to vegetables the fame fenfations as to
animals j and, as he hath given them no means of de¬
fence, though we had not been told it by himfelf, we
might have known that he gave them for food to ani¬
mals ; and, in this cafe, to have endowed them with
fenlation wrould have been a piece of cruelty. Though
animals without number prey upon one another, yet
all of them have fome means of defence) from whence
we may juftly conclude, that their mutual deftruCtion
was not an original appointment of the Creator, but
wTat he forefaw wTould happen in a courfe of time, and
which he therefore gave every one of them fome means
of guarding againd. It may no doubt be here ob-
jefted, that the giving fome means of felf-defence to
every animal cannot be reckoned a fufficient proof that
it w7as not the original dedgn of the Creator that they
fhould be dedroyed, feeing thefe means are not ahvays
effectual for their prefervation.—This objection, how'-
ever, cannot be completely obviated without a folution
of the quellion concerning the origin of evil among
the wrorks of a perfectly good Being. But whatever
difficulty there may be in folving this quedion, it is
certain, that, as fome means of felf-defence is given to
every animal, it has been the original defign of the
Creator, that in all cafes one fpecies of animals fhould
not be dedroyed at the pleafure of any other fpecies j
and as no means of felf-defence is given to any vege¬
table, it is plain that they have been dedined for a
prey to every fpecies of animals that had accefs to them..
Philofophers have infided much on the neceffity of one
animal’s devouring another, that there might be room
fufficient for all 5 but this, fo far from being a fydem
worthy of the divine wifdom, feems to us to be a re-
fledion upon it, as if the Author of nature could not
have found means to preferve the life of one part of his
creatures, without the dedruCtion and mifery of the red.
The facred writings leave us at no lofs to fee how this
carnivorous difpofition came inj and, in the next world,
this piece of perfeClion (as the fanguinary philofo¬
phers above mentioned would have it to be) feems to
be left out; for there, it is faid, “They lhall not hurt
nor dedroy ; the lion diall eat draw like the ox, and
there {hall be no more pain.”
When fpeaking of the food of plants, we took occa¬
fion to mention a certain power, totally different from
that of attraction or repulfion, by which the food of
a plant, after it was attracted, or otherwife brought to
it, was affimilated to its fubdance. This power which
we there didinguilh by the name of tranfmutauon, be¬
longs
Animal.
A N I [ 3^7 ] AN!
Animal, longs In h more eminent degree to animals. The ali-
Flower mentai7 Jubilance is changed into two kinds of matter.
' (i-) An excrementitious one, which paffes off through
the inteftines; and (2.) A fluid, which is the direft
pabulum of the animal. Different fubftances, how¬
ever, are not equally changeable by this procefs. The
human ftomach is not capable of acting upon any ani¬
mal fubftance till it has loft its vital principle: the
Itomachs of fome animals cannot adt upon creatures of
their own fpecies : fome have an apparatus for grind¬
ing their food after it is fwallowed, &c. and there are
no animals but what are fubjedl to death by taking
certain fubftances into their ftomach. Some fubftances
alfo, though they refift the action of the ftomach, and
pafs unchanged into the fyftem, produce no bad ef¬
fects. Thus, madder will turn the bones of animals
red j rhubarb will communicate its purgative nature to
the milk, and its deep yellow colour to the urine.—All
thefe changes, however, feem to belong to the vegeta¬
tive part of our fyftem : for as every one of them are
performed without our knowledge of the manner howrj
and not only fo, but while we are abfolutely unccn-
fcious of their being done; we can have no reafon to
fuppofe, that the animal life, properly fo called, is at
all connedled with them, any farther than as they are
at prefent the means of preferving the creature alive,
and making the connexion betwixt the principle of
life and this vifible creation.
The defcription and claffing of animals make a con-
fiderable part of Natural Hiftory, known by the name
of Zoology.
Animal, ufed adjedlively, denotes any thing belong¬
ing to, or partaking of, the nature of animals. Thus,
animal adlions, thofe that are peculiar to animals; fuch
are fenfation and mufcular motion.
AxiMAL-Flower, in Zoology, a name given to fe-
veral fpecies of animals belonging to the genus of
Actinia of Linnaeus. They have likewife been di¬
ll inguilhed by the names of Urlica Marina, or Sea-
nettle, from their fuppofed property of Hinging ; and
Sea-anemone, from their claws or tentacles being dif-
pofed in regular circles, and tinged with a variety
of bright lively colours, refembling the petals of fome
of our mod beautiful flowers. As to one fpecies par¬
ticularly, mentioned by Abbe Dicqueroarre, (Phil.
Tranf. for 1773, art. 37.) the pureft white, carmine,
and ultramarine, are faid to be fcarce fufficient to
exprefs their brilliancy. The bodies of fome of them
are hemifpherical, of others cylindrical, and of others
ftiaped like a fig. Their fubftance likewife differs ;
iome are ftiff and gelatinous, others fleftiy and mufcu-
iar; but all of them are capable of altering their fi¬
gure when they extend their bodies and claws in fearch
of food. They are found in many of the rocky coalls
of the Weft India iftands, and likewife on fome parts
of the coaft of England.
They have only one opening, which is in the centre
of the uppermoft part of the animal ; round this are
placed rows of fleftiy claws ; this opening is the mouth
of the animal, and is capable of great extenfion. The
animals themfelves, though exceedingly voracious, will
bear long fading. They may be preferved alive a
whole year, or perhaps longer, in a veilel of fca-water,
without any vifible food ; but, when food is prefented,
one of them will fucceflively de vour two mufclts in their
{hells, or even fwallow a whole crab as large as a hen’s Animal-
egg. In a day or two the crab-fhell is voided at the Dower,
mouth, perfecfly cleared of all the meat. The mufcle
fhells are likewife difcharged whole, with the two ftiells
joined together, but entirely empty, fo that not the
leaft particle of fifti is to be perceived on opening them.
An anemone of one fpecies will even fwallow an indi¬
vidual of another fpecies ; but after retaining it ten or
twelve hours, will throw it up alive and uninjured.
Through this opening alfo it produces its young ones
alive, already furnifhed with little claws, which, as foon
as they fix themfelves, they begin to extend in fearch
of food.
One of the extremities of the fea-anemone refembles,
as we have faid, the outward leaves-of that flower ;
while its limbs are not unlike the ftiag or inner part of
it. By the other extremity it fixes itfelf, as by a fucker,
to the rocks or ftones lying in the fand ; but it is not
totally deprived of the power of progreflive motion, as
it can fhift its fituation, though very {lowly.
A particular fpecies of animal-flowers has been found
in fome of the iftands ceded to Britain at the laft treaty
of peace with France ; and the following account of
them was publiihed in the Philofophical Tranfa<51ionsv
vol. 57. by Mr Ellis, in a letter to Lord Hilliborough.
“ This compound animal, which is of a tender flelhv
fubftance, confifts of many tubular bodies {welling
gently towards the upper part, and ending like a bulb
or very fmall onion: on the top of each is its mouth*
furrounded by one or two rows of tentacles, or claws,
which wThen contrafted look like circles of beads.
“ The lower part of all thefe bodies has a com¬
munication with a firm fleftiy wrinkled tube, which
flicks fall: to the rocks, and fends forth other fleftiv
tubes, which-creep along them in various direftions.
Thefe are full of different fizes of thefe remarkable
animals, which rife up irregularly in groups near to
one another.
“ This adhering tube, that fecures them faft: to the
rock, or ftielly bottom, is worthy of our notice. The
knobs that we obferve, are formed in feveral parts of
it by its infinuating itfelf into the inequalities of the
coral rock, or by grafping pieces of {hells, part of
which ftill remain in it, with the fleftiy fubftance grown
over them.
“ This ftiows us the inftinft of nature, that directs
thefe animals to preferve themfelves from the violence
of the waves, not unlike the anchoring of mufcles, by
their fine filken filaments that end in fuckers; or ra¬
ther like the ftielly bafis of the ferpula, or worm {hell,
the tree oyfter, and the flipper barnacle, &c. whofe ba¬
les conform to the ftiape of whatever fubftance they
fix themfelves to, grafping it faft with their tertaceous
claws, to withftand the fury of a ftorm.
“ When we view the infide of this animal diffecled
lengthwife, we find like a little tube leading from the
mouth to the ftomach, from whence there rife eight
wrinkled fmall guts, in a circular order, with a yel-
lowifti loft {ubftance in them; thefe bend over in the
form of arches towards the lower part of the bulb,,
from whence they may be traced downwards, to the
narrow part of the upright tube, till they come to the
fiefliy adhering tube, where fome of them may be per¬
ceived entering into a papilla, or the beginning of an
animal of the like kind, moft probably to convey it
nourifliment
Animal-
Flower.
ANT [ 368
nouridiment till it is provided with claws j the re¬
maining part of thefe (lender guts is continued on in
the flelhy tube, without doubt, for the fame purpofe of
producing and fupporting more young ones from the
fame common parent.
“ 1 he many longitudinal fibres that we difcover
lying parallel to each other, on the infide of the femi-
tranfparent (kin are all inferted in the feveral claws
round the animal’s mouth, and are plainly the tendons
of the mufcles for moving and dire&ing the claws
at the will of the animal 5 thefe may be likewife traced
down to the adhering tube.
“ As this fpecimen has been preferved in fpirits, the
colour of the animal, when living, cannot be certainly
known ; it is at prefent of a pale yellowilh brown.
“ With regard to its name, it may be call AEliriia
fociata, or the Clujler Ammal-flovcerA
The Abbe Dicquemarre, by many curious, though
cruel, experiments related in the Phil. Tranf. for 1773,
has (liown that thefe animals polfefs, in a mod extra-
brdinary degree, the power of reprodudtion \ fo that
fcarce any thing more is neceflary to produce as many
fea anemonies as -we pleafe, than to cut a (ingle one in¬
to as many pieces. A fea anemone being cut in two
by a fedion through the body, that part, where the
limbs and mouth are placed, ate a piece of a mufcle
offered to it foon after the operation, and continued to
feed and grow daily for three months after. The food
fometimes paffed through the animal; but was gene¬
rally thrown up again, confiderably changed, as in the
perfed fea anemone. In about two months, two rows
of limbs were perceived growing out of the part wdiere
the incifion was made. On offering food to this new
mouth, it wras laid hold of and eaten ; and the limbs
continually increafing, the animal gradually became as
perfed as thofe which had never been cut. In fome
inftances, however, he found, that, wdien one of thefe
creatures was cut through, new' limbs would be produ¬
ced from the cut place, thofe at the mouth remaining
as before ) fo that a monftrous animal was the confe-
quence, having twro mouths, and feeding at both
ends. Having put fome of them into a pan of water,
let over a flow' fire, he found that they loft their life
at 50 degrees of Reaumur’s thermometer. To avoid
the imputation of cruelty in thefe experiments, the
author argues the favourable confequences that have
attended his operations on the fea anemonies w'hich
have been fo fortunate as to fall into his hands 5 as he
hath not only multiplied their exiftence, but alfo re¬
newed their youth; w'hich laft, he adds, “ is furely
no fmall advantage.”
In Hughes’s Natural Hiftory of Barbadoes, an ac¬
count is alfo given of feveral fpecies of animal flowers.
1 hey are there defcribed as only found in a bafon in
one particular cave 5 and of the moft remarkable fpecies
mentioned by him we have the following defcription.
“ In the middle of the bafon, there is a fixed done,
or rock, which is always under water. Round its
fides, at different depths, feldom exceeding 18 inches,
are feen, at all times of the,year, iffuing out of little
holes, certain fubftances that have the appearance of
fine radiated flowers, of a pale yellow, or a bright
draw colour, (lightly tinged with green, having a cir¬
cular border ot thicktet petals, about the fize of, and
much reiembling, thofe of a Angle garden marigold,
] ANT
except that the whole of this feeming flower is narrow’-
er at the difcus, or fetting on of the leaves, than any
flower of that kind.
“ I have attempted to pluck one of thefe from the
rock, to which they are always fixed; but never could
effecft it: for as foon as my fingers came within twm or
three inches of it, it would immediately contrail dole
together its yellow border, and (brink back info the
hole of the rock; but if left undifturbed for about four
minutes, it would come gradually in fight, expanding,
though at firft very cautioufly, its feeming leaves, till
at laft it appeared in its former bloom. However, it
would again recoil, with a furprifing quicknefs when
my hand came within fmall diftance of it. Having
tried the fame experiment by attempting to touch it
with my cane, and a fmall (lender rod, the effesft w'as
the fame.
“ Though I could not by any means contrive to
take or pluck from the rock one of thefe animals en¬
tire 5 yet I once cut oft' (with a knife which I had held
for a long time out of fight, near the mouth of a hole
out of which one of thefe animals appeared) two of
•thefe feeming leaves. Thefe, when out of the water,
retained their drape and colour ; but, being compofed
of a membrane-like fubftance, furprifingly thin, it foon
(hrivelled up, and decayed.”
The reproduftive power of the Barbadoes animal-
flower is prodigious. Many people coming to fee
thefe ftrange creatures, and occafioning fome inconve¬
nience to a perfon through wTofe grounds they were
obliged to pafs, he refolved to deftroy the obje£ls of
their curiofity j and, that he might do fo effeclually,
caufed all the holes out of which they appeared, to be
carefully bored and drilled wuth an iron inftrument, fo
that wTe cannot fuppefe but their bodies muft have been
entirely crufhed to a pulp : neverthelefs, they again ap¬
peared in a few weeks from the very fame places.
Plate XXXIV. fig. 1. reprefents the afrinia fociata,
or cluftered animal-flower, defcribed by Mr Ellis, with
its radical tube adhering to a rock : (a) One of the ani¬
mals ((retching out its claws. Fig. 2. A perpendicular
diffecftion of one of the bodies, to (how the gullet, in-
teftines, ftomach, and fibres or tendons that move the
claws : (a) A young one arifing out of the adhering
tube. Fig. 3. The aftinia after, or animal flower of the
newly ceded iflands. Fig. 4. The aftinia anemone, or
fea anemone from the fame place. Fig. 5. The under
part of the fame by which it adheres to the rocks. Fig. 6.
The adlinia helianthus, or the fea fun-flower from ditto.
Fig. 7. the under part of the fame. Fig. 8. The ac¬
tinia dianthus, or fea carnation, from the rocks at
Haftings in Suffex. This animal adheres by its tail, or
fucker, to the under part of the projefting rocks op-
pofite to the towm ; and, when the tide is out, has the
appearance of a long white fig ; this is the form of it
when put into a glafs of fea wrater. It is introduced
here as a new variety of this animal not yet defcribed.
Animal Food. See Food.
Animal Oeconomy. This fubjeft is explained under
Anatomy.
Animal Magnetifm. See Magnetism.
Animal Spirit. See Knurovs Fluid.
Animal Syjlem denotes the whole clafs of beings
endowed wftth animal life, otherwife called Animal
Kingdom,
Animal-
Flower
If
Animal
Syftein.
Animals,
V X ] M A X
Hate XXX IV.
v^C'Va///. /,;•//.
^ V'.
rs/ ■ 4-
\
4
A N I
[ 369 ]
A N I
Animals
.11
Animal¬
cule.
Common
acceptation
of the word.
Different
fizes of ani-
tflalcules.
. 3
JIair-like
infect.
* Plate
XXXV.
fig. I.
4
Its extreme
fmallnefs,
&.C.
Delights in
fociety.
t Fig. 2-
Akim At r, the preparation of, for colleSlions or mufemns.
See Quadrupeds, Birds, Reptiles.
Pairing of Animals. See Pairing.
ANIMALCULE, in general, lignifies a little ani¬
mal and thus the term might be applied to every ani¬
mal which is conhderably inferior in iize to ourfelves.
It hath been cuftomary, however, to diftinguiih by the
name of animalcules only fuch animals as are of a lize fo
diminutive, that their true figure cannot be difcerned
without the afiiftance of glaffes j and more efpecially it
is applied to fuch as are altogether invifible to the nak¬
ed eye, and cannot even be perceived to exifl: but by
the afliftance of microfcopes.
By the help of magnifying glaffes, we are brought
into a kind of new world *, and numberlefs animals are
difcovered, which from their minutenefs muff otherwife
for ever have efcaped our obfervation •, and how many
kinds of thefe invifibles there may be, is Hill unknown;
as they are difcerned of all fizes, from thofe which are
barely invifible to the naked eye, to fuch as refill the
aflion of the microfcope, as the fixed liars do that of
the telefcope, and with the bell magnifiers hitherto in¬
vented appear only as fo many moving points.
The fmallell living creatures our inllruments can
fiiow are thofe that inhabit the waters: for though pof-
fibly animalcules equally minute, or perhaps more fo,
may fly in the air, or creep upon the earth, it is fcarce
poflible to bring fuch under our examination ; but wa¬
ter being tranfparent, and confining the creatures in it,
we are able, by applying a drop of it to our glaffes, to
difcover, to a certain degree of fmallnefs, all that it
contains.—Some of the moll curious of thefe animal¬
cules, which have been defcribed by microfcopical ob-
fervers, we lhall here give an account of.
I. The Hair-like Infer}. This fo called by Mr Baker
on account of its lhape ; being extremely flender,
and frequently an hundred and fifty times as long as
broad. The body or middle part, which is nearly
flraight, appears, in fome, compofed of fuch rings as the
windpipe of land animals is made up of; but in others
feems rather fcaled, or made up of rings that obliquely
crofs one another. Its two ends are hooked or bent,
pretty nearly in the fame degree, but in a direflion op-
pofite to one another y and as no eyes can be difcern¬
ed, it is difficult to judge which is the head or tail. Its
progreflive* motion is very Angular, being performed
by turning upon one end as a centre, and defcribing al-
moft a quarter of a circle with the other, as reprefented
in the figure. Its motions are very flow, and require
much patience and attention in the obferver. Thefe
creatures are fo fmall, that millions of millions of them
might be contained in an inch fquare. When viewed
fingly, they are exceedingly tranfparent, and of a beau¬
tiful green colour ; but when numbers of them are
brought together, they become opaque, lofe their green
colour, and grow entirely black.
Notwithftanding the extreme minutenefs of thefe ani¬
malcules, they feem to be fond of fociety ; for, after
viewing for fome time a parcel of them taken up at
random, they will be feen difpofing themfelves in a kind
of regular order f. If a multitude of them are put into
a jar of water, tbev will form themfelves into a regular
body, and afcend flowly to the top, where after they
have remained for fome time expofed to the air, their
green colour changes to a beautiful fkv blue. When
Vol. II. Part L
they are weary of this fituation, they form themfelves Ahiir.al-
into a kind of rope, which flowly defcends as low as C1^e‘ ^
they intend ; but if they happen to be clofe to the fide '
of the jar, they will defcend upon it. They are fo
nearly of the fpecific gravity of water itfelf, that they
will either remain at the bottom, float on the furface,
or be fufpended in the middle, according as they are
originally placed, or as they themfelves have a mind.
A fmall quantity of the matter containing thefe ani¬
malcules f having been put into ajar of water, it fo hap- f Fig. 3.
pened, that one part went down immediately to the
bottom, whilft the other continued floating on the top.
When things had remained for fome time in this con¬
dition, each of thefe fwarms of animalcules began to
grow weary of its fituation, and had a mind to change
its quarters. Both armies, therefore, fet out at the fame
time, the one proceeding upwards, and the other down¬
wards ; fo that, after fome hours journey, they met in (-
the middle. A delire of knowing how they would be-seems pof-
have on this occafion, engaged the obferver to watch feffcd of a
them carefully; and to his furprife he law the army
that was marching upwards, open to the right and left,
to make room for thofe that were defcending. Thus, 1 "
without confufion or intermixture, each held on its
way : the army that was going up, marching in two
columns to the top, and the other proceeding in one
column to the bottom, as if each had been under the
diredlion of wife leaders.
The hair-like infeft was firll difcovered in a ditch at
Norwich, one end of which communicates with the ri¬
ver there, and the other end with a fecond ditch, into
which feveral kennels empty themfelves. The length of poun?[ ;tl
this ditch, when Mr Baker wrote his account of this prodigious
animalcule, rvas at leall 100 yards, and its breadth pine, quantity.
The bottom, for more than a foot thick, was covered
with a blackifh green fubftance, in appearance like mud,
made up for the moll part of thefe infe£ls; but, fuppof-
ing only a half or a quarter part of it to be compof¬
ed of them, according to the dimenfions we have given,
their numbers mull exceed all imagination.
2. Eels in pafe, &c. When palle is allotted to Hand
till it become four, it is then found to be the habita¬
tion of numberlefs animalcules, which may be difcern¬
ed by the naked eye; and though their form cannot be
perfe6lly diftinguilhed, their motion is very percept¬
ible, and the whole pafte will feem to be animated. s
Fig. 4. reprefents one of thefe anguillse magnified. Eels in paffe
The mod remarkable property of thefe infeeds is, that viviparous,
they are viviparous. If one of them is cut through near
the middle, feveral oval bodies of dift'erent fizes will be
feen to iffue forth. Thefe are young anguillae, each of
them coiled up and enclofed in its proper membrane,
which is fo exquifitely fine, as fcarce to be difcernible
by the greateft magnifier, while it enclofes the embryo
animal. The largefl and moll forward immediately
break through this covering, unfold themfelves, and
wriggle about in the water nimbly; others get out, un¬
coil, and move themfelves about more flowly ; and the
lead mature continue entirely without motion. The
uterus, or veffel that contains all thefe oval bodies, is
compofed of many ringlets, not unlike the afpera arte-
ria of land animals, and feems to be confiderably eladic ;
for as foon as the animalcule is cut in two, the oval
bodies are thrud out with fome degree of violence,
from the fpringing back or aflion of this hov el. An
3 A hundred
Animal¬
cule.
.9
Similar
creatures
found in
blighted
wheat.
A N I [ 37° ]
hundred and upwards of the young ones have been feen transformations
^to iflue from the body of one Angle eel, whereby the
prodigious increafe of them may be accounted for ; as
probably feveral fuch numerous generations are pro¬
duced in a fhort time.. They feem to be all prolific j
and unlefs trial happens to be made upon one that has
brought forth all its young, or when the pafte has been
kept for a very long time, the experiment will always
fucceed.—This property of thefe eels being viviparous
renders it highly improbable that they ever become
flies.
Animalcules of a fimilar kind are likewife found in
vinegar ; and, like thofe already defcribed, are found
to be viviparous. But it is not only in acid matters that
fuch appearances are obferved. In fome fields of v'heat,
many grains may be obferved, that appear blackiih out¬
wardly, as if fcorched •, but when opened are found to
contain a foft white fubftance, wdiich, attentively con¬
fide red, appears to be nothing elfe than a congeries of
threads or fibres lying clofe to each other in a parallel
direction, much refembling the unripe down of fome
thirties on cutting open the flower heads before they
begin to blow. This fibrous matter difcovers not the
leaft fign of life or motion, unlels water is applied ; but
immediately on wetting, provided the grains of wheat
have been newly gathered, the fuppofed fibres feparate,
and appear to be living creatures. Their motions at
firft are very languid ; but gradually become more vi¬
gorous, twilling and wriggling themfelves fomewhat in
the manner of the eels in pafte, but always flower than
they, and with a great deal lefs regularity.
If the grains of wTeat are grown dry by keeping,
and in that condition are cut open, the fibrous matter
is very diftinguilhable; and, on putting water to it, will
feparate with great readinefs, and feem like fine tubes
or threads tapering at both ends : but not the leaft mo¬
tion will be perceived till they have been in water for
feveral, hours, and fometimes they will never move at all.
But if the fame grains are fteeped in water for three or
four hours, or buried for fome days in the earth, till
they are fully faturated with moifture, and then open¬
ed with a penknife ; on taking out a fmall portion of
the white matter carefully, and fpreading it thin upon
a flip of glafs, the animalcules will be feen bundled
together, and extended longitudinally, but without mo¬
tion : and though, upon the application of water, they
will not revive fo foon as thofe taken from frefli grains,
whofe moifture has never been exhaled ; yet, after re¬
maining an hour or two in water, they are conftantly
found alive and vigorous, even though the grains have
p II^. been kept in a dry condition for feveral years. It is
necefiarv in necefl"ary> however, to adapt, in fome meafure, the
making "the time of continuing the grains in water or earth to the
A N I
10
How dif-
coverable.
expen
ment,
age and drynefs of them; for if they are not opened
before they are too much foftened, the animalcules will
be dead ; and unlefs the hulks are opened to let thofe
creatures out after they have been fteeped, they ine¬
vitably perilh in them : otherwife, they will continue
alive in water for many months •, and, Ihould the water
dry away, may be revived again by giving them a'frelh
u fupply.
Proteus, g. The Proteus. This animalcule has been dignified
whyib call-by ]y[r Baker with the name of Proteus, on account of
its afiuming a great number of dift'erent lhapes, fo as
fcarce to be known as the fame animal in its various
and indeed, unlefs it be carefully Animal-
watched while palling from one lhape to another, it will cule-
often become fuddenlyinvilible, as happened more than
once to Mr Baker.
When water, wherein any fort of vegetable has been "Where
infufed, or animals preferved, has flood quietly for found,
fome days, or weeks, in any glafs or other velfel, a
flimy fubftance will be collected about the fides: fome
of which being taken up with the point of a penknife,
placed on a flip of glafs in a drop of water, and looked
at through the microfcope, will be found to harbour
feveral kinds of little animals that are feldom found
fwimming about at large; among which the proteus is
one. Its lhape is better underftood from the figure, jts ^ ^
than from any defcription that could be given. Its coloui^&e,
fubftance and colour feems to referable that of a fnail;
and its whole lhape feems to bear a confiderable refem-
blance to that of a fwan. It fwims to and fro with
great vivacity : but will now and then flop for a minute
or two 5 during which time its long neck is ufually em¬
ployed as far as it can reach, forwards, and on every
fide, with a fomewhat flow, but equable motion, like
that of a fnake, frequently extending thrice the length,
of its body, and feemingly in fearch of food.
There are no eyes, nor any opening in the head like
a mouth, to be difcerned : but its actions plainly prove
it to be an animal that can fee \ for though multitudes
of difterent animalcules fwim about in the fame water,
and its own progi-eflive motion is very fwift, it never
ftrikes againft any of them, but dire<fts its courfe be¬
tween them with a dexterity wholly unaccountable,
Ihould wre fuppofe it deftitute of fight.
When the proteus is alarmed, it fuddenly draws in jts transfor¬
ms long neck, reprefented in fig. 5. and 6. transform-mations..
ing itfelf into the lhape reprefented in fig. 7. when it
becomes more opaque, and moves about very flowly
with the large end foremoft. When it has continued
fome time in this pofture, it will often, inftead of the
head and neck it had formerly, put forth a new one,
with a kind of wheel machinery, reprefented fig. 8.
the motions of which draw a current of water to it
from a confiderable diftance. Having often pulled in
and thruft out this ftiort head, fometimes with and
fometimes without the wheel work, the creature, as if
weary, will remain motionlefs for a while; then its.
head and long neck will be very flowly protruded, as
m fig. 9. and it foon relumes its former agility. Some¬
times it difpofes of its neck and head, as reprefer.ted in
fig. 10. -
4. The Wheel Animal, or Vortice/Ia. This wonder- Vorficella
ful animalcule is found in rain water that has flood where
fome days in leaden gutters, or in hollows of lead on foun<b
the tops of houfes *, or in the fiime or fediment left by
fuch water ; and perhaps may alfo be found in other
places: but if the water Handing in gutters of lead, or
the fediment left behind it, has any thing of a red co¬
lour in it, one may be almoft certain of finding them
therein. Though it diicovers no figns of life except
when in the water, yet it is capable of continuing alive
for many months after it is taken out of the water, and
kept in a ftate as dry as dull. In this Hate it is of a glo¬
bular lhape, exceeds not the bignefs of a grain of land,
and no figns of life appear : but being put into water,
in the fpace of half an hour a languid motion begins,
the globule turns itfelf about, lengthens itfelf by flow
degrees.
17 ,
Its wheel
work de-
icribed.
A N I [37
Animal- degrees, aflumes the form of a lively maggot, and moft
aile. commonly in a few minutes afterwards puts out its
'' wheels j fwimming vigoroufly through the water, as if
in fearch of food j or elfe, fixing itfelf by the tail,
wTork.s the wheels in fuch a manner as to bring its food
to it.
Fig. 23. and 24. fnow the wheel animal in its glo¬
bular form *, fig. 11. and 12. in its maggot ftate j and
fig. 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, and 22. fliow
the different appearances of its w'heels, and alfo its va¬
rious intermediate changes between the globular and
maggot ftate. .
The moft remarkable part of this animalcule is its
wheel work. This confifts of a couple of femicircular
inftruments, round the edges of w'hich many little
fibrillae move themfelves very brifkly, fometimes with
a kind of rotation, and fometimes in a trembling or vi¬
brating manner. When in this ftate, it fometimes un-
faftens its tail, and fwims along writh a great deal of
fwiftnefs, feemingly in purfuit of its prey. Sometimes
the wheels feem to be entire circles, armed with fmall
teeth, like thofe of the balance wheel of a watch, ap¬
pearing projected forwards beyond the head, and ex¬
tending fidewife fomev/hat wider than its diameter.
The teeth or cogs of thefe wheels feem to ftand very
regularly at equal diftances : but the figure of them
varies according to their pofition, the degree of their
protrufion, and perhaps the will of the animal itfelf.
They appear fometimes like minute oblong fquares, rif-
ing at right angles from the periphery of a circle, like
ancient battlements on a round tower ; at other times
they terminate in (harp points, and altogether referable
a kind of Gothic crown. They are often feen in a
kind of curvular direction, all bending the fame way,
and feeming like fo many hooks 5 and now and then
the ends of them wrill be perceived to be clubbed like
mallets. This figure, however, as wTell as the firft, they
aifume but rarely.
As thefe wheels are everywhere exceflively tranfpa-
rent, except about their circular rim or edge, where
the cogs are fet, it is very difficult to determine by
what contrivance they are turned about, or what their
real figure is, though they feem exaflly to referable
wheels moving round upon an axis. It is alfo hardly
pofhble to be Certain whether thofe circular bodies in
01 a real ro- which the teeth are fet, are of a fiat form, or hollow
tatlon‘ and conical; but they feem rather to be of a conical
figure. The difficulty of conceiving how an articula¬
tion could be contrived fo as to caufe a real rotation,
hath cauled many people imagine that there wTas a de¬
ception in this cafe : But Mr Baker allures us, that
when the wheels are fully protruded, they never fail to
fhowT all the vifible marks of a regular rotation ; and,
in fome pofitions, the fame cogs or teeth may be traced
by the eye during a complete revolution.
Showsgreat -^-11 the adlions of this creature feem to imply faga-
quicknefs ofc^y an£l quicknefs of fenfation. At the leaft touch or
feni'ation. motion in the wrater, they inftantly draw in their wheels;
and Mr Baker conje£ltires, that their eyes are lodged
fome where about the wheels ; beoaufe, while in the
maggot ftate, its motions are flow and blundering •, but
after the wheels are protruded, they are performed with
great regularity, fwiftnefs, and fteadinefs.
Notwithftanding the minutenefs of this animalcule,
the microfcope generally difcovers others in the fame
18
Shows all
the marks
i ] A N I
drop of water, compared with which the wheel animal Animal-
may be faid to be a whale. The trarffparency of its bo-
dy, therefore, allowrs its internal parts to be feen, which
cannot be perceived in the minutert animalcules, on ac¬
count of the fmallnefs of their fize. a, Is the appear-Fig. 15.
ance of the head j and though it is everywhere tranf- 20
parent, a ring or circle, more particularly remarkable Defcription
for its clearnefs, is commonly perceived about the mid-^a^a^Pl
die of the forehead, a little above the mouth. This,
Mr Baker thinks, might juftly be called the feat of the
brain. Many veffels which feem to take their origin
from thence are difcernible in the head, wherein fomc
tranfparent fluid appears continually agitated by a kind
of fluftuating motion.
The thorax, b, is joined to the head by a very fhort
neck, c, and appears to be about the fixth part of the
whole length of the animal. In the middle of the
thorax is placed the heart, r/, where its fyftole and dia-
ftole are plainly vifible. It is ieen through the back of
the infeft, fhutting and opening alternately with great
regularity and exaftnefs. Its fize is proportionable to
the creature’s bignefs ; and its ftiape, during the iyftoie,
is nearly circular, being compofed leemingly of tw o fe-
milunar parts, which then approach each other late¬
rally, and form between them a roundifti or horfe fhoe-
like figure, whofe upper fide is flat, and the under one
convex. The diaftole is performed by a feeming fe-
paration, or opening, of thefe two femilunar parts,
whereby the tranfverfe diameter of the heart is very
much enlarged. This feparation begins exaftly in the
middle of the lower part next the tail 5 and opens to
fuch a confiderable wfidth upwards, that the two parts,
when at their utmoft diftention, feem only joined by an
arched veffel at their anterior end. The alternate mo¬
tions of contraction and dilatation are performed with
great ftrength and vigour, in pretty much the fame
time as the pulfation of the arteries of a man in health.
The motions of the heart are communicated to all the
internal parts of the thorax, and leem to extend a great
deal further 5 for a ftrict examination difcovers, at the
fame time, throughout the whole animal, contractions
and dilatations going on, that are apparently cone-
fpondent thereto. Thefe motions of the heart, how¬
ever, are fometimes fufpended or imperceptible for
two or three minutes : after which they are renewed,
and go on again with the fame regularity as before.
From the under part of the thorax proceeds a fmall
tranfparent horn reprefented at a, fig. 11. and x 2. It
is never vifible but xvhen the animal turns on its back
or fide.
The blood or circulating fluid of the wheel animal is
fo abfolutely colourlefs, that the current of it through
the veflel is indiftinguifhable by glaffes. A fort of ir¬
regular agitation of fome fluid is indeed perceived,
which is perhaps a compound motion of currents run¬
ning different ways, and forming fuch an appearance,
though no Angle current is anywhere diftinftly vifible.
Immediately below the thorax is another annular di-
vifion, r, joining upwards to the thorax and down¬
wards to the abdomen, the entrance whereof it ferves
occafionally to enlarge or diminiih. The abdomen yj
is by much the largeft part of the animal, and contains
the ftomach and inteftines. When the infect is full of
food, thefe bowels appear opaque and of a blood-red
colour, extending quite through the belly and great
3 A 3 ' part
Aiiinjul-
cule.
A N 1 [ 37
part oi the tail, and exhibiting a variety of contradlions
1
A N I
animals.
22
Manner of
producing
th
^ and dilatations. The belly is capable of ftretching out
greatly in length, or being Ihortened very much, and
widening its diameter. It affumes many fliapes, and
becoines oecalionally a cale for all the other parts of
2i the body.
Other kinds Befides the above mentioned one, there are found in
'et the waters feveral other fpecies of animals furnilhed
with wheels, fome of which appear to have a rotatory,
and others a vibratory, motion. Fig. 2 5. reprefents a
kind found in the ditch at Norwich, where the hair-
like inleft is produced. They differ from the forego¬
ing only in having very long tails. Fig. 26, 27, and
28. reprefent a fpecies of wheel animals, wduch are alfo
covered with Ihells. The body of this fpecies confifts
of three parts, in like manner as the other j only the
thorax and abdomen, in this, are not feparated by any
gut, or intermediate veffcl, but are joined immediately
together. The heart is plainly perceived, having a re¬
gular fyllole and diaftole, at a, as in the former fpe¬
cies. Thefe creatures occalionally draw themfelves en¬
tirely within their fhells; and the {hell then appears
terminated by fix ihort fpikes on one fide and two on
the other.
7 he young ones of this fpecies are carried in oval fac-
culi, or integuments, fafiened externally on the lower
-'jUlTpartof their Ihells lomewhere about the tail; thefe fac-
culi are fometimes opaque only at one end, and feem-
ingly empty at the other ; fometimes they appear
opaque in the middle, with a tranfparency all round, as
in fig. 26. When the young one is about to burft its in¬
teguments, the parent affifts it greatly, by wagging its
tail, and finking the oval bag, fo that the young one’s
head becomes as it were forced into the wTater, though
Fig. 2S. i>. the tail cannot be fo foon difengaged. In this condi¬
tion the young one fets its wheel a-going, and exerts
all its endeavours to free itfelf from its confinement.
When it has got clear, it fwims away, wagging its tail
as the old one does, and leaving the integument adhe¬
ring to the fhell of the parent. The old one then ufes
a number of efforts to get rid of this incumbrance,
ftriking againll it with her tail, fixing the end of her
tail upon it, and then darting her body forward ; with
feveral very odd motions not eafy to be deferibed. This
kind of wheel animals are great tormentors of the w~a-
ter flea, Pulex aquaticus arborefeens of Swammerdam ;
of which a figure is given from that author (Plate
XXXVI.) ; fig. 2. Ihows the natural fize of the flea ;
and fig. 1. Ihows it magnified, wuth fome of the wheel
animals adhering to it. Thefe infects are often found
in great numbers in the fame w^ater: and w'hen that is
the cafe, it is not uncommon to difeover five or fix of
thefe crultaceous wheel animals fattened by their tail to
the fhell or horns of the flea •, caufing it, feemingly, a
vail deal of uneafinefs : nor can they be driven awray,
or lhaken off, by all the efforts the flea can ufe for
that purpofe.
5. The Bell-flower Animal, or Plumed Polype. Thefe
animalcules dw’ell in colonies together, from ten to fif¬
teen (feldom falling fhort of the former number, or
exceeding the latter), in a flimy kind of mucilaginous
or gelatinous cafe ; which, out of the water, has no de¬
termined form, appearing like a little lump of llime;
but, wdien expanded therein, has fome refemblance to
the figure of a bell with its mouth upwards j and is
T 23
Infeft the
Pulex A-
quaticus.
Bell-flower
animal.
ufually about half an inch long, and a quarter of an Animal-
inch in diameter. Thele bells, or colonies, are to be
found adhering to the large leaves of duckweed, and v' '"
other aquatic plants. They may be moll eafily difeo- wim; <<!if
yered by letting a quantity of water, with duckwTeed in covered.'
it, {land quietly for three or four hours in glals veflels
in a window, or other place whence a Itrong light
comes : for then, if any are about the duckweed, they
will be found, on careful infpeftion, extending them¬
felves out of their cafes, and making an elegant ap¬
pearance.
The bell, or cafe, which thefe animals inhabit, being
very tranfparent, all the motions of its inhabitants may
be difeerned through it diftinftly. It feems divided in¬
ternally into feveral apartments, or rather to contain fe¬
veral imaller facculi, each of which enclofes one of thefe
animals. The openings at the, tops of thefe facculi, are
but juft fufficient to admit the creature’s head and a
fmall part of its body to be thruft out beyond them, the
reft remaining always in the cafe. It can, however,
occafionally retire into its cafe altogether ; and never
fails to do lo when alarmed by any hidden motion of
the w’atcr, or of the veffel which contains it.
Beiide the particular and feparate motion which each Motions oF
of thefe creatures is able to exert within its own cafe the whole
and independent of the reft j the whole colony together coIony-
has a power of altering the pofition of the bell, or even
of removing it from one place to another 5 and hence
this bell is fometimes found Handing perfectly upright,
as in fig. 29. and 33. and fometimes bending the upper
part downwards, as in fig. 30. As thefe animalcules
feem not to choofe to flay together in focieties whofe
number exceeds 15, when the colony happens to in-
creaie in number, the bell may be obferved to fplit gra¬
dually, beginning from about the middle of the upper
or anterior extremity, and proceeding downw’ards to¬
wards the bottom, as in fig. 3 2. till they at laft fepa¬
rate entirely, and become two complete colonies inde¬
pendent of each other, one of which fometimes removes
to another part of the veffel.
The arms of each individual of this colony are fet_ f27 .
round the head, to the number of 40, having "each the ofa^ndT*
figure of an Italic f, one of whofe hooked ends is faft- vidual.
ened to the head 5 and all together, when expanded,
compofe a figure ftiaped fomewhat like a horfe’s (hoe,
convex on one fide next the body, but gradually open¬
ing and turning outwards, fo as to leave a confiderable
area within the outer extremities of the arms. 'When
the arms are thus extended, the creature, by giving
them a vibrating motion, can produce a current in the
water, wdiich brings the animalcules, or whatever other
mmute bodies are within the fphere of its aftion, with-
great velocity to its mouth, fituated between the arms $
w'here they are taken in if liked, or driven away by a
contrary motion. The food is conveyed immediately
from the mouth or opening between the arms, through
a narrow neck, into a paffage feemingly correfpondent
to the cefophagus in land animals ) dow n which it paf-
fes into the ftomach, w'here it remains for fome time,
and then is voided upwards, in fmall round pellets,
through a gut whole exit is near the neck. The body
confifts of three divifions; in the uppermoft of which
are contained all the above-mentioned inteftines, w hich
are only to be difeerned when the creature is full, at
which time they become opaque. The other twm di¬
vifions,
Animal¬
cule.
28
Seem to
light.
A N I
vxllons, which are probably fixed to the bell, feem to
be of no other ufe than to give the creature a power
of contraction and extenfion. The arms are not able
to contract like thofe of the common polype j but
when the animal retires into its cafe, they are brought
together in a clofe and curious order, fo as to be eafily
drawn in. Though their general appearance, when
expanded, is that of a cup whofe bale and top are of
an horfe-lhoe form, they fometimes feparate into four
parts, and range themfelves as in fig. 36. fo as to re-
lemble four feparate plumes of feathers. Though their
hav^ a per-eyes cannot be difcovered, yet Mr Baker thinks they
eeption of have fome perception of the light: for w?hen kept in
the dark, they always remain contracted 5 but on be¬
ing expofed to the light of the fun or of a candle, they
conllantly extend their arms, and fhow’ evident figns of
being pleafed.
Fig. 29. reprefents one complete colony or bell Hand¬
ing ereCt, wuth all the animals out of their kingdom,
and their arms extended, exhibiting all together a very
pretty appearance, a, reprefents twro oval bodies, fup-
pofed by Mr Baker to be eggs.
Fig. 30. fhows all the creatures withdrawn into their
cells, and the end of the bell hanging downwards.
Fig. 33. fhoxvs the bell ereft, with only one of the
animals coming out, in order to {how its connexion
with the bell.
Fig. 34. {hows the head and arms of a.fingle polype
clofing together, and difpofing themfelves in order to
be drawn into the bell.
Fig. 35. (hows one complete animal greatly magni¬
fied, to fhow its feveral parts more diftinftly; viz. a.
the head, refembling a horfe {hoe ; b b, the arms feen
from one fide j c, the narrow neck ; d, the cefopha-
gus ; e, the fbmach 5 f the gut or laft inteftine
through which the food paffes after being digefted in
the Itomach ; g, the anus, where the faeces are dif-
charged in little pellets 5 h /, that part of the bell which
furrounds the body of the animal, and clofes upon it
when it retires down.
Fig. 37. The head and arms feen in front.
6. 'Ihe Globe animal. This animalcule, reprefented
fig- 38. feems exaCtly globular, having no appearance
of either head, tail, or fins. It moves in all directions,
forwards or backwards, up or down, either rolling
over and over like a bowl, fpinning horizontally like a
top, or gliding along fmoothly without turning itfelf
at all. Sometimes its motions are flow", at other times
very fwift ; and, wTen it pleafes, it can turn round, as
it wure upon an axis, very nimbly, without removing
out of its place. The whole body is tranfparent, ex¬
cept where the circular black fpots are {howm in the
figure. Some of the animals have no fpots, and others
from one to feven. The furface of the whole body ap¬
pears, in fome, as if all over dotted with points ; in
others, as if granulated like fhagreen : but their more
general appearance is, as if befet thinly round with
Ihort moveable hairs or briftles, which probably are
the inftruments by which their motions are performed.
Thefe animalcules may be feen by the naked eye, but
appear only like moving points.
7. The Pt/>e animal. Thefe creatures are found on
the coaft of Norfolk, living in fmall tubes or cafes of
fandy matter, in fuch multitudes as to compofe a mafs
fometimes of three feet in length. Fig. 39. fhcws a
Animal¬
cule.
29
Globe ani¬
mal.
T.. 30
Pipe ani¬
mal.
373 ] A N I
piece of fuch a congeries broke off, where caaa repre¬
sent the mouths or openings of the pipes wherein the
little animals make their abode. Fig. 40. fliowrs one v
Angle pipe, with its inhabitant, feparated from the refl,
and magnified nine or ten times in diameter. The
pipe or cafe b is made of fand, intermixed here and there
with minute fliells, and all cemented together by a glu¬
tinous flime, probably ifluing from the animal’s own
body cy which is compofed of mufcular ringlets like
thofe of a w;orm, capable of great extenfion or con-
tradlion. The anterior end or head,*/, is exceedingly
beautiful, having round it a double row of little arms
difpofed in a very regular order, and probably capable
of extenfion, in order to catch its food, and bring it to 3*
its mouth. Some of thefe tubes are found petrified, and 3o'ri^t‘rne"’
conftitute one fpecies of fyringoides. ^etn"
8, An ItifeB with net-like arms. The properties and 32
fliape of this little animal are very extraordinary. It is Infers with
found only in cafcades, where the w'ater runs very fwift. r'fct'^':e
There thefe infe&s are found in clufters, {landing ere£taims'^
on their tails ; and refembling, when all together,
the combs of beek at the time they are filled with their
aureliae. On being taken out of the w^ater, they fpin
threads, by which they hang exaftly in the fame man¬
ner as the garden fpider. Fig. 42. flwmvs one of thefe
infedts magnified. Its body appears curioufly turned
as on a lathe ; and at the tail are three fharp fpines, on
which it raifes itfelf, and ftands upright in the w'ater j
but the moft curious apparatus is about its head, where
it is furnifhed with tw'o inftruments like fans or nets,
which ferve to provide its food. Thefe it frequently
fpreads out and drawls in again ; and when drawn up,
they are folded together with the utmoft nicety and
exaflnefs, fo as to be indifcernible when brought clofe
to the body. At the bottom of thefe fans a couple of
claws are fattened to the lowrer part of the head, which,
every time the nets are drawn in, condudl to the mouth
of the animal whatever is taken in them. When the
creature does not employ its nets, it thrufts out a pair
of (harp horns, as in fig. 41. wThere the infefl is fliown
magnified about 400 times.
Some of thefe creatures being kept with wTater in a
vial, moft of them died in two days ; and the reft,
having fpun themfelves tranfparent cafes (which were
fattened either to the fides of the glafs, or to pieces
of grafs put into it), feemed to be changed into a kind
of chryfalis : but, before taking this form, they ap¬
peared as in fig. 43. w'hich ftiape they likewife affumed
when weary with catching their food, or when lying
in wait for it. None of them lived above three days 5
and though freftt water was given them two or three
times a-day, yet, in a few hours, it would ftink to a ^
degree fcarce conceivable, and that too at feveral yards Surpnfing-
dirtance, though, in proportion to the water, all the ProPerty Q*
included infefts were not more than as 1 to 1 ^0,000. <i)0^iri£wa"
This makes it probable, that it is neceflary for them toter‘
live in a rapid ftream, left they fhould be poifoned by
the effluvia ifluing from their own bodies, as no doubt
they were in the vial.
9. A curious aquatic worm. This animalcule is An aquatic,
fhown, magnified, at fig. 31. It is found in ditch w orm,
water; and is of various fizes, from 4^ to A of an inch
in length. About the head it is foir^ewhat of a ydlowiftv
colour ; but all the reft of the body is perfefily colour-
lefs and tranfparent, except the inteftines, which are
conftderably-
35
Its horn or
'probofcis.
3<J .
Spermatic
animals,
when dif-
x:overed.
37
General ap¬
pearance
the fame in
every ani-
Jiial,
PI. XXXII.
38
Inconceiv¬
able num¬
ber and mi-
nutenefs.
39
Are conti¬
nually in
motion.
A N I [3
confiderably opaque, and difpofed as in the figure.
Along its Tides are feveral papillae, with long hairs
growing from them : it has two black eyes, and is very
nimble. But the moll remarkable thing in this creature
is a long horn or probofcis j which, in the large ones,
may be Teen with the naked eye, if the water is clear,
and is fometimes -r's-0^ an inch in length : this it waves
to and fro as it moves in the water, or creeps up the
fide of the glafs} but it is not known whether it is hol¬
low, or of what ufe it is to the creature itfelf.
10. Spermatic Animals, and Anunacula Infnforia.
The difcovery of living animalcules in the femen of
molt animals is claimed by Mr Leeuwenhoek and Mr
Nicholas Hartfoekcr, who both fay they publifhed it
about the end of the year 1677 or beginning of 1678:
but Mr Leeuwenhoek having given the molt particular
defcription of, and made by far the greatefl number of
experiments concerning them, the difcovery is com¬
monly attributed to him.
According to this naturalifl, thefe animalcules are
found in the femen mafculinum of every kind of ani¬
mal : but their general appearance is very much the
fame, nor doth their fize differ in proportion to the
bulk of the animal to which they belong. The bodies
of all of them feem to be of an oblong oval form, with
long tapering {lender tails iffuing from them •, and as
by this fhape they referable tadpoles, they have been
frequently called by that name ; though the tails of
them, in proportion to their bodies, are much longer
than the tails of tadpoles are : and it is obfervable, that
the animalcules in the femen of fifhes have tails much
longer and more {lender than the tails of thofe in other
animals $ infomuch, that the extremity of them is not to
be difcerned without the beff glafles, and the utmoll
attention. Fig. 21. N0 1, 2, 3, 4, reprefent the fper-
matic animalcula of the rabbit j and N° 5, 6, 7, 8, thofe
of a dog ; according to Mr Leeuwenhoek.
The numbers of thefe animalcula are inconceivable.
On viewing with a microfcope the milt or femen maf¬
culinum of a living cod fifn, innumerable multitudes of
animalcules were found therein of fuch a diminutive fize,
that he fuppofed at leaf! 10,000 of them capable of be¬
ing contained in the bulk of a grain of fand j whence
he concludes, that the milt of this fingle fiffr contained
more living animalcules than there are to be found peo¬
ple living in the wffrole world. To find the compara¬
tive fize of thefe animalcules, Mr LeeuwTenhoek placed
a hair of his head near them 5 which hair, through his
microfcope, appeared an inch in breadth ; and he was
fatisfied, that at leaft 60 fuck animalcules could eafily
lie w’ithin that diameter *, whence, their bodies being
fpherical, it follows, that 216,000 of them are but
equal to a globe whofe diameter is the breadth of a
hair. He obferved, that wffren the water wherewuth
he had diluted the femen of a cod fiflr was exhaled, the
little bodies of the animalcules burft in pieces j which
did not happen to thofe in the femen of a ram : and
this he imputes to the greater firmnefs and confiftency
of the latter, as the ffeffr of a land animal is more com-
paft than fiffr.
Thefe animalcules appear to be verv vigorous, and
tenacious of life j for they may be obferved to move
long after the animal from which they are taken is dead.
They have this peculiarity alfo that they are continu¬
ally in motion, without the leaft reft or intermiflion,
74 .1 A N 1
provided there is fluid fufficient for them to fwim about Ar»it.sa¬
in. Thefe animalcula are peculiar to the femen > no- cule-
thing that has the leaft token of life being difcovered, Y'—■“
by the beft glafles, either in the blood, fpittle, urine,
gall, or chyle. Great numbers, however, are to be
found in the whitfth matter that flicks between the
teeth •, fome of which are of an oval figure, and others
refemble eels.
The Animalcula In fuforia take their name from their Animalcula
being found in all kinds either of vegetable or animal infuforia.
infufions. Indeed, there is fcarce any kind of water,
unlefs impregnated with fome mineral fubftance, but
what will difcover living creatures.—Mr Leeuwenhoek Mr Leeu-
fays, that at firft he could difcern no living creatures wenhoek*s
in rain wrnter; but after Handing fome days, he difco-acc°unt of
vered innumerable animalculesrmany thoufands of times ?nim.alcuIcs
lefs than a grain of land, and in proportion to a mite asterram '
a bee is to a horfe.—In other rain water, which had
likewife Hood fome time, he found the fmalleft fort he
had ever feen •, and, in a few’ days more, met with
others eight times as big as thefe, and almoft round.
In another quantity of rain water that had been ex-
pofed like the former, he difcovered a kind of animal¬
cules with two little horns in continual motion. The
fpace between the horns wras flat, though the body
wras roundifli, but tapering a little towards the end }
w’here a tail appeared, four times as long as the body,
and the thicknefs of a fpider’s web. He obferved fe¬
veral hundreds of the{e within the fpace a grain of fand
would occupy. If they happened on the leaft filament
or firing, they were entangled in it; and then would
extend their bodies into an oblong round, and ftruggle
hard to difengage their tails. Fie obferved a fecond
fort of an oval figure, and imagined the head to ftand
at the Iharpeft end. The body was flat, with feveral
fmall feet moving exceeding quick, but not difcernible
without a great deal of attention. Sometimes they
changed their ihape into a perfect round, efpecially
when the water began to dry away. He met alfo with
a third fort, twice as long as broad, and eight times
fmaller than the firft : yet in thefe he difcerned little
feet, wdiereby they moved very nimbly. He percei¬
ved likewife a fourth fort, a thoufand times fmaller
than a loufe’s eye, and wffiich exceeded all the reft in . ‘
brilknefs : he found thefe turning themfelves round, as
it were upon a point, with the celerity of a top. And
he fays, there were feveral other forts.
The produdftion of animalcula infuforia is very fur- Surprifing
prifing. In four hours time, an intufion of cantharides produftiori
has produced animalcula lefs than even the tails of the oLhek ani-
fpermatic animals wTe have already defcribed. Neither ma^cu^es‘
do they feem to be fubjeft to the fate of other animals;
but, feveral kinds of them at leaft, by dividing them¬
felves in two, to enjoy a fort of immortality. Nor do
the common methods by which other animals are de-
ftroyed, feem to be effeftual for deftroying their vital
principle. Hot mutton gravy, fecured in a phial w ith a
cork, and afterwards fet among hot afties to deftroy as
effe&ually as poffible every living creature that could
be fuppofed to exift in it, has neverthelefs been found
fwarming with animalcules after Handing a fewr days. ^
In the Philofophical Tranfaftions, Vol. LIX. we have Mr Ellis’s
the following curious account, given us by Mr Ellis, account of
of animalcules produced from an infufion of potatoes ammalcu!es
and of hempleed. .fion of po_
“ On tatoes.
A N I
Anlmal-
-tule.
44
From an in
fufion of
hempfeed.
. .45
Divide
themielves
in two.
“On the 25th of May 1768, Fahrenheit’s thermo-
meter 70°, I boiled a potato in the New River water
till it was reduced to a mealy confiitence. I put part
of it, with an equal proportion of the boiling liquor,
into a cylindrical glafs veffel that held fomething defs
than half a wine pint, and covered it clofe immediately
with a glafs cover. At the fame time, I fiiced an un¬
boiled potato; and, as near as I could judge, put the
fame quantity into a glafs veffel of the fame kind ; with
the fame proportion of New River water not boiled ;
and covered it with a glafs cover j and placed both vef-
fels clofe to each other.
“ On the 26th of May, 24 hours afterwards, I ex¬
amined a fmall drop pf each, by the firft magnifier of
Wilfon’s microfcope, whofe focal diftance is reckoned
r'o Part °f an inch •, and, to my amazement, they
were both full of animalcula of a linear fliape, very di-
ftinguilhable, moving to and fro with great celerity *,
fo that there appeared to be more particlfes of animal
than vegetable life in each drop.
“ rhis experiment I have repeatedly tried, and al¬
ways found it to fucceed in proportion to the heat of
the circumambient air 5 fo that even in winter, if the
liquors are kept properly warm, at leaft in two or three
days the experiment will fucceed.
44 What I have obferved are infinitely fmaller than
fpermatic animals, and of a very different fhape : the
truth of which every accurate obferver will foon be
convinced of, whofe curiolity rpay lead him to compare
them ; and I am perfuaded he will find they are no
way akin.
44 At prefent I {hall pafs over many other curious
obfervations, which I have made on two years expe¬
riments, in order to proceed to the explaining a hint
which I received laft January from M. de Sauffure of
Geneva, when he was here ; which is, that he found
one kind of thefe animalcula infuforia that increafe by
dividing acrofs into nearly two equal parts.
44 I had often feen this appearance in various fpecies
a year or two ago, as I found upon looking over the
minutes I had taken when I made any new obferva-
tion; but always fuppofed the animal, when in this
Hate, to be in coition.
. “ Not hearing, till after M. de Sauffure left this
kingdom, from what infufion he had made his obfer-
vation , his fuend X)r de la Roche of Geneva informed
me, the latter end of February lait, that it was from
hempfeed.
44 I immediately procured hempfeed from different
feedfmen in different parts of the town. Some of it I
put into New River water, fome into diftilled water,
and fome I put into very hard pump water. The re-
fult was, that in proportion to the heat of the weather
or the warmth in which they were kept, there was an
appearance of millions of minute animalcula in all the
infufions ; and, fome time after, fome oval ones made
theii appearance, as at fig. 3. b, c. Thefe were much
laigei than the fiiif, wmch ffill continued : thele wrig¬
gled to and fro in an undulatory motion, turning them¬
selves round very quick all the time that they moved
forwards. I was very attentive to fee thefe animals
divide themfelves ; and at laft I perceived a few of the
appearance ot fig. 3. as it is reprefented by the firft
magnifier of Wilfon’s microfcope j but I am fo well
convinced by experience that they would feparate,.
[ 375 1
A N I
Animal¬
cule.
that I did not rvait to fee the operation: however, as
the following {ketches, which I have drawn from five
other fpecies, will very fully explain this extraordinary
phenomenon, there will be no difficulty in conceiving
the manner of the firft. See fig. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.
44 The proportion of the number of thefe animals
which I have obferved to divide in this manner, to the
reft, is fcarce 1 to 50 ; fo that it appears rather to arife
from hurts received by iome few animalcula among
the many, than to be the natural manner in which thefe
kinds of animals multiply ; efpecially if we confider the
infinite quantity of young ones which are vifible to us
through the tranfparent Ikins of their bodies, and even
the young ones that are vifible in thofe young ones
while in the body of the old ones.
44 But nothing more plainly {hows them to be zoo¬
phytes than this circumftance, That when, by acci¬
dent, the extremity of their bodies has been ftirivelled
for want of a fupply of frefli water, the applying more
frefti water has given motion to the part of the animal
that was ftill alive ; by which means, this ftiapelefs fi¬
gure has continued to live and fwim to and fro all the
time it was fupplied with frefii water.
44 I cannot finiih this part of my remarks on theft:
animals, without obferving, that the excellent Lrnnceus
has joined the beroif with the vo/vox, one of the animal-
culia infuforia. The beroe is a marine animal, found Berofde
on our coaft ; of a gelatinous tranfparent nature, and fcribed.
of an oval or fpherical form, from half an inch to an
inch diameter; divided like a melon into longitudinal
ribs, each of which is furnifhed with rows of minute
fins ; by means of which, this animal, like the animal¬
cula infuforia, can fwim in all directions with great
fwiftnefs. In the fame manner I have feen moft of
thofe minute animals move fo fwift that we could not
account tor it, without fuppofing fueh a provifion in
nature, which is really true, but cannot be feen till the
animals grow faint for want of water 4 then, if we
attend, we may with good glaffes plainly difcover them
44 I have lately found out, by mere accident, a me
thod to make their fins appear very dirtincftly, efpeci-difcovering
ally in the larger kind of animalcula, which are com-Ae fins of
mon to moft vegetable infufions ; fueh as the terebella. an!maI-
This has a longiih body, with a cavity or groove at one CU eS'
end, like a gimlet : by applying, then, a fmall ftalk of
the horfe-ihoe geranium (or geranium zonale of Lin¬
naeus), frefti broken, to a drop of water in which thefe
animalcula are fwimming we {hall find that they will
become torpid inftantly ; contracting themfelves into
an oblong oval fliape, with their fins extended like fo
many briftles all round their bodies. The fins are inr
length about half the diameter of the middle of their
bodies. Before I difcovered this expedient, I tiled to
kill them by different kinds of falts and fpirits ; but
though they were deftroyed by this means, their fins
were fo contracted, that I could not diftinguifti them
in the leaft. After lying in this ftate of torpidity
for two or three minutes,, if a drop of clean water is-
apphed to them, they will recover their ftiape, and
fwim about immediately, rendering their fins again in-
vifible.”
3> 4> 5? 6; 7, 8, reprefent different fpecies of
animalcula infuloria, mentioned by Mr Ellis as belong¬
ing to the genus of volvox of Linnaeus.
h !g* 3‘ rePre^en^s the volvox ovalis, or egg-fhaped
volvox v
47
Method of
A N I [ 37
volvox j at (b) and (c) it is exprefled in its natural
lhape j at (a) the manner in which it becorats two ani¬
mals, by feparating acrofs the middle. This was found
in the infufion of hempfeed j but is found in other ve¬
getable infufions, particularly that of tea-feed.
Fig. 4. is the volvox torquilla, or wryneck. At (a)
is reprefented its divided ftate ; at (b) and (c) its na¬
tural date ; this is common to moll vegetable infufions,
as is the following.
Fig. 5. is the volvox volutans, or the roller. At (a)
the animal is feparated, and becomes two diftindl be¬
ings, each fvvimming about and providing foritielf:
this is often the prey of another fpecies of this genus,
cfpecially while it is w^eak by this reparation, not being
fo adtive for feme time till it can recover itfelf. At (c)
the animal appears to be hurt on one fide *, this impref-
fion in a little time is fucceeded by another in the op-
pofite fide, as at (b), which foon occafions a divifion.
At (d) is the fide view, and at (e) the front view, of
the natural (hape of the animal.
Fig. 6. is the volvox onifeus, or wood-loufe. At (a)
is the natural lhape of it, as it appears full of little
hairs both at the head and tail •, with thofe at the head,
it whirls the w’ater about to draw its prey to it *, the
feet, which are many, are very vifible, but remarkably
fo in a fide-view at (d). At (b) it is reprefented be¬
ginning to divide j and at (c) the animals are ready
to part: in this ftate, as if in exquifite pain, they
fwim round and round, and to and fro, wbth uncom¬
mon velocity, violently agitated till they get afunder.
This was found in an infufion of different kinds of pine
branches.
Fig. 7. is the volvox terrebella, or the gimlet. This
is one of the largell of the kind, and is very vifible to
the naked eye. It moves along fwiftly, turning itfelf
round as it fiwims, juft as if boring its wray. (a) and
(b) are two views of its natural fhape, (c) fhows the
manner of its dividing. When they are feparated,
the lower animal rolls very awkwardly along, till it
gets a groove in the upper part, (d) reprefents one
of them lying torpid, by means of the juice of the
horfe-ihoe geranium, with its fins extended. This ani¬
mal is found in many infufions, particularly of grafs
or corn.
Fig. 8. is the volvox vorax, or glutton. This ani¬
mal was found m an infufion of the Tartarian pme ^ it
varies its fhape very much, contradling and extending
its probofeis, turning it to and fro, in various direc¬
tions, as at a, b, c, d, e. It opens its probofeis un¬
derneath the extremity, when it feizes its prey. The
lefs aftive animals, that have lately been divided, fuch
as tbofe at fig. 3. (*), and at fig. 4. (a), ferve it as
food, when they come in its way : thefe it fwallows
clown inftantly, as it is reprefented at fig. 8. h and i.
At (f) it is ready to divide, and at (g) it is divided ;
where the hinder part of the divided animal has got a
probofeis or beak, to procure nourifhment for itfelf,
and foon becomes a diftincf being from the fore part.
Thus wre have given as full an account as our limits
would admit, of the moft curious kinds of animalcules
that have hitherto been obferved. We cannot, however,
difrnifs this fubjeft, without taking notice of fome of
the moft remarkable hypotbefes which have been form¬
ed concerning their nature and origin.
Before the invention of microfcopes, the do&rine of
6 ] A N I
equivocal generation, both with regard to animals and Animal-
plants of fome kinds, was univerfally received : but this , cu^lc'- ,
inftrument ibon convinced every intelligent perfon, that ^3
thofe plants which formerly were fuppofed to be produ- Dottriue of
ced by equivocal generation arofe from feeds, and the equivocal
animals, in like manner, from a male and female. But gyration
as the microfcope threw light upon one part of nature, ^ ’
it left another involved in darknefs: for the origin of
the animalcula infuforia, or of the fpermatic animals
already mentioned, remains as yet as much unknoevn
as that of many other kinds was when the do&rine of
equivocal generation reigned in full force.
The difeovery of fpermatic animalcules was thought Suppoi'ed
to throtv fome light on the myfterious affair of genera-ciilcov r.y
tion itfelf, and thefe minute creatures were imagined to ^neiatioa.
be each of them individuals of the fame fpecies with *
the parent. Here the infinite number of thefe ani¬
malcules was an obje&ion, and the difficulty remain¬
ed as great as before : for, as every one of thefe ani¬
malcules behoved to be produced from a male and fe¬
male to explain their origin by animalcular generation
in the fame manner, was only explaining generation by
itfelf.
This hypothefis, therefore, having proved unfatis-
fattory, others have been invented. M. Buffon, parti¬
cularly, hath invented one, by which he at once anni¬
hilates the whole animalcular world j and in this he
hath been followed by feveral very ingenious philofo-
phers. For a particular account of this, fo far as it
concerns generation, we muft refer to that article ; but
as he gives fuch a particular account of his having
examined the human femen, that we cannot doubt of
his accuracy, we lhall here contrail his account with
that of Mr Leeuwenhoek already mentioned.
Having procured the feminal veffels of a man who p •Ton's
died a violent death, he extracted all the liquor from experiments
them while they were ftill warm ; and having examined ^ hu-
a drop of it with a double microfcope, it had the ap- man femen*
pearance, fig. 9. Large filaments appeared, which in
fome places fpread out into branches, and in others in¬
termingled with one another. 1'hefe .filaments clearly
appeared to be agitated by an internal undulatory mo¬
tion, like hollow tubes, which contained fome moving
fubftance. He faw diftinftly this appearance changed
for that fig. 10. Two of thefe filaments, which were
joined longitudinally, gradually feparated from each
other in the middle, alternately approaching and re¬
ceding, like two tenfe cords fixed by the ends, and
drawn afunder in the middle. Thefe filaments were
compofed of globules that touched one another, and re-
fembled a chaplet of beads. After this, he obferved
the filament fwelled in feveral places, and perceived
fmall globular bodies iffue from the fwelled parts, which
had a vibratory motion like a pendulum. Thefe imall
bodies were attached to the filaments by fmall threads,
which gradually lengthened as the bodies moved. At
laft, the fmall bodies detached themfelves entirely from
the filaments, drawing after them the fmall thread,
which looked like a tail. When a drop of the feminal
liquor was diluted, thefe fmall bodies moved in all di-
reflions very brifkly $ and had he not feen them fepa-
rate themfelves from the filaments, he would, he lays,
have thought them to be animals. I be feminal matter
was at firft too thick, but gradually became more fluid *,
and, in proportion as its fluidity mcreafed, the filaments
difappeared,
A N I
Animal¬
cule.
dlfappeared, but the fmall bodies became exceedingly
- - j numerous. Each of them had a long thread or tail
attached to it, from which it evidently endeavoured to
get free. T heir prbgreffive motion was extremely flow,
during which they vibrated to the right and left, and
at each vibration they had a rolling unfteady motion in
ft vertical direction.
At the end of two or three hours, the feminal matter
becoming dill more fluid, a greater number of thefe
moving bodies appeared. They were then more free of
encumbrances j their tails were ffxorter; their progreflive
motion was more direft, and their horizontal motion
greatly diminiflied. In five or fix hours, the liquor had
acquired almofl: all the fluidity it could acquire, without
being decompofed. Moil of the fmall bodies were now
difengaged from their threads ; their figure was oval,
i hey moved forward with confiderable quicknefs, and,
by their irregular motions backward and forward, they
had now more than ever the appearance of animals.
(hofe that had tails adhering to them, feemed to have
Jefs vivacity than the others : and of thofe that had no
tails, fome altered both their figure and their fize. In
twelve hours, the liquor had depofited at the bottom of
■t he vial a kind of afh-coloured gelatinous fubllance,
a td the fluid at top was almoil as tranfparent as water.
I he little bodies being now entirely freed from their
threads, moved with great agility, and fome of them
turned round their centres. They alfo often changed
their figures, from oval becoming round, and often
breaking into .fmaller ones. Their activity always in-
creafed as their fize diminiflied. In 24 hours, the li¬
quor had depofited a greater quantity of gelatinous
matter, which, being with fome difficulty diluted in
water, exhibited an appearance fomewhat refembluw
lace. In the clear femen itfelf only a few fmall bodiet
were now feen moving ; next day, thefe were /till far¬
ther diminiflied j and after this nothing was to be feen
but globules, without the leafl: appearance of motion.
Moil of the above-mentioned appearances are fliown
fig, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 13, 16. Fig. 17, and 18. re-
prelent an appearance of the globules in another ex¬
periment, in which they arranged themfelves in troops
and paffed very quickly over the field of the micro-
fcope. In this experiment they were found to proceed
from a fmall quantity of gelatinous mucilage.
from thefe experiments, M. Buffon concludes, that
what have been called fpermatic animalsy are not crea¬
tures really endowed with life, but fomething proper
to compofe a living creature ; and he diftinguiflied them
by the name of organic particles. The fame individual
kinds of animals he declares he has found in the fluids
feparated from the ovaria of females : and for the truth
of this appeals to the teflimony of Mr Needham, who
£1 was an.e.ye witnefs of his experiments. He alfo brings
Needham’s an additional proof of his doftrine from Mr Needham’s
ttr7,at!o" th= a of cut-
of the cal- P6 ,* ,ere ^ fpermatic animals, at leaf! what
have the only appearance of life, are vaftly larger than
in any other creature, fo as to be plainly vifibie to the
naked eye. When magnified, they appear as at fig. 19.
and 20. a. Their firfl appearance is at fig. 19. a and l
when they referable fprings enclofcd in a tranfparent
cale* 1 hele fpnngs were equally perfed at fir ft as af¬
terwards ; only in time they contra&ed themfelves, and
became like a kind of ferew. The head of the cafe is
Vol. II. Part I,
[ 377 1
A N I
Biar.
a fpecies of valve which opens outward, and through Animal-
which every thing within may be forced out. It con- ^ule.
tains, befides, another valve £, a little barrel c, and a '
fpongy fubftance d e. Thus the whole machine con-
fiils of an outer tranfparent cartilaginous cafe a, the fu-f%-
perior extremity of which is terminated by a round
head formed by the cafe itfelf, and performs the office
of a valve. This external cafe contains a tranfparent
tube : which includes the fpring, a pill'on or valve, a
bttle barrel, and a fpongy fubftance. The ferew occu- 1
pies the fuperior part of the tube and cafe, the pifton
and barrel are fituated in the middle, and the fpongy
fubftance occupies the inferior part. Thefe machines
pump the liquor of the milt; the fpongy fubftance is
full of this liquor ; and, before the animal fpawns, the
whole milt is only a congeries of thefe bodies which
-a'e fucked up all the liquor of it. Whenever thefe
fmall machines are taken out of the body of the ani¬
mal, and put in water, or expofed to the air, they be¬
gin to aft, as reprefented fig. 19. and 20.5 the fprinir
mounts up, and is followed by the piften, the barrel
and the fpongy fubftance which contains the liquor:
and, .as foon as the fpring and the tube in which it is
contained begin to iffue out of the cafe, the fpring
plaits, and the whole internal apparatus moves, till the
fpiing, the pifton, and the barrel, have entirely elcaped
from the cafe. When this is effected, all the reft in-
ftantly follow, and the milty liquor which had been
pumped in, and confined in the fpongy fubftance, runs
out through the barrel.
According to this account, the milt of the calmar Conclufion
contains no animalcules j and therefore we may from againft the
analogy conclude, that the fmall moving bodies which exjftence of
are to be feen in the femen of other animals, are notianimalcu~
really cieatures endowed with life. M. Bufton extends
the analogy Hill further j and concludes, that all the
moving bodies which are to be found in the infufion.s
either of animal or vegetable fubftances are of a fimilar
nature. “ To difeover (fays he) whether all the parts of
animals, and all the feeds of plants, contained moving
organic particles, I made infufions of the fifth of differt
ent animls, and of the feeds of more than 20 different
fpecies of vegetables; and after remaining fome days in
clofe glaffes, I had the pleafure of feeing organic moving
particies in all of them. In fome they appeared fooner,
m others later j f’ome preferved their motions for
months, and others foon loft it. Seme at firft produced
large moving globules refembling animals, which
changed their figure, fplit, and became gradually
fmaller. Others produced only fmall globules, whofe
motions were extremely rapid 5 and' others produ¬
ced filaments, which grew longer, feemed to vegetate,
and then fwelled and poured forth torrents of moving-
globules.” 6
This laft obfervation gave rife to a new fyftem. Ba-Baron
ron .Munchanfen, perceiving that the laft-mentioned Munchan-
moying globules, after moving for fome time, began fen’stlie0IT
again to vegetate, concluded that they were firft animals
and then plants. I his ftrange hypothefis Mr Ellis Difproved
has overturned m the paper already quoted 5 in which b-v i'''Ir E11^
he afferts, that they are no other than the feeds of that
genus of.fungi called mucor or mouldinefs, and that
their motion, is owfing to numbers of minute animal¬
cules attacking them for food. “ Having ^fays he), at
tne requeft of Dr Linnaeus, made feveral experiments
3 B
A N I [ 378 ' ] A N I
Animal- on tlie infufion of mufhrooms in water, in order to
ailf?. prove the theory of Baron Munchanfen, that their
feeds are firft animals, and then plants (which betakes
notice of in his Syftem of Nature, p. 1326, under the
genus of chaos, by the name of chaos fungorum femi-
num\ it appeared evidently, that the feeds were put
into motion by very minute animalcules, which pro¬
ceeded from the putrefaction of the uiufhroom : for by
pecking at thefe feeds, which are reddifh, light, round
bodies, they moved them about with great agility in a
variety of directions j while the little animals them-
felves w7cre fcarcely vifible, till the food they had eaten
had difeovered them. The fatisfaCticn I received from
clearing up this point, led me into many other curious
and intereft experiments.
“ The ingenious Mr Needham fuppofes thefe little
tranfparent ramified filaments, and jointed or coralloid
bodies, which the microfcope difeovers to us on the
furface of moft animal and vegetable infufions when
they become putrid, to be zoophytes, or branched ani¬
mals ; but to me they appear after a careful ferutiny
with the beft glafies, to be of that genus of fungi call¬
ed 77iucor, or mouldinefs ; many of which Michelius has
figured, and Linnaeus has accurately deferibed.
“ Their vegetation is fo amazingly quick, that they
may be perceived in the microfcope even to grow and
feed under the eye of the obferver.
“ Mr Needham has pointed out to us a fpecies that
is very remarkable for its parts of fruClification. (See
Philofophical TranfaCHons, vol. xlv. tab. 5. fig. 3.
a, A.) This, he fays, proceeds from an infufion of
bruifed wheat.
“ I have feen the fame fpecies arife from the body of
a dead fly, which was become putrid by lying floating
for fome time in a glafs of wrater, where fome flowers
had been, in the month of Auguft 1768. This fpecies
of mucor fends forth a mafs of tranfparent filamentous
roots j from whence arife hollow7 flems, that fupport
little oblong oval feed veffels, with a hole on the top
of each. From thefe I could plainly fee minute globu¬
lar feeds iffue forth in great abundance with an elaflic
force, and turn about in the water as if they were ani¬
mated.
“ Continuing to view them with fome attention, I
could juft difeover, that the putrid w-ater which fur-
rounded them was full of the minuteft animalcula •, and
that thefe little creatures began to attack the feeds of
the mucor for food, as I have obferved before in the
experiment on the feeds of the larger kind of fungi or
mufhrooms. This new motion continued the appear¬
ance of their being alive for fome time longer : but,
foon after, many of them arofe to the furface of the
water, remaining there without motion ; and a fuccef-
fton of them afterwards coming up, they united toge¬
ther in little thin mafles, and floated to the edge of
the water, remaining there quite inaftive during the
time of obfervation.
“ As this difeovery cleared up many doubts which
I had received from reading Mr Needham’s learned dif-
fertation, I put into the glafs feveral other dead flies j
by which means this fpecies of mucor was propagated
fo plentifully, as to give me an opportunity of fre¬
quently trying the fame experiment to my full fatif-
faclion.
“ Laftly, Thefe jointed coralloid bodies, which ?»Ir
Needham calls chaplets, and pearl necklaces, I have feen Animsf-
frequently very diftin&ly. Thefe appear not only on
an infuflon of bruifed w'heat when it becomes putrid, u“—v*--—'
but on moft other bodies when they throw up a vifeid
feum and are in a ftate of putrefattion. Thefe, then,
are evidently no more than the moft common mucor, the
feeds of which are everywhere floating in the air ; and
bodies in this ftate afford them a natural proper foil to
grow upon. Here they fend downwards their fine
tranfparent ramified roots into the moifture which they
float upon; and from the upper part of the feum,
their jointed coralloid branches rife full of feed into
little groove-like figures. ‘When a fmall portion of
thefe branches and feeds are put into a drop of the
fame putrid water upon wrhich the feum floats, many
of thefe millions of little animalcula wflth which it
founds, immediately feize them as food, and turn
them -about with a variety of motions, as in the expe¬
riments on the feeds of the common muflirooms, either
fingly, or two or three feeds connefted together; an-
fwering exadly to Mr Needham’s defeription, but evi¬
dently without any motion of their own, and confe-
quently not animated.”
M. Buffon, however, is not content with denying life Mr Buffon’s
only to thofe beings where the figns of it are the moft opinion of
equivocal ; but includes in the fame rank of organic different
particles, almoft every animal too fmall to be difeover-
ed by the naked eye, and even fome of thofe whole
motions are evidently perceptible to the eye. “ Al¬
moft all microfcopic animals,” fays he, “ are of the
fame nature with the moving bodies in the feminal
fluids and infufions of animal and vegetable lubflances.
The eels in palle, in vinegar, &c. are all of the fame
nature, and derived from the fame origin. There are,
perhaps, as many beings that either live or vegetate,
produced by a fortuitous affemblage of organic parti¬
cles, as by a conftant and facceffive generation. Seme
of them, as thofe of the calmar, are only a kind of ma¬
chines, which, though exceedingly fimple, are very ac¬
tive. Others, as the fpermatic animalcules, feem to imi¬
tate the movements of animals. Others refemble vege¬
tables in their manner of growth and extenfion. There
are others, as thofe of blighted w-heat, which at plea-
fure can be made alternately either to live or die, and it
is difficult to know to what they fliould be compared.
There are ftill others, and in great numbers, which are
at firft a kind of animals, then become a fpecies of ve¬
getables, and again return alternately to their vegeta¬
ble ftate. The eels in pafte have no other origin than
the union of the organic particles of the moft effential
part of the grain. The flrft eels that appear are cer¬
tainly not produced by other eels : but though they are
not propagated themfelves, they fail not to engender
other living eels. By cutting them with the point of
a lancet, we difeover fmaller eels iffuing in great num¬
bers out of their bodies. The body of this animal
feems to be only a fheath or fac, containing a multi¬
tude of fmaller animals, which perhaps are other fheaths
of the fame kind, in which the organic matter is afli-
milated into the form of eels.” ^
Though we can by no means pretend to account for His reafon-
the appearance of thefe animalcules, yet we cannot help ing incoa-
obferving, that our ignorance of the caufe of any phe- clufive’
nomenon is no argument againft its exiftence. Though
we are not able to account in a fatisfadlory manner for
tha
*
A N I [ 379 j A N I
Animul- the origin of the native Americans, we fuppofe M.
fu^e' Buffon himfelf would reckon it abfurd to maintain that
the Spaniards on their arrival there found only organic
particles moving about in diforder. The cafe is the
very fame with the eels in pafle. They are exceeding¬
ly minute in comparifon with us; but, with the folar
microfcope, Mr Baker has made them affume a more
refpe&able appearance, fo as to have a diameter of an
inch and a half, or two inches, and a length propor¬
tionable. They fwam up and down very briikly ; the
motion of their intettines was plainly vilible 5 when the
water dried up, they died with apparent agonies, and
their mouths gaped very wide. Were we to find a
creature of the fize of this magnified eel, gafping in a
place where water had lately been, we certainly would
never conclude it to be an organic particle, or a fortui¬
tous affemblage of them *, but a fifii. Why then fhould
we conclude otherwife with regard to the eel while in
its natural ftate, than that it is a little fiflt ? In reafon-
ing on this fubject, we ought always to remember,
that, however efiential the diftinftion of bodies into
great and fmall may appear to us, they are not fo to
the Deity j with whom, as Mr Baker well exprefles
himfelf, “ an atom is as a world, and a world but as
an atom.”—Were the Deity to exert his power for a
little, and give a natural philofopher a view of a quan¬
tity of pafte filled with eels, from each of whofe bodies
the light was refle&ed as when it palfes through a fo¬
lar microfcope j inftead of imagining them organic
particles, the pafte would appear like a little moun¬
tain ; he wrould probably look upon the whole as a
monflrous alfemblage of ferpents, and be afraid to come
near them. Wherever, therefore, we difcover beings
to appearance endowed with the principle of felf-pre-
fervation, or whatever elfe wTe make the chara&eriftic
of animals, neither the fmallnefs of their fize, nor the
impoflibility of our knowing how they come there,
ought to caufe us doubt of their being really animated.
—At the fame time, it mull alfo be remembered, that
motion is not always a chara&eriftic of animal life,
even though the moving bodies Ihould avoid one ano¬
ther, or any feeming obfiacle placed in their way. We
know, that inanimate bodies, when eledhified, will
avoid others endowed with an eleftricity of the fame
kind, and adhere to thofe which have the oppofite one.
As we are * by no means acquainted with the utmoil
powers of ele&ricity, but on the contrary, from what
we do know ot it have all the reafon in the world to
conclude that it can produce effefts utterly beyond our
comprehenfion, it is impofiible for us to know what
ihare it may have in producing the motions obferved
m vegetable infufions, or in the femen of animals. 
We may alfo further obferve, that though in Mr El¬
lis’s experiment of the boiled potato he took it for
granted that every feed of animal life would be de-
llroyed by the boiling water, yet even this cannot be
proved ; nay, on the contrary, it hath been proved by
undeniable experiments, that the human body itfelf
hath endured a heat of 240 degrees of Fahrenheit (28
degrees above that of boiling water) without injury.
The eggs of thefe animalcula might therefore be ftrong
enough to refill the heat hitherto ufed in Mr Ellis’s or
any other experiment.
A confiderable objedlion to the exiltence of animal¬
cules in the femen, or any other part of animal bodies,
mull arife from the total exclufion of air, which is AnimaL
found fo necefiary to the life of larger animals. Some cule- ,
inlfances, however, have been obferved of large ani- . ^
mals being found in fuch fituations as they could not Animals
poflibly have enjoyed the leaf! benefit from the air for fometimes
a great number of years j and in this Hate they have fou^.
not only lived, but lived much longer than they would 1
otherwife have done.
In Toulon harbour and road, are found folid hard
Hones, and perfectly entire ; containing, in different
cells, fecluded from all communication with the air, fe-
veral living fhell filh, of an exquifite tafte, called Doc-
tyh, i. e. Dates : to come at thefe filh, the ftones are
broken with mauls. Alfo, along the coaft of Anco¬
na, in the Adriatic, are ftones ufually weighing about
50 pounds, and fometimes even more ; the outfide rug¬
ged, and eafily broken, but the infide fo hard, as to
require a ftrong arm and an iron maul to break them j
within them, and in feparate niches, are found fmall
fhell filh, quite alive, and very palatable, called Solenes
or Cappe lunghe. Thefe fa£ts are attefted by Gaffendi,
Blondel, Mayol, the learned bilhop of Sulturara, and
more particularly by Aldrovandi a phyfician of Bo~
.logna. The two latter fpeak of it as a common fa<9t
which they themfelves faw.
In the volume for 17x9, of the Academy of Sciences
at Paris, is the following paffage :
“ In the foot of an elm, of the bignefs of a pretty
corpulent man, three or four feet above the root, and
exaftly in the centre, has been found a live toad, mid¬
dle fized, but lean, and filling up the wThole vacant
fpace : no fooner wras a paffage opened, by fplitting the
wood, than it fcuttied away very haftily : a more fir^a
and found elm never grew ; fo that the toad cannot be
fuppofed to have got into it. The egg whence it was
formed, muft, by fome very lingular accident, have
been lodged in the tree at its firft growth. There the
creature had lived without air, feeding on the fubftance
of the tree, and growing only as the tree grew. This
is attefted by Mr Hubert, profeffor of philofophy at
Caen.”
The volume for the year 1731 has a fimilar obferva-
tion, expreffed in thefe wmrds :
“ In 1719, we gave an account of a fadl, which,
though improbable, was wHl attefted ; that a toad had
been found living and growing in the ftem of a mid¬
dling elm, without any way for the creature to come
out or to have got in. M. Seigne, of Nantes, lays be¬
fore the academy a fact juft of the very fame nature,
except that, inftead of an elm, it was an oak, and lar¬
ger than the elm, which ftill heightens the wonder. He
judges, by the time requifite for the growth of the
oak, that the toad muft have fubfifted in it, without
air, or any adventitious aliment, during 80 or 100
years. M. Seigne feems to have known nothing of
the fact in 1719.”
Vvrith the two foregoing may be claffed a narrative
of Ambrofe Paree', chief furgeon to Henry III. king
of France, who, being a very fenfible writer, relates '
the following faft, of which he was an eye witnefs :
“ Being (fays he) at my feat, near the village of
Meudon, and overlooking a quarryman whom I had
fet to break fome very large and hard ftones 5 in the
middle of one we found a huge toad, full of life, and
without any vifible aperture by which it could get
A N I
there.
Animal-
Amm“«d. Sr0";n-
I began to wonder how it received birth, had
and lived ; but the labourer told me, it was
¥  'not; t^le time he had met with a toad, and the like
creatures, within huge blocks of Hone, and no vifible
opening or fiflure.”
Obfervations of living toads, found in very hard
and entire ftones, occur in feveral authors, particularly
Baptiit Fulgofa doge of Genoa, the famous phyficians
Agiicola and Horltius, and Lord Verulam: others give
very fpecious accounts of fnakes, frogs, crabs, and lob-
flers, being found alive, enclofed within blocks of
marble, rocks, and large Hones.
An inftance fimilar to thefe, of the truth of which
we have no reafon to doubt, was obferved in this coun¬
try m the year 1773, where a large toad was found in
the middle of a piece of coal having not the leaft vifi-
5s . ble crack or fiffure.
SfobSuf Up°n the whok't therefore, though philofophers are
’not yet able to difcover how thefe minute creatures
are produced ; yet, that there really are animals much
fmaller than what we can difcern with our naked eye,
feems to be indifputable. The fubjccf, however, is Hill
evidently obfcure, and wall no doubt require the ut-
raort attention of philofophers, as well as further im¬
provements in the conftru&ion of microfcopes, fully to
inveftigate it.
Animalcula are faid to be the caufe of various dif.
arders. The itch, from feveral experiments, is affirm¬
ed to be a diforder arifing from the irritations of a fpe-
cies of animalcula found in the puftules of that ail¬
ment ; -whence the communication of it by contadh from
one to another is eafily conceived, as alfo the reafon of
the cure being effe&ed by cutaneous applications. On
this foundation fome have attributed the fmallpox and
meafies, and infedlious dxfeafes j others the epilepfy,
&:c. to animalcules. Langius goes farther, and pre¬
tends to reduce all difeafes in general to the fame prin¬
ciple. A late writer at Paris, who aflumed the title
of an Englifh phyfician, has done more. He not only'
accounts for all difeafes, but for the operations of all
medicines, from the hypothefis of animalcules. He
has peculiar animals for every difeafe ; fcorbutic ani¬
malcules, podagrical animalcules, variolous animal¬
cules, &c. all at his fervice. Journ. des Scav. tom.
hxxii. p. 535, &c.
_But as mold difeoveries in natural philofophy have
laid a foundation for the warm imaginations of fome
men to form vifionary theories, to the great prejudice
of real knowledge ; fo thofe relating to animalcula have
been drawn in, however improperly, to fupport the
moft whimfical and chimerical fylfems.
Animalcules, Invijible.—Naturaliftsfuppofe another
- fpecies or order of invifible animalcules, viz. fuch as
efcape the cognizance even of the bed microfcopes,
and give many probable conjectures in relation to
them. Reafon and analogy give fome fiipport to the
exiftence of infinite imperceptible animalcules. The
naked eye, fay fome, takes in from the elephant to the
mite ; but there commences a new order referved only
for the microfcope, which comprehends all thefe from
the mite to thofe 27 millions of times fmaller; and
this order cannot be yet faid to be exhaufted, if the
tnicrofcope be not arrived at its laft perfection. See
further on this fubje^f the article Microscope.
ANIMATED, or Animate, in a general fenfe,
t 380 ]
A N I
denotes fometWng endowed with animal life. It alfo Animated
imports a thing to be impregnated with vermine or D
animalcules. Anjou.
Animated Hotfe Hairs. See Horse Hairs. ' *
ANIMATION fignifies the informing an animal
body with a foul.—The different hypothefes of phyfi¬
cians and philofophers, concerning the time of anima¬
tion, have had their influence on the penal law-s made
againfl: artificial abortions : it having been made capi¬
tal to procure mifearriage in the one ftate, while in
the other it was only deemed a venial crime. The
emperor Charles V. by a conftitution publiflied in 1532,
put the matter on another footing ; inftead of the di-
ftinction of an animated and unanimated foetus, he
introduced that of a vital and non-vital foetus, as a
thing of more obvious and eafy decifion, and not de-
pfending on any fyftem either of creation, traduftion,
or infufion. Accordingly a foetus is faid, in a legal
fenfe, to be animated, when it is perceived to ftir in
the womb ; which ufually happens about the middle of
the term of geftation.
ANIME, in Heraldry, a term ufed when the eyes
of a rapacious creature are borne of a different tin&ure
from the creature itfelf.
Anime, a refin exfuding from the trunk of a large
American tree, called by Pilojetaiba, by the Indians
courbaril, (a fpecies of Hymenaia). This refin is of
a tranfparent amber colour,' a light agreeable fmell,
and little. or no tafte. • It diffolves entirely, but not
\ery readily, in reclified Ipirit of wine } the impurities,
which are often in large quantity, remaining behind.
The Brazilians are faid to employ anime in fumma-
tions for pains and aches proceeding from a cold cauTe :
nith us, it is xareiy, if ever, made uie of for any me¬
dicinal purpofes.
ANIMETTA, among ecclefiaftical writers, de¬
notes the cloth wherewith the cup of the eucharift is
covered.
ANINGA, in Commerce, a root which grows in
the Antilles iflands, and is pretty much like the China
plant. It is uled by fugar bakers for refining the fugar.
ANJOU, a province and duchy of France before
the revolution, bounded on the eaft by Touraine, on
the fouth by Poiftcu, on the wTeft by Bretagne, and
on the north by Maine. It is now included under the
departments of the Mayne and Loire, and the Sarte
and Mayenne. ^ It is 70 miles in length, and in
breadth 60. Through this province run five naviga¬
ble rivers : the Loire, which divides it into two
parts 5 the Vienne, the Toue, the Mayenne, and the
Sarte.
The air is temperate, and the country agreeably di-
verfified with hills and meadows. There are 33 fo-
refts of oak trees mixed with beech. The country
produces white wine, wheat, barley, rye, oats, peafe,
beans, flax, hemp, walnuts, and fome chefnuts. In
Lower Anjou they make cyder. There are fruit trees
of ail kinds, and pafture proper for horfes. The great-
eft riches of the province confifts in cows, oxen, and
ftieep. There are feveral coal and iron mines 3 and
} et there are but two forges in the whole province.
There are quarries of marble and of fiate ; as well as
quarries of white ftone, proper for building, on the
fide of the river Loire. Here are alfo feveral faltpetre
ttorks and fome glafs-houfes. The remarkable towns,
befides
ANIMAI. C XtX,E S . Plate XXXV.
''/fr/s/sr//*
'tf /V/M#,- , Y/t////,//u/,
r/Ys //f//’///\
'/ '/te ^ sy .
fr r/’f////ur /Yr
dR JE. OM E TRJ {
V
:
i
/
Anio
II
Anna.
ANN r .g
Defines Angers the capital, are Saumur, Brifac, Pons
ue Cea, La Fleche, and Beaufort.
V   . ^NI0’ (Cicero, Horace, Prifcian) 5 Anien, ("Sta-
' f l n°r-u Te™rone : a river of Italy, which falls
into the Tiber, three miles to the north of Rome, not
far from Antemnae. It rifes in a mountain near Tre-
m-’ ^ ’ ^ld running through the country of the
ALquiculi, or iEqui, it afterwards feparated the Latins
trom the Sabines 5 but nearer its mouth, or confluence,
it had the Sabines on each fide. It forms three beau-
tifu! lakes m its courfe, (Pliny). In the territories of
iibur it falls from a great height, and there forms a
veiy rapid cataradlj hence the epithet preeceps, and
hence the fleam caufed by its fall, (Horace). Anienus
is the epithet formed from it, (Virgil, Propertius).
Anienus is alfo the god of the river, ( Propertius, Sta-
ANISUM or Anise. See Pimpinella, Botany
Index.
ANKER, a liquid meafure at Amfterdam. It con¬
tains about 32 gallons Englifh meafure.
ANKLE, m Anatomy, the joint which conne&s the
foot to the leg—We have an account of the menfes
FA8 MgfnJr evr.u.ated at ulcer of the ankle,
J-.dm. Med. Obf. vol. iii. art. 2p.
ANN, or Annat, in Scots Law, is half a year’s fli-
pend, which the law gives to the executors of mini-
fters of the church of Scotland, over and above what
Was.d^Tt? tlle m™fter himfelf for his incumbency.
A 1 • TW one.of,fh.e three principalities into which
iliabia Helerta is divided.
Anna, one of the chief cities of the above princi¬
pality, and formerly a famed mart-town, is fituated in
33- 57* aIld.*:• Long- 42. 10. on the river Eu¬
phrates, m a fruitful and pleafant foil. It has two
flreets, which are divided by the river. That on the
1 ^-upotamia fide is about two miles long, but thinly
peopLd and by none but tradefmen j that on the op-
pofite fide is about fix miles in length, and it is there
that the principal inhabitants of the city dwell. Every
mule has fome ground belonging to it 5 and thefe
grounds are loaded with noble fruit trees, as lemons
quInceS’ fiSs’ dates> Pomegranates’
th 11 VeiyjIai'ge rnd m §reat PIenty- of
the fiat grounds are fown with corn and other grain
which yield hkewife a confiderable crop. This city is’
the common rendezvous of all the robbers that infeft
tCrtry; anrd [r°mjvddch they dirperfe themfelves
into a 1 parts of the defert. Here they meet to con-
u t; here they hold their grand council, and delibe¬
rate where to rob next with fuccefs. It is with great
diificulty that the lurkilh aga, and the janizaries,gwho
are kept here, can levy the tribute impofed by the
urks on all the commodities carried through this
city, which is one of the great thoroughfares for the
Trb-Tf 0nthYaraTS that 5° to and from Aleppo,
Lagdad’and fu"K other ^
Anna Comnena, daughter of the emperor Alexius
Comnenus I. was not lefs diftinguiflied by her eleva-
ted rank than by her mental qualifications. Her fu-
penority of mmd began early to difplay itfelf. l)e-
pi mgand neglecting the effeminacy and voluptuouf-
efs the court }u which flie was educated, fire direfted
1 ] ann
her attention to literary purfuits. Indulging her fa¬
vourite ftudies, flie folicited the acquainfance of the
more eminent philofophers of that period
But the purfuits of literature did not induce her en¬
tirely to abandon fociety 5 Ihe gave her hand to Ni-
cephorus Bryennius, a young nobleman of a refpecta-
ble family.. This accomplilhed woman was, however
“njuftlfiable ambition ; and, during the’
lafl illnefs of her father, flie united with the emprefs
lene, m attempting to prevail upon that monarch to
band Vl!5 °ffnn.)n’ and Slve the crown to her huf-
band I he affeaion and virtue of the father pre-
bflion of r fema C addrefs and intriSue- But the am¬
bition of Comnena was not diminilhed j for fire enter
ed into a confpiracy to depofe her brother: and
when her hufband difplayed a timidity and hefitation
n ;hls.mfluft enterpnfe, fhe exclaimed, that » Nature
womTn ’’ tiieU feXeS? f°r he °Ught t0 have been tbe
Either through the vigilance of her brother, or the
timidity of her hufhand, the treafonable plot rvas dif!
covered, and Anna pumfiied with the confifcation of
all her property. But generofity has an opportu¬
nity of difplaymg its real nature when an enemy is
tTeTdTf 5 ^US 7aS th" S^voCity of her bro'-
-her difplayed on the prefent occafion, by returning
conduit TP0?' P ffllamed’ however, of her bale
conduft, flie retired from court, and never more pof-
fefled any influence there. Difappoirited ambition took
Ihelter among the waflcs of literature, and fhe employ,
ed heifelf m her folitude in writing the hiftory of her
ather s icign. This produftion of her pen is ftill ex¬
tant, and compofes a part of the collection of the Bv
zantme hiftomns. The ftores of rhetoric are ranfack
ed to embelhlh this work, and every effort made to
enrich it with fcience; but the general complexion
of it is rather like an apology, than an impartial nar-
lative. It mull, however, be acknowledged, that Ihe
is not more partial than many other Latin hiftorians
and that her hiftory contains many valuable fafls and
obfervations. (Gen. Bio?.) ia
ANNABON. See Annobon.
ANNALE, in the church of Rome, a term applied
to die mafles celebrated for the dead during a "hole
ANNALIS clay us, the nail which the prsetor
conful, or didator, drove into the wall of Tupiter’s
temple annually upon the ides of September, to fhow
the number of years. But this cuftom was fuper-
icded by reckoning years by confulftnps. The ceremo-
^ANNAfr'8'1561'^™611 aTert the Prague, &c.
1-n' N^LS’ ln matters of Literature, a Ipecies of'
hntory, which relates events in the chronological order
wherein they happened. They differ from perfeft hi--
uoiy m this, that annals are but a bare relation of what
pafles every year as a journal is of what paffes every
day; whereas hiftory relates not only the tranfaftions
themfelves but alfo the caufes, motives, and fprings of -
aftions. Annals require nothing but brevity; hiftory
demands ornament.—-Cicero informs us of the origin
of anna.s 7° preferve the memory of events fhe-
Pontfex Maximus, fays he, wrote what palled ’each
>ear, and expofed it on tables in his own houfe, wherex
every one was at liberty to read : this they called
anna let
ANN t 382 ] ANN
annales maximi; and hence the writers who imitated
this fimple method of narrating fadts were called an-
nalijis.
ANNAN, the capital of Annandale, a divifion of
Dumfriesfhire in Scotland ; a fmall town, containing
i;oo or 600 inhabitants, and fituated on a river of the
fame name, in W. Long. 30. N. Lat. 54. 40. This
place, which is a royal borough, has fome trade in wine,
and exports annually betwreen 20 and 30,000 Win-
chefter buftiels (10 and 15,000 bolls) of corn. Veffels
of about 250 tons can come within half a mile of the
town ; and of 60, as high as the bridge ; which con-
fills of five arches, defended by a gateway. A fabric
for carding and fpinning of cotton has lately been
eredled, and the town begins to increafe. Here was
formerly a caftle ; which was built by the Bruces, af¬
ter they became lords of Annandale. Upon the death
of David II. the fon of King Robert, in 1371, this
caftle (Lochmaben), and the lordftiip of Annandale,
came to Thomas Randolph earl of Murray, and went
with his filler Agnes to the Dunbars, earls of March:
after their forfeiture it went to the DouglaiTes, who
alfo loft it by the fame fate} and then having come to
Alexander duke of Albany, he, for rebelling againft
his brother King James III. and pundering the fair of
Lochmaben in 1484, was alfo forfeit. Since which
time it continued in the hands of the king, and be¬
came the great key of the weft border.
The ftewarty or diftritt of Annandale,. of which
Lochmaben caltle was the chief fortalice, is a fertile
vale, 24 miles long, and about 14 miles broad. From
its vicinity to England, and the continual incurfions
and predatory wars of the borderers, the greateft part
of it was uncultivatfed and common : but fince the be¬
ginning of the prefent century, or rather within the
laft thirty years, all thefe wraftes and commons have
been divided and brought into culture, and the country
has affumed a new appearance} which may be afcribed
not only to the divifion of the commons, but likewife
to the improvement made in the roads, and particular-
Iv in the great weftern road from Edinburgh to Lon¬
don by Moffat, Gratney, and Carlifle, running through
this vale, and carried on by fome gentlemen of the
country, after they had obtained an a£f of parliament
for levying a toll to defray the expence of making and
keeping it in repair.
Annandale formed a part of the Roman province of
Valentia} and Severus’s wall ending here, it abounds
with Roman ftations and antiquities. The camps at
Birrens in Middlebie, and on the hill of Burnfwark,
are ftill entire, and their form is preferved } and the
traces and remains of a military road are now vifible in
different parts of the country. The ruins of the houfe
or caftle of Auchincafs, in the neighbourhood of Mof¬
fat, once the feat of that potent baron, Thomas Ran-
dolp, earl of Murray, lord of Annandale, and re¬
gent of Scotland in the minority of David II. covers
above an acre of ground, and even now conveys an idea
of the plan and ftrength of the building. The ancient
caftle of Comlongan, formerly belonging to the Mur¬
rays, earls of Annandale, and now to Lord Stormont,
is ftill in a tolerable ftate of prefervation } but except
this caftle and that of Hoddam, moft of the other old
foxtalices and towers are now taken down, or in ruins.
Annandale is a marquifate belonging to the John- Annard,
ftones, and the chief of the name. Annano.
ANN AND, W ill i am, dean of Edinburgh in Scot¬
land, the fon of William Annand minifter of Air, was
born at Air in 1633. Five years after, his father
was obliged to quit Scotland with his family, on
account of their loyalty to the king, and adherence
to the epifcopal government eftabliftred by law in that
country. In 1651, young Annand wras admitted a
fcholar in Univerfity college in Oxford } and though
he w'as put under the care of a prelhyterian tutor,
yet he took all occafions to be prefent at the fer-
mons preached by the loyal divines in and near Ox¬
ford. In 1656, being then bachelor of arts, he re¬
ceived holy orders from the hands of Dr Thomas Ful-
WTar, biftiop of Ardfert or Kerry in Ireland, arid was
appointed preacher at Wefton on the Green near Bi-
cefter in Oxfordfture, where he met with great en¬
couragement from Sir Francis Norris, lord of that
manor. After he had taken his degree of mafter of
arts, he wTas prefented to the vicarage of Leighton-
Buzzard in Bedfordlhirej where he diftinguifhed him-
felf by his edifying manner of preaching, till 1662,
when he went into Scotland, in quality of chaplain to
John earl of Middleton, the king’s high commiftioner
to the church of that kingdom. In the latter end of
the year 1663, he was inftituted to the Tolbooth church
at Edinburgh, and from thence was removed fome
years after to the Tron church of that city, which is
likewife a prebend. In April 1676, he was nomi¬
nated by the king to the deanery of Edinburgh ; and
in 1685, he commenced dodlor of divinity in the
univerfity of St Andrew’s. He wrote, 1. Tides Ca-
tholica i or, The Dodlrine of the Catholic Church, in
eighteen grand Ordinances, referring to the word, fa-
craments, and prayer, in purity, number, and nature,,
catholically maintained, and publicly taught, againft;
heretics of all forts. Loud. 1661-2, 4to. 2. Solutions
of many proper and profitable queftions, fuitable to the
nature of each Ordinance, &c. printed with the Fides
Catholica. 3 .Panem ^uotidianem; or, A ftiort Dif-
courfe, tending to prove the legality, decency, and ex¬
pediency, of fet forms of prayers in the Churches of
Chrift, wdth a particular Defence of the Book of Com¬
mon Prayer of the Church of England. Lond. 1661.
qto. 4. Pater Nojler, Our Father; or, The Lord’s
Prayer explained, the fenfe thereof, and duties there¬
in, from Scripture, Hiftory, and the Fathers, metho¬
dically cleared, and fuccinftly opened. Lond. 1670,
8vo. 5. Myjlerium Pietatis; or, The Myftery of God-
linefs, &c. Lond. 1672, 8vo. 6. Doxologia; or, Glory
to the Father, the Church’s Hymn, reduced to glo¬
rifying the Trinity. Lond. 1672, 8vo. 7. Duahlas ;
or, A twofold fubjed difplayed and opened, conduci-
ble to godlinefs and peace in order: Firft, Lex loquens,
the honour and dignity of magiftracy, with the duties
thereupon, &c.} Secondly, Duorum Unitas; or, The
agreement of magiftracy and miniftry at the eRdion
of the honourable magiftrates at Edinburgh and open¬
ing of theDiocefan Synod of the Reverend Clergy there.
Edin. 1674, 4to. Dr Annand died the 13th of June
1689, and was honourably interred in the Grey Friars
church in Edinburgh.
ANNANO, a ftrong fort of Italy, in the duchy of
Milan.
ANN
Annapolis Milan. It lias been twice taken by tbe French ; but
Anne WaS re^ore<^ 1:0 duke of Savoy in 1706. It is feat-
nne' ,ed on the river Tanaro, in E. Long. 8. 30. N. Lat.
44. 40.
ANNAPOLIS, the chief town in Maryland, in
North America; which as yet is but mean, becaufe the
people in this province choofe to live on their planta¬
tions, as in Virginia. St Mary’s was once the capital
of the province of Maryland, and the town of Anna¬
polis was known by the name of Severn. It received
its prefent name in 1694, when it was made a port
town, and the refidence of a colleftor and naval officer.
W. Long. 78. 10. N. Lat. 38. 25.
Annapolis Royal, a town of Nova Scotia, is feat-
cd in the bay of Fundy; and, though a mean place,
was formerly the capital of the province. It has one
of the {inert harbours in America, capable of contain¬
ing 1000 veffels at anchor in the utmoft fecurity. The
place is alfo protected by a fort and garrifon. At the
bottom of the harbour is a point of land, which divides
two rivers; and on each fide there are pleafant mea¬
dows, which in fpring and autumn are covered with all
forts of freffi water fowl. There is a trade carried on
Ty the Indians with furs, which they exchange for Eu¬
ropean goods. W. Long. 64. 5. N. Lat. 45. 10.
ANNATES, among ecclefiaftical writers, a year’s
income of a fpiritual living.
Thefe were, in ancient times, given to the pope
through all Chriftendom, upon the deceafe of any bi-
fliop, abbot, or parirti clerk, and were paid by his fuc-
certbr. At the Reformation they w^ere taken from the
pope, and verted in the king; and, finally, Queen Anne
reftored them to the church, by appropriating them to
the augmentation of poor livings.
383 1 ANN
and fo conduced towards the fuperiority of the tories, as
that they were inclined to puffi to the utmoft extremity '
their plans, with refpeft to the government both of
the church and ftate. The death of Queen Anne in
Augurt 1714, of a dropfy, in the fiftieth year of her
age, and thirteenth of her reign, was therefore, equally
to the difappointment of the one, and to the triumph of
the other. In her private ftation file fupported the
charadler of an amiable woman, and not devoid of un-
derftanding, although her indolence and yielding tem¬
per prevented her from exerting it. She was general¬
ly well beloved by her fubje&s, whofe prejudices co
incided with her owm, and the title of the Good ^ueen
Anne beft expreffes their fentiments. Although her
own difpofitions, and accomplifhments had' no ffiare in
the honour, yet this age was rendered a fort of Augu-
ftan age of Britiffi literature, on account of the feveral
eminent waiters who flourifhed under her reign (Gen.
Biog.) &
Anne Boleyn, queen of Henry VIII. king of Eng¬
land, daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn, a nobleman of
a powerful family, and numerous alliances. The daugh¬
ter of the duke of Norfolk wras her mother, and during
the reign of the former king her father had been
honoured wdth feveral embaffies. Mary the king’s
fifter, who married Lewis NIL king of France, carried
oyer this lady with her at an early age, where ihe im¬
bibed the freedom, the vivacity, and the opennefs of
manners of that nation. After the death of Lewis,
that queen returned to England, and Anne continued to
attend her royal miftrefs. Having fome time after left
her fervice, rtie was introduced into the family of
the duchefs of Alengon. In addition to all her ac¬
quired accompliftiments, {be pofleffed the greatert per-
Annei
A \TNTT? c A -n ■ ■ r . , A  uJe pollened tne greatelt
■j ^ 0,f.Gcreat B.rfltaiIb fecond daughter of fonal elegance, and was highly famed in that age.
mg lames II. bv his firft wufe. Anne Hvrl,* -fL T .• , , &e-
King James II. by his firft wife, Anne Hyde, was born
in 1664. i683, {he married George, prince of
Denmark, by whom Ihe had feveral children, but none
of them arrived at the age of maturity. On the death
of King William, rtie afcended the throne, A. D. 1702,
and her reign comprehends one of the moft illuftrious
peiiods o{ Engliffi hiftory. Poflefied, however, of a
very feeble charafter, which did not permit her to aft for
herfelf, this period is the reign of her counfellors, and
favourites ; and ffie exhibited no decided inclination
which could influence ftate affairs, except a ftrong de¬
fire for tory principles, both in church and ftate. In
the commencement of her reign, being entirely gover¬
ned by the duchefs of Marlborough, ffie was induced
to follow out the premeditated defigns of her prede-
ceffors with refpeft to Louis XIV. king of France, and
for many years, repeated fiiccefs attended her armies
with glory. Thefe were at length after a fmitlefs pro-
traftion of hoftilities, terminated by the peace of Utrecht,
m 1713. Tins peace was chiefly owing to the acquir¬
ed influence of a female favourite ofthe oppofite party.
By an aft ofthe iegiflature in the year 1706, the union of
the Enghfh and Scottiffi nations was formed, which event
contributed more than the former towards the profperi-
ty of the kingdom. Yet thefe fuccefsful events prevent¬
ed not the contention of parties which prevailed during
the greateft part of her reign. And about the clofe of
it, when this fpirit was juft on the eve of breaking into
a flayie, the queen manifefted an ardent defire, that the
exiled part of her family flioyld fucceed to the throne,
Diftoiy does not explicitly mention whether or not,
it was. on her account., but upon her return to England
the king expreffed his fcruples concerning his union
with Cathaiine of Arragon. Enamoured, howrever,
of Anne, lie expreffed his attachment to her; but
ftie was poffeffed of too much virtue and policy, to con¬
fer any improper favours. This prudent and vir¬
tuous reftraint only increafed the paffion of Henry •
and placing her at court, he diftinguiflied her by many
marks of royal favour. The impetuous king at length
came to the refolution to divorce his queen, to make
way for his favourite Anne. In this inftance, the in¬
jury done to that queen proved the caufe of the final
feparation of England from the dominion of the pope-
Various delays and difficulties occurring to the divorce,
Henry privately married Anne during the month of
November 1532, and in April following he publicly
declared her queen of England. The famous queen
Elizabeth was the firft fruits of this marriage, who W'as
born the September following. For fome time ffie en¬
joyed a confiderable ffiare of the royal favour, and ffie-
made uie^of that influence in fubduing the haughty
prelate Wolfey, and widening the breach between the
king, and the pope. But this favour w^as not of loner
continuance.; for the king, ever varying in his temper
and difappointed. at her being brought to bed of a dead
male child, imbibed a new paffion for Jane Seymour ;
and troubled at the evil inclinations of the catholics,
he allowed the jealoufy of conjugal affeftion to enter
his bofom, which her thoughtleis demeanour tended in
St Anne’s a great meafure to
day,
N N ^ [ 384 ] ANN
realize. '’X he king’s Jealoufy ftill When thofe that remain entire are examined, they dif-Annealing.
Annealing ^1ilcreadngj die was accufed of adultery with feveral of
|16 * the houlehold officers, and even with her own brother,
Lord Rochfort. She was accordingly tried on a charge
of high treafon, and although proof was very fcanty,
yet (he was condemned to be beheaded j which fen-
tence was executed in May 1536. Her behaviour on
that occafion was a fmgular mixture of firmnefs and
unufual levity. She avowed being guilty of many ex-
celles, yet to the laft refolutely denied any ferious guilt.
Although her charafter has been greatly depreciated
by feveral authors, yet a letter written by her to the
king after condemnation, gives a much higher idea of
her charafler than thefe partial accounts would endea¬
vour to convey.
The important part which {he and her daughter a fled
in the Reformation has drawn upon her memory many
malignant and vicious {lories, by'thofe of the catholic
party, who were likewife induced to this by the ex-
peflation of being conducive to the injury of Protef-
tanifm, by iligmatizing the various charafters and mo¬
tives of its promoters. Thefe various accounts are
however, for the moll part refuted by fafts univerfally
known, or have no evidence or probability by which
they may be fupported. Refpefting her innocence of
the charge on which fhe loft her life, it is a matter of un¬
certainty, yet it appears to be lefs certain that Ihe was
guilty than that her hufband was a bloody and capri¬
cious tyrant. (Gen. Biog.)
St Anne's Day, a feftival of the Chriftxan church,
celebrated by the Latins on the 26th of July, but by
the Greeks on the 9th of December. It is kept in ho¬
nour of Anne or Anna, mother of the Virgin Mary.
ANNEALING, by the workmen called nealing, is
particularly ufed in making glafs: it confills in placing
the bottles, &c. whilit hot, in a kind of oven or fur¬
nace, where they are fuffered to cool gradually : they
would otherwife be too brittle for ufe.~-Metals are ren¬
dered hard and brittle by hammering : they are there¬
fore made red hot, in order to recover their malleabili¬
ty ; and this is called nealing.
The difference between unannealed and annealed
glafs, with refpeft to brittlenefs, is very remarkable.
When aw unannealed glafs veffel is broken, it often
flies into a fmall powder, with a violence feemingly very
unproportioned to the ftroke it has received. In ge¬
neral, it is in greater danger of breaking from a very
flight ftroke than from one of fome confiderable force.
One of thofe veffeis will often refill the effefts of a
piftol bullet dropt into it from the height of two or
three feet •, yet a grain of fand falling into it will make
it burft into fmall fragments. This takes place fome-
times immediately on dropping the fand into it: but
often the veffel will ftand for feveral minutes after,
feemingly fecure *, and then, without any new injury,
it will fly to pieces. If the veffel be very thin, it does
not break in this manner, but feems to poffefs all the
properties of annealed glafs.
The fame phenomena are ftill more ftrikingly feen in
glafs drops or tears. They are globular at one end,
and taper to a fmall tail at the other. They are the
drops which fall from the melted mafs of glafs on the
rods on which the bottles are made. They drop into
the tubs of water which are ufed in the work ; the
m greater part of them burft immediately in the water.
cover all the properties of unannealed glafs in the high-
eft degree. < They will bear a {’mart ftroke on the
thick end without breaking $ but if the fimal! tail be
broken, they burft into imall powder with a loud ex-
plofion. They appear to burft with more violence,
and the powder is fmaller, in an exhaufted receiver than
in the open air, When they are annealed, they lofe
thefe properties.
Glafs is one of thofe bodies which increafe in bulk
when pafling from a fluid to a folid ftate. When it is
allowed to cryftallize regularly, the particles are fo ar¬
ranged, that it has a fibrous texture : it is elaftic, and
fufceptible of long-continued vibrations j but when a
mafs of melted glafs is fuddenly expor.l to the cold*
the furface cryftallizes, and forms a folid {hell round
the interior fluid parts : this prevents them from ex¬
panding when they become folid. They, therefore,
have not the opportunity of a regular cryftallization j
but are compreffed together with little mutual cohe-
fion : On the contrary, they prels outward to occupy
more fpace, but are prevented by the external cruft.
In confequence of the effort of expanfion in the inter¬
nal parts, the greater number of glafs drops burft in
cooling 5 and thofe which remain entire are not regu¬
larly cryftallized. A fmart ftroke upon them commu¬
nicates a vibration to the whole mafs, which is nearly
fynchronous in every part : and therefore the effort of
expanfion has little more effeft than if the body were
at reft ; but the fmall tail and the furface only are re¬
gularly cryftallized. If the tail be broken, this com¬
municates a vibration along the cryftallized furface,
without reaching the internal parts. By this they are
allowed fome expanfion 5 and overcoming the cohefion
of the thin outer fhell, they burft it, and are difperfod
in powder.
In an unannealed glafs veffel, the fame thing takes
place. Sometimes the vibration may continue for a
confiderable time before the internal parts overcome
the refiftance. If the veffel be very thin, the regular
cryftallization extends through the whole thicknefs •,
or at leaft the quantity of compreffed matter in the
middle is fo inconfiderable as to be incapable of burft-
ing the external plate.
By the procefs of annealing, the glafs is kept for
fome time in a ftate approaching to fluidity \ the heat
increafes the bulk of the cryftallized part, and renders
it fo foft, that the internal parts have the opportunity
of expanding and forming a regular cryftallization.
A fimilar procefs is now ufed for rendering kettles
and other veffeis of call iron lefs brittle : of it the fame
explanation may be given. The greater number of me¬
tals diminilh in bulk when they pafs from a fluid to a
folid ftate ; iron, on the contrary, expands.
When caft iron is broken, it has the appearance of
being compofed of grains : forged or bar iron appears
to confift of plates. Forged iron has long been pro¬
cured, by placing a mafs of caft iron under large ham¬
mers, and making it undergo violent and repeated com-
preflion. A procefs is now ufed for converting caft
iron into forged, by heat alone. The caft iron is pla¬
ced in an air furnace, and kept for feveral hours in a
degree of heat, by which it is brought near to a fluid
ftate. It is then allowed to cool gradually, and is
found to be converted into forged iron. This procefs
, ’ is
ANN
Arnmlfar is conduced under a patent j although, u Reaumur's
experiments upon^caft iron be confulted, it will appear
not to be a new diicovery.
, Vy thefe experiments it is afcertained, tbnt if cart
iron be expofed for any length of time to a heat confi.
tier ably below its melting point, the texture and pro-
perties are not. changed : but if it be kept in a heat
near the melting point, the furface foon becomes lamei-
lated like forged iron j and the lamellated ftru&ure ex-
tend3 farther into the mafs in proportion to the length
ot time in which it is expofed to that degree of heat.
vV hen it is continued for a fufficient time, and then al¬
lowed to cool gradually, it is found to poffefs the la-
radiated llrudture throughout.
Caft iron, then, is brittle, becaufe it has not had the
opportunity of cryftallizing regularly. When it is ex-
poied to cold while fluid, the furface becomincr folid
prevents the inner parts from expanding and arrang¬
ing themfelves into regular cryftals. When caft iron
is biought near to the melting point, and continued for
a iumcient length of time in that degree of heat, the
particles have the opportunity of arranging themfelves
“i.to ;ona of cryftals by which forged iron is di-
itmguilhed, and by which it pofielTes cchefton and all
its properties.
There appears, therefore, to be no other effentiab
difference between forged and caft iron, except what
anfes from the cryftallization. Caft iron is indeed oft¬
en not lufficiently purified from other fubftances which
are mixed with the calx. It appears alfo to contain a
confiderable quantity of calx unreduced ; for during
the procels tor converting it into forged iron, by heat
uone a pale flame arifes from the metal till near the
end ot tne procefs. This is owing to fixed air which
the heat forces oft from the calx. The expulfion of
this air reduces the calx, and thereby frees the metal
irom that injurious mixture.
1 hat this explanation of the annealing of iron is
probable, appears _ alfo from the well-known faeft of
iorged iron being incomparably more difficult of fufion
than caft iron. A piece of forged iron requires a very
violent heat to melt it ; but when it is reduced to a
imall powder, it melts in a much lower degree of heat.
J r,0.1? camm1,^les when it paffes into a fluid ftate
while moft other metals increafe in volume. The ex*
panfion which heat occafions in bringing them to their
melting point, will be favourable to their fluidity by
gradually bringing the particles to the fame ftate of
reparation m which they are when the mafs is fluid •
out tne expanfion ot iron by heat removes it farther
rrora that ftate, and keeps it in the ftate which is fa¬
vourable to the continuance of it in a cryftallized form
It will not melt till the heat expand it fo much that
the coheuon of cryftallization be overcome. When it
reduced to a minute powder before it be expofed to
the heat, it melts fooner.* The cryftals having been de-
droyed,. that cohefion has no effeft in preventing it from
parting into a ftate of fluidity.
Upon the fame principles may be explained the al-
moft peculiar property of welding poffeffed by iron, and
the conyerfion of forged iron into fteel.
Pe.rhuaP^ th^ aI.fo applied to pfetina, a
~ 1. wjnch has lately gained much attention. It
poirefles feme of the properties of iron. It is ftill more
mfficult of fufion than that metal. It is fufceptible of
f s8i. 1
, it R-eaumur’s being welded.
ANN
, Ah,. ,V"', T.!‘e Plural grains of it can fcarcely Arn-c7,
- - ed m the focus of the moft powerful burning AnneCt-y,
ghis; but when it is diflblved in aqmi regia, and PJ-
cipitated by potaffi, it has been melted in fmail rf0-
Dules by the blowpipe. When precipitated by mu¬
riate of ammoniac, it has been melted in a confiderable
mafs m the heat of a furnace ; but it is faid to be hard
and brittle.
Mimy attempts have been made to procure a mafs of
k in a. maheable ftate, but without fuccefs. It is faid
tnat the procefs is now difeovered by a chemift in Spain.
1 he treatment ox the metal is probably very fnnple!
Perhaps it only conflfts in precipitating it in a minute
powder from aqua-regia, expofing it to a ftrong heat
wmch melts it and keeping it for fome time in a ftate
nearly fluid, that it may, like iron, cryflalhze regu-
ANNVrv11 Wm PffS 311 itS metaliic Properties.
AM\ECh , a city or Savoy, feated between Cham-
berry and Geneva, on the banks of a lake of the fame
name, from whence run feveral brooks, which flow
through the town, and uniting at length, form a river
are Pizzas in moft of the ftreets of the town
T lch lcrvie to Ihelter the inhabitants from rain. It
has feveral collegiate and pariffi churches, as well as
convents for men and women. The lake is about nine
miles long and four broad. E. Long. 6. 12 N I at
45- S3’
ANNESLEY, Arthur, earl of Anglefey and
lord privy leal m the reign of King Charles II. was the
n of Sir Francis Annefley, Baronet, Lord Mount-
Noms, and Vifcount Valentia, in Ireland; and was
bom at Lublin on the loth of July 16x4. He was
for fome time at the univerfity of Oxford, and after-
wards lludied the law at Lincoln’s Inn. He had a
confiderable fhare in the public tranfadions of the laft
century; for xn the beginning of the civil war he fat
m the parliament held at Oxford ; but afterwards be!
came reconciled to the oppofite party, and was fent
conmnffioner to Ulfter, to oppofe the defigns of the re-
e C wen koe Oneal. He engaged in feveral other
affairs with great fuccefs. He was prefident of the
council of ftate after the death of Oliver, and was prin
cipally concerned in bringing about the Reftoration •
foon after which, King Charles II. raifed him to the
dignity of a baron, by the title of Lord Annefley of
m-Id7°rt'irTa ’ ’ and a fll°rt time after he was
made ead of Anglefey. During that reign he was
employed on fome very important affairs, was made
Th oTk the navy; and afterwards lord privy foal
n 0a<?m I-68°’ hlS lordflllP was charged by one
Dangerfield, in an information delivered upon oath
inVt lliL t h0“fc °f. COn,m°m’ "•ith
ng to ftifle evidence ,in relation to the Popiffi plot and
to promote the belief of a Preffiyterian one. The un
eafinels he received from this attack did not prevent
ns fpeaking- his opinion freely of thofo matters in the
loufo of lords, particularly in regard to the Popifli nfot
About the fame time he anfwered the Lord Cattle*
haven s Memoirs^ in which that nobleman endeavour’
ed to paint the Inffi rebellion in the lighteft colours -
and a iharp difpute was raifod, which^nL t t ’
feal’s being taken from him. He was a perfon of
great abilities, had uncommon learning, and was well
acquainted with the conftitution and laws of England
Ac wrote, beftdes his Animadverfiqns on Caftlehaven’s
3 C Memoirs,
ANN [3:
Annexa- Memoirs, i. The Privileges of the Houfe of Lords
non.’ and Commons ftated. 2. A Difcourfe on the Houfe
~ "lion. 3. Memoirs. 4. The Hiftory of the
^ Troubles in Ii'eland, from the rebellion in 1641 till
the Reftoration. 5. Truth unveiled, in behalf of the
Church of England ;—and fome other works. He
died in April 1686, in the 73d year of his age j and
was fucceeded by his fon James.
ANNEXATION, in Law, a term ufed to imply
the uniting of lands or rents to the crown.
ANNIHILATION, the aft of reducing any crea¬
ted being into nothing.
Chriftians, Heathens, Jews, Siamefe, Perfians, di¬
vines, philofophers, &c. have their peculiar fyftems,
fentiments, conjectures, not to fay dreams, concerning
annihilation } and we find great difputes among them
about the reality, the pofiibility, the means, meafures,
prevention, ends, &c. of annihilation.
The firft notions of the produftion of a thing from,
or reduftion of it to, nothing, Dr Burnet (hows, arofe
from the Chriftian theology 5 the words creation and
annihilation, in the fenfe now given to them, having
been equally unknown to the Hebrews, the Greeks,
and the Latins.
The ancient philofophers in efifeft denied all annihi¬
lation as well as creation, refolving all the changes in
the world into new modifications, without fijppofing
the produftion of any thing new, or deftruftion of the
old. By daily experience, they faw compounds dif-
folved •, and that in their diflblution nothing perilhed
but their union or connexion of parts : when in death
the body and foul were feparated, the man they held
was gone, but that the fpirit, remained in its original
the great foul of the world, and the body in its earth
from whence it came \ thefe were again wrought by
nature into new compofitions, and entered new Hates
of being which had no relation to the former.
The Perfian bramins hold, that after a certain period
of time, confiiling of 71 joogs, God not only annihi¬
lates the whole univerfe, but every thing elfe, angels,
fouls, fpirits, and all, by which he returns to the fame
Hate he was in before the creation ; but that, having
breathed a while, he goes to work again, and a new
creation arifes, to fubfiH 71 joogs more, and then to be
annihilated in its turn. Thus they hold there have been
almoH an infinite number of worlds : but how many
joogs are elapfed fince the lafi creation, they cannot
certainly tell; only in an almanack written in the Shan-
fcrit language in 1670, the world is laid to be then
3,892,771 years old from the laH creation. »
The Siamefe heaven is exaftly the hell of fome Soci-
nians and other Chrifiian writers ; wfiio, ihocked with
the horrible profpeft of eternal torments, have taken
refuge in the fyfiem of annihilation. This fyflem feems
countenanced by Scripture ; for that the words death,
dejirullion, and perijhing, whereby the punifhment of
the wicked is moll frequently expreffed in Scripture, do
mofi properly import annihilation and an utter end of
being. To this Tillotfou anfwers, that thefe words, as
well as thefe correfponding to.them mother languages,
are often ufed, both in Scripture and other writings,
to fignify a Hate of great mifery and fullering, without
the utter etftinftion of the miferable. Thus God is of¬
ten faid in Scripture to bring deJlruEhon on a nation,
when he fends judgment upon them, but without ex-
6 ] ANN
terminating or making an end of them. So, in other Ansihila-
languages, it is frequent, by peri/hing, to exprefs a per- Hon.
fon’s being made miferable j as in that known palfage '■““—v*-—
in Tiberius’s letter to the Roman fenate : Ita me dii,
decvque omnes, pejus perdant, quam hodie perire me fen-
tio. As to the word death, a Hate of mifery which is
as Bad, or worfe, than death may properly enough be
called by that name j and thus the punilhment of wick¬
ed men after the day of judgment is in the book of Re¬
velation frequently called the fecond death.
Some Chriltian writers allow a long time of the moH
terrible torments of finners j and after that fuppofe
that there lhall be an utter end of their being. Of
this opinion Irenams appears to have been 5 who, ac¬
cording to M. du Pin, taught that the fouls, at leafl of
the wicked, would not fubfifl eternally 5 but that, af¬
ter having undergone their torments for a certain pe¬
riod, they would at laH ceafe to be at all. But Til-
lemont, Petit, Didier, and others, endeavour to defend
Irenaeus from this imputation, as being too favourable
to the wficked. .
It has been much difputed among divines, whether,
at the confummation of all things, this earth is to be
annihilated, or only purified, and fitted for the habita¬
tion of fome new order of beings. Gerard in his Com¬
mon Places, and Hakewil in his Apology, contend ear-
nefily for a total abolition or annihilation. Ray, Cal-
met, and others, think the fyfiem of renovation or re-
Hitution more probable, and more confonant to Scrip¬
ture, reafon, and antiquity. The fathers who have
treated on the queflion are divided ; fome holding that
the univerfe Hiall not be annihilated, but only its ex¬
ternal face changed ; others afferting, that the fubflance
of it fhall be deitroyed.
How wfidely have the fentiments of mankind differ¬
ed as to the pofiibility and impofllbility of annihilation!
According to fome, nothing fo difficult; it requires
the infinite power of the Creator to effeft it : fome go
further, and feem to put it out of the power of God
himfelf. According to others, nothing fo eafy : Exilt-
ence is a Hate of violence ; all things are continually
endeavouring to return to their primitive nothing 5 it
requires no power at all; it will do itfelf j nay, what
is more, it requires an infinite power to prevent it.
Many authors confider prelervation as a continual
reproduction of a thing, which, fubfifiing no longer of
itfelf, would every moment return into nothing. Gaf-
fendi on the contrary affeits, that the world may in¬
deed be annihilated by the fame power which fir ft
created it, but that to continue it there is no occafion
for any power of prefervation.
Some divines, of which number the learned Bithop
King feems to be, hold annihilation for the greateft of
all evils, worfe than even the utmoft torments of hell
flames j while others, vith lome of the eaftern philofo¬
phers, acknowledge annihilation for the ultimate pitch
of happinefs human nature is capable of; that fove-
reign good, that abfolute beatitude, fo long vainly
fought for by the philofophers, is found here. No
wonder it had been fo long concealed ; for who would
have thought of looking for the fummum bonum, where
others have placed the fum of mifery ?
The faid prelate propofes it as a qutftion, Whether
fuffering eternal torments be a greater tvil than not ex-
ifting ? He thinks it highly probable, that the damned
will
ANN [ 3S7 ] ANN
Anni will be fucli fools, that feeling their own mifery in the
^ moll exquillte degree, they will rather applaud their
own condufl, and choofe to be, and to be what they
are, rather than not to be at all fond of their condi¬
tion, however wretched, like people enraged, they wall
• perfill in their former fentiments without opening their
eyes to their folly, and perfevere by wTay of indignation
and revenge. Mr Bayle refutes him on this head 5 but
might, one would think, have faved himfelf the trouble.
The Talapoins hold it the fupreme degree of happi-
nefs to have the foul totally annihilated, and freed from
the burden and llavery of tranfmigrations* They fpeak
ot three Talapoins, who, after a great number of tranf¬
migrations, became gods ; and wdien arrived at this
Hate, procured this further reward of their merit, to be
annihilated. The ultimate reward of the highelt per-
feftion man can arrive at is neiurepan, or annihilation ;
which at length is granted to thofe who are perfectly
pure and good, after their fouls have wandered many
thoufand years through various bodies.
ANN I nubiles, in Law, denotes the marriageable
age of a wmman, viz. after Ihe has arrived at twelve.
ANNIVERSARY, the annual return of any re¬
markable day. Anniverfary days, in old times, more
particularly denoted thofe days in which an office -was
yearly performed for the fouls of the deceafed, or the
martyrdom of the faints wTas yearly celebrated in the
church.
ANNOBON, a fmall iiland of Africa, on the coaft
of Loango, belonging to the Portuguefe. It lies in
E. Long. 5. 10. S. Lat. r. 50. and receives its name
from being difcovered on New year’s day. According
to Pyrard, it is about five or fix French leagues in com-
pafs; but Baudrand fays, it is ten leagues round. Here
are two high mountains, the tops of which being con¬
tinually covered with clouds, occafion frequent rains.
On the fouth-eaft of the iiland are two rocks ; one of
which is low, and upon a level with the furface of the
fea 5 the other higher and larger, but both danger¬
ous in the night to {hipping ; but between them the
channel is deep and clear. Thefe rocks are inhabited
by vail numbers of birds, fo tame, that the failors fre¬
quently catch them with their hands. On the fame
fide of the iiland is a convenient watering place at the
foot of a rivulet, which tumbles from the mountains
down to a valley covered wfith orange and citron trees,
&c. and affording a plealant and refreftiing {hade 5 but
the road on the north-well fide is difficult and danger¬
ous, though moft frequented by ffiips who have no in¬
tention of touching upon the continent. In either
place it is difficult to take in a fufficient quantity of
water, on account of the violent breakings of the fea,
and a Hone intrenchment erefted by the negroes, from
which they annoy all ftrangers that attempt to land.
The true road for {hipping lies on the north-eaft fide,
where they may anchor in feven, ten, thirteen, or fix-
teen fathoms, on a fine fand dole to the land, oppofite
to the village where the negroes have thrown up their
intrenchments.
I he climate is wholefome, and the air clear and fe-
rene for the greateft part of the year. Every part of
the iiland is watered by pleafant brooks, and frefir wa¬
ter fprings, which, however, at the new and full moons,
or in all high tides, acquire a brackifhnefs. The banks
ol every rivulet are covered with palms, whence the in¬
habitants extract their wine by incifion. Here are a Anno
number of fertile valleys, which produce Turkey corn,
rice, millet, yams, potatoes, &c. and afford pallure 1 .‘ 'A
for abundance of oxen, flieep, goats, &c. Poultry and
filh alfo abound here ; but the only mercantile pro-
duftion is cotton, which is elteemed equal in quality
to any produced in India, though the quantity is fmall.
In the year 1605, the Dutch admiral Matelief
found 200 negroes, and two Portuguefe, on Annobon,
moll of them able to bear arms, expert in the ufe of
them, and trained up m military difcipline. La Croix
fays, it has a town oppofite to the road that contains
above 100 houfes, the whole furrounded by a parapet.
Moft of their dwellings are cane huts. In the whole
ifland there is not a lingle houfe built of ftone, and
only- two of wood, which belong to the Portuguefe.
All the inhabitants are meanly clothed j the women
go bareheaded, and have alfo the upper part of the
body naked, modelly being defended by a piece of
linen wrapt under their ftomach, and falling down in
the form of a petticoat, or wide apron, to the knees.
As to the men, they wear only a linen girdle round
the loins, with a fmall flat before. The women carry
their children on their backs, and fuckle them over
the ftioulder. All the inhabitants are fubjefl to the
Portuguefe governor, who is the chief perfon in the
ifland ; at the fame time that the negroes have their
own chief fubordinate to him. They are all rigid Ca¬
tholics, having either been compelled or perfuaded by
the arguments of the Portuguefe to embrace ^ and, like
all other converts, they are bigotted in proportion to
the novelty of the belief, and their ignorance of the
true tenets.
ANNO Domini, i. e. the year of our Lord j the
computation of time from our Saviour’s incarnation.
ANNOMINATION, in Rhetoric, the fame with
what is otherwife c'AWe.diparonomaJia. See Paronomasia.
ANNONA, in Roman Antiquity, denotes provifion
for a year of all forts, as of fleffi, wine, &c. but elpe-
cially of corn. Annona is likewife the allowance of
oil, fait, bread, flefli, corn, wine, hay, and ftraw, which
was annually provided by the contractors for the main¬
tenance of an army.
Annona, the Cujlard Apple. See Botany Index.
_ ANNONA: p rasfectus, in Antiquity, an extraor¬
dinary magiftrate, whofe bufinefs it was to prevent a
fcarcity of provifion, and to regulate the weight and
finenefs of bread.
ANNONAY, a fmall town of France, in the de¬
partment of Ardeche, formerly Upper Vivarais, feated
on the river Deunre. E. Long. 4. 52. N. Lat. 45. 15.
ANNOT, a fmall city on the mountains of Provence
in France. E. Long. 7. o. N. Lat. 44. 4.
ANNOTATION, in matters of literature, a brief
commentary, or remark, upon a book or writing, in or¬
der to clear up fome paffage, or draw fome conclufion
from it.
ANNOTTA. See Andtta.
ANNUAL, in a general fenfe, an appellation given
to whatever returns every year, or is always performed
within that fpace of time.
Annual Motion of the Earth. See Astronomy.
Annual Leaves, are fuch leaves as come up afrefli
in the fpring, and periffi in winter. Thefe Hand op.
pofed to Evergreens.
3 C 2
Annua.1
A N N
Annual
t!
Annuity.
jixNVAL 'Plants, called alfo fimply are fuch
as only live their year, i. e. come up in the fpring and
die again in the autumn 5 and accordingly are to be
recruited every year.
ANNUALRENT is med, in Scots Law, to denote
a yearly profit due by a debtor in a fum of money to
a creditor for the ufe of it.
Right of j4nnualrent, in Scots Law, the original
method of burdening lands with a yearly payment for
the loan of money, before the taking of intereft for
money w7as allowed by flatute.
ANNUEL of Norway, of which mention is made
in the adds of parliament of King James III. was an
annual payment of an hundred merks fterling, which
the kings of Scotland were obliged to pay to the kings
of Norway, in fatisfaftion for fome pretenfions which
the latter had to the Scottish kingdom, by virtue of a
conveyance made thereof by Malcolm Kenmore, who
nfurped the crowm after his brother’s deceafe. This
annuel was firft eftabliflied in 1266 : in confideration
whereof the Nonvegians renounced all title to the fuc-
ceffion to the ides of Scotland. It w’as paid’ till the
year 1468, when the annuel, with all its arrears, was
renounced in the contraft of marriage between King
James III. and Margaret daughter of Chriftian I. king
of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden.
ANNUITY, a fum of money, payable yearly, half-
yearly, or quarterly, to continue a certain number of
years, for ever, or for life.
An annuity is faid to be in arrear, when it continues
unpaid after it falls due. And an annuity is faid to be
in reverfion, wrhen the purchafer, upon paying the price,
does not immediately enter upon pofleffion } the annuity
not commencing till fome time after.
Intereft on annuities may be computed either in the
w^ay of fimple or compound intereft. But compound
intereft, being found moft equitable, both for buyer
and feller, the computation by fimple intereft is uni-
verfally difufed.
I. Annuities for a certain time.
Problem i. Annuity, rate, and tiijae, given'; to
find the amount, or fum of yearly payments, and in¬
tereft.
Rule. Make 1 the firft term of a geometrical feries,
and the amount of il. for a year the common ratio ;
continue this feries to as many terms as there are years
in the queftion; and the fum of this feries is the
amount of il. annuity for the given'years ; which, mul¬
tiplied by the given annuity, will produce the amount
fought.
Example. An annuity of 40I. payable yearly, is
forborn and unpaid till the end of 5 years : What will
then be due, reckoning compound intereft at 5 per cent.
on all the payments then in arrear ?
1 5 5 4 5
1 : 1.05: 1.1025 1.157625 : 1.21550625? wTofe
fum is 5.52563125I. ; and 5.25563125 X40 —
221.02525—221I. os. 6d. the amount fought.
The amount may alfo be found thus : Multiply the
given annuity by the amount of ik for a year ; to the
product add the given annuity, and the fum is the
amount in two years; which multiply by the amount
[ 388 ]
ANN
of il. for a year; to the product add the given annul- Annui^f.
ty, and the fum is the amount in 3 years, &c. The ''“—'V—  1
former queftion wuought in this manner follow's :
40 am. in I year. 126.1 am. in 3 years.
I*°5 1-05
42.00
40
82 am. in 2
132.405
40
years.
172.405 am. m 4 years.
1.05
86.10
40
.02525
40
126.1 am. in 3 years. 221.02525 am. in 5 years.
If the given time be years and quarters, find the
amount for the whole years, as above : then find the
amount ol il. for the given quarters ; by which multi¬
ply the amount for the whole years ; and to the pro-
dudl: add fuch a part of the annuity as the given quar¬
ters are of a year.
If the given annuity be payable half yearly, or quar¬
terly, find the amount of il. for half a year or a quar¬
ter ; by which find the amount for the feveral half-
years or quarters, in the fame manner as the amount
for the feveral years is found above.
Prob. 2. Annuity, r;ite, and time given ; to find
the prefent worth, or fum of money that wull purchafe
the annuity.
Rule. Find the amount of the given annuity by
the former problem ; and then, by compound intereft,
find the prefent worth of this amount, as a fam due at
the end of the given time.
Examp. What is the prefent worth of an annuity
of 40I. to continue 5 years, difeounting at 5 per cent.
compound intereft ?
By the former problem, the amount of the given
annuity for 5 years, at 5 per cent, is 221x2525 ; and
by compound intereft, the amount of il. for 5 years,
at 5 per cent, is 1.2762815625.
And, 1.2762815625)221.02525000(173.1 79—
173I. 3s. 7ft. the prefent worth fought.
The prefent worth may be alfo found thus : By com¬
pound intereft, find the prefent worth of each year by
itfelf, and the fum of thefe is the prefent worth fought.
The former example done in this way follows :
1.2762815625)40.000000000(31.3410
j .21550625) 40.0000000 (3 2.9080
1.157625)40.00000
1.1025)40.000
i.05)40.0
(34-5535
(36.2811
(38-°95-
Prefent worth 173.17S3
If the annuity to be purchafed be in reverfion, find
firft the prefent worth of the annuity, as commencing
immediately, by any of the methods taught above ; and
then, by compound intereft, find the present worth of
that prefent worth, rebating for the time in reverfion ;
and this laft prefent worth is the ainfwer.
Examp...
ANN t 389 ] ANN
Annillty-, Examp. What is the prefent worth of a yearly pen- As 4000 :’i8ol. :; 1 : .04 c rate fought.
^ flon or rent of 75!. to continue 4 years, but not to com- p 8
mence till three years hence, difcounting at s. per cent.? rob. 4. I he rate of interefl given, to find how
many years purchafe an eftate is worth.
•°5 : 1 :: 75 : I500
1.05 X 1.05 x 1.05 x 1.05=1.21550625
I.2!55o625)i50o.coooo( 1 234.05371
1500
1234-053 71
265.94629, prefent worth of the annuity, if it
was to commence immediately.
1.05 X 1.05 X 1.05=1.157625 L. s. d.
1-157625)265-94629(229.7344=229 14 81
Prob. 3. Prefent worth, rate, and time given; to
find the annuity.
Divide 1 by the rate, and the quot is the number of
years purchafe the eftate is worth.
amp.. A. gentleman is willing to purchafe an
eftate, provided he can have percent, for his money :
How many years purchafe may he offer ?
.025)1.000(40 years purchafe. slnf
Prob. 5. The number of years purchafe, at which
an eftate is bought or ford, given; to find the rate of
intereft.
Divide 1 by the. number of years purchafe, and the
quot is the rate of intereft.
Atmuity,
Rule. By the preceding problem, find the prefent
worth of il. annuity for the rate and time given ; and
then fay, As the prefent worth thus found to il. an¬
nuity, fo the prefent worth given to its annuity; that
is, divide the given prefent worth by that of il. an¬
nuity.
Examp. What annuity, to continue 5 years will
I73^- 3s- 7^- purchafe, allowing compound intereft at
5 per cent. ?
Examp. A gentleman gives 40 years purchafe for
an eftate : What intereft has he for his money ?
4o)i.coo(.02 5 rate fought.
The computations hitherto are all performed by a
fingle divifion or multiplication, and it will fcarcely be
perceived that the operations are conduded by the rules
of compound intereft ; but when a reverfion occurs, re-
courle mull be had to tables of annuities on compound
intereft.
.05:1:: i : 20I.
1.05 x 1.05 X 1.05 X 1.05 X 1.05=1.2762815625
1.2762815625) 20.00000000(15.6705
20
15.6705
4-3 295 prefent worth of il annuity.
4-329)173-I79(4°l-^uuity- -dnf
II. Annuities for ever, or freehold Efates.
In freehold eftates, commonly called annuities m fee-
ftriple, the things chiefly to be confidered are, r. The
annuity or yearly rent. 2. The price or prefent worth.
3. The rate of intereft. The queftions that ufually oc¬
cur on this head will lall under one pr other of the fol¬
lowing problems.
Prob. i. Annuity and rate pf intereft given, to find
the price.
As the rate of tl. to rl. fo the rent to the price.
Ex amp. The yearly rent of a fmall eftate is 40I :
What is it worth in ready money, computing interefl;
at 34 per cent. ?
As .035 : I : : 4,0 : 1 i42.857i42rrZ.i 142 17 i4.
Prob. 2. Price and rate of intereft given, to find
the rent or annuity.
As il. to its rate, fo the price to the rent.
Examp. A gentleman purchafes an eftate for 4000I.
»nd has ^ per cent. for his money ; Required the rent?
As 1 : .045 :: 4000 : 1 : 180I. rent fought.
. Pr°r. 3- Price sod rent given, to find the rate of
intereft.
As the price to the rent, fo 1 to the rate.
Examp. An eftate of 180I. yearly rent is bouo-ht
fo 4000I.; What rate cf intereft has the purchafer for
liis money ?
Prob. 6. The rate of intereft, and the rent of a
freehold eftate in reverfion, given; to find the prefent
worth or value of the reverfion.
By Prob. 1. find the price or prefent worth of the
eftate, as if pofieffion was to commence prefently ; and
then, by the Tables, find the prefent value of the giv¬
en annuity, or rent, for the years prior to the com¬
mencement ; fubtradl this value from the former value,
and the remainder is the value of the reverfion.
Examp. A has the poflefiion of an eftate of 1301..
per annum, to continue 20 years; B has the reverfion
of the fame eftate from that time for ever : What is the
■value of the eftate, what the value of the 20 years pof-
feffion, and what the value of the reverfion, reckoning
compound intereft at 6 per cent. ?
By Prob. 1. .06)130.00(2166.6666 value of the eftate.
By Tables 1491.0896 val. of the poflefiion.
675-577° val- of the reverfion.
Prob. 7. The price or value of a reverfion, the time
prior to the commencement, and rate of intereft, given,
to find the annuity or rent.
By the Tables, find the amount of the price of the
reverfion for the years prior to the commencement; and
then by I ioo. 3. find the annuity which that amount
will purchafe.
Ex amp. The reverfion of a freehold eftate, to com¬
mence 20 years hence, is bought for 675.577I. com¬
pound intereft being allowed at 6 per cent. : Required
the annuity or rent ?
By the Tables the amount of 675.5771.7" L.
for 20 years, at 6 per cent, is J 2166.6
By Prob. 2. 2166.6X.06=130.0 rent fought..
III. Life Annuities.
The value or annuities for life is determined from,
obfervations made on the bills of mortality. Dr Halley,
Mx
ANN [ 390
Annuity. Mr Simpfon, and Monf. de Moivre, are gentlemen of
" diflinguifhed merit in calculations of this kind.
Dr Halley had recourfe to the bills of mortality at
Brellaw, the capital of Silefia, as a proper ftandard for
the other parts of Europe, being a place pretty central,
at a diftance from the fea, and not much crowded with
traffickers or foreigners. He pitches upon 100O per-
fons all born in one year, and obferves how many of
thefe were alive every year, from their birth to the ex-
tinftion of the lalf, and confequently how many died
each year,-as in the firft of the following Tables; which
is well adapted to Europe in general. But in the city
of London there is obferved to be a greater difparity in
the births and burials than in any other place, owing
probably to the vaft refort of people thither, in the way
of commerce, from all parts of the known world. Mr
Simpfon, therefore, in order to have a table particular¬
ly fuited to this populous city, pitches upon x 280 per-
fons all born in the fame year, and records the number
remaining alive each year till none wrere in life.
It may not'be improper, however, to obferve, that
however perfect tables of this fort may be in thetnfelves,
and however well adapted to any particular climate,
yet the conclufions deduced from them muft ahvays be
uncertain, being nothing more than probabilities, or
conjedtures drawm from the ufual period of human life.
And the pradlice of buying and felling annuities on
lives, by rules founded on fuch principles, may be juft-
ly confidered as a fort of lottery or chance work, in
which the parties concerned mull often be deceived.
But as eflimates and computations of this kind are
now become faffiionable, we ffiall fubjoin fome brief
account of fuch as appear moft material.
Mr
Dr Halley’s Table
on the Bills
Breflaw.
of Mortality at
Paf.
hv.
3
4
-5
6
7
8
9
10
x 1
12
!3
M
16
J7
18
*9
20
21
22
25
IOOO
855
798
760
732
710
692
680
670
661
653
646
640
634
628
622
616
610
604
598
592
586
579
dge.
24
25
26
27
28
29
3°
31
32
33
34
35
3 6
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
Pe/yi
hv.
573
567
560
553
546
539
531
523
5I5
5°7
499
490
481
472
463
454
445
43 6
427
417
407
397
387
4ge.
Per/.
liv.
Age.
47
48
49
5°
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
6x
62
63
64
6 5
66
67
68
69
377
367
357
346
335
324
3i3
302
292
282
272
262
252
242
232
222
2X2
202
192
182
172
162
I52
70
V
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
f3
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
Per/.
hv.
142
L31
1 2©
109
98
88
78
68
58
49
41
34
28
23
20
*5
1 r
8
5
3
1
o
ANN
Simplon’s Table on the Bills of Mortality at
London.
Annuity,
Age.
o
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
,9
10
11
32
13
J4
*5
16
*7
18
r9
20
21
22
23
Per/
hv.
Jge-
"hv.
1280
870
700
635
600
580
564
551
54i
532
524
5i7
5io
504
408
492
486
480
474
468
462
455
448
441
24
25
26
27
28
29
3°
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
434 ,
426
418
410
402
394
385
376
367
358
349
34°
331
5 2 2
3X3
3°4
294
284
274
264
255
246
237
228
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
Per/ ! ^ \ Per/
liv. j ^' jl liv.
220
21 2
204
196
188
180
172
165
158
I5I
144
137
130
123
117
111
105
99
93
87
81
75
69
64
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
59
54
49
45
41
38
35
32
29
26
23
20
*7
*4
12
10
8
6
5
4
3
2
1
From the preceding Tables the probability of the
continuance or extindtion of human life is eifimated as
follows.
1. The probability that a perfon of a given age ffiftll
live a certain number of years, is meafured by the pro¬
portion which the number of perfons living at the pro-
pofed age has to the difference between the faid number
and the number of perfons living at the given age.
Thus, if it be demanded, what chance a perfon of
40 years has to live feven years longer ? from 445, the
number of perfons living at 40 years of age in Dr Hal¬
ley’s table, fubtradt 377, the number of perfons living
at 47 years of age, and the remainder 68 is the num¬
ber of perfons that died during thefe feven years ; and
the probability or chance that the perfon in the quef-
tion (hall live thefe 7 years is as 377 to 68, or nearly
as 54 ro x. *But, by Mr Simpfon’s table, the chance
is fomething lefs than that of 4 to 1.
2. If the year to which a perfon of a given age has
an equal chance of arriving before he dies, be required,
it may be found thus: Find half the number of perfons
living at the given age in the tables, and in the column
of age you have the year required.
Thus, if the queffion be put with refpedt to a per¬
fon of 30 years of age, the number of that age in Dr
Halley’s table is 531, the half whereof is 265, which
is found in the table between $7 and 58 years ; fo that
a perfon of 30 years has an equal chance of living be¬
tween 27 and 28 years longer.
3. By the tables the premium of infurance upon
lives may in fome meafure be regulated.
Thus,
ANN [
Annuity. Tims, the chance that a perfon of 25 years has to
i—“v ' live another year, is, by Br Halley’s table, as 80 to
1 ; but the chance that a perfon of 50 years has to live
a year longer is only 30 to 1 ; and, confequently, the
premium for infuring the former ought to be the pre¬
mium for infuring the latter for one year, as ?o to 80
or as 3 to 8.
Prob. I. To find the value of an annuity of il. for
the life of a fingle perfon of any given age.
Monf. de Moivre, by obferving the decreafe of the
probabilities of life, as exhibited in the table, compof-
ed an algebraic theorem or canon, for computing the
value of any annuity for life ; which canon we here lay
down by way of
Rule. Find the complement of life 5 and, by the
tables, find the value of il. annuity for the years de¬
noted by the faid complement; multiply this value by
the amount of il. for a year, and divide the produft
by the complement of life ; then fubtraft the quot from
1 ; divide the remainder by the intereft of il. for a
year 5 and this laft quot will be the value of the annui¬
ty fought, or, in other words, the number of years
purchafe the annuity is worth.
Examp. W hat is the value of an annuity of il. for
an age of 50 years, intereft at 5 per cent. ?
86
50 age given.
36 complement of life.
By the tables, the value is, 16.5468
Amount of il. for a year, 1.05
.391 ]
827340
165468
Complement of life, 36) 17.3 74140 (.482615
From unity, viz. 1.000000
Subtraft .482615
Intereft of il. .05).5I7385( 10.3477 va][ue fought.
By the preceding problem is conftrudfed the fob
lowing Table.
The value of il. annuity for a fingle life.
^Se‘ 3 Per c- 3iPerc^4 Per cJ4.lperc.l5perc
9=10, 19.87
8 ~ 11 19.74
7 = 12 19.60
13! 19.47
6=H 19-33
15! 19.19
1 S.27
18.16
18.05
17.94
17.82
I7-7I
16' 19.0 9
s=n
18
19
4 = 2°,
18.90
18.76
18.61
18.46
I7-59
17.46
'7-33
17.21
17.09
16.88
i6-79
16.64
16.60
!6.5o
16.41
15-6 y
15-59
'S-Si
I5-43
l5-35
I5-27
14.60
M-53
14.47
14.41
T4-34
I4-27
16.31
16.21
16.10
I5*99
15.89
15-19
15.10
15.01
14.92
14.83
14.20
14.12
14.05
I3-97
13.89
21
22
23
3 = 24
2 s
18.30
[8.15
17.99
17.83
17.66'
16.96
16.83
16.69
16.56
16.42
15.78
13-67
I5-55
x5-43
M-S1
14-73
14.64
M-54
r4-44
I4*34
: 13-8i
: 13.72
! '3-64
1 JS-ii
i i3-46
6 perc
1 2.80
1 2-75
12.70
1 2.65
1 2.60
I2-55
12. co
12-45
1 2.40
I2-35
12.30
12.20
12.15
12.10
12.00
1'he value of il,
ANN
annuity for a fingle life.
Annuity,
TEs
Annuity.
<“ v—
ANN [ 392 ] ANN
value by the remainder > and the quet will be the value Annuity,
of il, annuity, or the number of years purchafe ibught.
Ex amp. What is the value of tool, annuity for the
joint lives of two perfons, of the age of 30 years each,
reckoning intereft at 4 per cent'll
By.the table, one life of 30 years is^ - 14.68
Multiply by - .04
Subtract the product - 5873
From - 2.0000
The value of xl. annuity for a fingle life.
Age. 3 per c. \%\perc^ a^per c. ^perc. t per c.
6 per c,
76
77
78
79
80
4*05
3-63
3.21
2.78
2*34
3.98
3*37
3.16
2.74
2,31
3-91 ■
3-52 j
3*11 f
2.70 I
2.28 1
3-84
3*47
3*°7
2.67
2.26
3-78
3'4»
3*°3
2.64
2.23
3*65
3*30
*05
205
2.15
The above table fhows the value of an annuity of
one pound for a fingle life, at all the current rates of
interefi ; and is erteemed the beft table of this kind ex¬
tant, and preferable to any other of a different con-
llrwffion. But yet thofe who fell annuities have gene¬
rally one and a half or two years more value, than
fpecified in the table, from purchafers whofe age is 20
years or upwards.
Annuities of this fort are commonly bought or fold
at fo many years purchafe: and the value affigned in the
table may be fo reckoned. Thus the value of an annui¬
ty of one pound for an age of 50 years, at 3 per cent.
intereft, is 12.51 ; that is, 12I. 1 os. or twelve and a
half years purchafe. The marginal figures oh the left
of the column of age ferve to Ihorten the table, and
fignify, that the value of an annuity for the age deno¬
ted by them is the fame with the value of an annuity
for the age denoted by the numbers before which they
ftand. Thus the value of an annuity for the age of 9
and xo years is the fame j arid the value of an annuity
for the age of 6 and 14, for the age of 3 and 24, &c.
is the fame. The further ufe of the table will appear
in the queftions and problems following.
Quest, i. Aperfonof 50 years would purchafe an
annuity for life of 200I.: What ready money ought
he to pay, reckoning intereft at 44 per cent. ?
L.
By the table the value of xl. is 10.8
Multiply by 260
Remains - 1,4128
And 1.4128)i4.68( 10.39 vahm of il, annuity.
And 10.39 x £002=1039 the value fought.
2. If the two perfons are of different ages, work as
dire&ed in the following
Rule. Take the values of the two lives from the
table j multiply them into one another, calling the re-
fult the fir ft product) then multiply the faid fir ft pro-
duff by the intereft of xl. for a year, calling the refult
the fecond productadd the values of the two lives,
and from their fum fubtrafl the fecond produff 5 divide
the firft produff by the remainder, and the quot will
be the value of il. annuity, or the number pf years
purchafe fought.
Ex amp. What is the value of 7 ok annuity for the
joint lives of two perfons, whereof one is 40 and the
other 50 years of age, reckoning intereft at $ per cent.!
By the tabic, the value of 40 years is - 11-83
And the value of 50 years is - IO-35
Firft produff, 122.4405
Multiply by - .05
Second produff, 6.122025
Sum of the two lives, - - 2 2.180000
Second produff deduff, - - 6.122025
Remainder, - I6-°5797S
Value to be paid in ready money, 2164.00 Alnf.
Quest. 2. A young merchant marries a widow lady
of 40 years of age, with a jointure of 300k a-year, and
wants to difpofe of the jointure for ready money: What
fum ought he to receive, reckoning intereft at 34 per
cent. ?
z.
By the table, the value of il. is 13.98
300 *
Value to be received in ready money, 4194.00 Anf.
And 16.057975)122.4405(7.62 value of il. annuity.
70
533.40 value fought.
Prob. 3. To find the value of an annuity upon the
longeft of two lives ? that is, to continue fo long as ei¬
ther of the perfons is in life.
Rule. From the fum of the values of the fingle lives
fubtraff the value of the joint lives, and the remainder
will be the value fought.
Prob. 2. To find the value of any annuity for the
joint continuance of two lives, one life failing, the an¬
nuity to ceafe.
Here there are two cafes, according as the ages of
the two perfons are equal or unequal.
1. If the twro perfons be of the fame age, work by
the following
Rule. Take the value of any one of the lives from
the table ) multiply this value by the intereft of il.for
a year \ fubtradl the pro duel; from 2) divide the forefaid
Ex amp. What is the value of an annuity of il. up¬
on the longeft of two lives, the one perfon being 30,
and the other 40 years of age, intereft at 4 per cent. ?
By the table, 30 years is - - 14.68
40 years is - - I3-20
Value of their joint lives, by Prob. 2.1 27.88
Cafe 2. is j 9.62
Value fought, - - 18.26
ANN
, Annrt‘t'/', y annuity be any other than il. multiply the
anfwcr found as ttbove by the given annuity.
If the two perfons be of equal age, find the value of
t.ieirjoint lives by Cafe I. of Prob. 2.
. 4* To find the value of the next prefenta-
tion to a living.
Rule.^ From the value of the fucceflbr’s life fub-
tract the joint value of his and the incumbent’s life, and
the remainder will be the value of il. annuity $ ivhich
mu-tipUed by the yearly income, will give the fum to
oe paid for the next prefentation.
Txam?. A enjoys a living of rool./.er annum, and
If woula purchafe the faid living for his life after A’s
death The queftion is, What he ought to pay for it
reckoning mtereft at $ per cent, A being 60, and B 2C
years of age ? J
[ 393 1
ANN
tiply that produfl by the intereft of il. atttl that pro- Annuity.
duft again by 2, calling the refult the double pro- ' V—*
d,u6y then’ from the fura of the feveral produfts of
tw« and two, fubtraft the double pro¬
duct ; divide the produft of the three lives by the re¬
mainder, and the quot will be the value of the three
joint lives.
Lxam p. A is 18 years of age, B 34, and C 56 j
VV hat is the value of their joint lives, reckoning in-
terell at 4 per cent §
By the table, the value of A’s life is 16 x of B’*
14. 12, and of C’s 10.01. ’
161. x 14.12 X 10,01 = 227 5.6, produft of the three lives.
.04
By the table, B’s life is
Joint value of both lives, by Prob. 2. is
I he value of jl. annuity,
Multiply by
L.
13.46
6.97
6.49
100
91.024
VaIuc of next prefentation, - • 649.00
The value of a direa prefentation is the fame as that
of any other annuity for life, and is found for xl. by
the table ; which being multiplied by the yearly in¬
come, gives the value fought.
I rob. 5. Fo find the value of a reverfion for ever,
after two fucceffive lives; or to find the value of a living
ceffor 6 dCatl1 °*' ^ prefent incumbent and his fuc-
Rule By Prob. 3. find the value of the longeft of
the two hves, and fubtraa that value from the value of
ioughtrPetUlty’ and the remaiuder wil1 be the value
„5XAMP- A’ a^ed 5°, enjoys an eftate or living of
Tool. per annum ; B aged 30, is entitled to his lifeSme
of the W eftate after A’s death ; and it is propofed
e!] t-lle e^ate Juft now, with the burden of A and
•S yveS ™ : What is the reverfion ivorth, reckon¬
ing mtereft at 4 per cent. ?
L.
J ^ r A 18 2.048, double product.
Product of A and B, 16.1 X 14.1 2 X 227.33
A and C, 16.1 x 10.01 = 161.16
B and C, 14-12 x 10.00=141.34
Sum of all, two and two,
Double produft fubtraa,
529.83
182.048
By the table, A’s life of 50 is
B’s life of 30 is
11-34
14.68
Xr 1 r    SUm, 26.02
V alue of their joint lives, found by 1 8 60
Prob. 2. Cafe 2. is _ f
Value of the longeft life, - J
! rom the value of the perpetuity,
17.42 fob.
25.00
Remainder, . - 17
And 347.782)2275.600(6.54 value fought
longTAw vaIue °f an annuity “P™
Rule. From the fom of the values of the three (ingle
lives taken from the table, fobtraa the fom of all the
joint lives, taken two and two as found by Prob 2 and
to the remainder add the value of the three joint Hves
as found by Prob. 6 and that fom will be the value of
the longed life fought.
WWAM1‘ A,1S 18 years of age> B 34, and C C6-
U hat is the value of the longeft of thefe three lives
mtereft at 4 per cent ? ’
By the table, the fingle value of A’s life is 16 j
Angle value of B’s life is 14 '12
ftngle value of C’s life is 10.01
Sum of the fingle values, 40.2 j
By Prob. 2. the joint value of A and B is""^^
joint value of A and C is 810
joint value of B and C is 7.65
Sum of the joint lives, 26.60
Remains the value of il. reverfion,
Multiply by
7.58
100
Remainder,
By Prob. 6. the value of the 3 joint lives is
758.00
\ alue of the reverfion,
Prob. 6. Fo find the value of the joint continuance
o iree lives, one life failing, the annuity to ceafe.
thpRtUn ' Flnd 1tllei finRle val«es of the three lives from
the table; multiply thefe fingle values continually
Vol II p pr0duft of the three lives 5 mul
j3A3
6*54
Value of the longeft of the 3 lives. - 2o. x y
might be added’ but th^ adduced
are fufocient for moft purpofes. rFhe reader probably
may wifti that the reafon of the rules, which, it muft be
ZtbedT had been affigned : but tW^ould
ot dene without entering deeper into the fobjeft
than was pradicable m this place. See Chances.3
3 ^ /Innuities,
Annuities.
ANN
t 34° 1
ANN
ArtNintiESy [Borrowing upon s') one of tlie methods
employed by government for raifing fupplies.
Of this there are two methods j that of borrowing
upon annuities for terms of years, and that of borrow¬
ing upon annuities for lives.
During the reigns of King William and Queen Anne,
large fums were frequently borrowed upon annuities
for terms of years, which were fometimes longer and
fometimes (liorter. In 1693, an a£l was palled for
borrowing one million upon an annuity of 14 per cent.
or of 140,000!. a-year for 16 years. In 1691, an aft
was palled for borrowing a million upon annuities for
lives, upon terms which in the prefent times would ap¬
pear very advantageous. But the fubfcription was not
filled up. In, the following year the deficiency was
made good by borrowing upon annuities for lives at
14 per cent, or at little more than feven years pur-
chafe. In 1694, the perfons wdio had purchafed thofe
annuities were allowed to exchange them for others of
96 years, upon paying into the exchequer 63 pounds
in the hundred 5 that is, the difference between 14 per
cent, for life, and 14 per cent, for 96 years, was fold
for 63 pounds, or for four and a half years purchafe.
Such was the fuppofed infhbility of government, that
even thefe terms procured few purchafers. In the
reign of Queen Anne, money was upon different occa-
fions borrowed both upon annuities for lives and upon
annuities for terms of 32, of 89, of 98, and of 99 years.
In 17x9, the proprietors of the annuities for 32 years
were induced to accept in lieu of them South Sea
ftock to the amount of eleven and a half years purchafe
of the annuities, together with an additional quantity
of ftock equal to the arrears wdiich happened then to
be due upon them. In 1720, the greater part of the
other annuities for terms of years both long and ftiort
were fubfcribed into the fame fund. The long annui¬
ties at that time amounted to 666,821!. 8s. 3^. a-year.
On the 5th of January 1775, the remainder of them,
or what was not fubfcribed at that time, amounted on-
. ly to 136,4531. x 2s. 8d.
During the two wars which began in 1739 and in
1755, little money was borrowed either upon annuities
fo'r terms of years, or upon thofe for lives. An annui¬
ty for 98 or 99 years, however, is worth nearly as
much money as a perpetuity, and Ihould, therefore, one
might think, be a fund for borrowing nearly as much.
But thofe who, in order to make family fettlements,
and to provide for remote futurity, buy into the public
flocks, would not care to purchafe into one of which
the value was continually diminiftiing ; and fuch people
make a very confiderable proportion both of the pro¬
prietors and purchafers of ftock. An annuity for a
long term o"! years, therefore, though its intrinfic value
may be very nearly the fame with that of a perpetual
annuity, will not find nearly the fame number of pur¬
chafers. The fubfcribers to a new loan, who mean ge¬
nerally to fell their fubfcription as foon as poflible, pre¬
fer greatly a perpetual annuity redeemable by parlia¬
ment, to an irredeemable annuity for a long term of
years of only equal amount. The value of the former
may be fuppofed always the fame, or very nearly the
fame; and it makes, therefore, a more convenient
transferable ftock than the latter.
During the two laft mentioned wars, annuities, either
for terms of years or for lives, were feldom granted but
as premiums to the fubfcribers to a new loan, over and Annuities^
above the redeemable annuity to intereft upon the ere- *
dit of which the loan was fuppofed to be made. They
were granted, not as the proper fund upon which the
money was borrowed j but as an additional encourage¬
ment to the lender.
Annuities for lives have occafionally been granted
in two different wmys *, either upon feparate lives, or
upon lots of lives, which in French are called Tontines,
from the name of their inventor. When annuities are
granted upon feparate lives, the death of every indivi¬
dual annuitant difburdens the public revenue fo far as
it was affefted by his annuity. When annuities are
granted upon tontines, the liberation of the public re¬
venue does not commence till the death of all the an¬
nuitants comprehended in one lot, which may fometimes
confift of twenty or thirty perfons, of wdiom the lur-
vivors fucceed to the annuities of all thofe w’ho die be¬
fore them *, the laft furvivor fucceeding to the annui¬
ties of the whole lot. Upon the fame revenue more
money can always be raifed by tontines than by an¬
nuities for feparate lives. An annuity, with a right
of furvivorlhip, is really worth more than an equal an¬
nuity fora feparate life } and from the confidence which
every man naturally has in his own good foftune, the
principle upon which is founded the fuccefs of all lot¬
teries, fuch an annuity generally fells for fomething
more than it is worth. In countries wrhere it is ufual
for government to raife money by granting annuities,
tontines are upon this account generally preferred to
annuities for feparate lives. The expedient wdiich will
raife moft money, is almoft always preferred to that
which is likely to bring about in the fpeedieft manner
the liberation of the public revenue.
In France a much greater proportion of the public
debts confifts in annuities for lives than in England.
According to a memoir prefented by the parliament of
Bourdeaux to the king in 1764, the whole public debt
of France is eftimated at twenty-four hundred millions
of livres *, of which the capital, for which annuities for
lives had been granted, is fuppofed to amount to three
hundred millions, the eighth part of the whole public
debt. The annuities themfelves are computed to
amount to thirty millions a-year, the fourth part of one
hundred and twrenty millions, the fuppofed intereft ot
that whole debt. It is not the different degrees of
anxiety in the two governments of France and England
for the liberation of the public revenue, which occa-
fions this difference in their refpeftive modes of bor¬
rowing *, it arifes altogether from the different view's
and interefts of the lenders.
In Britain, the feat of government being in the
greateft mercantile city in the w’orld, the merchants
are generally the people who advance money to go¬
vernment. By advancing it they do not mean to di-
minifti, but, on the contrary, to increafe their mercan¬
tile capitals ; and unlefs they expefted to fell with
fome profit their {hare in the fubfcription for a new
loan, they never would fubferibe. But if by advan¬
cing their money they were to purchafe, inftead of
perpetual annuities, annuities for lives only, whether
their own or thofe of other people, they would not al¬
ways be fo likely to lell them with a piofit. Annui¬
ties upon their owm lives they v/ould always fell with
lofs: becaufe no jman will give for an annuity upon the
life
ANN
■Annuities life of another whofe age and date are nearly the fame
Annuncia ^Is own> the fame price which he would give for
-.n.iu^ua one Upon liis own. An annuity upon the life of a
-y——- third perfon, indeed, is, no doubt, of equal value to
the buyer and the feller $ but its real value begins to
dimimih from the moment it is granted, and continues
to do fo more and more as long as it fubfifts. It can
never, therefore, make fo convenient a transferable
dork as a perpetual annuity, of which the real value
may be fuppofed always the fame, or very nearly the
fame.
In France, before the revolution, the feat of go¬
vernment not being in a great mercantile city, mer¬
chants did not make fo great a proportion of the peo¬
ple who advance money to government. The people
concerned in the finances, the farmers general, the re¬
ceivers of the taxes which were not in farm, the court
bankers, &c. made the greater part of thofe who ad¬
vance their money in all public exigencies. Such peo¬
ple were commonly men of mean birth, but of great
wealth, and frequently of great pride. They were too
proud to marry their equals, and women of quality
difdained to marry them. They frequently refolved,
therefore, to live bachelors; and having neither any
families of their own, nor much regard for thofe of
their relations, whom they were not always very fond
of acknowledging, they defired only to live in fplen-
dour during their own time, and were not unwilling
that their fortune fhould end with themfelves. The
number of rich people, befides, who were either averfe
to marry, or whofe condition of life rendered it either
improper or inconvenient for them to do fo, was much
greater in France than in England. To fuch people,
who had little or no care for pofterity, nothing could
be more convenient than to exchange their capital for
a revenue, which is to laft juft as long, and no longer,
than they wifh it to do.
ANN LI IY ok teinds, in Scots Law, a certain
proportion of the teinds of eredled benefices formerly
payable to the crown, but now gone into difufe.
ANNULAR, in a general fenfe, fomething in the
form of, or refembling, a ring. It is alfo a peculiar
denomination of the fourth finger, commonly called
the ring finger. ,
ANNULET, \\\ Architecture, a fmall fquare mem¬
ber in the Doric capital, under the quarter round.
Annulet is alio a narrow flat moulding, which is
common to divers places of the columns, as in the ba¬
ns, capitals, &.c. It is the fame member which Vi-
tiuvius calls a filet; Palladio, a lifil or cinBure ; Sca-
mozzi, and Mr Brown, a fupercilium, lif, tinea, eye-
crow, fquare, rabbit. See Architecture.
Annulet, a little circle, borne as a charge in coats
of c ims, as alfo added to them as a difference. Among
the Romans it reprefented liberty and nobility. It alfo
denotes ftrength and eternity, by reafon of its circular
form.
^ When this figure is added as a difference, fome au-
tnors aftert, that it ferves to remind the bearer to
achieve great aftions.
ANNULLING, a term fometimes ufed for can-
. celling or making void a deed, fentence, or the like.
ANNUNCIADA, Annuntiapa, or Annuncia-
ta, an order of knighthood in Savoy, firft inftituted
by Amadeus I. in the year 1409 : their collar was of
[ 341 ]
ANN
J 5 links, interwoven one with another, in form of a Annuncfa-
true lover’s knot; and the motto, F. E. R. T. figni-
fying, Fortitudo ejus Rhodutn tenuit. Amadeus VIII.
gave the name Annunciada to this order, which was
formerly known by that of the knot of love ; changing
at the fame time the image of St Maurice patron of
Savoy, which hung at the collar, for that of the Vir¬
gin Mary j and, inftead of the motto above mention¬
ed, fubftituting the words of the angel’s falutation.
Annunciada is alfo the title of feveral religious or¬
ders, inftituted at different times, and at different places,
in honour of the annunciation. See the next article.
ANNUNCIATION, the tidings brought by the
angel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary of the incarnation
of Chrift.
Annunciation is alfo afeftival, kept by the church
on the 25th of March, in commemoration of thefe tid¬
ings. This feftival appears to be of very great anti¬
quity. There is mention made of it in a fermon which
goes under the name of Athanafus. Others carry it
up to. the time of Gregory Thaumaturgus, becaufe
there is a fermon likewife attributed to him upon the
fame fubjeft. But the belt critics rejed both thefe
writings as fpurious. However, it is certain, this fef-
trval was obferved before the time of the council of
I rullo, in which there is a canon forbidding the cele¬
bration of all feftivals in lent, excepting the Lord’s
day, and the feaft of the annunciation : fo that we may
date its original from the feventh century.
In the Romifti church, on this feaft, the pope per¬
forms the ceremony of marrying or cloiftering a cer¬
tain number of maidens, who are prefented to him in
the church, clothed in white ferge, and muffled up
from head to foot: An officer (lands by, with purfes
containing notes of 50 crowns for thofe who make
choice of marriage, and notes of a hundred for thofe
who choofe to veil.
Annunciation is likewife a title given by the Jews
to part of the ceremony of the paffover.
ANNUNCIATOR, the name of an officer in the
church of Conftantincple. It was his bufinefs to in¬
form the people of the feftivals that were to be cele¬
brated.
ANODYNE, (from « privative, and doleo ;
or « neg. and paw), a term applied to medicines
which eafe pain, and procure deep. They are divided
into three forts, viz. 1. Parerogics, or fuch as affuage
pain. 2. Hypnotics, or fuch as relieve by procuring
ileep. . 3. Narcotics, or fuch as eafe the patient by
ftupifying him.
Opiates and narcotics deftroy fenfation. Some hyp- ,
notics and paregorics, as nitre, camphor, &c. procure
eafe and deep by removing the offending caufe. Cam¬
phor is faid to be the bed: anodyne in nervous cafes and
at the decline of fevers, d he dofes of thefe medicines
are generally regulated by the pulfe.
ANOINTERS, a religious fed in fome parts of
England, fo called from the ceremony they ufed of
anointing all perfons before they admitted them into
their church. They founded their opinion of anoint¬
ing upon the fifth of James, ver. 14. and 1 r.
ANOLYMPIADES, in Antiquity, a name given
by the Elians to thofe Olympic games which had been
celebrated under the direction of the Pifseans and Ar¬
cadians. Die Elians claimed the foie right of mana-
3 2 ging
da
II
Anoiym-
piades.
A N O [ 39S ] A N O
Anomati- ging tlie Olympic games, in wlucli they fometiraes
ftical Year met; witlj competitors. The hundred and fourth Olym-
Anomcans. was celebrated by order of the Arcadians, by
*■ ■■ t- whom the Elians were at that time reduced very low :
this, as well as thofe managed by the inhabitants of
Pifa, they called that is, “ unlawful O-
lympiads j” and left them out of their annals, wherein
the names of their vidlors and other occurrences were
regiltered.
ANOMALISTICAL year, in AJlronomy, the
time that the earth takes to pafs through her orbit: it
is ako called the Periodical Year. The fpace of time
belonging to this year is greater than the tropical year,
on account of the proceffion of the equinoxes. See
Astronomy.
ANOMALOUS, a term applied to whatever is ir¬
regular, or deviates from the rule obferved by other
things of the like nature.
Anomalous Verbs, in Grammar, fuch as are not
conjugated conformably to the paradigm of their con¬
jugation. They are found in all-languages. In Latin,
the verb lego is the paradigm of the third conjugation ;
and runs thus, lego, legis, legit : by the fame rule it
fliould be fero, feris, ferit; but we fay fero, fers, fert:
fero, then, is an anomalous verb. In Englifh the ir¬
regularity relates often to the preter tenfe and pafiive
participle : for example, give, were it formed accord¬
ing to rule, would make gived in the preter tenfe and
paffive participle j whereas, in the former, it makes
gave, and in the latter giver.
ANOMALY, in AJlronomy, an irregularity in the
motion of the planets, whereby they deviate from the
aphelion or apogee.
ANOMIA, in Zoology, a genus of infefts belong¬
ing to th6 order of vermes teilacea. The fliell is bi¬
valve, and the valves are unequal. One valve is per¬
forated near the hinge ; affixed by that perforation to
fome other body. There are 25 fpecies of the ane¬
mia ; of which only two are natives of the Britiffi
feas, viz. 1. The ephippium, with the habit of an
oyfler 5 the one fide convex, the other flat j perfo¬
rated ; adherent to other bodies, often to oyfter (hells,
by a rtrong tendinous ligature ; colour of the infide
perlaceous. Size, near two inches diameter. 2. The
fquammula, with (hells refembling the feales of fiffi j
very delicate, and fiivery; much flatted •, perforated ;
very fmall. Adheres to oyfters, crabs, lobfters, and
(hells. This fpecies of the genus are commonly called
Beaked Cockles. No name has been given to the fifli
that inhabits it; for the recent (hells of this kind are
fo very rare, that there is fcarcely one to be found
perfect. They are perhaps, as well as that which has
given its form to the cornu ammonis, inhabitants of the
deeped parts, of the ocean j confcquently it mud be
fome extraordinary agitation of that great body of wa¬
ter that can bring them at all to our knowledge in
in their recent date.
The foffil fpecies of the Anornia genus are uncom¬
monly numerous in this illand, in our chalk pits and
limedone quarries j and in Gloucederlhire they are
as common on the ploughed lands as pebbles on other
places.
ANOMOEANS, m Ecclejiajlical Hijlory, the name
by which the pure Arians were called in the fourth
century, in contradidin£lion to the Semi-Arians. The
word is formed from the Greek, onopucs, different, dif-
Jimilar: For the pure Arians afferted, that the Sen Anomor-
was of a nature different from, and in nothing like,
that of the Father : whereas the Semi-Arians acknow- A]10[!exja
ledged a likenefs of nature in the Son •, at the fame * - t— >
time that they denied, with the pure Arians, the con-
fubdantiality of the Word. The Semi-Arians con¬
demned the Anomoeans in the council of Seleucia; and
the Anomoeans in their turn condemned the Semi-
Arians in the councils of Condantinople and Antioch,
erafing the word opaio;, like, out of the Formula of Ri¬
mini and that of Condantinople.
ANOMORHOMBOIDIA, in Natural Hi/lory,
the name of a genus of fpars j the word is derived from
the Greek xtuftaXuis, irregular, and a rhom-
boidal figure. The bodies of this genus are pellucid
crydalline fpars of no determinate or regular external
form, but always breaking into regularly rhomboidal
maffes •, eafily fiffile, and compofed of plates running
both horizontally and perpendicularly through the
maffes, but cleaving moi'e readily and evenly in a ho¬
rizontal, than in a perpendicular direclion •, the plates
being ever compofed of irregular arrangements of
rhomboidal concretions. Of this genus there are five
known fpecies. 1. A white, bright, and (hattery one j
found in great quantities in the lead mines of Derby-
(hire, Yorkdiire, and Wales. 2. A milk-white,
opaque, and (battery one, found in fome parts of
France, and very plentifully in Germany, and forae-
times in Wales and Scotland, and in the hills of York-
fliire. 3. A hard, dull, and fnow-white one, found
in fome of the mines in Derbyfhire, and in many of our
northern counties. 4. A hard, gray, and pellucid one,
found in the lead mines of York (hire, and very common
in Germany. And, 5. A pellucid and colourlefs one ;
this is found in the lead mines of Derbyfliire and York-
ffiire. All thefe in fome degree have the double re-
fraflion of the illand cryftal. See Island cryflal.
ANONIS, in Botany. See Ononis.
ANONYMOUS, fomething that is namelefs, or of
wffiich the name is concealed. It is a term ufually ap¬
plied to books which do not exprefs the author’s name,
or to authors whofe names are unknown.
Anonymous in Commerce. Partnerfiiips in trade
in France are ftyled anonymous, when they are not
carried on under any particular name, but wherein
each of the partners trades vifibly on his ow n account,
and in his own name 5 after which all the partners
give one another an account of their profit or lofs in
trade. Thefe forts of partnerlhips are concealed, and
knowm only to the parties theirdelves.
ANONrMovsPartnerJlnps in Trade, are alfo in France,
fuch, wherein perfons of fortune and quality depofite
firms of money, in order to (hare of the profits and lofs.
To this end thofe who furnifli the capital have no
trouble in carrying on the trade, nor do their names
appear to be any way interefted therein.
Anonymous, in Law. The fending anonymous
letters demanding money, &c. is felony by the Black
A£l, 9 Geo. I. cap. xxii.
ANOREXIA, Anorexy, (from « negative, and
appetite) ; a want of appetite, or a loathing of
food. The diforder is either original or fymptomatic.
When it is original, its caufes are bad diet, too free
drinking, voracioufnefs, &c. : In w hich cafes, a vomit
or two of ipecacuanha may be taken ; and temperance,
a light but cordial nouriihing diet, and daily exercife,
perfifted
A N O
Anoffi. perfifted in, will generally effect a recovery. But it is
■'■"'v-—J more frequently a fymptom of fome other diforder 5
and then the cure depends on the removal of the, ori¬
ginal one.
ANOSSI, a province of the ifland of Madagafcar,.
lying between Lat. 23. 18. and 26. o. S. It is water¬
ed by many rivers, moft of which run into the Fran-
chere, Ramevatte, or Immour, the fpring of which is in
a mountain called and difcharges itfelf in¬
to the fea in Lat. 25. 18. S. The mouth of this river
is often flopped, and the courfe to the fea interrupt¬
ed, unlefs kept open by the overflowings of great
rains and high tides. The water runs fait one league
above the mouth, particularly in a free communica¬
tion with the fea. A lake, called Ambou, is formed
at the mouth, half a league wide, with depth fufficient
for any fhip if the mouth of the river was kept open.
Next in bignefs to the Franchere, is the Manghafia,
which fprings from a mountain called Siliva, and emp¬
ties itfelf into the fea, where large {hips may ride at
anchor. Crocodiles breed in thele and all the other
rivers of the ifland.
Between the two rivers above mentioned lies Cape
St Romain, half a mile diftant from the mouth of the
hranchere, and which runs from the north-weft fix or
feven leagues into the fea. When the cape is paffed
the coaft forms a great bay, in the fhape of a crofs,
which extends to the mouth of a river called Dion
Panouge or Pitorah. In the middle of this bay the
land runs out, and almoft forms a peninfuk called Tho-
langare. Fort Dauphin lies to the north of this pe-
ninfula, and Port Dauphin over again!! it. This pro¬
vince has feveral other peninfulas and fmall iflands be-
longing to it. The country is beautiful 5 abounds in
fruit trees 5 is fertile in paftures for cattle ; and, if care¬
fully cultivated, would produce all the neceffaries of life.
It is furrounded by high mountains, which are covered
with woods and fhrubs ; but* about four miles diflant
from Fort Dauphin, the adjacent hills are quite defti-
tute of verdure. The French often dug in this neigh¬
bourhood, expelling to meet with mines of gold and
lilver, particularly in one mountain where feveral fprings
flow near each other and empty themfelves into a neigh¬
bouring river. In this river they found feveral ftones
and heaps intermixed with yellow clay, with a great
quantity of black and white fpangles fhinirig like filver,
which they carefully pounded and wafhed, but without
effe<51. About 60 yards above thefe fprings the grafs,
and every fort of vegetable, appears half dried and yel¬
low, from a metalline fulphur, which gives that afped! ;
but the top of the mountain is covered with a frelh and
beautiful verdure. It is faid that the Portuguefe found
gold at the foot of this mountain on the north fide
but that the place they had dug was filled up by the
chiefs of the country after the Portuguefe had been
driven out.
The province of Anofli is inhabited by three differ-
ent. forts of whites, and four forts of negroes. The
whites are diftinguifhed by the names of Rohandrians,
Anacandrians, and Ond%atfi. The whites are diftin-
guifhed from the negroes by the general name of Za-
feramini or Rabimini; and the Rohandriars are di-
ftinguifhed above the other whites. When they pro¬
ceed to an eleftion of a fovereign, whom they call Om-
jdandrian, qr Dian Bahouache, he is chofen from the
[ 397 1
A N O
Rohandrian race. Next to him the others hold the Anoflt.
rank of princes, and are honoured as fuch by all the
reft of the fubjeds. The Anacandrians are defeendants
of the chiefs, but who have degenerated, and are ac¬
counted the baftards of princes, or thofe who are de-
feended from a Rohandrian and any inferior white or
black woman. Thefe are likewife called by the name
of Ontempajfhnaca, or people from the fandy parts of
Mecca, from whence, they fay, came the Rohandrians.
Both the Rohandrians and Anacandriaas wear long
hair, which hangs down in curls ; and enjoy the privi¬
lege of killing beafts. The Ondzatfi, or loweft clafs
of whites, are defeended from the baftards of the Ana¬
candrians. Thefe are all fifhermen, and are allowed to
kill no land animal except a chicken.
The four dalles of negroes are named Voad-ziri, Lo-
havohits, Ontfoa and Ondeves. The Voadziri, the moft
powerful and the richeft, are matters of feveral villages,
and defeended from the original lords of the country.
They enjoy the privilege of killing beafts, when at a
diftance from the whites, and no Rohandrian or Ana-
candrian in the village. The Lohavohits are defeend¬
ants from the Voadziri, and alfo lords ; but with this
difference, that the one commands a wfliole diftric!, and
the jurifdiction of the others extends only to their own
village and family. They are alfo permitted to kill
^thofe beafts they intend to eat, when at a diftance from
the whites. 1 he Ontfoa are next to the Lohavohits,
and are their near relations. The Ondeves are the loweft
of all, being originally flaves by father and mother.
The Voadziri, Lohavohits, and Ontfoa, enjoy the pri¬
vilege of fubmitting themfelves, on the death of their
lord or king, to any chief they pleafe. In return for fuch
homage, the newr lord makes them a prefent, in confe-
quence of which he becomes heir to all their poffeftions.
Hence the lower claffes both of whites and blacks,
when death approaches, are under the greateft concern
and anguifh of mind, well knowing that their lords
will not fail to deprive their children of every thing
they poffefs. The Ondeves have not the fame liberty
with the others ; but, in times of famine, the chiefs ,
are obliged to fupply them wfith neceffaries; which if
they fail to do, they have the liberty of fubmitting
themfelves to new matters. The inhabitants of this
province have no temples, and very little appearance
of religion 5 only they keep up a cuftom of immolating
beafts upon particular occafions, as in ficknefs, plant¬
ing yams or rice, on affemblies, &c. They offer the
full, born beaft to the devil and to God, naming the
devil firft, in this manner, Diatibihs Aminhonhabare, or
“ Lord Devil and God.”—There are feveral towns on
the river Iranchere ; and near this river the Portuguefe
had a fort built upon a fteep rock, and feveral build¬
ings below, with enclofures, which furnifhed all forts of
necefiaries for their fubfiftence } but they were all maf-
facred by the natives.
This province feems originally to have been inhabited
by negroes. The whites or Zaferamini fettled in it
about 200 years ago, and conquered the negroes. But
they themfelves w?ere conquered by the French, though
under the government ot a king w'hom they honoured
as a god. In 1642, Captain Rivault obtained a permif-
fion to.eftablifh a colony in this part of the ifland : and
accordingly he took pofTeflion of it in the name of the
king of 1 ranee, in the month of September, that fame
yeaxo.
A N O [ 398 ] A N S
Anotta. year. The French landed 200 men, well armed, and
provided with ftore of ammunition and other neceffaries
for building a fort, which they immediately fet about;
but no fooner did the natives obi’erve their intention,
than they ufed their utmoft art to prevent their defign
from taking effeft. This created a war, in which the
French were victors j and, the natives becoming in time
much better reconciled to them, they intermarried,
and lived up and down in feveral towns at fome dillance
from one another, not above five or fix in a place. This
tranquillity lafted for fome years j but at laft the na¬
tives, growing jealous, refolved to free themfelves from
a foreign yoke ; and accordingly formed a confpiracy
to cut off all the French in one day •, which they foon
after effedled, not leaving a fingle perfon alive. In 1644
the above-mentioned Fort Dauphin was erected in Lat.
25. 6. S. Many buildings were eredted, bejiind the
fort, adjoining to the governor’s houfe, with great en-
clofures that produced every fort of fruit and kitchen
herb. In 1656 it was accidentally deftroyed by fire j
but v^as foon after repaired, and ftill continues, not-
withftanding the cataftrophe above mentioned, and its
garrifon carries on frequent wjars with the natives.
ANOTTA, or Arnotta, in dyeing, an elegant
red colour, formed from the pellicles or pulp of the
feeds of the Bjxa, a tree common in South America.
It is alfo called Terra Orleana, and Roucou.
The manner of making anotta is as follows : The
red feeds, cleared from the pods, are fteeped in water
for (even or eight days, or longer, till the liquor begins
to ferment; then ftrongly ftirred, Itamped with wooden
paddles and beaters, to promote the reparation of the
red fkins j this procefs is repeated feveral times, till the
feeds are left white. The liquor, paffed through clofe
cane fieves, is pretty thick, of a deep red colour, and
a very ill fmell j in boiling, it throw's up its colouring
matter to the furface in form of fcum, which is after¬
wards boiled down by itfelf to a due confiftence, and
made up while foft into balls. The anotta commonly
met with among us, is moderately hard and dry, of a
brown colour on the outfide, and a dull red within. It
is difficultly afted upon by water, and tinges the liquor
only of a pale brownifti yellow colour. In re&ified
Ipirit of wine, it very readily diffolves, and communi¬
cates a high orange or yellowifh red. Hence it is ufed
as an ingredient in varniflies, for giving more or lefs of
an orange call to the fimple yellows. Alkaline falts
vender it perfe&ly foluble in boiling water, without al¬
tering its colour. Wool or filk boiled in the folution
acquire a deep, but not a very durable, orange dye.
Its colour is not changed by alum or by acids, any
more than by alkalies: but when imbibed in cloth, it
is dilcharged by. foap, and deftroyed by expofure to
the air. It is faid to be an antidote to the poifonous
juice of manioc or caffava.—Labat informs us, that
the Indians prepare an anotta greatly fuperior to that
which is brought to us, of a bright ihining red colour,
almoft equal to carmine : that, for this purpofe, in-
ilead of fteeping and fermenting the feeds in water,
they rub them with the hand, previouily dipped in oil,
till the pellicles come off, and are reduced into a clear
pafte ; which is fcraped off from the hands with a
knife, and laid on a clean leaf in the ftiade to dry.
De Laet, in his notes on Margrave’s Natural Hiftory
of Brazil, mentions alio two kinds of anotta j one of a
permanent crimfon colour, uied as a fucus or paint for Anout
the face 5 and another which gives a colour inclining II.
more t© that of faffron. This laft, which is our anotta, iAn'ariur
he fuppoles to be a mixture of the firft fort with cer- ^
tain rcfinous matters, and with the juice of the root of
the tree. The wax or pulp in which the feeds are en-
clofed is a cool agreeable rich cordial, and has been
long in ufe among the Indians and Spaniards in Ame¬
rica, who ftill mix it with their chocolate, both to
heighten the flavour and raife the colour. It is faid to
be a fuccefsful remedy in bloody fluxes. The roots
have much the fame properties with the wax ; but
thefe are obferved to work more powerfully by the uri¬
nary paffages: they are ufed by fome people in their
broths, and feem to anfwer all the purpofes of the pulp,
but in a more faint degree. See Bixa, Botany Index,
ANOUT, a fmall iftand in the Schagerrack, or that
part of the lea of Denmark which has Norway on the
north, Jutland on the weft, and the ille of Zeeland on
the fouth $ it lies in 13. 0. E. Long, and 56. 36. N.
Lat.
ANSiE, in AJlronomy, implies the parts of Saturn’s
ring projecting beyond the dilk of the planet.—The
word is Latin, and properly fignifies handles; thefe
parts of the ring appearing like handles to the body of
the planet.
ANSARIANS, a people of Syria, fo called in the
country, but ftyled in De I’lfte’s maps Enfariansy and
in thofe of D’Anville, NaJJ'aris. The territofy occupied
by thefe Anfaria is that chain of mountains which ex¬
tends from Antakia to the rivulet called Nahr-e/-Ka-
hiry or the Great River. The hiftory of their origin,
though little known, is yet inftruClive. The follow¬
ing account is from the Bibliotheque Orientale of Aife-
mani, a writer who has drawn his materials from the
beft authorities.
“ In the year of the Greeks 1202 (A. D. 891),
there lived at the village of Nafar, in the environs of
Koufa, an old man, who, from his fallings, his conti¬
nual prayers, and his poverty, paffed for a faint. Seve¬
ral of the common people declaring themfelves his par-
tizans, he felefted from among them twelve difciples
to propagate his doftrine. But the commandant of
the place, alarmed at his proceedings, feized the old
man, and confined him in prilbn. In this reverfe of
fortune, his lituation excited the pity of a girl who
was Have to the gaoler, and Ihe determined to give
him his liberty. An opportunity foon offered to effeCt
her defign. One day when the gaoler was gone to bed
intoxicated, and in a profound fleep, ftie gently took
the keys from under his pillow, and after opening the
door to the old man, returned them to their place un¬
perceived by her mailer : the next day when the gaoler
went to vifit his prifoner, he was extremely aftoniilied
at finding he had made his efcape, and the more fo
fince he could perceive no marks of violence. He
therefore judiciouily concluded he had been delivered
by an angel, and eagerly fpread the report, to avoid
the reprehenfion he merited : the old man, on the other
hand, afferted the fame thing to his difciples, and
preached his do&rines with more earneilnefs than ever.
He even wrote a book, in which, among other things,
he fays, ‘ I, fuch a one, of the village of Nafai, have
feen Chrilt who is the word of God, who is Ahmad,
fon of Mohammed, fon of Hanafa, of the race of Ali;
A N S
Amarians who al?o is Gabriel .* and be faid to me,   
Anfelm. who readet^ (with underftanding) j thou art the man
wl10 fpeaketh truth ; thou art the camel which pre-
ferveth the faithful from wrath thou art the beaft
which carrieth their burden ; thou art the (Holy)
Spirit, and John, the fon of Zachary. Go, and pleach
to men that they make four genuflexions in praying j
two before the riling of the fun, and two before his
fetting, turning their faces towards Jerufalem : and let
them fay, three times, God Almighty ! God Moft
High 1 God Mofl: Great! Let them obferve only the
fecond and third feflival ; let them fall but two days
annually j let them not wafh the prepuce, nor drink
beer, but as much wine as they think proper j and last¬
ly, let them abftain from the flelh of carnivorous ani¬
mals. This old man pafling into Syria, propagated his
opinions among the lower orders of the country people,
numbers of whom believed in him : And after a few
years he went away, and nobody ever knew what be¬
came of him.”
Such was the origin of thefe Anfarians, who are, for
the moll part, inhabitants of the mountains beforemen-
tioned.
The Anfaria are divided into feveral tribes or feXs:
among which are diftinguilhed the Shamfla, or adorers
of the fun ; the Kelbia, or worlhippers of the dog ; and
the Kadmoufia, who are faid to pay a particular ho¬
mage to that part in women which correfponds to the
priapus.
Many of the Anfaria believe in the metempfychofis;
others rejeX the immortality of the foul; and in
general, in that civil and religious anarchy, that igno¬
rance and rudenefs which prevail among them, thefe
peafants adopt what opinions theyhhink proper, fol¬
lowing the feX they like beft, and frequently attaching
themfelves to none.
Their country is divided into three principal di-
ftriXs farmed by the chiefs called Mohaddamim. Their
tribute is paid to the pacha of Tripoli, from wrhom they
annually receive their title. Their mountains are in
general not fo fteep as thofe of Lebanon, and confe-
quently are better adapted to cultivation ; but they are
alfo more expofed to the Turks ; and hence, doubtlefs,
it happens, that wuth greater plenty of corn, tobacco,
wines, and olives, they are more thinly inhabited than
thofe of their neighbours the Maronites and the
Druzes.
ANSE, an ancient towm of France, in the Lyo-
nois, ten miles north of Lyons. Long. 6. 55. N. Lat
45- H-
ANSELM, archbiihop of Canterbury, m the reigns
of William Rufus and Henry I. He was born in the
year 1033, at Aoft, a town in Savoy at the foot of the
Alps. He became a monk in the abbey of Bee in
Normandy ; of which he was afterwrards chofen prior,
and then abbot. In the year 1-092, he was invited over
to England by Hugh earl of Chefter ; and in the year
following was prevailed on, as we are told, with great
difficulty, to accept the archbilhopric of Canterbury.
He enjoined celibacy on the clergy, for which he was
banilhed by King Rufus, but recalled by Henry at his
coming to the crown. He refufed to confecrate fuch
bilhops as were invefted by the king, according to Pope
Urban’s decree; flatly denying it to be the king’s pre¬
rogative; for this he wasouted again; till, the pope and
_ [ 399 ] A N S
Thou art he king agreeing, he was recalled in 1107. In fliort, from
the day of his confecration to that of his death, he was
continually employed in fighting the prerogative of the
church againft that of the crown; and for that purpofe
fpent much of his time in travelling backwards and for¬
ward^ between England and Rome, for the advice and
direXion of his Holinefs. At the council of Bari, in
the kingdom of Naples, the pope being puzzled by the
arguments of the Greeks againft the Holy Ghoft’s pro¬
ceeding from the Father, he called upon Anfelm, who
was prefent and he difeufted their objeXions with great
applaufe. Pnefts call him a refolute faint; to other
people he appears to have been an obftinate and info-
lent prieft. He wrought many miracles, if we believe
the author of his life, both before and after his death,
which happened at Canterbury, in the 76th year of his
age, anno 1 r 09. He was canonized in the reign of
Hem-y VII. Anfelm, though we may difregard him
as a faint, deferves to be remembered as one of the
principal revivers of literature, after three centuries of
profound ignorance.
His works have been printed in different years, and
at different places, viz. Nuremb. 1491. Paris 1^44
and 1549. Venice 1549. Cologne 1573 and 1612^
Lyons 1630. But the beft is that of Father Gerberon,
printed at Paris 1675* It is divided into three parts ■
the firft contains dogmatical traXs, and is entitled Mo-
nologia; the fecond contains praXical and devotional
traXs; the third part confifts of letters, in four books.
ANSER, he trivial name of a fpecies of anas. See
Anas, Ornithology Index.
Anser, in AJlronomy, a fmall ftar, of the fifth or
fixth magnitude, in the milky way, between the fwan
and eagle, firft brought into order by Hevelius.
ANSERES, the name which Linnaeus gives to his
third order of birds. See Ornithology Index.
ANSIBARII, or Ansiyarii, an ancient people of
Germany, fituated fomewhere in the neighbourhood of
the Chauci. All we know of their hiftory is, that, in
the reign of the emperor Nero, they were driven from
their owm poffeffions by the Chauci. Being then in a-
forlorn condition, they took poffeflion of fome uninha¬
bited lands, w-hich had been ufed as pafture for the'
horfes of the Roman foldiers. They w^ere led by one
Boiocalus, a man of great valour, and of known fidelity
to the Romans. He remonftrated to the Romans, who
objeXed to their taking poffeflion of thefe lands, That
the territory in difpute was large ; and requefted, that
it might be allow'ed to an unhappy people driven from
their own habitations : that, at the fame time, wide
traXs might be retained for the horfes and cattle of
the foldiers to graze in; that it was inconfiftent with
humanity to famifli men in order to feed hearts,
and at laft, lifting up his eyes to heaven, he afkcd the*
celeftial luminaries how they could behold a defolate
foil, and if they wmuld not more juftly let loofe the fea
to fwallow up ufarpers, who had engrofled the whole
earth ? To this the Roman commander, Avitus, replied.
That the weakeft muft fubmit to the ftrongeft ; and
that fince the gods, to whom they had appealed, had
left the fovereign judgment to the Romans, they wane
refolved to fufter no other judges than themfelves. To
Boiocalus himfelf, however, he privately offered lands
as a reward for his long attachment to the Romans;
but this offer the brave German rejeXed, as a price fez
, betraying:
An fir
II
Anfibam,
Anliko.
A N S
betraying bis people: adding, “ A place to live in we
J m:*y vant, but a place to die in we cannot.” The An-
fibarii now invited the neighbouring nations to join
them agajnlt the Romans ; but. they, dreading the
power of that nation, refuted to give them any aililt-
ance : upon which they applied to the neighbouring
nations, begging leave to fettle in their territories j but
being everywhere driven out as enemies and intruders,
thefe unhappy people were reduced to wander up and
down til) every one of them perifhed.
ANSIKO, a kingdom of Africa, bounded on the
weft by the river Umbre which runs into the Zaire,
the kingdom of Wangua, and the Amboes who bor¬
der on Loango; on the north, by feme deferts of Nu¬
bia •, and on the fouth, by Songo and Sanaa, pro¬
vinces of Csngo. Here are great numbers of wild
beafts, as lions, rliinocerofes* &c. and many copper
mines. The king of Anfiko, or the great Macoco,
commands 13 kingdoms, and is efteemed the raoft
powerful monarch in Africa. The inhabitants of An¬
gola have a tradition, that this is the proper country of
the Giagas, who came originally from Sierra Leofia,
and overran, like a torrent, the whole coait as far as
Benguela j that, being weakened by numerous battles,
and unable to force the defiles in order to return to Si¬
erra Leona, they arrived on the borders of Monomo-
tapa, where being defeated, they were forced to remain
in the provinces of Anfiko. Be this as it will, the An-
fikans yield not in the lead to the Giagas in fiercenefs
•and barbarity. They are fo accuftomed to the eating
of human fleft), that it is afferted they have markets
where it is publicly fold, and that there are no other
graves for the dead than the bellies of the living. They
try the courage of their prifoners of war by {hooting at
them as at marks, directing their arrows above or
around their heads 5 and whoever difeovers the lead
figns of fear, is immediately devoured without remedy.
Thofe who appear intrepid and retblut-e, have their
nofes and ears bored, and two fore teeth of the upper
jaw* drawn. They are then improved in barbarity, by
accudoming them to the mod horrid cruelties.
The Anfikans are heat, well proportioned, and
drongj wandering about from place to place, without
either fowing or reaping. They are dreaded for their
extreme brutality, and never traded with by the Euro¬
peans. Their language is barbarous, and didicult to be
learned, even by the inhabitants of Congo. The mod
didinguiihed among them wear red and black caps of
Portuguefe velvet: the lower ranks go naked from the
waid upwards: and, to .preferve their health, anoint
their bodies with a compofition of pounded white fan-
dal wmod and palm oil. Their arms are battle axes,
and fmall but very drong bows, adorned with ferpents
ikins. Their driugs are made of fupple and tender
flioots of trees, that will not break, and their arrows
of hard and light wood. Thefe people, who kill birds
flying, fhoot with fuch furprifing fwxftnefs, that they
can difeharge 28 arrows from the bow before the fird
falls to the ground. With equal dexterity they ma¬
nage their battle axes 3 one end of which is diarpened
and cuts like a wedge, and the other flattened like
a mallet, with a handle fet between, about half the
length of the iron, rounded at the end like an apple,
and covered with the ikin of a ferpent.— The current
money in this country is the zimbis or died, which is
f 4®° 1
A N s
fished for, and pafTes among feveral African nations.-—
They worship the dm as their chief deity j whom they
repident by the figure of a man, and the moon by'
that of a woman. They have alfo an infinite number
of inferior deities, each individual having a particular
idol whom he .iddreffes on certain occafions.
ANSLO, a fea port town of Norway, in the pro¬
vince of Aggerhuys, with a bidiop’s See. The lu-
preme court of judice is held here for Norway. It is
i’eated on a bay of the fame name. E. Long, 10. 14.
N. Lat. 50. 24.
ANSON, George, a gentleman whofe merit and
good fortune, as a naval commander, exalted him to
the rank of nobility. Be was the fon of William An-
fon, Efqj of Huckborough, in StatfordOiire 5 and,
{bowing an early inclination for the iea, received a
fuitable education. The fird command he enjoyed was
that of the Weaiel Hoop in *722 j' but the mod me¬
morable action of bis life, and the foundation of his
future .good fortune, took place on his receiving the
command of five drips, a (loop, and two victuallers,
equipped to annoy the Spaniards in the South feas,
and to co-operate with Admiral Vernon acrofs the
idhmus of Darien 3 an expedition the principal objeCt
of which failed by the unaccountable delay in fitting
him out. He failed, however, in Sept, 1740 3 doubled
Cape Horn in a dangerous feafon 3 lod mod of his men
by the feurvy 3 and with only one remaining fhip,
the Centurion, eroded the great Pacific ocean, if no
confiderable national advantage refulted from this
voyage, Commodore Anfon made his own fortune,
and enriched his Surviving companions, by the capture
of a rich galleon on her paflage from Acapulco to Ma¬
nilla 3 with which he returned home round the Cape of
Good Hope. If he was lucky in meeting tins galleon,
he was no left fortunate in efcaping a French fleet
then cruifing in the Channel, by failing through it du¬
ring a fog. He arrived at Spithead in June 1744.
In a Short time after his return, he was appointed rear-
admiral of the blue, and one of the lords of the ad¬
miralty. In April 1745, he was made rear-admiral
of the white, and the following year vice-admiral of
the blue j at which time he was chofen to reprefent
the borough of Heydon in parliament. In 1747, be¬
ing on board the Prince George of 90 guns, in com¬
pany with Admiral Warren, and 12 other flaps, he
intercepted, off Cape Finiftcrre, a powerful fleet,
bound from France to the Eaft and Weft Indies 3
when, by bis valour and condueft, he again enriched
himfelf and his officers, and at the fame time {Length¬
ened the Britifti navy, by taking fix men of war
and four Eaft Indiamen, not one of them efcaping.
The French admiral, M. jonquiere, on prefenting his
fword to the conqueror, faid, Mortjteur, vous avez vain-
cu /’ Invincible, cl la Gloire VQUs fuit: “ Sir, you have
conquered the Invincible, and Glory follows you 3”
pointing to the (hips, named the Invincible and the
Glory, he had taken. For his fignal fervices, his late
majefty created him baron of Soberton in Hants. The
fame year he tvas appointed vice-admiral of the red j
and, on the death of Sir John Norris, was made vice-
admiral of England. In 748 he rvas made admiral
of the blue : he was. afterwards appointed firft lord
of the admiralty, and was at length made admiral and
commander in chief of his majefty’s fleet 3 in v fiich
rank
Anflo,
Anfon.
4
A