“t "H'fT ""I'- %- % SB 1 Encyclopaedia B ritannica. ASS Association, the a£i of aflociating, or confii- tuting a fociety, or partnerfliip, in order to carry on fome fcheme or affair with more advantage. The word is Latin, ajjbciatio; and compounded of ad, to, and focio, to join. Association of Ideas, is where two or more ideas conffantly and immediately follow or fucceed one ano¬ ther in the mind, fo that one lhall almoft infallibly pro¬ duce the other, whether there be any natural relation between them or not. See Metaphysics. Where there is a real affinity or connexion in ideas, it is the excellency of the mind, to be able to colled!, compare, and range them in order, in its inquiries: but where there is none, nor any caufe to be affigned for their accompanying each other, but what is owing to mere accident or habit: this unnatural affociation be¬ comes a greater imperfedlion, and is, generally fpeaking, a main caufe of error, or wrong deductions in reafoning, Thus the idea of goblins and fprights, it has been obferved, has really no more affinity with darknefs than with light ; and yet let a fooliffi maid inculcate thefe ideas often on the mind of a child, and raife them there together, it is poffible he ffiall never be able to feparate them again fo long as he lives, but darknefs {hall ever bring with it thofe frightful ideas. With regard to this inftance, however, it muft at the fame time be ob¬ ferved, that the connedlion alluded to appears far from being either unnatural or abfurd. See the article Ap¬ parition. Such wrong combinations of ideas, Mr Locke fhows, are a great caufe of the irreconcileable oppofition be¬ tween the different fedls of philofophy and religion : for we cannot imagine, that all who hold tenets different from, and fometimes even contradidlory to, one ano¬ ther, ffiould wilfully and knowingly impofe upon them- lelves, and refufe truth offered by plain reafon : but fome loofe and independent ideas are, by education, cuftom, and the conftant din of their party, fo coupled in their minds, that they always appear there together: thefe they can no more feparate in their thoughts, tnan if they were but one idea, and they operate as if they were fo. This gives fenfe to jargon, demonftra- tion to abfurdities, confiftency to nonfenfe, and is the foundation of the greateft, and almoft of all the errors m tire world. Affociation forms a principal part of Dr Hartley’s ■mecuanical theory of the mind. He diftinguiffies it into fynchronous and fucceffive: and afcribes our fimple Vol. III. Part. I. ASS and complex ideas to the influence of this principle Affociation. or habit. Particular fenfations refult from previous'"““'V"—-’ vibrations conveyed through the nerves to the medul¬ lary fubftance of the brain 5 and thefe are fo intimate¬ ly affociated together, that any one of them, when im- preffed alone, {hall be able to excite in the mind the ideas oi all the reft. Thus we derive the ideas of natural bodies from the affociation of the feveral fenfible qua¬ lities with the names that exprefs them, and with each other. The fight of part of a large building fuggefts the idea of the reft inftantaneoufly, by a fynchronous affociation of the parts 5 and the found of the words, which begin a familiar fentence, brings to remembrance the remaining parts, in order, by fucceflive affociation. Dr Hartley maintains, that fimple ideas run into com¬ plex ones by affociation ; and apprehends, that by purfuing and perfe&ing this doatine, we may fome time or other be enabled to analyze thofe complex ideas, that are commonly called the ideas df reflexion, or irtel- leBual ideas, into their feveral component parts, i. e. into the fimple ideas of fenfation of which they confift 5 and that this doatine may be of confiderable ufe in the art of logic, and in explaining the various phenomena of the human mind. Association of Parliament. In the reign of King William III. the parliament entered into a folemn af¬ fociation to defend his Majefty’s perfon and government again!! all plots and confpiracies j and all perfons bear¬ ing offices civil or military, w'ere enjoined to fubfcribe the affociation to ftand by King William, on pain of forfeitures and penalties, &c. by flat. 7 and 8 W. III. c. 27. Association, African. This is an inftitution which was formed in the year 1788, for the purpofe of pro¬ moting difcoveries in the interior parts of Africa. Out of the number of the members, of wffiich this fociety confifts, five are ele&ed for the management of its funds and correfpondence, and for the appointment of perfons to whom the miffions are affigned. Mr Ledyard was the firft who was fent out, for accompliffiing the objecf of the fociety. He undertook the adventurous talk, of traverfing from call to weft, the wfldeft part of the African continent, in the latitude which was afcribed to the Niger ; and with this view he arrived at Cairo in Auguft 1788.. But before his proje£!ed journey- commenced, he died, and the hopes that were enter¬ tained of this enterprifing and perfevering traveller were difappointed. Mr Lucas was next chofen by the A committee. ASS [ : Aflociation committee. In Oftober 1788, he embarked for Tri- Aflbnant P°^ ’ an^ ^ie was inftrufted to proceed overthe defert of Zaara to Fezzan, to colledd all -the information that could be obtained, refpefling the interior of the Afri¬ can continent, and to tranfmit it by way of Tripoli. He was then to return by way of Gambia, or the coaft of Guinea. But his peregrinations terminated at Mefurata. The difficulties and dangers which prefented themielves deterred him from proceeding farther. He tranfmitted to the fociety only the refult of his conferences with the traders to Fezzan, with whom he was travelling ; meafured back his road to Tripoli, and foon after re¬ turned to England. The fociety Hill perfevered in its object, and in the year 1790, appointed Major Houghton, with inftruc- tions to fail for the mouth of the Gambia, and to tra- verfe the country from weft to eaft. He arrived on the coaft in November the fame year, immediately commenced his journey, afcended the river Gambia to Medina, 900 miles diftant from its mouth, and thence proceeded to Bambouk, and to the adjoining kingdom of KaxTon, where, in September the year following, he unfortunately terminated his travels with his life, near to the town of Jarra. Mr Park was engaged by the fociety in the fame lervice in 1795, and purfiiing the route of Major Houghton, more fuccefsfully explored the banks of the Niger, to Sego and to Silla, the firft of that great line ot populous cities which divide the fouthern from the northern deferts of Africa. The information which Mr Park colledled, during his adventurous journey, was communicated to the fociety in 1798. 1 he laft of the labours of the fociety, was the ap¬ pointment of Mr Horneman, who had offered himfelf to the committee in 1796. Having purfued for fome time the requiiite ftudies to qualify himfelf for the un¬ dertaking, he departed from London in July 1797, and having remained fqme time at Cairo, where he was re¬ ceived under the protection of Bonaparte, then com- inanding the French army in Egypt, he commenced his journey weft ward with the caravan, in September 1798. In November following, he arrived at Mour- zouk in Fezzan, from which his laft defpatches to the fociety were tranfmitted by way of Tripoli. And from the fuccefsful progrefs which lie had made, he enter¬ tained great hopes of being able to penetrate farther to the fouthward and weftward, than any former traveller had been able to accomplilh. The difeoveries which have been communicated to the world, from the la¬ bours ot thefe travellers, under the patronage of the fociety, are fully detailed in the account which we have given of Africa. ASSOILZIE, in Law, to abfolve or free. ASSONANCE, in Rhetoric and Poetry, a term ufed where the words of a phrafe or a verfe have the fame found or termination, and yet make no proper rhyme. Thele are ulually accounted vicious in Englilh ; tnough the Romans fometimes ufed them with elegan¬ cy ; as, Militem compara vit, exercitum ordinavit, aciem iujlravit. ASSONANT rhymes, is a term particularly ap¬ plied to a kind of verfes common among the Spaniards, where a refemblance of found ferves inftead of a natu¬ ral rhyme. Thus, ligerq, cubierta, tierra, mija, may anfwer each other in a kiud of ajjbnant rhyme, hav- ] ASS ing each an e in the penult fyliable, and an a in the Afiuan, laft. Aflumpfit. ASSUAN. See Syene. ' —y--—/ ASSUMPSIT, in the Law of England, a voluntary or verbal promife, whereby a perfon affumes, or takes upon him to perform or pay any thing to another. A promife is in the nature of a verbal convenant, and vpnts nothing but the folemnity of writing and fealing to make it abfolutely the fame. If therefore it be to do any explicit aft, it is an exprefs contract, as much as any covenant ; and the breach of it is an equal in¬ jury. The remedy indeed is not exaftly the fame : fince, inftead of an atftion of covenant, there only lies an action upon the cafe, for what is called an affump- ft or undertaking of the defendant \ the failure of per¬ forming which is the wrong or injury done to the plaintiff, the damages whereof a jury are to eftimate and iettle. As, if a builder promifes, undertakes, or affumes to Caius, that he will build and cover his houfe within a time limited, and fails to do it j Caius has an acfion on the cafe againft the builder for this breach of his exprefs promife, undertaking, or af- fumpfit $ and ftiall recover a pecuniary fatisfadlion for the injury fuftained by fuch delay. So alfo in the cafe of a debt by ftmple contraft, if the debtor pro¬ mifes to pay it and does not, this breach of promife entitles the creditor to his action on the cafe, inftead of being driven to an action of debt. Thus likewife a - promiffory note, or note of hand not under feal, to pay money at a day certain, is an exprefs affumplit ; and the payee at common law, or by cuftom and a£t of parliament the indorfee, may recover the value of the note in damage, if it remains unpaid. Some agreements indeed, though never fo exprefsly made, are deemed of fo important a nature, that they ought not to reft in verbal promife only, which cannot be proved but by the memory (which fometimes will induce the perjury) of witneffes. To prevent which, the ftatute of frauds and perjuries, 29 Car. II. c. 3. enatffs, that in the five following cafes no verbal promife ftiall be fufficient to ground an adion upon, but at the leaft fome note or memorandum of it ftiall be made in 'writing, and figned by the party to be charged there- rvith : 1. Where an executor or adminiftrator promifes to anfwer damages out of his .own eftate. 2. Where a man undertakes to anfwer for the debt, default, or mifearriage, of another. 3. Where any agreement is made upon confideration of marriage. 4. Where any contrad or fale is made of lands, tenements, or heredi¬ taments, or any intereft therein. 5. And laftly, where there is any agreement that is not to be performed with¬ in a year from the making hereof. In all thefe cafes a mere verbal affumpfit is void. From thefe exprefs contrads the tranfition is eafy to thofe that are only implied by law. Which are fuch as reafon and juftice didate, and which therefore the law prefames that every man has contraded to perform j and, upon this prefumption, makes him anfwerable to fuch perfons as fuffer by his non-performance. Thus, 1. If I employ a perfon to tranfad any buft- nefs for me, or perform any work, the law implies that I undertook, or affumed, to pay him fo much as his labour deferved ; and if I negled to make him amends, he has a remedy for his injury by bringing his adion on the cafe upon this implied affumpfit; wherein he is much A s S [ Affumpfit. at liberty to fuggeft that I promifed to pay him fo mUch as he reafonably deferved, and then to aver that his trouble was really worth fuch a particular fum, which the defendant has omitted to pay. But this valuation of his trouble is fubmitted to the determina¬ tion of a jury j who will affefs fuch a fum in damages as they think he really merited. This is called an af- fumpjit on a quantum meruit. 2. There is alfo an implied affumpfit on a quantum valebat, which is very fimilar to the former j being only where one takes up goods or wares of a tradefman, without exprefsly agreeing for the price. There the law concludes, that both parties did intentionally agree that the real value of the goods fhould be paid ; and an adlion on the cafe may be brought accordingly, if the vendee refuies to pay that value. 3. A third fpecies of implied affumpfit is when one has had and received money belonging to another with¬ out any valuable confideration given on the receiver’s part ; for the law conffrues this to be money had and received for the ufe of the owner only j and implies that the perfon fo receiving, promifed and undertook to account for it to the true proprietor. And, if he un- juftly detains it, an adlion on the cafe lies againft him for the breach of fuch implied promife and undertaking ; and he will be made to repair the owner in damages, equivalent to what he has detained in fuch violation of his promife. This is a very extenfive and beneficial remedy, applicable to almoft every cafe where the de¬ fendant has received money which ex cequo et bono he ought to refund. It lies for money paid by midake, or on a confideration which happens to fail, or through impofition, extortion, or oppreflion, or where undue ad¬ vantage is taken of the plaintiff’s fituation. 4. Where a perfon has laid out and expended his own money for the ufe of another at his requeft, the law implies a promife of repayment, and an a£tion will lie on this afi’umpfit. 5. Likewife, fifthly, upon a dated account between two merchants, or other perfons, the lawT implies that he againd whom the balance appears has engaged to pay to the other; though there be not any a£lual promife. And from this implication it is frequent for udions on the cafe to be brought, declaring that the plaintiff and defendant had fettled their accounts toge¬ ther, infimul computajfent (which gives name to this fpecies of affumpfit) ; and that the defendant engaged to pay the plaintiff the balance, but has fince negled- ed to do it. But if no account has been made up, then the legal remedy is by bringing a writ of account de computo; commanding the defendant to render a jud account to the plaintiff', or dmw the court good caufe to the contrary. In this adion, if the plaintiff fuc- ceeds, there are two judgments j the fird is, that the defendant do account { a large oCtavo volume. Dr Waterland fpeaks of this book in very favourable terms ; and fuch was the intrepidity of this lady, that fhe has attacked both Locke and I illot- fon in the controverfial part. In the evening of her life Mrs.Aftell was attacked with the fevere difeafe of a cancer in her breaft ; the amputation of which fhe bore with Angular fortitude. At the advanced age of 63 ihe died in the year 1731. Mrs Aftell appears to have been a woman of uncom¬ mon talents as a writer and fcholar ; rigid in her prin¬ ciples, and aufters in‘her manners. Since a new era of female education has commenced, fuch an author as Mrs Aftell would have attraCled little notice ; but at a period of fociety when few women could read, and fcarcely any could write, it was highly honourable for £ female to fuggeft hints, however imperfedt, for the improvement of female education. It may farther be remarked, that it deferves to be mentioned, that about a century ago a lady informed the public by her pen, that “ women, who ought to be retired, are for this reafon defigned for fpeculation,” and that “ great im¬ provements might be made in the fciences, were not women enviouily excluded from this their proper bufi- nefs. Deeming her time more valuable than to be wafted by trifling vifttors, and abhorring the pradtice After , II Afteria. AST [ , of teaching fervants to lie, Hie would humouroufly ac- colt iuch vifitors by faying, “ Mrs Altell is not at j home.” (Gen. Biog.} , ASTER, starwort. See Botany Index. Aster, or Stella Marina, in Zoology. See Aste- : r I As, Helminthology Index. ASTERABAD, a province in the north-eaft part of Perfia, having Tabriftan on the eaft, part of the Cafpian fea and part of Jorjan on the north, Korafan on the weft, and Koumas on the fouth. It is a moun¬ tainous country, except near the banks of the rivers that almoft furround it, where it is pleafant and fruit¬ ful, producing grapes of a prodigious fize. In other parts the foil is fandy and barren. Afterabad is the chief town, which gives name to a gulf in the Perfian fea, at the bottom of which it Rands. E. Lonp. ci. 35. N. Lat. 36. 50. ^ ASTER I A, in Zoology, a name by which fame authors have called the falco palumbarius, or gojhawk. See Falco, Ornithology Index. Asteria is alfo the name of a gem, ufually called the cat's eye, or oculus cati. It is a very fingular and very beautiful Rone, and fomewhat approaches to the nature of the opal, in having a bright included colour, which Jeems to be lodged deep in the body of the Rone, •and drifts about, as it is moved, in various dire&ions $ but it differs from the opal in all other particulars, efpecially in its want of the great variety of colours feen in that gem, and in its fuperior hardnefs. It is ufually found between the fize of a pea and the breadth of a fxxpence ; is almoR always of a femicircular form, broad and flat at the bottom, and rounded and convex at the top; and is naturally fmooth and poliflied. It has on- ly two colours, a pale brown and a white ; the brown feeming the ground, and the white playing about in it, as the fire colour in the opal. It is confiderably hard, and will take a fine polifh, but is ufually worn with its native drape and fmoothnefs. It is found in the Eafl and WeR Indies, and in Europe. The ifland of Borneo affords fome very fine ones, but they are ufually fmall ; they are very common in the fands of rivers in New Spain : and in Bohemia they are not un- frequeirtly found immerfed in the fame maffes of jafper with the opal. Asteria is alfo the name of an extraneous foflil, called in Engliflj xb.cjlar-jlone. The foflils are fmall, flrort, angular, or fulcated columns, between one and two inches long, and feldom above a third of an inch in diameter ; corapofed of feveral regular joints; when feparated, each refembks a radiated flar. They are, not without reafon, fuppofed to be a part of fome fea- fiih petrified, probably the afterias or fea-Rar. The afte¬ ria is alfo called ajrites, ajlroites, and ajlerifcus. They may be reduced to two kinds: thofe whole whole bo¬ dies make the form of a Rar ; and thofe which in the whole are irregular, but are adorned as it w^ere with conRdlations in the parts. Dr Lifler, for diRin&ion’s lake, only gives the name ajleria to the former-fort, diRinguiflring the latter by the appellation of ajlroi¬ tes; other naturaliRs generally ufe the two indifcrimi- nately. I he aReria Ipoken of by the ancients, appears to be of this latter kind. Ehe quality of moving in vinegar, as if animated, is fcarce perceivable in the ' aRroites, but is fignal in the afleria. The former muR be broken in fmall pieces before it will move; but the Aftracan. > ] AST latter w ill move, not only in a whole joint, but in two Aftemi or three knit together, 7 he curious frequently meet with thefe Rones in many parts of England : at Cley- don in Oxfordfhire they are found rather larger than common, but of a fofter fubflance ; for, on being left a fmall fpace of time in a Rrong acid, they may eafily be feparated at the joints in fmall plates. ASTERIAS, star-fish, or sea-star. See Hel¬ minthology Index. Asterias, the ancient name of the bittern. See Ardea, Ornithology Index. ASTERISK, a mark in form of a Rar (*), placed oyer a wmrd or fentence, to refer the reader to the mar¬ gin, or elfewhere, for a quotation, explanation, or the like. ASTER I US, or Asturius, a Roman conful, in 449. We have under his name, “ A Conference on the Old and New TeRament,” in Latin verfe : in which each flrophe contains, in the firfl verfe, an hi- Rorical fatt in the Old .TeRament; and in the fecond, an application of that fa& to fome point in the New. ASTERN, a fea-phrafe, ufed to fignify any thing at fome diRance behind the flop ; being the oppofite of Ahead, which fignifies the fpace before her. See Ahead, AS 1 EROPODIUM, a kind of extraneous foflil of the fame fubflance with the afteriae or ftar-flones, to wdflch they ferve as a bafe. See Asteria and Star- stone. ASTHMA. See Medicine Index. ASTI, a city of Montferrat in Italy, feated on the Tanaro, and capital of the county of the fame name. It is a bithop’s fee, and well fortified with ftrong wTaIls and deep ditches; and is divided into the city, borough, citadel, and caflle. There ate a great many churches and convents, as wTell as other hand fome buildings; and its territory is well watered, abounding with groves, pleafant hills, and fpacious fields. It was taken by the French in 1745, and retaken by the king of Sardinia in 1746. E. Long. 8. 15. N. Lat. 54. 50. AST IGI, in Ancient Geography, a colony, and con- ventus juridicus, of Bastica, furnamed Augujia Firma, fituated on the Singulus, which falls into the Btetis ; called alfo Colonia AJligitana- (Pliny) : Now Ecya, midway between Seville and Cordova. W. Long. 50, N. Lat, 37, 20. ASTOMI, in Anthropology, a people feigned with¬ out mouths. Pliny fpeaks of a nation of Afiomi in India who lived only by the imell or effluvia of bodies taken in by the nofe. ASTORGA, a very ancient city of Spain, in the kingdom oi Leon, with a bilhop’s fee, is feated on the river Tuerta, and wrell fortified both by art and nature. It Rands in a mofl agreeable plain, about 150 miles north-weft of Madrid. There are excellent trouts in the river. W. Long. 6. 20. N. Lat. 42. 20. ASTRACAN, a province of Ruflia, and the moft eaRerly part of Europe ; bounded on the north by Bul¬ garia and Balkiria ; on the louth by the Cafpian fea; on the weft, by the Volga, which divides it from the Nagayan Tartars and Don Coffacks ; and on the eaft, by the great ridge of mountains which part it from Great Tartary. The province extends from the 46th to the y2d degree of latitude. The lummer is long, and intenfely hot: the winter continues about three months AST [ Aftracan. months fo ievere, that the Volga is frozen hard enough "'v “ ' to bear loaded Hedges. The foil is rich and fertile j but the Tartars who inhabit it are ftrangers to agricul¬ ture. On the weftern and fouthern lides of the Volga are heaths of a prodigious extent, fandy, defert, and uncultivated ; thefe, however, produce vaft quantities of fine tranfparent fait in pits, where the fun bakes and incrullates it to the thicknefs of an inch on the fair face of the water. There are pits in the neighbourhood of Aftracan which yield this excellent fait in fuch abun¬ dance, that any perfon may carry it oft', paying at the rate of one farthing a pooft, which is equal to forty pounds. The metropolis, Aftracan, is fituated with¬ in the boundaries of Afia, on an illand called Do/goi, about 6q Englifti miles above the place where the Vol¬ ga difembogues itfelf into the Cafpian fea. The city derives its name from Hadgee Tarken, a Tartar, by whom it was founded. It was conquered by Iwan Ba- filowitz, recovered by the Tartars in the year 1668, and retaken by the czar, who employed for this pur- pofe a great number of flat-bottomed veflels, in which he tranfported his forces down the Volga from Cafan. The city of Aitracan is about two miles and a half in circumference, furrounded by a brick wall, wflrich is now in a ruinous condition : but, if we comprehend the fuburbs, the circuit wall be near five miles. The number of inhabitants amounts to 70,000, including Armenians and Tartars, as well as a few Perfians and Indians. The garrifon confifts of fix regiments of the bell Ruffian troops, who, when this place was alarm¬ ed from the fide of Perfia, had in the adjacent plain erefled a great number of fmall batteries, to fcour the fields, and obflruft the approach of the enemy. The houles of Aftracan are built of wood, and generally mean and inconvenient. The higher parts of the city command a profpecl of the Volga, which is here about three miles in breadth, and exhibits a noble appear¬ ance. The marfliy lands on the banks of it render the place very fickly in the fummer : the earth, being im¬ pregnated with fait, is extremely fertile, and produces abundance of fruit, the immoderate ufe of which is at¬ tended with epidemical diftempers. Sicknefs is like- wife the confequence of thofe annual changes in the atmofphere produced by the floods in fpring and au¬ tumn. All round the city of Aftracan, at the diftance of two miles, are feen a great number of gardens, or¬ chards, and vineyards, producing all forts of herbs and roots. The grapes are counted fo delicious, that they are prelerved in fand, and tranfported to court by land-carriage at a prodigious expence : yet the wine of Aftracan is very indifferent. The fummer being ge¬ nerally dry, the inhabitants water their gardens by means of large wheels worked by wind or horfes, which raife the water to the higheft part of the gar¬ den, from whence it runs in trenches to refrefh the roots of every Angle tree and plant. The neighbour¬ ing country produces hares and partridges, plenty of quails in fummer, with wild and water-fowl of all forts in abundance. About ten miles below Aftracan is a fmall ifland called Boftnaife, on which are built large ftorehoufes for the fait, which is made about twelve miles to the eaftward, and, being brought thither in boats, is conveyed up the Volga, in order to fupply the coun¬ try as far as Mofcow and Twere. The quantity of r ] AST fait annually dug for thefe purpofes amounts to fome Aftracan,. millions of pounds, the exclufive property of which is v—J claimed by the crown, and yields a confiderable reve¬ nue ; for the foldiers and bulk of the people live almoft entirely on bread and fait. The neighbourhood of thefe falt-works is of great advantage to the fifheries, which extend from hence to the Cafpian fea, and reach to the fouth-eaft as far as Yack, and even too miles above Zaritzen. The principal fiih here caught are fturgeon and belluga. Thefe, being faked, are put on board of veffels, and fent away in the fpring, for the ufe ol the whole empire, even as far as Peterfhurg : but as fi(h may be kept freflr as long as it is frozen, the winter is no fooner fet in, than they tranfport great quantities of it by land through all the provinces of Ruflia. Of the roes of the fifli called belluga, which are white, tranfparent, and of an agreeable flavour, the fifliers here prepare the caviare, which is in fo much efteem all over Europe. Thefe fiiheries were firft efta- blilhed by one Tikon Demedoff, a carrier, who fettled in this place about 60 years ago, his whole wealth confifting of two horfes. By dint of ft;ill and indu- ftry, he foon grew the richeft merchant in this coun¬ try : but his fuccefs became fo alluring to the crown, that of late years it hath engroffed fome of the fiiheries as well as the falt-works. From the latter end of July to the beginning of Oc¬ tober, the country about Aftracan is frequently infeft- ed with myriads of locufts, which darken the air in their progreffion from the north to the fouthward 5 and, wherever they fall, confume the whole verdure of the earth. Thefe infers can even live for fome time un¬ der water ; for when the wind blows acrofs the Volga, vaft numbers of them fall in clufters, and are rolled aihore ; and their wings are no fooner dry, than they rife and take flight again. ^ Heretofore the inhabitants of Aftracan traded to Khuva and Bokhara 3 but at prefent thefe branches are loft, and their commerce is limited to Perfia and the dominions of Ruflia. Even the trade to Perfia is much diminiihed by the troubles of that country 3 neverthe- lefs, the commerce of Aftracan is ftill confiderable. Some years ago, the city maintained about 40 veffels, from ico to 200 tons burden, for the Cafpian traffic. Some of thefe belong to the government, and are com¬ manded by a commodore, under the dire&ion of the admiralty, ff his office is generally w7ell flocked wfith naval ftores, which are fold occafionally to the mer¬ chants. I he trading (hips convey provifions to the frontier towns of Terkie and Kiflar, fituated on the Cafpian fea ; and tranfport merchandife to feveral paits of leifia. I he merchants of Aftracan export to Perfia, chiefly on account of the Armenians, red leather, linens, woollen cloths, and other European ma- nufa&ures. In return, they import the commodities of Perfia, particularly thofe manufa&ured at Cafan 3 fuch as filk fafhes intermixed with gold, for the ufe of the Poles ; wrought filks and fluffs mixed with cot¬ ton 3 rice, cotton, rhubarb, and a fmall quantity of other drugs 5 but the chief commodity is raw filk. The government has engroffed the article of rhubarb, the greater part of which is brought into Ruflia by the Tartars ot Yakutfki, bordering on the eaflern Tartars belonging to China.^ They travel through Siberia to Saniura, tuence. to Cafan, and laftly to IVlofcow., The revenue AST [ Aitrasa revenue of Aftracanis computed at 150,000 rubles, or , H ^ 33,oool. arifing chiefly from fait and fith. The fla“ city is ruled by a governor, under the check of a -y——J chancery. He is neverthelefs arbitrary enough, and exercifes oppreflion with impunity. The officers of the admiralty and curtom-houfe having very fmall fa-' larfles, are open to corruption, and extremely rapaci¬ ous. At chriflening feafts, which are attended with great intemperance, the guefts drink a kind of cherry- brandy out of large goblets •, and every perfon invited throws a prefent of money into the bed of the mother, who fits up with great formality to be fainted by the company. The Indians have a Pagan temple at Aftracan, in which they pay their adoration, and make offerings of fruit to a very ugly deformed idol. The priefts of this pagod ufe incenfe, beads, cups, and proftrations. The Tartars, on the contrary, hold idol-worfhip in the ut- moft abomination. ASTR./EA, in Aftronomy, a name which fome give to the fign Virgo, by others called Erigone, and fome- times Ifts. The poets feign that juftice quitted hea¬ ven to refide on earth, in the golden age; but, grow¬ ing weary of the iniquities of mankind, ffie left the earth, and returned to heaven, where fire commenced a conflellation of liars, and from her orb Hill looks down on the ways of men. ASTRAGAL, in ArchheBure, a little round mould- ing, which in the orders furrounds the top of the ffiaft or body of the column. It is alfo called the talon and tondino ; it is ufed at the bottoms as well as tops of co¬ lumns, and on other occafions : it properly reprefents a ring, on whatever part of a column it is placed ; and the original idea of it was that of a circle of iron put round the trunk of a tree, ufed to fupport an edifice, to prevent its fplitting. The aflragal is often cut into beads and berries, and is ufed in the ornamented en¬ tablatures to feparate the feveral faces of the archi¬ trave. Astragal, in Gunnery, a round moulding encom- paffing a cannon, about half a foot from its mouth. ASTRAGALOMANCY, a fpecies of divination performed by throwing fmall pieces, with marks cor- refponding to the letters of the alphabet; the acciden¬ tal difpofition of which formed the anfiver required. This kind of divination was pradlifed in a temple of Hercules, in Achaia. The word is derived from esfgasyseAo;, and ftotiTiiot, divination. ASTRAGALUS, Milk-vetch, or Liquorice- -vetch. See Botany Index. Astragalus. See Anatomy Index. ASTRANTIA, Masterwort. See Botany Index. ASTRICTION, in Law. See Thirlage. Astriction, among Phyjicians, denotes the ope¬ ration of aftringent medicines. ASTRINGENTS, in the Materia Medica, fub- flances diftinguilhed by a rough auftere tafte, and chan¬ ging folutions of iron, efpecially thofe made in the vi¬ triolic acid, into a dark purple or black colour ; fuch are galls, tormentil root, biftort root, balauftines, ter¬ ra japonica, acacia, &c. See Materia Medica A- dex. ASTROGNOSIA, the fcience of the fixed flars, 3 1 AST or the knowledge of their names, conftellations, mag- Aftroites nitudes, &c. || AS1ROITES, or star-stone, in Natural Hi/lo- ry. See Asteria and Star-Stone. ASTROLABE, the name for a llereographic proT jeftion of the fphere, either upon the plane of the equa¬ tor, the eye being fuppofed to be in the pole of the world 5 or upon the plane of the meridian, when the eye is fuppofed in the point of the interfe&ion of the equinodlial and horizon. * Astrolabe is alfo the name of an inftrument for¬ merly ufed for taking the altitude of the fun or liars a t fea. Astrolabe, among the Ancients, was the fame as our armillary fphere. ASTROLOGY, a conjedlural fcience, which teach¬ es to judge of the effedls and influences of the liars, and to foretel future events by the fituation and diffe¬ rent afpedls of the heavenly bodies. This fcience has been divided into two branches, na¬ tural •awA judiciary. To the former belongs the pre- didling of natural effefts ; as, the changes of weather, winds, Iforms, hurricanes, thunder, floods, earthquakes, &c. This art properly belongs to natural philofophy ; and is only to be deduced a pojlenon, from phenomena and obfervations. Judiciary or judicial altrology, is that which pretends to foretel moral events ; i. e. fuch as have a dependency on the free will and agency of man j as if they were directed by the liars. This art, which owed its origin to the pradlices of knavery on credulity, is now univerfally exploded by the intelli¬ gent part of mankind. The profeffors of this kind of allrology maintain, “ That the heavens are one great volume ok book, wherein God has written the hiltory of the world ; and in which every man may read his own fortune, and the tranfaftions of his time. The art, fay they, had its rife from the fame hands as allronomy itfelf: while the ancient Affyrians, whofe ferene unclouded Iky favoured their celellial obfervations, were intent on tracing the paths and periods of the heavenly bodies, they difco- vered a conllant fettled relation or analogy between them and things below ; and hence were ,led to con¬ clude thefe to be the Parcae, the Deftinies, fo much talked of, which prefide at our births, and difpofe of our future fate. “ The laws therefore of this relation being afcer- tained by a feries of obfervations, and the (hare each planet has therein ; by knowing the precife time of any perfon’s nativity, they were enabled, from their know¬ ledge in aftronomy, to eredl a fcheme or horofcope of the fituation of the planets at this point of time ; and, hence, by confidering their degrees of power and in¬ fluence, and how each was either ftrengthened or tem¬ pered by fome other, to compute what muff be the re- fult thereof.” Thus the aftrologers.—But the chief province now remaining to the modern profeflbrs, is the making of calendars or almanacks. Judicial aftrology is commonly faid to have been invented in Chaldea, and thence tranfmitted to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans 5 though fome will have it of Egyptian origin, and afcribe the invention to Cham. But it is to the Arabs that we owe it. At Rome the ASTRONOMY. Part I. Aftrology. the people were fo infatuated wdth it, that the aftrolo- ■y——' gers, or, as they were then called, the mathematicians, maintained their ground in fpite of all the edifts of the emperors to expel them out of the city. See Ge- nethliaci. Add, that the Bramins, who introduced and prafli- fed this art among the Indians, have hereby made them- felves the arbiters of good and evil hours, which gives them great authority : they are confulted as oracles j and they have taken care never to fell their anfwers but at good rates. The fame fuperftition has prevailed in more modern ages and nations. The French hiftorians remark, that in the time of Queen Catharine de Medicis, aftrology was in fo much vogue, that the moft inconftderable thing was not to be done without confulting the ftars. And in the reigns of King Henry III. and IV. of France, the prediftions of aftrologers were the com¬ mon theme of the court converfation. This predomi- Aftronium nant humour in that court was well rallied by Barclay, ^ftro||om- in his Argenis, lib. ii. on occafion of an aftrologer, who ‘caj sedtor, had undertaken to inftrudl King Henry in the event of u—y——j a w7ar then threatened by the faction of the Guifes. ASTRONIUM. See Botany/Wkv. ASTRONOMICAL, fomething relating to A- STRONOMY. Astronomical Calendar, an inftrument engraved on copperplates, printed on paper, and palled on a board, with a brafs Aider carrying a hair : it ftiows by infpec- tion the fun’s meridian altitude, right afcenfion, decli¬ nation, rifing, fetting, amplitude, &,c. to a greater de¬ gree of exaftnefs than the common globes. Astronomical Sector, a very ufeful mathematical inftrument, made by the late ingenious Mr Graham 5 a defcription of which is given in the courfe of the following article. ASTRONOMY. STRONOMY is that fcience which treats of the motions of the heavenly bodies, and explains the laws by which thefe motions are regulated. It is the moft fublime and the moft perfeft of all the fciences. No fubjedl has been longer ftudied, or has made greater progrefs. There is a vaft interval be¬ tween the rude obfervations of the earlier aftronomers and the precifion and general views wdiich direft our prefent obfervers. To afcertain the apparent motions of the heavenly bodies w^as a difficult talk, and requi¬ red the united obfervations of ages. To unravel thefe intricate mazes, and detect and demonftrate the real motions, demanded the moft patient perfeverance, judgment, and dexterity. To afcertain the laws of thefe motions, and to refolve the whole of them in¬ to one general fa6I, required the exertions of a fagaci- ty fcarcely to be expelled in human nature. Yet all this has been accompliffied j and even the moft minute movement of the heavenly bodies has been ffiewn to depend upon the fame general law wdth all the reft, and even to be a confequence of that law. Aftrono- my, therefore, is highly interefting, were it only be- caufe it exhibits the fineft inftance of the length that the reafoning faculties can go. It is the triumph of philofophy and of human nature. But this is not all. It has conferred upon mankind the greateft benefits, and may truly be confidered as the grand improver and condudftor of navigation. The following treatife will be divided into four parts. In the JirJi part, wre ffiall give a Iketch of the hiftory of aftronomy $ in the fecond, we lhall treat of the ap¬ parent motions of the heavenly bodies 5 in the third, of their real motions; and in the fourth, of gravitation, or of that general fa£I to which all their motions may be referred, and from which they proceed. Part I. HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY. Hiftory. The antiquity of this fcience may be gathered from V-. -'y—-i< what was fpoken by the Deity at the time of creating the eeleftial luminaries, “ Let them be for ftgns and leafons,” &c. whence it is thought probable that the human race never exifted without fome knowledge of aftronomy among them. Indeed, befides the motives of mere curiofity, wffiich of themfelves may be fuppofed to have excited people to a contemplation of the glo¬ rious eeleftial canopy, as far as that was poffible, it is eaftly to be feen that fome parts of the fcience anfwer fuch effential purpofes to mankind, that they could not T poffibly be dilpenfed with. Aftronomy By fome of the Jewifh rabbins, Adam, in his ftate ■^uppoied to 0f innocence, is fuppofed to have been endowed with a ftooiTb^ knowledge of the nature, influence, and ufes of the Adam and heavenly bodies ; and Jofephus aferibes to Seth and his ■the Antedi-pofterity an extenfive knowledge of aftronomy. But luvians. whatever mav be in this, the long lives of the Antedi- Vol. III. Part I. luvians certainly afforded fuch an excellent opportunity Hiftorv for obferving the eeleftial bodies, that we cannot buty—L fuppofe the fcience of aftronomy to have been confide- rably advanced before the Hood. Jofephus fays, that longevity wras beftowred upon them for the very purpofe of improving the fciences of geometry and aftronomy. The latter could not be learned in lefs than 600 years: “ for that period (fays he) is the grand year.','> By which it is fuppofed he meant the period wherein the fun and moon came again into the fame fituation as they were in the beginning thereof, wdth regard to the nodes, apogee of the moon, &c. “ This period (fays Caffini), whereof wre find no intimation in any monu¬ ment of any other nation, is the fineft period that ever was invented : for it brings out the folar year more exaftly than that of Hipparchus and Ptolemy ; and the lunar month within about one fecond of what is determined by modern aftronomers. If the Antedilu- B vians 10 ASTRO Hiflory. vians ftacl fucli a period of 600 years, they muft have v known the motions of the fun and moon more exafHy than their defcendants knewr them fome aa;es after the a flood.” Aftronomi. On the building of the tower of Babel, Noah is fup- ledo^ofthe P0^ to ^ave ret’re^ with his children born after the ChinefL ^ hooti»t0 the north-eaftern part of Afia, w'here his de¬ fcendants peopled the vafl empire of China. “ This (fays Dr Long) may perhaps account for the Chinefe having fo early cultivated the fludy of aitronomy j their being fo well fettled in an admirable police, and continuing fo many hundred years as they did in the worfhip of the true God.” The vanity of that people indeed has prompted them to pretend a knowledge of aftronomy almoft as early as tin? flood itfelf. Some of the Jefuit miflionaries have found traditional accounts among the Chinefe, of their having been taught this icience by their firft emperor Fo-hi,fuppofed to be Noah j and Kempfer informs us, that this perfonage difcovered the motions of the heavens, divided time into years and months, and invented the twelve figns into which they divide the zodiac, which they diftinguilh by the following names. 1. The moufe. 2. The ox or cow. 3 3. The tiger. 4. The hare. 5. The dragon. 6. The rr^nes for ferPent- 7* The horfe. 8. The ftieep. 9. The monkey, the figns of I0' The ,cock .°f hen* 11 • Th? dog j and, 1 2. The the zodiac. k)oar# T ^ey divide the heavens into 28 conftellations, four of which are afligned to each of the feven planets j fo that the year always begins with the fame planet; and their conftellations anfwer to the 28 manfions of the moon ufed by the Arabian aftronomers. Thefe copftellations, in the Chinefe books of aftronomy, are not marked by the figures of animals, as was in ufe among the Greeks, and from them derived to the other European nations, but by conne&ing the ftars by ftraight lines : and Dr Long informs us, that in a Chinefe book in thin 410, ftiowji him by Lord Pem¬ broke, the ftars were reprefented by fmall circles joined by lines j fo that the Great Bear would be marked thus, ^ To the emperor Hong-ti, the grandfon of Noah, they attribute the difcovery of the pole-ftar, the inven¬ tion of the mariner’s compafs, of a period of 60 years, and fome kind of fphere. This extraordinary antiqui- ty, however, is with good reafon fufpefted, as is like- wile their knowledge in the calculation of eclipfes j of which Du Halde allures us, that 36 are recorded by Confucius himfelf, who lived 551 years before Chrift • and P. Trigault, wTho w^ent to China in 1619, and read more than 100 volumes of their annals, fays, “ It is certain that the Chinefe began to make aftronomical obfervations foon after the flood ; that they have ob- ifrved a great number of eclipfes, in which they have noted down the hour, day, month, and year, when they iappened, ^but neither the duration nor the quantity ; *.nd that thefe eclipfes have been made ufe of for re¬ gulating their chronology.” “ But out of this abundance (fays Dr Long), it is much to be regretted/that fo very few of their obfer¬ vations have been particularized 3 for befide what has been mentioned above, w’e meet with no very ancient cbfervations of the Chinefe, except a winter folltice in N O M Y. Patti. the year 1111, and a fummer folftice in the year 882, be- Hiftory. fore Chrift. Martini indeed fpeaks of a fummer fol- ftice 2342 years before that period. But M. Caflini, who calculated h, found that there muft have been an error in tne Chinefe computation of 500 years at leaft, error of equal magnitude appears to have been committed in the conjundlion of the five planets, which it is pretended they obfejved between the years 2513 and 2435 before Chrift. In Ihort, fome have fuppo'- fed, that none of thefe are real obfervations, but the refult of bungling calculations ; and it has been hinted, but furely on too flight a foundation, that even thofe good fathers themfelves wxre greatly to be fufpedted. But let us come to things which are not conteftcd. “ P. Gaubil informs us, that at leaft 120 years before Chrift, the Chinefe had determined by obfervation the number and extent of their conftellations as they now Hand 3 the fituation of the fixed ftars wuth refpedt to the equino&ial and folftitial points 3 and the ob¬ liquity of the ecliptic. He farther fays, he cannot tell by what means it is that they foretel eclipfes: but this is certain, that the theory by which they do predift them was fettled about the fame time 3 and that they were acquainted with the true length of the folar year, the method of obferving meridian altitudes of the fun by the flradowr of a gnomon, and of learning from thence his declination and the height of the pole, long- before. We learn, moreover, from the fame mifliona- ry, that there are yet remaining among them fome treatifes of aftronomy, which were ■written about 200 years before Chrift 3 from which it appears, that the Chinefe had known the daily motion of the fun and moon, and the times of the revolutions of the planets, many years before that period. “ We are informed by Du Halde, that, in the pro¬ vince of Honan, and city Teng-foang, which is nearly in the middle of China, there is a tower, on the top of which it is faid that Tcheou-cong, the moft fkilful aftro- nomer that ever China produced, made his obfervations. He lived 1200 years before Ptolemy, or more than 1000 years before Chrift, and palled whole nights in oblerving the celeftial bodies and arranging them into conftellations. He ufed a very large brafs table placed perfeftly horizontal, on which was fixed a long upright plate of the fame metal, both of which were divided into degrees, &c. By thefe he marked the meridian al¬ titudes 3 and from thence derived the times of the fol- ftices, w'hich were their principal epocha.” Dr Long reprefents the ftate of aftronomy in China as at prefent very low 3 occafioned, he fays, prin¬ cipally by the barbarous decree of one of their em¬ perors *, to have all the books in the empire burnt, *see excepting fuch as related to agriculture and medicine. We are informed, however, by the Abbe Grofier, in his defcription of China, that aftronomy is cultivated in Pekin in the fame manner as in moft of the capital cities of Europe. A particular tribunal is eftablilhed there, the jurifdidion of which extends to every thing relating to the obfervation of celeftial phenomena. Its members are, an infpeftor 3 two prefidents, one of them a Tartar and the other a Chinefe 3 and a certain number of mandarins wftio perform the duty of allef- fors 3 but for near a century and a half the place of the Chinefe prefident has been filled by an European. Since that time particular attention has been paid to the Part I. ASTRO Hiftory. tKe Jnftruftion of the aftronomical pupils j and the pre- lidents have always confidercd it as their duty to make them acquainted with the fyftem and method of cal¬ culation made ufe of in Europe, Thus two-thirds of the aftronomical pupils, maintained at the emperor’s expence, in all about 200, have a tolerable notion of the ftate of the heavens, and underltand calculation fo well as to be able to compofe ephemerides'of fufficient exa&nefs. The miflionaries have never been the au¬ thors of any of thefe ephemerides : their employment is to revife the labours of the Chinefe mathematicians, verify their calculations, and correct any errors into which they have fallen. The Portuguefe raiffion ftill continues to furnilh aftronomers for the academy, as it did at the fir ft. The aftronomical tribunal is fubordinate to that of ceremonies. When an eclipfe is to be obferved, in¬ formation muft be given to the emperor of the day and hour, the part of the heavens where it will be, &c. and this intelligence muft be communicated fome months before it happen ; the eclipfe muft alfo be calculated for the longitude and latitude of the capital city of every province of the empire. Thefe obfervations, as well as the diagram which reprefents the eclipfe, are preferved by the tribunal of ceremonies, and another called the calao, by whom it is tranfmitted to the dif¬ ferent provinces and cities of the empire. Some days before the eclipfe, the tribunal of ceremonies caufes to be fixed up in a public place, in large characters, the hour and minute when the eclipfe will commence, the quarter of the heavens in which it will be vifible, with the other particulars relating to it. The mandarins are fumraoned to appear in ftate at the tribunal of aftrono- my, and to wait there for the moment in which the phenomenon will take place. Each of them carries in his hand a iheet of paper, containing a figure of the eclipfe and every circumftance attending it. As foon as the obfervation begins to take place, they throw themfelves on their knees, and knock their heads againft the earth, and a horrid noife of drums and cymbals im¬ mediately commences throughout the whole city : a ceremony proceeding from an ancient fuperftitious no¬ tion, that by fuch a noife they prevented the luminary from being devoured by the celeftial dragon; and ^though this notion is now exploded in China, as well as everywhere elfe, fuch is the attachment of the people to ancient cuftoms, that the ceremonial is ftill preferved. While the mandarins thus, remain proftra- ted in the court, others, ftationed on the obfervatory, examine, with all the attention poffible, the beginning middle, and end of the eclipfe, comparing what they obferve with the figure and calculations given. They then write down their obfervations, affix their feal to them, and tranfmit them to the emperor; who, on his part, has been no lefs affiduous to obferve the eclipfe with accuracy. A ceremonial of this kind is obferved throughout the whple empire. The Japanefe, Siamefe, and inhabitants of the Mo¬ gul’s empire, have alfo, from time immemorial, been acquainted with aftronomyj and the celebrated obferva¬ tory at Benares, is a monument both of the inge- 4 unity of the people and of their Ikill in this fcience. Irdian JVlr Bailly has been at great pains to inveftigate the aftronomy. pr0grefs Qf ^he Indians in aftronomical knowledge, and gives a fplendid account of their proficiency in the N O M Y. *1 fcience, as well as of the antiquity of their obferva- Hiftory. tions. He has examined and compared four different l,”~v aftronomical tables of the Indian philoiophers. I. Oi the Siamefe, explained by M. Caflini in 1689. 2. I hofe brought from India by M. le Gentil of the Academy of Sciences, 3. and 4. Two other manufeript tables found among the papers of the late M. de Lille. All of thefe tables have different epochs, and differ in form, being alfo conftrufted in different ways ; yet they all evidently belong to the fame aftronomical fy¬ ftem : the motions attributed to the fun and the moon are the fame, and the different epochs are fo well con- nedled by the mean motions, as to demonftrate that they had only one, whence the others were derived by calculation. The meridians are all referred to that of Benares above-mentioned. The fundamental epoch of the Indian aftronomy is a conjunftion of the ftm and moon, which took place at no lefs a diftance of time than 3102 years before the Chriftian era. Mr Bailly informs us, that, according to our moft accurate aftro¬ nomical tables, a conjunftion of the fun and moon ac¬ tually did happen at that time. But though the bra- mins pretend to have afeertained the places of the two luminaries at that time, it is impoftible for us at this time to judge of the truth of their affertions, by rea- fon of the unequal motion of the moon j which, as Ihall afterwards be more particularly taken notice of, now performs its revolution in a Ihorter time than for¬ merly. Our author informs us, that the Indians at prefent cal¬ culate eclipfes by the mean motions of the fun and moon obferved 5000 years ago; and with regard to the folar motion, their accuracy far exceeds that of the belt Gre¬ cian aftronomers. The lunar motions they had alfo fettled, by computing the fpace through which that lu¬ minary had paffed in 1,600,984 days, or fomewhat more than 4383 years. They alfo make ufe of the cycle of 19 years attributed by the Greeks to Meton ; and their theory of the planets is much better than that of Ptolemy, as they do not fuppofe the earth to be the centre of the celeftial motions, and they believe that Mercury and Venus turn round the fun. Mr Bailly alfo informs us, that their aftronomy agrees with the moft modern difeoveries of the decreale of the obli¬ quity of the ecliptic, the acceleration of the motion of the equino&ial points, with many other particulars too tedious to enumerate in this place. 5 It appears alfo, that even the Americans were not Aftronomy unacquainted with aftronomy, though they made ufe only of the folar, and not of the lunar motions, in their “L 1 divifion of time. 1'he Mexicans have had a ftrartge predileftion for the number 13. Their fhorteft pe¬ riods confifted of 13 days; their cycle of 13 months, each containing 20 days; and their century of four periods of 13 years each. This exceflive veneration for the number 13, according to Siguenza, arofe from its being fuppofed the number of their greater gods. What is very furprifing, though afferted as a faCt by Ahb6 Clavigero, is that having difeovered the excefs of a few hours in the folar above the civil year, they made ufe of intercalary days, to bring them to an equa¬ lity : but with this difference in regard to the method eftablilhed by Julius Casfar in the Roman calendar, that they did not interpofe a day every four years, but 13 days (making ufe here even of this favourite num- B 2 ber) 12 - ' AS T R O Hiftory. her) every 52 years, which produces the fame regula- tion of time. Of the Among thofe nations who firft began to make any Chaldeans figure in ancient hiftory, we find the Chaldeans and and Egyp- Egyptians moft remarkable for their agronomical tians. knowledge. Both of them pretended to an extravagant antiquity, and difputed the honour of having been the firft cultivators of the fcience. The Chaldeans boaft- ed of their temple of Belus 5 and of Zoroafter, whom they placed 5000 years before the deftrudlion of Troy: ' the Egyptians boafted of their colleges of priefts, wdiere aftronomy wTas taught; and of the monument of Ofy- mandyas, in which w’e are told was a golden circle 365 cubits in circumference and one cubit thick. The up¬ per face was divided into 365 equal parts, anfvvering to the days of the year j and on every divifion were written the name of the day, and the heliacal rifing of the feveral ftars for that day, with the prognoftications from their rifing, principally, as Long conjeftures, for the weather. The Chaldeans certainly began to make obferva- tions very foon after the confufion of languages j lor when Alexander the Great took Babylon, Callifthenes, by his order, inquired after the aftronomical obferva- tions recorded in that city, and obtained them for 1903 years back. Nothing, however, now7 remains of the Chaldean aftronomy, excepting fome periods of years which they had formed for the more ready com¬ putation of the heavenly bodies. But though they muft have laboured under great difadvantages, for want of proper inftruments, in thofe early ages, Ge- mina, as quoted by Petarius in his Uranologion, in¬ forms us, that they had determined, with tolerable exaffnefs, the lengtlr both of a fynodical and periodi¬ cal month. They had alfo difcovered, that the mo¬ tion of the moon wfas not uniform, and even attempt¬ ed to aftign thofe parts of her orbit in which it vras quicker or flower. Ptolemy alfo allures us, that they were not unacquainted with the motion of the moon’s nodes, and that of her apogee, fuppofing that the for¬ mer made a complete revolution in 6585-f days, or * 18 years 15 days and 8 hours j wTich period, con¬ taining 223 complete lunations, is called the Chal¬ dean Saros. The fame author alfo gives us, from Hipparchus, feveral obfervations of lunar eclipfes which had been made at Babylon about 720 years be¬ fore Chrift ; but though he might very probably meet with many of a more ancient date, it was impoffible to mention them particularly, on account of the im- perfe£t ftate of the Chaldean chronology, which com¬ menced only with the era of Nabonaffar, 747 years be¬ fore Chrift.; Ariftotle likewife informs us, that they had many obfervations of the occultations of fixed ftars and planets by the moon ; and from hence, by a very natural and eafy inference, they wTere led to con¬ clude that the eclipfes of the fun were occafioned alfo by the moon, efpecially as they conftantly happened when the latter wras in the fame part of the heavens with the fun. They had alfo a confiderable ftiare in arranging the ftars into conftellations. Nor had the comets, by which aftronomers in all ages have been fo much perplexed, efcaped their obfervation : for both I)iodorus Siculus and Appollinus Myndius, in Seneca, inform us, that many of the Chaldeans held thefe to be lafting bodies, which have ftated revolutions as N O M Y. Part I. well as the planets, but in orbits vaftly more extenfivej Hiftory. on w'hich account they are only feen by us while near L"—"v J the earth, but difappear again when they go into the higher regions. Others of them were of opinion, that the comets were only meteors raifed very high in the air, which blaze for a while, and difappear when the matter of which they confift is confumed or difperfed. Dialling was alfo known among them long before the Greeks -were acquainted with any fuch thing. It is evident, indeed, that the countries both of Chaldea and Egypt were exceedingly proper for aftro- nomical obfervations, on account of the general puri¬ ty and ferenity of the air. The tower or temple of Belus, which was of an extraordinary height, with flairs winding round it up to the top, is fuppofed to have been an aftronomical obfervatory; and the lofty pyramids of Egypt, whatever they were ori¬ ginally defigned for, might poffibly anfwer the fame purpofe. Indeed thefe very ancient monuments fhow the Ikill of this people in praftical aftronomy, a,s they are all fituated with their four fronts exaftly facing the cardinal points. Herodotus aferibes the Egyptian knowledge in aftronomy to Sefoftris, whom Sir Ifaac Newton makes contemporary with Solo¬ mon : but if this was the cafe, he could not be the inftrudlor of the Egyptians in aftronomical mat¬ ters, fince we find that Mofes, who lived 500 years be¬ fore Solomon, was Ikilled in all the wifdom of the Egyptians, in which we are undoubtedly to include aftronomy. From the teftimony of fome ancient authors, we learn that they believed the earth to be fpherical, that they knew the moon wras eclipfed by falling into its Ihadowq and that they made their obfervations with the great- eft exadlnefs. They even pretended to foretel the ap¬ pearance of comets, as well as earthquakes and inun¬ dations ; which extraordinary knowledge is likewife aferibed to the Chaldeans. They attempted to mea- fure the magnitude of the earth and the fun; but the me¬ thods they took to find out the latter were very erro¬ neous. It does not indeed appear with certainty that they had any knowledge of the true fyftem of the uni- verfe; and by the time of the emperor Auguftus, their aftronomical knowledge was entirely loft. From Chaldea the fcience of aftronomy moft probably of the Phe- pafled into Phenicia •, though fome are of opinion thatnicians. the Phenicians derived their knowledge of this fcience from the Egyptians. They feem, however, to have been the firft who applied aftronomy to the purpofes of navigation j by which they became mafters of the fea, and of almoft all the commerce in the world. They became adventurous in their voyages, fleering their ftiips by one of the ftars of the Little Bear j which being near the immoveable point of the heavens called the Po/e, is the moft proper guide in navigation. Other nations made their obfervations by the Great Bear 5 which being too diftant from the pole could not guide them in long voyages j and for this reafon they never durft venture far from the coafts. 8 The firft origin of aftronomical knowledge among Aftronomy the Greeks is unknown. Sir Ifaac Newton fuppofes of the that moft of the conftellations w'ere invented about Greeks, the time of the Argonautic expedition : but Dr Long is of opinion that many of them muft have been of a much older date; and that the ftiepherds, who tvere certainly Part I. Hiftory. 9 Improved by Thales. 10 By Anaxi mander, See. A S T R O certainly the firft obfervers, gave names to them ac¬ cording" to their fancy j from whence the poets invent¬ ed many of their fables. Several of the conftellations are mentioned by Hefiod and Homer, the two moil ancient writers among the Greeks, who lived about 873 years before Chrift j Hehod defiring the farmer to regulate the time of fowing and harveft by the ri¬ ling and fetting of the Pleiades ; and Homer mform- ina us, that obfervations from the Pleiades, Orion, and Areturus, rvere ufed in navigation. I heir aftronomi- cal knowledge, however, was greatly improved by Thales the Mtlefian, who travelled into Egypt, and brought from thence the firft principles or the icience. He is laid to have determined the height of the pyra¬ mids by meafuring their fhadows at the time the fun was 45 degrees high, and when of confequence tne lengths of the lhadows of obje&s are equal to then- perpendicular heights. But his reputation was rafted to the higheft pitch among his countrymen, by the prediaion of an eclipfe, which happened juft at the time that the armies of Alyattes king of Lydia, and Cyaxares the Mede, were about to engage 5 and being regarded as an evil omen by both parties, inclined them to peace. To him Callimachus attributes the form¬ ing of the conftellation of the Little Bear ; the know¬ ledge of which he certainly introduced into Greece. He alfo taught the true length of the year j determined the cofmical fetting of the Pleiades in his time to have been 25 days after the autumnal equinox } divided the earth into five zones by means of the polar circles and tropics j taught the obliquity of the ecliptic 5 and (bow¬ ed that the equinoftial is cut by the meridians at right angles, all of which 'nterfea each other at the poles. He is alfo faid to have obferved the exaft time of the folftices, and from thence to have deduced the true length of the folar year ; to have obferved eclipfes of the"fun and moon ; and to have taught that the moon had no light but what die borrowed from the fun. x^ecording to Stanley, he alfo determined the diameter of the fun"1 to be one-ygOth part of his annual orbit. “ But (fays Dr Long) thefe things Ihould be received with caution. There are fome reafons which might be afiigned for fuppofmg that the knowledge, of Thales in thefe matters was much more circumfcribed : and indeed it is not unreafonable to fuppofe, that that ve¬ neration for the ancients which leads authors to write profefiedly on the hiftory of ancient times, may have induced them to aferibe full as much knowledge to them who lived in them as was really their due. The fuccelfbrs of Thales, Anaximander, Anaxime¬ nes, and Anaxagoras, contributed confiderably to the advancement of aftronomy. Fhe firft is laid to have invented or introduced the gnomon .into Greece 5 to have obferved the obliquity of the ecliptic y ano taught that the earth was fpherical, and the centre of the univerfe, and that the fun was not lefs than it. He is alfo faid to have made the firft globe, and to have fet up a fun-dial at Lacedemon, which is the firft we hear of among the Greeks } though fome are of opi¬ nion that thefe pieces of knowledge were brought from Babylon by Pherycides, a cotemporary of Anaximan¬ der. Anaxagoras alfo predifted an eclipfe w’hich Hap¬ pened in the fifth year of the Peloponnefian wTar.; and taught that the moon wms habitable, confifting of hills, vallevs, and waters, like the earth. His cotemporary N O M Y. 13 Pythagoras, however, greatly improved not only aftro- Biitory. * nomy and mathematics, but every other branch of phi- ^ lofophy. He taught that the univerfe was compofed Doarines of four elements, and that it had the fun in the centre jofPytha- that the earth was round, and, had antipodes ; and that goras. the moon reflebted the rays of the fun 5 that the flats were worlds, containing earth, air, and ether ; that the moon was inhabited like the earth 5 and that the comets were a kind of wandering liars, difappearing in the fuperior parts of their orbits, and becoming vifible on¬ ly in the lower parts of them. The w-hite colour of the milky-way he aferibed to the brightnefs of a great number of fmall ftars ; and he fuppofed the diftances of the moon and planets from the earth to be in cer¬ tain harmonic proportions to one another. He is faid alfo to have exhibited the oblique courfe of the fun in the ecliptic and the tropical circles, by means of an artificial fphere 3 and he firft taught that the planet Venus is both the evening and morning ftar. This philofopher is faid to have been taken prifoner by Cambyfes,- and thus to have become acquainted with* all the myfteries of the Perfian magi 5 after which he fettled at Crotona in Italy, and founded the Italian left. About 440 years before the Chriftian era, Philolaus, a celebrated Pythagorean, afferted the annual motion of the earth round the fun ; and foon after Hicetas, a Syracufan, taught its diurnal motion on its own axis. About this time alfo flouriftied Meton and Eudlemon at Athens, who took an exadl obfervation of the fum- mer folftice 432 years before Chrift $ which is the old- eft obfervation of the kind we have, excepting what is delivered by the Chinefe. Meton is faid to have com- pofed a cycle of 19 years, wrhich ftill bears bis name , and he marked the rifings and fettings of the ftars, and what feafons they pointed out : in all w-hich be was aflifted by his companion Euflemon. The fcience, however, wras obfeured by Plato and Ariftotle, who embraced the fyftem afterwards called the Ptolemaic, which places the earth in the centre of the univerfe. Eudoxus the Cnidian was a cotemporary with xL- riftotle, though confiderably older, and is greatly ce¬ lebrated on account of bis Ikill in aftronomy. He was the firft who introduced geometry into the fcience, and he is fuppofed to be the inventor of many propofitions attributed to Euclid. Having travelled into Egypt in the earlier part of bis life, and obtained a recom¬ mendation from Agefilaus to Nedtanebus king of E- gypt, he, by his means, got accefs to the priefts, who had the knowledge of aftronomy entirely among them,' after which he taught in Afia and Italy. Seneca tells us that he brought the knowledge of the planetary mo¬ tions from Egypt into Greece ; and Archimedes, that he believed the diameter of the fun to be nine times that of the moon. He was alfb well acquainted with the method of drawing a fun-dial upon a plane 5 from whence it may be inferred that he underftood the doc¬ trine of the proje61ion of the fphere : yet, notwith- ftanding what has been faid concerning the obferva¬ tions of Eudoxus, it is not certain that his fphere was not taken from one much more ancient, aferibed to Chiron the Centaur. The reafon given for this fuppo- fition is, that had the places of the ftars been taken from bis own obfervations, the conftellations mull have been half a fign farther advanced than they are faid to be in his writings. Soon 14 12 State of aftronomy in Egypt after the death of Alexander. ASTRO Hiftory. Soon after Eudoxus, Calippus flourifhed, wliofe fy- ftem of the celeftial fpliere is mentioned by Ariftotle j but he is better known from a period of 76 years, con¬ taining four correfted metonic periods, and which had its beginning at the fummer folftice in the year 330 before Chrift. But about this time, or rather earlier, the Greeks having begun to plant colonies in Italy, G-aul, and Egypt, thefe became acquainted with the Pythagorean fyftem, and the notions of the ancient Druids concerning aftronomy. Julius Ctefar informs us, that the latter were {killed in this fcience j and that the Gauls in general were able failors, which at that time they could not be without a competent knowledge of aftronomy : and it is related of Pythoas, who lived at Marfeilles in the time of Alexander the Great, that he obferved the altitude of the fun at the fummer folftice by means of a gnomon. He is alfo laid to have travelled as far as Thule to fettle the cli¬ mates. After the death of Alexander the Great, fciences flouriftied in Egypt more than in any other part of the world ; and a famous fchool wras fet up at Alexandria under the aufpices of Ptolemy Philadelphus, a prince inftrufted in all kinds of learning, and the patron of all thofe who cultivated them ; and this fchool conti¬ nued to be the feminary of all kinds of literature, till the invafion of the Saracens in 650. Timocharis and Aryftillus, who firft cultivated the aftronomical fcience in this fchool, began to put it on a new footing $ being much more careful in their obfervations, and exaft in noting down the times when they were made, than their predeceftbrs. Ptolemy affures us, that Hippar¬ chus made ufe of their obfervations, by means of which he difeovered that the ftars had a motion in longitude of about one degree in an hundred years j and he cites many of their obfervations, the oldeft of which is before the ereftion of this fchool, in the year 29?, when the moon juft touched the northern ftar in the forehead of the Scorpion ; and the laft of them wras in the 13th year of Philadelphus, when Venus hid the former ftar of the four in the left wing of Virgo. From this time the fcience of aftronomy continued greatly to advance. Ariftarchus, who lived about 270 years before Chrift, ftrenuoufly afterted the Pythago¬ rean fyftem, and gave a method of determining the di- ftance of the fun by the moon’s dichotomy. Eratof- thenes, born at Cyrene in 271 B. C. determined the meafure of a great circle of the earth by means of a gnomon. His reputation was fo great, that he was Invited from Athens to Alexandria by Ptolemy Euer- getes, and made by him keeper of the royal library at that place. At his inftigation the fame prince fet up thofe armillas or fpheres, wdiich Hipparchus and Pto¬ lemy the aftronomer afterwards employed fo fuccefsful- ly in obferving the heavens. He alfo found the diftance between the tropics to be eleven fuch parts as the whole meridian contains eighty-three. About the fame time Berofus, a native of Chaldea, flouriihed at A- thens. He is by fome faid to have brought many ob¬ fervations from Babylon, which are aferibed to the Greeks j while others contend, that the latter otve *3 little or nothing of their aftronomical knowledge to Difcoveries Babylonians. The celebrated Archimedes, w-ho medes.hl" next t0 Sir Ifaac Newton holds the firft place among N 0 M Y. Part I* mathematicians, was nothing inferior as an aftronomer Kiitory. to what he was as a geometrician. He determined the diftance of the moon from the earth, of Mercury from the moon, of Venus from Mercury, of the fun from Venus, ot Mars from the fun, of Jupiter from Mars, and of Saturn from Jupiter ; as likewife the di¬ ftance of the fixed ftars from the orbit of Saturn. That he made aftronomical obfervations, is not to be doubt¬ ed ; and it appears from an epigram of the poet Clau- dian, that he invented a kind of planetarium, or orre¬ ry, to reprefent the phenomena and motions of the hea¬ venly bodies. ' > Hipparchus was the firft who applied himfelf to theofHippar- ftudy of every part of aftronomy, his predeceflbrs ha- chus. ving chiefly confidered the motions and magnitudes of the fun and moon. Ptolemy alfo informs us, that he firft difeovered the orbits of the planets to be eccen¬ tric, and on this hypothefis w'rote a book againft Eu¬ doxus and Calippus. He gives many of his obferva¬ tions ; and fays, that by comparing one of his with another made by Ariftarchus 145 years before, he was enabled to determine the length of the year with great precifion. Hipparchus alfo firft found out the anticipation of the moon’s nodes, the eccentricity of her orbit, and that {he moved flower in her apogee than in her perigee. He collefted the accounts of fuch ancient eclipfes as had been obferved by the Chal¬ deans and Egyptians. He formed hypothefes con¬ cerning the celeftial motions, and conftruefed tables of thofe of the fun and moon, and would have done the fame with thofe of the other planets if he could have found ancient obfervations fufficient for the purpofe j but, thefe being wanting, he wfcs obliged to content himfelf with collefting fit obfervations for that pur- ' pofe, and endeavouring to form theories of the five planets. By comparing his own obfenations on the Spica Virginis with thofe of Timochares at Alexandria made too years before, he difeovered that the fixed ftars changed their places, and had a flow motion of their own from weft to eaft. He correfted the Calip- pic period, and pointed out fome errors in the method laid down by Eratofthenes for meafuring the circum¬ ference of the earth. By means of geometry, which wras nowT greatly improved, he was enabled to attempt the calculation of the fun’s diftance in a more correft manner than any of his predeceffors •, but unhappily it required fo much accuracy in obfervation as was found j. impra&icable. His greateft work, however, was his Makes the catalogue of the fixed ftars, which he was induced to^cata- attempt by the appearance of a new ftar. The cat a- ^ logue is preferved by Ptolemy, and contains the longi¬ tudes and latitudes of 1022 ftars, with their apparent magnitudes. He wrote alfo concerning the intervals between eclipfes both folar and lunar, and is faid to have calculated all that were to happen for no lefs than 600 years from his time. Little progrefs wras made in aftronomy from the time Syftem of of Hipparchus to that of Ptolemy, who flouriihed in Ptolemy, the firft century. The principles on which his fyftem is built are indeed erroneous ; but his work will al¬ ways be valuable on account of the number of ancient obfervations it contains. It was firft tranflated out of the Greek into Arabic in the year 827, and into La¬ tin from the Arabic in 12 30. The Greek original was unknown in Eitrope till the beginning of the 15th century, part t. ASTRO Hiftovy. century, when it was brought from Conftantinople, •—-v—then taken by the Turks, by George a monk of Tra- pezond, who tranflated it into Latin. Various edi¬ tions were afterwards publiihed •, but little or no im¬ provement was made by the Greeks in this fcience. Aftronomy During the long period from the year 800 to the of the Ara-beginning of the 14th century, the weftern parts of bians. Europe were immerfed in deep ignorance and barbari¬ ty. However, feveral learned men arofe among the Arabians. The caliph A1 Manfur was the hrft who introduced a tafte for the iciences in his empire. His grandfon A1 Mamun, who afcended the throne in 814, was a great encourager of the fciences, and devoted much of his own time to the ftudy of them. He made many afironomical obfervations himfelf, and determin¬ ed the obliquity of the ecliptic to be 230 3 5'. He em¬ ployed many able mechanics in conftrutling proper inftruments, which he made ufe of for his oblervations j and under his aufpices a degree of the earth was mea- fured a fecond time in the plain of Singar, on the bor¬ der of the Red fea. From this time aftronomy was ftudioufly cultivated by the Arabians *, and Elements of Aftronomy were written by Alferganus, who was partly cotemporary with the caliph A1 Mamun. But the moft celebrated of ail their aftronomers is Alba- tegnius, w'ho lived about the year of Chrift 880. Fie greatly reformed aftronomy, by comparing his own obfervations with thofe of Ptolemy. Thus he calcu¬ lated the motion of the fun’s apogee from Ptolemy’s time to his own ; determined the preceflion of h e equinoxes to be one degree in 70 years ; and fixed the fun’s greateft declination at 23.35'. Finding that the tables of Ptolemy required much corredlion, he com- pofed new ones of his own fitted to the meridian of A- racfta, which were long held in eftimation by the Ara¬ bians. After his time, though feveral eminent aftro¬ nomers appeared among the Saracens, none made any very valuable obfervations for feveral centuries, ex¬ cepting Ebn Younis aftronomer to .the caliph of E- gypt ; who obferved three eclipfes with fuch care, that by means of them we are enabled to determine the quantity of the moon’s acceleration fince that time. Other eminent Saracen aftronomers were, Arzachel a Moor of Spain, who obferved the obliquity of the ecliptic, and conftru&ed tables of fines, or half chords of double arcs, dividing the diameter into 300 parts ; and Alhazen, his cotemporary, who firft Ihowed the importance of the theory of refraftions in aftronomy j writing alfo upon the twilight, the height of the clouds, and the phenomenon of the horizontal moon. Ulug Beg, a grandfon of the famous Tartar prince Timur Beg, or Tamerlane, was a great proficient in praflical aftronomy. He is faid to have had very large inftruments for making his obfervations ; particularly a quadrant as high as the church of Sanfta Sophia at Conftantinople, which is 180 Roman feet. He com- pofed aftronomical tables from his own obfervations for the meridian of Samarcand his capital, to exaft as to differ very little from thofe afterwards conftrufted by Tycho Brahe •, but his principal work is his cata¬ logue of the fixed ftars, made from his own obferva¬ tions in the year of Chrift 1437. The accuracy of his obfervations may be gathered from his determin¬ ing the height of the pole at Samarcand to be 39* 37' 23". N O M Y. lS Befides thefe improvements, we are indebted to the . Hiftory. ^ Arabians for the prefent form of -trigonometry. Ma- nelatls, indeed, an- eminent Greek aftronomer v, no flourilhed about the year 9^5 publiihed three books of Spherics, in which he treated of the geometry ne- ceffary to aftronomy, and rvhich {how great fkill in t le fcience's ; but his methods were very laborious, evea after they had been improved and rendered more fim- ple by Ptolemy : but Geber the Arabian, inftead of the ancient method, propofed three or four theorems, which are the foundation of our modern trigonometry. The Arabians alfo made the practice ftill more fimple, by ufing fines inftead of the chords of double arcs. The arithmetical charadters they had from the In¬ dians. -l8i e During the greateft part of this time, almoft all Eu-™valot rope continued ignorant not only of aftronomy but of Eur0peo every other fcience. rIhe emperor Frederick II. firft began to encourage learning in 1230 ^ reftoring fome univerfities, and founding a new one in ^ ienna. He alfo caufed the works of Ariftotle, and the Almagefb or Aftronomical Treatife of Ptslemy, to be tranflated into Latin 5 and from the tranflation of this book we may date the revival of aftronomy in Europe. Two years after its publication, John de Sacro Bofco, or of Halifax, an Englifhman, wrote his four books De Sphcera, which he compiled from Ptolemy Albateg- nius, Alferganus, and other Arabian aftronomers: this work was fo much celebrated, that for 300 years it was preferred in the fchools to every other and has been thought worthy of feveral commentaries, parti¬ cularly by Clavius in 1531. In 1240, Alphonfoking of Caftile caufed the tables of Ptolemy to be correft- ed : for which purpofe he aflembled many perfons {kil¬ led in aftronomy, Chriftians, Jews, and Moors 5 by whom the tables called Alphonfine were compoied, at the expence of 40,000, or according to others 400,000 ducats. About the fame time Roger Bacon, an Eng- lifh monk, publifhed many things relative to aftrono¬ my •, particularly of the places of the fixed ftars, folar rays, and lunar afpefts. Vitellio, a Polander, wrote a treatife on Optics about 1270, in which he fhowed the ufe of refractions in aftronomy. ip From this time to that of Purbach, who,was born in 1423, few or no improvements were made in aftro- nomy. He wrote a commentary on Ptolemy’s Al- macreft, feme treatifes on Arithmetic and Dialling, with tables for various climates. He not only ufed fpheres and globes, but conftruCled them himfelf 5 and formed new"tables of the fixed ftars, reduced to the middle of that age. He compofed alfio new tables of fines for every ten minutes, which Regiomontanus af¬ terwards extended to every Angle minute, making the wdrole fine 60, with 6 ciphers annexed. He likewife corrected the tables of the planets, making new equa¬ tions to them, becaufe the Alphonfine tables were very faulty in this refpeCt. In his folar tables he placed the fun’s apogee in the beginning of Cancer*, but retained the obliquity of the ecliptic 230 33V, to which it had been reduced by the lateft obfervations. He made new tables for computing eclipfes, of which he obfer¬ ved fome, and had juft publifhed a theory of the pla¬ nets, when he died in J461. 20 John Muller of Monteregio (Koningftierg), a townOfRegio- of Franconia, from whence he was called Regiomonta- montuiiw. nus) 21 Of Werner, A S T R nas, was the fcholar and fucceflbr of Purbach. He completed the epitome of Ptolemy’s Almageft which I uibach had begun ; and after the death of the latter, went to Rome, where he made many aflronomical ob- fervations. Having returned to Nuremberg in 1471, he was entertained by a wealthy citizen named Ber¬ nard IValther, who having a great love for aftronomy, caufed feveral inftruments to be made under the direc¬ tion^ of Regiomontanus, for obferving the altitude of the xun and liars, and other celeltial phenomena. A- mong thefe was an armillary aftrolabe, like that which had been ufed by Hipparchus and Ptolemy at Alexan¬ dria, and with which many obfervations were made. He alio made ephemerides for 30 years to come, fhow- mg the lunations, eclipfes, &c. He wrote the Theo- iy or tile Planets and Comets, and a Treatife of Tri- angles yet in repute for feveral extraordinary cafes. He is faid to have been the firll who introduced the ufe of tangents into trigonometry ; and to have pub- hlhed in print (the art ot printing having been lately invented) the works of many of the molt celebrated ancient altronomers. After his death, which happen¬ ed at Rome, Walther made a diligent fearch for all his inltruments and papers which could be found; and continued his obfervations with the inftruments he had till his death. The obfervations of both were collect¬ ed by order of the fenate of Nuremberg, and publifhed there by John Schoner in 1544; afterwards by Snel- hus at the end of the Obfervations made by the Land¬ grave of Hefle in 1618; and laftly, in 1666, with thofe of Tycho Brahe. Walther, however, as we are told by Snellius, found fault with his armilla, not being able to give any obfervation with certainty to lefs than ten minutes. He made ufe of a good clock, which alfo was a late invention in thofe days. John Werner, a clergyman, fucceeded Walther as aftronomer at Nuremberg ; having applied himfelf with great aftiduity to the ftudy of that fcience from his in¬ fancy. He obferved the motion of the comet in 1500 ; and puolilhed feveral traCls, in which he handled ma¬ ny capital points of geometry, aftronomy, and geo- graphy, in a mafterly manner. He publilhed a tranf- lation of Ptolemy’s Geography, with a commentary, which is ftill extant. In this he firft: propofed the me¬ thod of finding the longitude at fea by obferving the moon’s diftance from the fixed ftars ; which is now fo fuccefsfully put in praaice; He alfo publiftied many other treatifes on mathematics and geography ; but the moil remarkable of all his treatifes, are thole concern¬ ing the motion of the eighth fphere or of the fixed ftars, and a Ihort theory of the fame. In this he ftiow- ed, by comparing his own obfervations of the ftars Re- gulus, Spica Virginis, and the bright ftar in the fouth- ern fcale of the Balance, made in 1514, with the pla¬ ces afligned to the fame ftars. by Ptolemy, Alphonfus, and others, that the motion of the fixed ftars, now called the preceflion of the equinoctial points, is one de¬ gree ten minutes in 100 years, and not one degree on¬ ly, as former aftronomers had made it. He made the obliquity of the ecliptic 230 28', and the firft ftar of Aries 26° diftant from the equinoftial point. He alfo conftruCled a planetarium reprefenting the celeftial mo¬ tions according to the Ptolemaic hypothefis, and made a great numbei of meteorological obfervations with a t’iew towards the prediction of the weather. The ob¬ o N O M Y. liquity of the ecliptic was fettled by Dominic Maria, the friend of Copernicus, at 230 29', which is ftill held to be juft. 1 he celebrated Nicholaus Copernicus next makes hispythago- appearance, and is undoubtedly the great reformer ofrean lyflem the aftronomical fcience. He was originally bred to reftored by the practice of medicine, and had obtained the degree Coi)eraicus' of dodtor in that faculty : but having conceived a great regard for the mathematical friences, efpecially aftro¬ nomy, he travelled into Italy, where he for fome time was taught by Dominic Maria, or rather aflifted him in his aftronomical operations. On his return to his own country, being made one of the canons of the church, he applied himfelf with the utmoft aflidui- ty to the contemplation of the heavens, and to the ftu¬ dy of the celeftial motions. He foon perceived the de¬ ficiency of all the hypothefes by which it had been at¬ tempted to account for thefe motions ; and for this rea- fon he fet himfelf to ftudy the wrorks of the ancients, wdth all of w’hom he alio was diflatisfied excepting Py¬ thagoras ; who, as has been already related, placed the fun in the centre, and fuppofed all the planets, wdth the earth itfelf, to revolve round him. He in¬ forms us, that he began to entertain thefe notions about the year 1507 ; but not being fatisfied with ftating the general nature of his hypothefis, he became defirous of determining the feveral periodical revolutions of the planets, and thence of conftrudling tables of their mo¬ tions which might be more agreeable to truth than thofe of Ptolemy and Alphonfus. The obfervations he was enabled to make, however, muft have been ex¬ tremely inaccurate ; as he tells us, that if with the in¬ ftruments he made ufe of he fliould be able to come within ten minutes of the truth, he would rejoice no lefs than Pythagoras did when he difcovered the pro¬ portion of the hypothenufe to the other two fides of a right-angled triangle. His work was completed in the year r53° ; but he could not be prevailed upon to publilh it till towards the end of his life, partly through diffidence, and partly through fear of the offence which might be taken at the fingularity of the doc¬ trines fet forth in it. At laft, overcome by the im¬ portunities of his friends, he fuffered it to be publifhed at their expence, and under the infpedlion of Schoner and Ofiander, with a dedication to Pope Paul III. and a preface, in which it was attempted to palliate as much as poftible the extraordinary innovations it con¬ tained. During the time of its publication, the au¬ thor himfelf was attacked by a bloody flux, fucceeded by a pally; fo that he received a copy only a few' hours before his death, which happened on the 23d of May 1543. After the death of Copernicus, the aftronomical fcience was greatly improved by Schoner, Nonius, Ap- pian, and Gemma Frifius. Schoner furvived Coper¬ nicus only four years ; however, he greatly improved the methods of making celeftial obfervations, reformed and explained the calendar, and publifhed a treatife of cofmography. Nonius had applied himfelf very early to the ftudy of aftronomy and navigation ; but finding the inftruments at that time in ufe exceflively inaccu¬ rate, he applied himfelf to the invention of others which fhould be lefs liable to inconvenience. Thus he invented the aftronomical quadrant, in which he divid¬ ed the degrees into minutes by a number of concentric circles. Part I. ASTRONOMY. Kiftory *3 ^Several il- luftrious perfons ap¬ ply to the itudy of a- itronemy. 24 T)bferva- tions of Tycho Brahe. circles. Tfee firft of thefe was divided into 90 equal J parts, the fecond into 89, the third into 88, and fo on, as low as 46 j and thus, as the index of the qua¬ drant would always fall upon one or other of the divi- fions, or very near it, the minutes might be known by computation. He publifhed many treatifes on ma¬ thematical fubjefls, particularly one which detected the errors of Orontius, who had imagined that he could fquare the circle, double the cube, See. by find¬ ing two mean proportionals betwixt two right lines. Appian’s chief work was entitled The Ccvfarean Ajh-o- nomy ; and was publifhed at Ingoldftadt in 1540, de¬ dicated to the emperor Charles V. and his brother Ferdinand. In this he fhowed how to refolve aflrono- mical problems by means of inilruments, without either calculations or tables ; to obferve the places of the ftars and planets by the aftrolabe; and to foretel eclipfes and deferibe the figures of them : the whole illuftrated by proper diagrams. In his fecond book he clefcrxbes the method of dividing an aftronomical quadrant, and of ufing it properly. His treatife con¬ cludes with the obfervation of five cemets. Gemma Frifius wrote a commentary on a work of Appian en¬ titled his Cofmography, with many obfervations of eclip¬ fes. He invented aifo the aftronomical ring, and fe- yeral other inftruments, which, though they could not boaft of much exa&nefs fuperior to others, were yet of confiderable utility in taking obfervations at fea ; and he is alfo memorable for being the firft who propofed a time-keeper for determining the longitude at fea. George Joachim Rheticus was a fcholar of Copernicus, to attend whole lectures he gave up his profeflbrfhip of mathematics at Wittemberg. h or the improvement of aftronomical calculations, he began to conftrufl a table of fines, tangents, and fecants, for every minute and ten feconds of the quadrant. In this work he firft fhowed the ufe of fecants in trigonometry, and greatly enlarged the ufe of tangents, firft invented by Regio¬ montanus ; but he affigned for the radius a much larger number of places than had been done before, for the greater exaanefs of calculation. This great tvork he did not live to accomplifh; but it w’as com¬ pleted by his difciple Valentine Otho, and publifhed at Heidelberg in 1594. . During this century, the lift of aftronomers was dig¬ nified by fome very illuftrious names. About the year 1561, William IV. landgrave of Hefle Caffel, ap¬ plied himfelf to the ftudy of aftronomy. With the af- fiftance of Rothman and Burgius, the former an aftro- nomer, the latter an excellent mathematical inftrument maker, he erefled an obfervatory on the top of his pa¬ lace at Cafiel, and furnifhed it with fuch inftruments as were then in ufe, made in the beft manner the artifts of that age could execute. With thefe he made a great numbei of obfervations, which were by Hevelius pre¬ ferred to thofe of Tycho Brahe, and which were pu- Idiftied by Snellius in 16x8. From thefe obfervations he determined the longitudes and latitudes of 400 ftars, vftiich he inferted in a catalogue where their places are re&ified to the beginning of the year 1 1^9^. , Tycho Brahe began his obfervations about the fame tune with the landgrave of Hefle, already mentioned. He obferved the great conjunflion of Saturn and Ju¬ piter in 1563 ; and finding the inftruments he could procure very inaccurate, he made a quadrant capable \ol. III. Part. I, 25 of fhowing Angle minutes, and likewife a fextant four cubit’s radius. In 1571, he difeovered a newr ftar in the chair of Caffiopeia ; which induced him, like Hip¬ parchus, to make a catalogue of the ftars. This con¬ tained the places of 777 ftars, re&ified to the year 1600; but inftead of the moon, which was ufed by the ancients to conneft the places of the fun and ftars, Tycho fub- ftituted Venus, as having little or no parallax, and yet being like the moon vifible both day and night. By the recommendation of the landgrave of Heffe, he obtained from the king of Denmark the ifland of Hu- enna, oppofite to Copenhagen, where an obfervatory wras built. The firft ftone of this building, afterwards called Uraniburg, w^as laid in the year 1576. It was Account of of a fquare form, one fide of it being about 60 feet in Uraniburg, length $ and on the eaft and weft fides w^ere two round llis °bferva- towers of 32 feet diameter each. The inftrumentstory- were larger and more folid than had ever been feen be¬ fore by any aftronomer. They confifted of quad rants, fextants, circles, femicircles, armilke both equatorial and zodiacal, parallacftic rulers, rings, aftrolabes, globes, clocks, and iun-dials. Thefe inftruments were fo di¬ vided as to fhow fingle minutes; and in fome the arch might be read off to 10 feconds. Moft of the divifions W'ere diagonal : but he had one quadrant divided ac¬ cording to the method invented by Nonius j that is, by 47 concentric circles. The whole expence is faid to have amounted to 200,000 crowns. The method of dividing by diagonals, which Tycho greatly admired, was the invention of Mr Richard Chanceler, an En- ghftiman : Tycho, however, {hows, that it is hot accu¬ rately true when ftraight lines are employed, and the circles at equal diftances from each other"; but that it may be corredled by making circular diagonals, which if continued would pafs through the centre. Tycho employed his time at Uraniburg to the beft: advantage ; but falling into diferedit on the death of the king, he was obliged to remove to Holftein and at laft found means to get himfelf introduced to the em¬ peror, with wThom he continued to his death. He is well known to have been the inventor of a fvftpm of aftronomy, which bears his name : and which he vainly endeavoured to eftablifti on the ruins of that of Copernicus: but the fimplicity and evident confo- nancy to the phenomena of nature, difplayed in all parts of the Copernican fyftem, foon got the better of the unnatural and complicated fyftem of Tycho. His works, however, which are very numerous, difeover him to have been a man of vaft abilities. After his death the caftle of Uraniburg quickly fell to decay, and m- tieed feems to have been purpofely pulled down; for in 1652, when Mr Huet went to Sweden, it was almoft level with the ground, and few traces of the walls could be difeerned. None of the neighbouring inhabitants had ever heard of the name of Tycho or Uranibum excepting one old man, whom Mr Huet found out with great difficulty, and who had been a fervant in the family ! All the difcoverles of Purback, Regiomon¬ tanus, and Tycho, were colleaed and publiffied in the year 1611, by Eongomontanus, who had been Tycho’s favourite fcholar. J While Tycho refided at Prague tvith the emperor, DifcoCte he invited thither John Kepler, afterwards fo famous °f Kepler, lor his difcovenes. Under the tuition of fo great an aftronomer, the latter quickly made an amazing ^ progrefs. iS ASTRO ; Hiftofy, ^ progrefs. He found that his predeceflbrs had erred v in luppofing the orbits of the planets to be circular, and their motions uniform : on the contrary, he per¬ ceived, from his own obfervations, that they were el¬ liptical, and their motions unequal, having the fun in one of the foci of their orbits ; but that, however they varied in abfolute velocity, a line drawn from the cen¬ tre of the fun to the planet, and revolving with it, tvould always defcribe equal areas in equal times. He difcovered, in the year 1618, that the fquares of the periodical times are as the cubes of the diftances of the planets; two laws which have been of the greatel! im¬ portance to the advancement of aftronomy. He feems to have had fome notion of the extenfive power of the principle of gravity : for he tells us, that gravity is a mutual power betwixt two bodies j that the moon and earth tend towards each other, and would meet in a point nearer the earth than the moon in the proportion of the fuperior magnitude of the former, were they not hindered by their proje&ile motions. He adds alfo, that the tides arife from the gravitation of the waters towards the moon : however, he did not adhere fleadily to thefe principles, but afterwards fubflituted others as the caufes of the planetary motions. Cotemporary with Kepler were Mr Edward Wright, and Napier, baron of Merchifton. To the former we owe feveral very gciod meridional obfervations of the fun’s altitude, made with a quadrant of fix feet radius, in the years 1594., 1595, and 1596 ; from which he greatly improved the theory of the fun’s motion, and computed more exa£t tables of his declination than had been done by any perfon before. He publifhed alfo, in 1599, an excellent treatife, entitled, “ Cer¬ tain Errors in Navigation difcovered and dete&ed.” To the latter we are indebted for the knowledge of logarithms ; a difcovery, as was juftly obferved by Dr Halley, one of the molt ufeful ever made in the art of numbering. John Bayer, a German, who lived about the fame time, will ever be memorable for his work, entitled, Uranometria, which is a very complete ce- leltial atlas, or a collection of all the conftellations vifi- ble in Europe. To this he added a nomenclature, in which the Itars in each conftellation are marked with the letters of the Greek alphabet *, and thus every liar in the heavens may be referred to with the utmeft pre- cifion and exaftnefs. About the fame time alfo, aftro¬ nomy rvas cultivated by many other perfons j abroad, by Maginus, Mercator, Maurolycus, Homelius, Schul- tet, Stevin, &c. ; and by Thomas and Leonard Digges, John Dee, and Robert Flood, in England : but none ^ of them made any confiderable improvement. Invention The beginning of the 1 7th century was diftinguifh- t»f tele- ed not only by the difcovery of logarithms, but by fcopes, and that of telefcopes 5 a fort of inftruments by which ^koveriM a^ron°my was brought to a degree of perfeclion utter- ' ly inconceivable by thofe who knew nothing of them. The qaeftion concerning the inventor is difeuffed under the article Optics •, but whoever was entitled to this merit, it is certain that Galileo was the firft who brought them to Inch perfefiion as to make any con- fiderabk difeoveries in the celeftial regions. With in¬ ftruments of his own making, Galileo difcovered the inequalities in the moon’s furface, the fatellites of Ju¬ piter, and the ring of' Saturn •, though this laft was unknown to him after he had feen it, and the view he N O M Y. Parti. got made him conclude that the planet had a threefold Hiftory. body,, or that it was of an oblong fhape like an olive. - He difcovered fpots on the fun, by means of which he found out the revolution of that luminary on his axis j and he difcovered alfo that the milky wray and nebuke were full of fmall ftars. It was not, however, till fome time after thefe difeoveries w’ere made, that Ga¬ lileo and others thought of applying the obfervations on Jupiter’s fatellites to the purpofe of finding the lon¬ gitude of places on the furface of the earth ; and even after this wras thought of, aftronomers found it fo dif¬ ficult to conftrudt tables of their motions, that it was not till after many obfervations had been made in diftant places of the world, that Caflini was able to determine what politions of the fatellites were moll proper for finding out the longitude. At laft he per¬ ceived that the entrance of the firft: fatellite into the lhadow' of Jupiter, and the exit of it from the fame, wTere the moft proper for this purpofe : that next to thefe the conjunctions of the fatellites with Jupiter, or with one another, may be made ufe of; efpecially when any two of them, moving in contrary directions, meet with each other : and laftly, that obfervations on the fiiadowrs of the fatellites, which may be feen on the dilk of Jupiter, are ufeful, as alfo the fpots which are feen upon his face, and are carried along it with great¬ er velocity than has hitherto been difcovered in any of the other heavenly bodies. While aftronomers were thus bufy in making new Logarith- difeoveries, the mathematicians in different countriesmic tables were no lefs earneftly employed in conftruCling loga-ccnHwfeT. rithmic tables to facilitate their calculations. Benja¬ min Urfinus, an excellent mathematician of Branden¬ burg, calculated much larger tables of logarithms than bad been done by their noble inventor, and publilhed them in 1625. They were improved by Henry Briggs, Savilian profeffor of Oxford ; who by making unity the logarithm of ten, thus rendered them much more con¬ venient for the purpofes of calculation. Logarithmic tables of fines and tangents were alfo compofed by Mr Briggs and Adrian Vlacq at Goude, fo that the bufi- nefs of calculation was now rendered nearly as eafy as poflible. ^ 0 In 1633, Mr Horrox, a young aftronomer of very Tranlit of extraordinary talents, difeovered that Venus would pafs Venus firll over the difk of the fun on the 24th of November°^erve^ 1639. This event he announced only to one friend, ‘VIr *Iorrox* a Mr Crabtree j and tbefe two were the only perfons in the world who obferved this tranfit the firft time it had ever been viewed by human eyes. Mr Horrox made many ufeful obfervations at the time ; and bad even formed a newr theory of the moon, fo ingenious as to attract the notice of Sir Ifaac Newton •, but the hopes of aftronomers from the abilities of this exceL lent young man were blafted by his death in the begin¬ ning of January 1640. About the year 1638 many learned men began toFoundatiojii alfemble at Paris in order to bold conferences on dif- oGhe Aca- ferent fcientific fubjefls, which ivas the firft foundation cierriy0^,:‘" of the Royal Academy of Sciences in that capital. a" This praftice was introduced in France by Merfennus, Royal So- and foon after at London by Oldenburg 5 which laidcktyat . the foundation of the Royal Society there. About ^on^oiu this time alfo the celebrated aftronomer Hevelius flou- riihed at Dantzic, building an obfervatory in his own houfe. Parti. ASTRONOMY. Hiftory. lioufe, and furmfhing It with excellent Inftruments of his own con he publiffied his fa Aljr°nomix Cometicce, in which, after immenle cal¬ culation, he ventured to predid the return of one in I75^ or 11S9' He alfo publilhed many learned dif- fertations in the Philofophical Tranfadions concerning the ufe that might be made of the next tranlit of Ve¬ nus in determining the diftance of the fun from the earth. He was the firft who difeovered the accelera¬ tion of the moon, and gave a very ingenious method of finding her parallax by three obferved phafes of a folar eclipfe. He compofed tables of the lun, moon, and all the planets ; and, in the nine years in which he was at Greenwich, made near 1500 obfervations of the moon ; all which he compared with the tables, and noted the differences; and thefe, he thought, would return in about 18 years. He recommended the method of determining the longitude by means of the moon’s diftance from the fun and certain fixed liars.. He was convinced of its fuperior excellence ; and is has fince been adopted by all the moll emi¬ nent aftronomers in Europe. It is at prefent the only fure guide to the mariner ; and the great perfe&ion to which it is now brought is much owing to the in- dullry and exertions of Dr Malkelyne, the prefent aftronomer-royal, to whom we are indebted for the pub¬ lication of the Nautical Almanack, the Requifite Ta¬ bles, and other works of the utmoll fervice to pra&ical altronomy. In the mean time an attempt was made in France to Truifigure meafure a degree of the earth, which occafioned a very of the earth warm dxfpute concerning the figure of it. Caffini difeovered. from Picart’s meafure, concluded that the earth was an oblong fpheroid 3 but Newton, from a confidera- tion of the laws of gravity and the diurnal motion of the earth, had determined the figure of it to be an ob¬ late fpheroid, and flatted at the poles. To determine this point, Louis XV. refolved to have two degrees of the meridian meafured 3 one under, or very near the equator ; and the other as near the pole as poffible. For this purpofe the Royal Academy of Sciences fent M. Maupertuis, Clairault, Camus, and Le Monier, to Lapland. They were accompanied by the Abbe Ou- thier, a correfpondent of the fame academy. They were joined by M. Celfius profeffor of anatomy at Up- fal 5 and having fet out from France in the fpring of the year 1736, returned to it in 1737, after having Part I. Hiftory. 1 35 Improve¬ ments by the French aftrono- mers. ASTRONOMY. fully accompllllied their erratic!. On the fouthern ex¬ pedition were defpatched M. Godin, Condamine, and Bouguer, to whom the king of Spain joined Don George Juan and Don Anthony de Ulloa, two very ingenious gentlemen and officers of the marine. They left Europe in 1735 j and after enduring innumerable hardthips and difficulties in the execution of their com- miffion, returned to Europe at different times, and by different ways, in the years 1744, I745> anc^ I74^- The refult of this arduous’talk was a confirmation of Newton’s inveftigation. Picart’s meafure was revifed by Gaffini and De la Caille •, and, after his errors were corre&ed, it was found to agree very well with the other two. On this occafion too it was difcovered, that the attra&ion of the great mountains of Peru had an effeft on the plumb-line of one of their largeft inftru- ments, drawing it feven or eight feconds from the true perpendicular. Dr Halley, dying in 1742, wras fucceeded by Dr Bradley, who, though inferior as a mathematician, greatly exceeded him as a praftical aftronomer. He wras the firft who made obfervations cvith an accuracy fufficient to deleft the leffer inequalities in the motions of the planets and fixed itars. Thus he difcovered the aberration of light, the nutation of the earth’s axis, and wras able to make the lunar tables much more perfect than they had ever been. He alfo obferved the places, and computed the elements of the comets which ap¬ peared in the years 1723, 1736, 1743, and I757* Ke made newr and molt accurate tables of the motions of Jupiter’s fatellites, from his own obfervations and thofe of Dr Pound ; and from a multitude of obferva¬ tions of the fun, moon, and ttars, was enabled to give the molt accurate table of mean refraftions yet extant, as well as the belt methods of computing the variations of thofe refraftions arifing from the different Hates of the air as indicated by the thermometer and barome¬ ter. In 1750, having procured a very large tranfit inltrument made by Mr Bird, and a new mural qua¬ drant of brafs eight feet radius, he began to make ob¬ fervations with redoubled indultry *, fo that betwuxt this time and his death, which happened in 1762, he made obfervations for fettling the places of all the liars in the Britilh catalogue, together with near 1500 pla¬ ces of the moon, much the greater part of wffiich he compared wuth the tables of Mr Mayer. In the mean time the French allronomers w7ere affi- duous in their endeavours to promote the fcience of aftronomy. The theory of the moon, which had been given in a general way by Sir Ifaac Newton, began to be particularly confidered by Meffrs Clairault, D’Alem¬ bert, Euler, Mayer, Simpfon, and Walmlly •, though Clairault, Euler, and Mayer, dillinguilhed themfelves beyond any of the reft, and Mr Euler has been particu¬ larly happy in the arrangement of his tables for the eafe and expedition of computation. He was excelled in exaftnefs, however, by Mayer, who publilhed his ta¬ bles in the Gottingen Afts for 1753. tkefe the errors in longitude never exceeded two minutes; and having yet farther improved them, he fent a copy to the lords of the Britiffi admiralty in 1755 ", and it wras this copy which Dr Bradley compared with his ob¬ fervations, as already mentioned. His laft correftions of them wrere afterwards fent over by bis widow ; for which Ihe and her children received a reward of 3000I. Accurate tables for Jupiter’s fatellites were alfo com- Hiftery. pofed by Mr Wargentin a moll excellent Swedifh aftro- nomer, and publilhed in the Upfal Afts in 1741; which have fince been correfted by the author in fuch a man¬ ner as to render them greatly fuperior to any ever pub¬ lilhed before. Amongft the many French allronomers who contri-Qf ^ buted to the advancement of the fcience, we are parti- Cailie. cularly indebted to M. de la Caille, for a moll excel¬ lent fet of folar tables, in which he has made allowan¬ ces for the attraftions of Jupiter, Venus, and the moon. In 1750 he went to the Cape of Good Hope, in order to make obfervations in concert with the moll celebrated aftronomers in Europe, for determining the parallax of the moon, as well as of the planet Mars, and from thence that of the fun ; from whence it appeared that the parallax of the fun could not greatly exceed to fe¬ conds. Here he re-examined and adjufted the places of the fouthern liars with great accuracy, and mea- fured a degree of the meridian at that place. In Italy the fcience was cultivated with the greateft affiduity by Signior Bianchini, Father Bofcovich, Frifi, Manfredi, Zanotti, and many others 5 in Sweden by Wargen¬ tin already mentioned, Blingenftern, Mallet, and Plan- man ; and in Germany, by Euler elder and younger, Mayer, Lambert, Grifchow, &c. In the year 1760 all the learned focieties in Europe began to prepare for obferving the tranfit of Venus over the fun, foretold by Dr Halley upwards of 80 years before it happened, fhowing, at the fame time, the important ufe which might be made of it. Unfortunately, however, for the caufe of fcience, many of the aftronomers fent out to obferve this phenomenon were prevented by una¬ voidable accidents from reaching the places of their deftination, and others were difappointed by the bad- nefs of the weather. It happened alfo, that the cir- cumftances of the phenomenon were much lefs favour¬ able for the purpofe of determining the fun’s parallax than had been expefted by Dr Halley, owing to the faults of the tables be made ufe of: fo that, notwith- ^ Handing all the labours of aftronomers at that time, they were not able to determine the matter : and even after their obfervations in 1769, when the circumftan- ces of the tranfit were more favourable, the parallax of the fun remained Hill uncertain. Dr Bradley was fucceeded in his office of aftrono- mer-royal by Mr Blifs Savilian profeffor of allronomy at Oxford7, who, being in a very declining ftate of health at the time of his acceffion to the office, did not enjoy it long. He was fucceeded by the learned Nevil Mafkelyne, D. D. the prefent aftronomer-royal, whofe name will be rendered immortal by his affiduity and fuccefs in bringing the lunar method of determining the longitude at the fea into general praftice. Such was the general ftate of aftronomy, when Dr Herfchel’s great difcovery of augmenting the power of telefcopes, beyond the moft fanguine hopes of aftrono¬ mers, opened at once a fcene altogether unlooked for. By this indefatigable obferver we are made acquainted with a new primary planet attended by fix feconda- ries belonging to our folar fyftem; fo that the latter now appears to have double the bounds formerly affign- ed to it; this new planet being at leaft twice the di- ftance of Saturn from the fun. In the ftill farther di- ftant celeftial regions, among the fixed ftars, his obfer¬ vations Apparent Motions of theHeaven- ly Bodies. * Ex per. and Olferv. rol. vi. Stef. ASTRO rations are e^nally furpriling 5 of which we fhall only lay with Dr Prieftley*, “Mr HerfchePs late dil'co- veries in and beyond the bounds of the folar fyflem, the great views that he has given of the arrangement of the liars, their revolutions, and thofe of the im- meitfe fyftems into which they are formed, are pecu- N 0 M T. Part I liarly calculated to infpire an ardent defire of feeing fo Apparent great a feene a little more unfolded. Such difeoveries ^'uonerf as thefe give us a higher idea of the value of our be- ing, by railing our ideas of the fyflem of which w e ,y ^ ‘ b are a part; and with this an earneft willi for the con¬ tinuance of it.” Part H. OF THE APPARENT MOTIONS OF THE HEAVENLY BODIES. When we call our eyes up towards the]heaVens, we perceive a vail hollow hemilphexe at an unknown di- ilance, oi which our eye feems to conllitute the centre. The earth llretches at our feet like an immenfe plain, and at a certain dillance appears to meet and to bound ^ the heavenly hemifphere. Now the circle all around, Appear- where the earth and the heavens feem to meet and touch Jmce of the each other, is called tire horizon. We can fcarcely aVoid heavens. fuppolmg, that befrdes the hemifphere which we per¬ ceive, there is another, exadlly fimilar, concealed from our view by the earth, and that the earth, therefore, is fomehovv or other fufpended in the middle of this heavenly fphere, with all its inhabitants. A little obfer- tfations turns this fufpicion into certainty. For in a clear evening the heavenly hemifphere is feen lludded with liars, and its appearance is changing every inftant. New liars are continually riling in the call, while others in the mean time are fetting in the w'eft. Thofe liars, that, towards the beginning of the evening, were juft feen above the eallern horizon, late at night are feen in the middle of the Harry hemifphere, and may be traced moving gradually w’eftw'ard, till at lall they fink altogether under the horizon. If we look to the north, we loon perceive, that many liars in that quarter never fet at all, but move round and round, deferibing a com¬ plete circle in 24 hours. Thefe liars deferibe their circles round a fixed point in the heavens j and the circles are the Imaller, the nearer the liar is to the fix¬ ed point. This fixed point is called the north pole. There mult be a fimilar fixed point in the fouthern he¬ mifphere, called the fonth pole. Thus the heavenly fphere appears to turn round two fixed points, called the poles, once every 24 hours. The imaginary line which joins the points is called the axis of the wrorld. In order to have precife notions of the motions of the heavenly bodies, it is neceflary to be able to affign precifely the place in wdiich they are. This is done by means of feveral imaginary lines, or rather circles, fuppofed deferibed upon the furface of the fphere ; and thefe circles, as is ufual with mathematicians, are di¬ vided into 360 equal parts called degrees. Every degree is divided into 60 minutes; every minute into Co feconds, and fo on. That great circle of the fphere, which is perpendicular to the axis of the world, and of courfe 90° diftant from either pole, is called the tquator. The fmaller circles, which the ftars deferibe in confequence of their diurnal motions, are called parallels, becaufe they are obviouily parallel to the equator. The equator divides the heavenly fphere into two equal parts, the north and the fouth 5 but to be able to aftign the pofition of the ftars, it is neceffary to have a- nother circle, palling through the poles, and cutting the equator perpendicularly. This circle, is called a 2 meridian. It is fuppofed, not only to pafs through thq* poles, but to pafs alio through the point dircdlly over the head of the obferver, and the point of the fpherd exaflly oppofite to that. The firft of thefe points is called the zenith, the fecond is called the nadir. The meridian divides the circles deferibed by the ftars into two equal parts ; and when they reach it they are either at their greateft height above the horizon, or they are at their leaft height. T he fituation of the pole is eafily determined j for it is precilely half way between the greateft and leaft height of thofe ftars which never fet. When we advance towards the north vee perceive that the north pole does not remain Ha¬ tionary, but rifes towards the zenith, nearly in propor¬ tion to the fpace we pafs over. On the other hand it finks juft as much when we travel towards the fouth. Hence vee learn that the furface of the earth is not plane, as one would at firft fuppofe, but curved. All the heavenly bodies appear to deferibe a com¬ plete circle round the earth evei-y 24 hours. But be- fides thefe motions which are common to them all, there are feveral of them which poffefs motions pecu¬ liar to themfelves. The fun, the moft brilliant of all the heavenly bodies, is obvioufiy much farther to the fouth during winter than during fummer. He does not, therefore, keep the fame ftation in the heavens, nor deferibe the fame circle every day. The moon not only changes her form, diminifhes, and increafes 5 but if we obferve the ftars, near which flie is fituated one evening, the next evening we fhall find her confider- ably to the eaftward of them 5 and every day fhe re¬ moves to a flill greater diftance, till in a month, fhe makes a complete tour of the heavens, and approaches them from the weft. There are eight other flars, be- fides, which are continually changing their place •, fome- times we obferve them moving to the weftward, fome- times to the eailward, and fometimes they appear fla¬ tionary for a confiderable time. Thefe flars are called planets. There are other bodies which appear only occafionally, move for feme time with immenfe celerity, and afterwards vanifh. Thefe bodies are called comets. But the greater number of the heavenly bodies always retain nearly the fame relative diflance from each o- ther, and are therefore called fixedJlars. It will be neceffary for us to confider the nature and apparent ^ motions of all thefe bodies. We fhall, therefore, di-Arranj^f. vide this firft part of our treatife, into the following menu heads: 1. Of the Sun. 4. Of the Comets. 2. Of the Moon. 5. Of the Fixed Stars. 3. Of the Planets. 6. Of the figure of the Earth, Thefe topics (hall be the fubje&s of the following chapters. Our- I5 art IT. A S T R Apparent Motions °f Chap. I. theHeaven- ■/ -1 » The fun, as the moft confpicuous and moft import¬ ant of all the heavenly bodies, would naturally claim the firft place in the attention of aftronomers. Ac¬ cordingly its motions were firft ftudied, and they have had conilderable influence on all the other branches of the fcience. We ihall fubdivide this part of our -fub- jeft into three parts. Jn the firft, we (hall give an ac¬ count of the apparent motions of the fun j in the fe- cond, we {hall treat of the divifion of time, which is regulated by thefe apparent motions ; and in the third, we ftiall confider the figure and ftruflure of the fun, as far as they have been determined by aftronomers. Thefe fhall.be the fubjedts of the following fedtions. Annual motion of tire fun. 40 Method of drawing a meridian fine. Sect. I. Apparent Motions of the Sun. That the fun has a peculiar motion of its own, in¬ dependent of the diurnal motion common to all the heavenly bodies, and in a direction contrary to that motion, is eafily afcertained, by obferving with care the changes which take place in the ftarry hemifphere during a complete year. If we note the time at which any particular ftar rifes, wre {hall find that it rifes fonie- what fooner every fucceflive day, till at laft we lofe it altogether in the weft. But if we note it after the interval of a year, we fhall find it rifmg precife- ly at the fame hour as at firft. Thofe ftars which are fituated nearly in the track of the fun, and which fet foon after him, in a few evenings lofe themfelves alto¬ gether in his rays, and afterwards make their appear¬ ance in the eaft before funrife. The fun then moves towards them in a direftion contrary to his diurnal motion. It was by obfervations of this kind that the ancients afcertained his orbit. But at prefent this is done with greater precifion, by obferving every day the height of the fun when it reaches the meridian, and the interval of time which elapfes between his pafling the meridian and that of the ftars. The firft of thefe obfervations gives us the fun’s daily motion north-ward or fouthward, in the direclion of the meri¬ dian ; and the fecond gives us his motion eaftward in the dire&ion of the parallels 5 and by combining the two together, we obvioufly obtain his orbit: But it will be neceffary to be fomewhat more particular. Tbefe obfervations cannot be made without drawing a meridian line, or aline, which, if produced, would pafs through both the poles of the earth, and the fpot where the obferver is placed. It is obvious, that fuch a line is in the fame plane with the meridian as the the heavenly hemifphere. A meridian line may be found thus : On an horizontal plane defcribe three or four concentric circles, as E, G, H, fig. 1. Plate LIX. and in the common centre fix perpendicularly a wire CB, having a well-defined point. When the fun Ihines in the morning, obferve w'here the fliadow of the top of the wire, as CD, touches-one of the circles j and in the afternoon mark where the extremity of the flia¬ dow C F juft touches the fame circle : then through the centre C draw the line CE, bifedting the arc DF, and CE will be a meridian, as required. If the fame be done with as many of the circles as the ftiining of the fun will admit of, and the mean of all the bife&ing lines CE be chofeu as a meridian, there will be no O N O M r. 23 doubt of its accuracy, particularly if the obfervations Apparent be made about midfummer, which is the beft time, After a meridian line is thus found, another parallel to iy Bodies it may be readily drawn at any convenient diftance : •—-N . » the method is this : Plang a thread and plummet ex- adfly over the fouth end of the known meridian line, and let another thread and plummet be hung over the fouth end of the plane upon which a meridian is to be drawm •, then let a perfon obferve when the ftiadow of the thread falls on the given meridian, and immedi¬ ately give a fignal to another perfon, who muft at that moment mark twTo points on the ftiadow of the fecond thread, through which two points the new meridian muft be defcribed. 41 The height of the fun from the horizon, when it Altitude of pafles the meridian, or the arch of the meridian between ^ lun' the fun and the horizon, is called the fun's altitude. The ancients afcertained the fun’s altitude in the fol¬ lowing manner : They erefted an upright pillar at the fouth end of a meridian line, and when the fliadow of it exadtly coincided with that line, they accurately meafured the fhadow’s length, and then, knowing the height of the pillar, they found, by an eafy operation in plane trigonometry, the altitude of the fun’s upper limb : whence, after allowing for the apparent femi- diameter, the altitude of the fun’s centre wjas known. But the methods now adopted are much more accu¬ rate. In a known latitude, a large aftronomical qua¬ drant, of fix, eight, or ten feet radius, is fixed truly upon the meridian ; the limb of this quadrant is divid¬ ed into minutes, and imaller fubdivifions, by means of a vernier; and it is furnilhed with a telefcope (having crofs hairs, &c. turning properly upon the centre). By this inftrument the altitude of the fun’s centre is very carefully meafured, and the proper deduftions made. 42 With a fimilar inftrument we may afeertain the ap- Method of parent motions of the fun in the following manner, be- ^certain- ginning our obfervations about the 20th of March. On tins day we muft note fome fixed ftar which comes ^on. mC~ to the meridian exactly at the fame time as the fun does 5 for the ftars may be feen in the daytime with an aftronomical telefcope. On the following day, both the altitude of the fun, and the fituation of the ftars when the fun is on the meridian, muft be obferved • the fun’s meridian altitude will be about 23' 40" great¬ er than on the former day, and the ftar will be found on the meridian about 3 m. 39 fee. in time before the fun. Make fimilar obfervations for a few days, and it will be found at the end of a week, that the fun’s meridian altitude will be increafed 20 46', and the ftar will be on the meridian 25 m. 26 fee, in time be¬ fore the fun, or it will be 6° 2i±r weft ward of the me¬ ridian when the fun is upon It. During this period of feven days, therefore, the fun has been moving to¬ wards the eaft, and has increafed .his altitude by re¬ gular gradations. In fig. 2. let EQ^reprefent appor¬ tion of the equator, QS the meridian on which the fun is, QS his altitude above the equator, E the place of the ftar, and ES part of thd path of the fun : then, in the fpherical triangle EQS, right-angled at q! there are given EQyr: 6° and QS cr 20 46', toT find the angle E. By the rules of fpherical trigonometry, we have, tangt, of E=: tangt. of SQ fine of QIC ~~ •0483250^ •1107463" •43^479 24 A S T R Apparent -4364479 = tangt. of 230 34' 43" the angle E re- theHeaW quired- ly Bodies. orbit in which the fun moves is called the 1 v~-.’ ecliptic. It does not coincide with the equator, but 43 cuts it, forming with it an angle, which in the year Ecliptic. 1769 was determined by Dr Mafkelyne, at 23° 28' 1 o", or 230.46944. This angle is called the obliquity of the ecliptic. Seafons ex- The different feafons of the year are occafioned by plained. the combination of this proper motion of the fun with his diurnal motion. The two points in which the ecliptic cuts the equator, are called the equinoxes, or equino&ialpoints; becaufe on the days that the fun is in them, he defcribes by his diurnal motion the equator, which being divided into two equal parts by the horizon, the day is then equal to the night in eve¬ ry part of the earth. One of thefe equinoxes is called the vernal, becaufe the fun is in it about the 20th of March, or the beginning of the fpring. As the fun advances in his orbit from that point, his meridian al¬ titude becomes greater and greater every day. The vifible arches of the parallels which it defcribes, be¬ come continually greater ; and with them the length of the day increafes, till the fun reaches his greateft altitude, or diftance from the equator : then the day is the longeft of the year. And as at that period the va¬ riations in the fun’s altitude are fcarcely fenfible for fome time, as far at leaft as it affefts the length of the day ; the point of the orbit, where the fun’s altitude is a maximum, has for that reafon been called the fummer foljlicc. The parallel which the fun defcribes when in that point, is called the tropic of Cancer. From the fol- ftice the fun defcends again towards the equator, croffes it again at the autumnal equinox, and goes fouthw-ard till its altitude becomes a minimum. This point of the orbit is called the winter foljlice. The day is then the fhorteft of the year, and the parallel which the fun de¬ fcribes, is called the tropic of Capricorn. From the wunter folftice the fun again approaches the equator, and returns to the vernal equinox. Such is the conftant courfe of the fun and of the feafons. The interval between the vernal equinox and the fummer folftice, is called the fpring ; the interval between this folftice and the autumnal equinox, is cal¬ led fummer; that betw-een the autumnal equinox and the wdnter folftice, is autumn ; and that between this folftice and the vernal equinox, is winter. The different altitudes of the pole in different cli¬ mates, occafion remarkable peculiarities in the fea¬ fons, with wdiich it is proper to be acquainted. At -the equator the poles are fituated in the horizon, W'hich laft circle cuts all the parallels into two equal parts. Hence the day and the night are conftantly of the fame length all the year round. On the equinoxes the fun is in the zenith at noon. His altitude is the leaft pofiible at the folftices, and is then equal to the com¬ plement of the inclination of the ecliptic. During the i'ummer folftice, the fhadow-s of bodies illuminated by the fun are directed towards the fouth $ but they are directed towards the north at the winter folftice ; changes wdiich never take place in our northern cli¬ mates. Under the equator then there are in reality two fummers and two winters. The fame thing takes place in all countries lying between the tropics. Be¬ yond them there is only one fummer and one winter l O N O M Y. Part II. in the year. The fun is never in the zenith. The Apparent length of the longeft day increafes, and that of the Motionsof‘ Ihorteft day diminifties, as we advance toward the poles $ tJie^^n' and w-hen the diftance between the zenith and the pole ^ ^ '"V. is only equal to the inclination of the ecliptic, the fun does not fet at all on the days of the fummer folftice, nor rife on that of the winter folftice. Still nearer the pole, the period in which he never fets in fummer, and never riles in winter, gradually increafes from a few days to feveral months j and, under the pole itfelf, the equator then coinciding with the horizon, the fun ne¬ ver fets when it is upon the fame fide of the equator with the pole, and never rifes while it is in the oppo- fite fide. The intervals of time between the equinoxes and Motion not folftices are not equal. There are about feven days more uniform, between the vernal and autumnal equinox, than between the autumnal and vernal. Hence we learn, that the motion of the fun in its orbit is not uniform. Nume¬ rous obfervations, made with precifion, have afcertained, that the fun moves fafteft in a point of his orbit fituat¬ ed near the winter folftice, and floweft in the oppofite point of his orbit near the fummer folftice. When in the firft point, the fun moves in 24 hours i°.oi943 5 in the fecond point, he moves only The daily motion of the fun is conftantly varying in every place of its orbit, between thefe two points. The me¬ dium of the two is o°.^S6^2, or 59' 11", which is the daily motion of the fun about the beginning of Octo¬ ber and April. It has been afcertained, that the va¬ riation in the angular velocity of the fun, is very near¬ ly proportional to the mean angular diftance of it from the point of its orbit, where its Velocity is greateft. It is natural to think, that the diftance of the fun Diametn from the earth varies as well as its angular velocity, varies. This is demonftrated by meafuring the apparent dia¬ meter of the fun. Its diameter increafes and diminifti¬ es in the fame manner, and at the fame time, with its angular velocity 5 but in a ratio twice as fmall. A- bout the beginning of January, his apparent diameter is about 32' 39", and at the beginning of July it is about 31' 34", or more exa&ly, according to De la Place, 32' 35', = 1955" in the firft cafe, and 31' 18" := 1878" in the fecond. Opticians have demonftrated, that the diftance of Sun’s cfi- any body is always reciprocally as its apparent diame- ftance va- ter. The fun muft follow the fame law ; therefore,ries- its diftance from the earth increafes in the fame pro¬ portion that its apparent diameter diminifhes. That point of the orbit in which the fun is neareft the earth, is called perigeon, or perigee ; and the point of the or¬ bit in which that luminary is fartheft diftant from the earth, is called apogee. When the fun is in the firft of thefe points, his apparent diameter is greateft, and his motion fwifteft j but when he is in the other point, both his diameter and the rapidity of his motion are the fmalleft pofiible. From thefe remarks it is obvious that if the orbit of the fun be a circle, the earth is not fituated in the cen¬ tre of that circle, otherwife the 'diftance of the fun from the earth would remain always the fame, which is contrary to faft. It is poflible therefore, that the variation in his angular velocity may not be real, but only apparent. Thus in fig. 3. let AMPN be the orbit A S T R Part II* Apparent orbit of the fun, C the centre of that orbit, and E the Motions of portion of the earth at fome diftance from the centre. ^ obvious that P is the fun’s perigee, and A its a- . , , pogee. Now as the fun’s apparent orbit is a circle hav- " ing the earth in its centre, it is evident that this orbit muft be AMPN, and that the angular motion of the fun will be meafured upon that circle. Suppofe now that the fun in his apogee moves from A to A', it is obvious that his apparent or angular motion will be the fegment a a' of the apparent orbit, confiderably fmaller than AA', fo that at the apogee the angular motion of the fun will be lefs than his real motion. A- gain : let the fun in his perigee move from P to P', de- fcribing a fegment precifely equal to the fegment AA't This fegment as feen from the earth will be refer¬ red to pp’, which in that cafe will be the fun’s angular motion, evidently confiderably greater than his real mo¬ tion. Hence it is obvious that even on the fuppofition that the fun moved equably in his orbit, his angular motion as feen from the earth would ftill vary, that is, would be fmalleft at the apogee, and greateft at the perigee ; and that the angular and real motion would only coin¬ cide In the points M and N, where the real and appa- ent orbits cut each other. From the figure it is obvi¬ ous alfo, that the angular velocity would increafe gra¬ dually from the apogee to the perigee, and diminifh gradually from the perigee to the apogee, which like- wife correfponds with obfervation. Now the line EC, which is the diflance of the earth from the centre of the fun’s orbit, is called the eccentricity of that orbit. The variation in the angular motion of the fun may be owing to this eccentricity. But if it were owing to this caufe alone, it is eafy tion varies. deinonftrate that in that cafe the diminution of his angular velocity would follow the fame ratio as the di¬ minution of his diameter. The faff however is, that the angular velocity diminifhes in a ratio twice as great as the diameter of the fun does. The variation of the angular velocity cannot then be owing to the eccen¬ tricity alone. Hence it follows, that the variation of the motion of the fun is not merely apparent, but real; and that its velocity in its orbit aftually diminilhes, as his diftance from the earth increafes. Two caufes then combine to produce the variation in the fun’s an¬ gular velocity j namely, I. The increafe and diminution of his diilance from the earth *, and 2. The real increafe and diminution of his velocity in proportion to this variation of diftance. Thefe two caufes combine in fuch a manner that the daily angular motion of the fun di¬ minifhes as the fquare of his diftance increafes, lo that the produft of the angular velocity multiplied into the fquare of the diftance is a conftant quantity. But this law is fo important that it will be neceflary to be more particular. The obfervation that the fun’s angular motion in his orbit is inverfely proportional to the fquare of his dif¬ tance from the earth, w7as firft made by Kepler. The difcovery was made by a careful comparifon of the fun’s diurnal motion with his apparent diameter, which were found to follow that law; and it is evident that the one is the angular motion of the fun, and the other his dif¬ tance from the earth, which is inverfely proportional to his apparent diameter. Let ASB (fig.4.) be the fun’s orbit, E the earth, and S the fun. Suppofe a line ES Vol. III. Part I. 43 Sun’s mo- O N O M Y. 25 joining the centres of the earth and fun to move round Apparent along with the fun. This line is called the radius vec- Motions of tor. It is obvious that when S moves to S', ES,1 Boclies!'” moving along with it, is now in the fituation ES', hav- 1——..m ing defcribed the fmall feftor ESS'. In the fame time that S performs one revolution in its orbit, the radius veftor ES will defcribe the whole area ABS, enclofed within the fun’s orbit. Let SS' be the fun’s angular motion during one day. It is obvious that the fmall feftor ESS' is proportional to the fquare of ES, mul¬ tiplied by SS': for the radius ve£tor is the fun’s dif¬ tance from the earth, and SS' his angular motion. Hence this fe£tor is a conftant quantity, whatever the ^ angular motion of the fun be ; and the whole area Defcribej SEA increafes as the number of days which the fun areas pro¬ takes in moving from S to A. Hence refults that re-P°rt‘?nal ^ markable law, firft pointed out by Kepler, that the “‘C timcs' areas defcribed by the radius veBor are proportional to the times. Suppofe the fun to defcribe SS' in one day, and SA in 20 days, then the area SES' is to the area SEA as x to 20 ; or the area SEA is 20 times greatef than the area SES'. The knowledge of thefe facls enables us to draw upon paper, from day to day, lines proportional to the length of the radius veftor of the folar orbit, and hav¬ ing the fame relative pofition as thefe lines. If we join the extremity of thefe lines, by making a curve pafs through them, we {hall perceive that this curve is not exaftly circular. Let E in fig. 5. reprefent the the earth, and Etf, E£, Ez£- (fig. 7.) be the earth ; ZFR2;, its axis j ahede, &c. the equator; ABCDE, &c. the northern half of the ecliptic from ‘V to ii, on the fide of the globe next the eye ; and MNOP, &c. the fouthern half on the oppofite fide from W to »Y1. Let the points at A, B, C, D, E, F, &c. quite round from ry1 to again bound equal portions of the ecliptic, gone through in equal times by the real fun 3 and thofe at a, b,c, d, e,f, &c. equal portions of the equator de- feribed in equal times by the fitlitious fun; and let Z'Y’s be the meridian. 4 As the real fun moves obliquely in the ecliptic, and the fidlitious fun diredtly in the equator, with refpeft to the meridian ; a degree, or any number of degrees, between T and F on the ecliptic, mult be nearer the meridian Zfy>2;, than a degree, or any correfponding number of degrees, on the equator from ry to f; and the more fo, as they are the more oblique : and there¬ fore the true fun comes fooner to the meridian every day wdiilft he is in the quadrant F, than the ficti¬ tious fun does in the quadrant ry f; for which reafon, the fotar noon precedes noon by the clock, until the real fun comes to F, and the fictitious to f; w hich tw'o points, being equidiftant from the meridian, both funs will come to it precifely at noon by the clock. Whilft the real fun deferibes the fecoird quadrant of the ecliptic FGHIKL from Cancer to he comes later to the meridian every day than'the fictitious fun moving through the fecond quadrant of the equator from / to =Qr 5 for the points at G, H, I, K, and L, being farther from the meridian, their correfponding points at g, h, i, and /, mult be later of coming to it: L 2 and ASTRONOMY. 23 A S T R Apparent and as bold) funs come at the fame moment to the tbeHeTven P°int W» the^ come t0 the endian at the moment ly bodies."of noon b7 tbe clock' • In departing from Libra, through the third qua¬ drant, the real fun going through MNOPQjowards Vf at R, and the fi&itious fun through mnopq towards r, the former comes to the meridian every day fooner than the latter, until the real fun comes to ©, and the fictitious to r, and then they come both to the meridian at the fame time. Laftly, As the real fun moves equably through STUVW, from © towards • and the fictitious fun through stuvw, from r towards T1, the former comes later every day to the meridian than the latter, until they both arrive at the point , and then they make it noon at the fame time with the clock. Having explained one caufe of the difference of time fho.wn by a well-regulated clock and a true fun-dial, fuppofing the fun, not the earth, as moving in the ecliptic 5 we now proceed to explain the other caufe of this difference, namely, the inequality of the fun’s ap¬ parent motion ; which is floweit in fummer, when the fun is fartheft from the earth, and fwifteft in winter when he is neareft to it. If the fun’s motion were equable in the ecliptic, the whole difference between the equal time as fliown by the clock, and the unequal time as fhown by the fun, would arife from the obliquity of the ecliptic. But the fun’s motion fometimes exceeds a degree in 24 hours, though generally it is lefs : and when his motion is’ floweft, any particular meridian will revolve fooner to him than when his motion is quickeft ; for it wall over¬ take him in lefs time when he advances a lefs fpace than when he moves through a larger. Now, if there were two funs moving in the plane of the ecliptic, fo as to go round it in a year ; the one defcribing an equal arc every 24 hours, and the other defcribing fometimes a lefs arc in 24 hours, and at other times a larger, gaining at one time of the year what it loft at the oppofite ; it is evident, that either of thefe funs would come fooner or later to the meri¬ dian than the other, as it happened to be behind or before the other ; and when they were both in con- junction, they would come to the meridian at the fame moment. As the real fun moves unequably in the ecliptic, let us fuppofe a fiftitious fun to move equably in a circle coincident with the plane of the ecliptic. Let ABCD (fig. 8.) be the ecliptic or orbit in which the real fun moves, and the doted circle abed the imaginary or¬ bit of the fiftitious fun j each going round in a year according to the order of letters, or from weft to eaft. Let HIKL be the earth turning round its axis the fame way every 24 hours ; and fuppofe both funs to ftart from A and a, in a right line -with the plane of the meridian EH, at the fame moment : the real fun at A, being then at his greateft diftance from the earth, at which time his motion is lloweft j and the fiftitious fun at «, whofe motion is always equable, becaufe his diftance from the earth is fuppofed to be always the fame. In the time that the meridian re¬ volves from H to H again, according to the order of the letters HIKL, the real fun has moved from A to I1 j and the fictitious with a quicker motion from n to through a large arc : therefore, the meridian EH O N O M Y. Part IT. will revolve fooner from H to h under the real fun at F, Apparent than from HE to k under the fictitious fun at/; and Motions of confequently it will then be noon by the fun-dial foon- t|ie^e^ven- er than by the clock. ,ly E^dles;. As the real ihn moves from A towards C, the fwift- nefs of his motion increafes all the way to C, where it is at the quickeft. But notwithftanding this, the fic¬ titious fun gains fo much upon the real, foon after his departing from A, that the increafing velocity of the real iun does not bring him up with the equally-moving fiCHtious fun till the former comes to C, and the latter to c, when each has gone half round its refpeClive or¬ bit 5 and then being in conjunction, the meridian EH, revolving to EK, comes to both funs at the fame time, and therefore it is noon by them both at the lame mo¬ ment. But the increafed velocity of the real fun now' being at the quickeft, carries him before the fictitious one':; and therefore, the lame meridian will come to the ficti¬ tious fun looner than to the real: for whilft the ficti¬ tious fun moves from a to g, the real fun moves through a greater arc from C to G : conlequently the point K has its noon by the clock when it comes to C, but not its noon by the fun till it comes to /. And although the velocity of the real fun diminithes all the way from C to A, and the fictitious fun by an equable motion is 11 ill coming nearer to the real fun, yet they are not in conjunction till the one comes to A and the other to «, and then it is noon by them both at the fame moment. True time is obtained by adding or fubtraCting this equation to the mean time. The mean and apparent folar days are never equal, except when the fun’s daily motion in right afeenfion is 59' 8" ; this is nearly the cafe about April 15th, June 15th, September ill, and December 24th : on thefe days the equation is nothing, or nearly lb \ it is at the greateft about November ill, when it is 16 m. 14 fee. I he return of the fun to the fame equinox marks the Year, years, in the fame way as his return to the fame meri¬ dian indicates the days. It has been afeertained, that before the lun returns again to the fame equinox, an in¬ terval of 365.242222 days elapfes, or 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 47 feconds. This is called the tropi¬ cal year : The lun takes a larger interval of time to re¬ turn again to the fame liar. The Jidereal year is the interval wdrich the lun employs to return from one ftar to another. It is greater than the tropical year by 0.014162 days, or 20 m. 23 fee.; therefore the length of the fidereal year is 365 days, 6 h. 9 m. and 10 lec. From this it follow's, that the equinoxes do not retain the fame place in the ecliptic, but that they have a re¬ trograde motion, or contrary to that of the fun, in con- fequence of which they deferibe every year an arc equal to the mean fpace which the fun palfes over in 20' 23", or about 50" j fo that they w’ould make a complete re¬ volution in 25972 years. This is called the preceffion of the equinoxes. ^ Dr Malkelyne has invented a rule for computing Method of the equation of time, in which the preceftion of the computing equinoxes, as w'ell as the twro caufes mentioned above, ft16 e(lua- are included. Let APLQ^ fig. 9. be the ecliptic, P011 of ALQ^the equator, A the firft point of Aries, P thetime’ point where the fun’s apparent motion is lloweft, S any place of the fun j draw perpendicular to the equator. Part IT. Apparent equator, and take An: ASTRO AP. When the fun begins N O M Y. Motions of t0 in0ve from P, fuppofe a ftar to begin to move from the Heaven- ^ wjt}1 fun’s mean motion in right afcenlion or ‘ty 165 longitude viz. at the rate of 59' 8" in a day. ' when n paffes the meridian let the clock be an >nea to 12. Take n ?n~Vs, and when the ftar comes to my if the fun moved uniformly with his mean motion, he would be found at s; but at that time let S be the place of the fun. Let the fun S, and confequently v, be on the meridian •, and then as m is the place of the imaginary ftar at that inftant, m v muft be the equa¬ tion of time. The fun’s mean place is at s, and as A/*=AP, and««r=Pr, we have Awz = APj-, con¬ fequently tn v~Av—Affi—Av—APr. Let n be the mean equinox, or the point where it would have been if it had moved with its mean velocity, and draw a « perpendicular to AQ^J then A m — A 2; -)- xm ~ An X co-fine % A a % m: or becaufe the co-fine of z. A a the obliquity of the ecliptic, 23 0/ • 11 28 , is =r— 12 very nearly, Am — — Aa x m : hence mv — Av- ous, however, to be able to divide the folar year into Apparent a precife number of lunar months, becaufe many of^J’®"^ their feafts depended upon particular new moons. Va- jy £eci;es. 'us contrivances u c fallen unon for this purpofe without much fuccefs, till at laft Meton, a Greek phi- lofopher, announced that 19 years contained exactly 235 lunations: an affirmation which is within 24- hours of being ex aft. To make every year correfpond as nearly as poffible to the lunar, he divided the year into 12 months, confifting alternately of 30 and 29 days each ; at the end of every three years an interca¬ lary month of 30 days wTas added, and at the end of the 19th year there was added an intercalary month of 29 days. So that at the end of 19 years the folar and lunar years began again on the fame day their cycle of 19 years. This difcovery of Meton appeared lo ad¬ mirable to the Greeks, that they engraved it in letters of gold in their public places. Hence the number which denotes the current year of that cycle is deno¬ minated golden number. As the moon changes its appearance in a very re¬ markable degree every feven days, almoft all na¬ tions have fubdivided the month into periods of feven , mean or true time precedes apparent j when it is greater, apparent time precedes mean. That is, when the fun’s true right afcenfion is greater than his mean longitude correfted as above fliewn, we muft add the equation of time to the apparent to obtain the mean time ; and when it is leis, we muft fubtraft. To convert mean time into apparent, wTe muft fubtraft in the former cafe, and add in the latter. Tables of the equation of time are computed by this rule, for the ufe of aftronomers: they are either cal¬ culated for the noon of each day, as given in the Nau¬ tical and fome other almanacks •, or for every degree of the fun’s place in the ecliptic. But a table of this kind will not anfwer accurately for many years, on ac¬ count of the preceffion and other caufes, which render a frequent revifal of the calculations neceffary. Smaller di fmaller divifions of time were anciently mea- vifionsof hired by the phafes of the moon. It is wfell known time. that the moon changes once every 29 or 30 days, and that the interval from one new moon to another is call¬ ed a lunation, or in, common language, a month. There are about tw'elve lunations in a year. Hence the year was divided into twelve months. In ancient times people w'ere placed upon eminences on purpofe to watch the firft appearance of the new moon when their month began. It was cuftomary for thefe perfons to proclaim the firft appearance of the moon. Hence the firft day of every month wras called Calender ; from which term the wmrd calendar is derived. Almoft all nations have divided the year into twelve months, becaufe the feafons nearly return in that period. But they foon perceived that twelve lunar months were far from making a com¬ plete year or revolution of the fun. They, were anxi- days, called weeks; the ancient Greeks w'ere almoft the only people wffio did not employ that divifion. ^ The Roman year in the time of Romulus confifted Roman of 10 months only, of 30 or 31 days each, fo that itsyear. length was 304 days only. Numa added 50 days to that year, and thus made it 354 days; and he added twm additional months of 29 and 28 days, by fhortening fome of the ancient months. He made the year com¬ mence on the firft of January. Numa’s year w^as ftill more than 1 x days ffiorter than a complete revolution of the fun. To make it correfpond wdth the feafons, it w'as neceflary to intercalate three days; and thefe in¬ tercalations being left entirely to the priefts, were con¬ verted into a ftate engine ; being omitted, inferted, al¬ tered, and varied, as it fuited the purpofes of thofe ma- giftrates whofe views they favoured. The confequence was, what might have been expefted, the moft com¬ plete confufion and wTant of correfpondence between the year and the feafons. (Cj Julius Caefar undertook to remedy this inconvenience. Reformed' He was both diftator and high pontiff, and of courfe Jullus the reformation of the calendar was his peculiar pro-C,selar’ vince. That the undertaking might be properly exe¬ cuted, he invited Sofigenes, an Egyptian mathematician, to come to his affiftance. It was- agreed upon to aban¬ don the motions of the moon altogether, and to make the year correfpond with thofe of the fun. The reformation was made in the year 47 before the Chriftian era. Ninety days were added to that year, which was from that circumftance called the year of confufion, confifting of 445 days. Inftead of 354 days, the year of Numa, Sofigenes made the year to confift of 365 days, difperfing the additional days among thofe months which had only 29 days. As the revo¬ lution of the fun employs nearly fix hours mote than 365 days, an additional day was intercalated every fourth year, fo that every fuch year was to confift of 366 days. The additional day was inferted after the 23d of February, or the 7th before the calends of March ; the day before the annual feaft celebrated in commemoration of the flight of Tarquin from Rome. That feaft w-as held the 6th before the calends of March. The- 3° ASTRO wittmTof T!1C l:ltCr?aIated <% ™ rifo called the 6th before the fheHeaven-caj''11<^s or March. So that every fourth year there }y Bodies, were two days denominated the 6th before the calends v ' of March. Hence that year was called bijexti/e. In xiritam it is denominated leap yea?'. After the death of Julius Caefar there was a degree of confufion re- fpefting the intercalations, from the ignorance of the pnefts. Auguftus corroded the millake, and after that time the Julian period went on without any inter¬ ruption. . h ^ obvious that the Julian year, though a great improvement upon the ancient Roman, was itill imper- fed. It went on the fuppofition that the revolution of the fun occupied precifely 365 daysapd^ hours, which is about 11 minutes more than the {ruth. This error in the interval which elapfed between the reformation of Julius Caefar and the year 1582, had accumulated tid it amounted to 10 days ; of courfe the year began 10 days later than it ought to have begun ; and the fame error had taken place refpeding the feafons and the ecjuinodial points. Various attempts had been made to corred this error j at laft it was correded by Pope Gregory XIII. The Gregorian calendar com¬ menced in the year 1582 ; the changes which he intro¬ duced were two in number. Pie ordered, that after the 4th of Odober 1582, ten days fhould be omitted, lo that the day which fucceeded the 4th was reckoned not the 5th but the 15th of the month. This corred¬ ed the error which had crept into the Julian year. To prevent any fuch error from accumulating again, he ordered that the fecular years 1700, 1800, 1900, Ihould not be biflextile but common years; that the fecular jear 2000 fhould be biffextile, the next three fecular years common, the fourth again biffextile, and fo on, as in the following table. N O M Y. Part II. Apparent Motions of *4 and by Gregory XIII. 1600 bifTextile. 1700 common. 1800 ib. 1900 ib. 2000 biffextile. 2100 common. 2200 ib. 2300 ib. 2400 biffextile. 2500 common. 2600 common. 2700 ib. 2800 bilTextile. 2900 common. 3000 ib. In fhort thefe fecular years only are biffextile whofe number, omitting the cyphers, is divifible by 4. 1 he Gregorian calendar is fufficiently exad for the purpoies of common life, though it does not correfpond precifely with the revolution of the fun. The error wall amount to a day in 3600 years, fo that in the year 5200 it wall be neceffary to omit' the additional day which ought to be added according to the rule laid down above. The Gregorian calendar w^as immediately adopted b} aL the Roman Catholic kingdoms in Europe, but the Proteftant dates refufed at firfl to accede to it. It was adopted by moil of them on the continent about the beginning of the 18th century j but in England the change did not take place till 1752. From that year 1 x days were omitted ; the omiffion of the addi¬ tional day in 1700 having made the difference between the Julian and Gregorian calendar amount to 11 days. The Julian calendar is called the old Jlyle, the Grego- xian, the new Jlyle. At prefent the difference betxveen them is 12 days. In confequence of the omiffion of the additional day in 1800. Sect. III. Of the Nature of the Sun. Motions of . Thce. hnallnefs of the fun’s parallax is a demonflra-1^^ tion of its xmmenfe fize. We are certain that at the £2^11 diilance at which the iun appears to us under an angle * of o .53424 the earth would be feen under an angle not exceeding o°.oo9. Now, as the fun is obvioufly a iphencal body as well as the earth; and as fpheres are to each other as the cubes of their diameters, it follows from this, that the fun is at leaft 200,000 times !S§ei tnar‘ !-ae earth. Ry the exa&eft oblervations it has been afcertained, that the diameter of the fun is nearly 883,000 miles. Dark fpots are very frequently obferved upon the furiace of the fun. 1 hefe were entirely unknown be¬ fore the invention of telefccpes, though they are fome- times of fufficient magnitude to be difcerned by the naked e\e, omy looking through a fmokedgiafs to pre¬ vent the brightnefs of the luminary from deftroying the re hgat. Ihe fpots are faid to have been firll difcovered Solar foots m the year 1611 j and the honour of the difcovery is^hcnfirfl dnputed betwixt Galileo and Scheiner, a German *Te-difcovered* fuit at Ingolftadt. But whatever merit Scheiner mio-ht nave in the priority of the difcovery, it is certain that Galileo far exceeded him in accuracy, though the work of Scheiner nas confiderable merit, as containing ob- iervations felefted from above 3000, made by himfelf. Since his time the fubjedl has been carefully lludied by all the aftronomers in Europe. J 66 I here is great variety in the magnitudes of the Dr Long’s iolar ipots j t^e difference is chiefly in fuperficial ex-account tent of length and breadth j their depth or thicknefsthem' is very fmall j fome have been fo large, as by compu¬ tation to be capable of covering the continents of Alia and Africa; nay, the wdiole furface of the earth, or even five times its furface. The diameter of a W when near the middle of the difk, is meafured by com¬ paring tne time it takes in palling over a crofs hair in a telefcope, with the time wherein the whole dilk of the fun pafies over the fame hair j ft may alfo be mea¬ fured by tlie micrometer j and by either of thefe me¬ thods we may judge how? many times the diameter of the fpot is contained in the diameter of the fun. Spots are fubject to 'increafe and diminution of magnitude, and ieldom continue long in the lame Hate. They are of various fhapes j moft of them having a deep black nucleus furrounded by a dufky cloud, whereof the in¬ ner parts near the black are a little brighter than the outlkirts.^ They change their lhapes, fomething in the manner that our clouds do j though not often fo fud- denly : thus, what is of a certain figure to-day, lhall to-morrowq or perhaps in a few hours, be of a diffe¬ rent one; what is now but one fpot, lhall in a little time be broken into two or three ; and fometimes two or three fpots lhall coalefce, and be united into one. Dr Long, many years fince, while he was viewing the image of the fun through a telelcope call upon white paper, faw one roundilh fpot, by eflimation not much lefs than the diameter of our earth, break into two, wdiich receded from one another with pro¬ digious velocity. This obfervation was fingular at the time; for though feveral writers had taken notice of t/iis arcei it was done, none of them had been making any obfervation at the time it w as a£lually doing. 1 ' & The Part IT. ASTRONOMY. Apparent The number of fpots on the fun is very uncertain ; theH*avelf fometimes.there are a great many, fometimes very few) ly Bodies. an!^ fometimes none at all. Scheiner made obferva- ■ i tions on tbe fun from 1611 to 1629) and fays lie ne¬ ver found his difk quite free of fpots, excepting a few days in December 1624. At other times he frequent¬ ly faw 20, 30, and in the year 1625 he was able to count 50 fpots ^on the fun at a time. In an interval af¬ terwards of 2C years, from 1650 to 1670, fcarce any fpots were to be feen, and fince that time fome years have furnifhed a great number of fpots, and others none at all ) but fince the beginning of the laft century, not a year paffed wherein fome w^ere not feen ) and at prefent, fays Mr Caflini, in his Element d' Jjlronomie publifhed in 1740, they are fo frequent, that the fun is feldom without fpots, and often fhowfs a good num¬ ber of them at a time. From thefe phenomena, it is evident, that the fpots are not endowed wuth any permanency ) nor are they at all regular in their fhape, magnitude, number, or in the time of their appearance or continuance. He- velius obferved one that arofe and vanifhed in 16 or 17 hours $ nor has any been obferved to continue longer than 70 days, which w7as the duration of one in the year 1676. 1 hofe fpots that are formed gradually, are gradually diffolved) while thofe that arife fudden- ly, are for the mofl part fuddenly diffolved. When a ipot difappears, that part where it wras generally be¬ comes brighter than the reft of the fun, and continues fo for feveral days: on the other hand, thofe bright parts (calledyhc?//<£, as the others are called maculce) fometimes turn to fpots. The folar fpots appear to have a motion -which fpots move carries them acrofs the fun’s dilk. Every fpot, if it com we continues long enough without being diffolved, appears to enter the fun’s dilk on the eaft fide, to go from thence with the velocity continually increafmg till it has gone half its way) and then to move flower and flower, till it goes off at the weft lide) after which it difap¬ pears for about the fame fpace of time that it fpent in crofling the dilk, and then enters upon the eaft fide again, nearly in the fame place, and croffes it in the lame tract, and writh the fame unequal motion as be¬ fore. . This apparent inequality in the motion of the fpots is purely optical, and is in fuch proportion as de- monftrateg them to be carried round equably or in a circle, the plane of which continued palles through or near the eye of a fpeftator upon the earth. Befides the real changes of the fpots already men¬ tioned, there is another which is purely optical, and is owing to their being feen on a globe differently turned towards us. If we imagine the globe of the fun to have a number of circles drawn upon its furface, all pafiing through the poles, and cutting his equator at equal diftances, thefe circles which we may call meri¬ dians, if they wTere vifible, wrould appear to us at un¬ equal diftances, as in fig. 2. Nowq fuppofe a Ipot w ere round, and^ fo large as to reach from one meri- cuan to another, it wmuld appear round only at p-, when it was m the middle of that half of the globe which is to¬ wards our earth ; for then we view the full extent of it m length and breadth : in every other place it turns away from us, and appears narrower, though of the lame length, the farther it is from the middle ) and on 3* 67 The folar to eaft. its coming on at rr, and going off at n, it appears as Apparent imall as a thread, the thin edge being then all that wre Motlonsof pee> theHeaven- Thefe fpots have made us acquainted with a very ^ A important phenomenon, namely the rotation pf the fun w upon its axis. Amidft the changes which thefe fpots are continually undergoing, regular motions may be dete&ed, agreeing exactly with the motion of the fur- face of the fun, on the fuppofition that this luminary revolves round an axis almoft perpendicular to the ecliptic in the fame diretftion writh its motion in its or¬ bit round the earth. By a careful examination of the motion of thefe fpots, it has been afcertained that the fin turns round its axis in about 25 days and a half, and that its equator is inclined to the ecliptic about 7°-5; The fpots on the fun’s dilk are almoft always con¬ fined to a zone, extending about flc'.y on each fide of the equator. Sometimes, however, they have been obferved at the diftance of 39.°5 from the equator of the fun. Bouguer demonftrated, by a number of curious ex¬ periments on the fun’s light, that the intenfity of the light is much greater toward the centre of the fun’s dilk than towards its circumference. Now7, when a portion of the fun’s furface is tranfported by the rota¬ tion of that luminary from the centre to the circumfe¬ rence of his dilk, as it is feen under a fmaller angle, the intenfity of its light, inftead of diminilhing, ought to increafe. Hence it follows, that part of the light which iffues from the fun towards the circumference of his dilk, muft be fomehow7 or other prevented from making its way to the earth. This cannot be account¬ ed for, without fuppoling that the fun is furrounded by a denfe atmofphere, which, being traverfed obliquely by the rays from the circumference, intercepts more of them than of thofe from the centre which pals it per¬ pendicularly. he phenomena of the folar fpots, as delivered by Account of Scheiner and Hevelias, may be fummed up in thetheir Phe~ following particulars. 1. Every fpot which hath a^“^by nucleus, or confiderably dark part, hath alfo an umbra, oUAvers, or fainter lhade, furrounding it. 2. The boundary betw'ixt the nucleus and umbra is always diftinft and well defined. 3. The increafe of a fpot is gradual, the breadth of the nucleus and umbra dilating at the fame time. 4. In like manner, the decreafe of a fpot is gra¬ dual, the breadth of the nucleus and umbra contrafting at the fame time. 5. The exterior boundary of the umbra never confifts of ftiarp angles ) but is alw-ays curvilinear, how irregular foever the outline of the nu¬ cleus may be. 6. The nucleus of a fpot, whilft on the decreafe, often changes its figure by the umbra encroaching irregularly upon it, infomuch that in a fmall fpace of time new encroachments are difcerni- ble, whereby the boundary betwixt the nucleus and um¬ bra is perpetually varying. 7. It often happens, by thefe encroachments, that the nucleus of a fpot is di¬ vided into two or more nuclei. 8. The nuclei of the fpots vanifti fooner than the umbra. 9. Small umbrse are often feen without nuclei. 10. An umbra of any confiderable fize is feldom feen without a nucleus in the middle of it. 11. When a fpot which confifted of a nucleus and umbra is about to difappear, if it is not fuo- ceeded. 32 ASTRO Apparent ceeded by a facula, or fpot brighter than the reft of Motions °i the place where it was is foon after not di- tj‘r ftinguilhable from the reft. In the Philoibphical Tranfaftions, vol. Ixiv. Dr Wilfon, profcffor of aftronomy at Glafgow, hath given a dilfertation on the nature of the folar fpots, and men¬ tions the following appearaces. I. When the fpot is about to dilappear on the weftern edge of the fun’s limb, the eaftern part of the umbra firft contracts, then va- nilhes, the nucleus and weftern part of the umbra re¬ maining ; then the nucleus gradually contraffs and va- nilhes, while the weftern part of the umbra remains. At laft this difappears alfo j and if the fpot remains long enough to become again viftble, the eaftern part of the umbra firft becomes viftbl'e, then the nucleus} and when the fpot approaches the middle of the difk, the nucleus appears environed by the umbra on all fides, as already mentioned. 2. When two fpots lie very near to one another, the umbra is deficient on that fide wdiich lies next to the other fpot : and this will be the cafe, though a large fpot fhould be contigu¬ ous to one much fmaller j the umbra of the large fpot will be totally wanting on that fide next the fmall one. If there are little fpots on each fide of the large one, the umbra does not totally vanifh •, but appears flat¬ tened or prefled in towards the nucleus on each fide. When the little fpots difappear, the umbra of the large one extends itfelf as ufual. This circumftance, he ob- ferve.s, may fometimes prevent the difappearance of the umbra in the manner above mentioned 5 fo that the weft¬ ern umbra may difappear before the nucleus, if a fmall fpot happens to break out on that fide. In the fame volume, p. 337. Mr Wollafton obferves, that the appearances mentioned by Dr Wilfon are not conftant. He pofitively affirms, that the faculae or bright fpots on the fun are often converted into dark ones. “ I have many times (fays he) obferved, near the eaftern limb, a bright facula juft come on, which has the next day ffiown itfelf as a fpot, though I do not recoiled to have feen fuch a facula near the weftern one after a fpot’s difappearance. Yet, I believe, both thefe circumftances have been obferved by others; and perhaps not only near the limbs. T he circumftance of the faculae being converted into fpots, I think I may be fure of. That there is generally (perhaps always) a mottled appearance over the face of the fun, when carefully attended to, I think I may be as certain. It is moft vifible towards the limbs, but I have undoubt¬ edly feen it in the centre ; yet I do not recolleft to have obferved this appearance, or indeed any fpots, to¬ wards the poles. Once I law, with a twelve-inch re- fleflor, a fpot burft to pieces while I rvas looking at it. I could not expeft fuch an event, and therefore cannot be certain of the exa& particulars ; but the appearance, as it ftruck me at the time, was like that of a piece of ice when dallied on a frozen pond, which breaks to pieces and Hides in various directions.He alfo ac¬ quaints us, that the nuclei of the fpots are not always 69 in the middle of the umbrae ; and gives the figure of one Mr Dunn’s feen in November 13th 1773, which is a remarkable in- jiccount. fiance to the contrary. Mr Dunn, however, in his new Atlas of the Mundane Syftem, gives fome particulars very different from the above. “ The face of the fun (fays he) has frequently many large black fpots, of various forms and dimenfions, which move from eaft to I N O M Y, Part II. weft, and round the fun, according to fome obferva- Apparent tions in 21; days, according to others in 26, and accord- ing to fome in 27 days. The black or central part of ^ )30‘;je5 each fpot is in the middle of a great number of very . fmall ones, wffiich permit the light to pafs between them. The fmall fpots are fcarce ever in contaCl with the central ones: but, wffiat is moft remarkable, w-hen the whole fpot is near the limb of the fun, the fur¬ rounding fmall ones form nearly a ftratght line, and the central part projeCls a little over it, like Saturn in his ring.” 70 Dr Herfchel, with a view of afcertaining more ac- Herfchel’» curately the nature of the fun, made frequent obferva- obferva- tions upon it from the year 1779 to the year 1794.tl0ns* He imagines that the dark fpots on the fun are moun¬ tains on its furface, which, confidering the great at- traClion exerted by the fun upon bodies placed at its furface, and the flow revolution it has upon its axis, he thinks may be more than 300 miles high, and yet Hand very firmly. He fays, that in Auguft, 1792, he examined the fun wnth feveral pow7ers from 90 to 500; and it evidently appeared that the dark fpots are the opaque ground or body of the fun ; and that the lu¬ minous part is an atmofphere, wffiich, being intercepted or broken, gives us a viewT of the fun itfelf. Hence he concludes, that the fun has a very extenfive atmofphere, which confifts of elaftic fluids that are more or lefs lucid and tranfparent; and of wffiich the lucid ones fur- niffi us with light. This atmofphere, he thinks, is not lefs than 1843, nor more than 2765 miles in height; and, he fuppofes, that the denlity of the luminous folar clouds need not be much more than that of our au¬ rora borealis, in order to produce the effedls with which wre are acquainted. The fun then, if this hypothefis be admitted, is fimilar to the other globes of the folar fyftem, with regard to its folidity—-its atmofphere—its furface diverfified with mountains and valleys—its ro¬ tation on its axis—and the fall of heavy bodies on its furface; it therefore appears to be a very eminent, large, and lucid planet, the primary one in our fyftern, diffeminating its light and heat to all the bodies with wffiich it is connefted. Dr Herfchel has lately given up the ufe of the old terms fuch as fpots, nuclei, penumbrce, 8cc. and has in¬ troduced a number of new7 terms, which he confiders as more precife. It will be neceffary, before we proceed farther, to inlert his explanation of thele terms. “ The expreffions,” fays he, “ wffiich I have ufed are Explana- obenings, [hallows, ridges, nodules, corrugations, indcn- bon of his r ■ a 1 ^ terms. tations, and pores. “ Openings are thofe places where, by the accidental removal of the luminous clouds of the lun, its own folid body may be feen ; and this not being lucid, the open¬ ings through wffiich wre fee it may, by a common tele- fcope, be miftaken for mere black fpots, or their nuclei. “ Shallows are extenfive and level depreflions of the luminous folar clouds, generally furrounding the open¬ ings to a confiderable diftance. As they are lefs lu¬ minous than the reft of the fun, they feem to have fome diftant, though very imperfedt refemblance to penumbrse ; which might occafion their having been called fo formerly. “ Ridges are bright elevations of luminous matter, extended in row7s of an irregular arrangement. “ Nodules are alfo bright elevations of luminous mat¬ ter, I.1 Openings. t’art It. A S i R O Apparent ter, but conrined td a fmall fpace. Thefe nodules, and Motions of rJclges> on account of their being brighter than the ge- ljK Bodiesn'neral ^ur'ace the fun, and alfo differing a little from , y ‘ , it in colour, have been called faculee, and luculi. “ Corrugations, I call that very particular and re¬ markable unevennefs, ruggednefs, or afperity, which is peculiar to the luminous iolar clouds, and extends all over the furface of the globe of the fun. As the de- preffed parts of the corrugations are lefs luminous than the elevated ones, the diik of the lun has an appear¬ ance which may be called mottled. Indentations are the depreffed or low parts of the corrugations *, they alfo extend over the whole furface of the luminous lolar clouds. Pores are very fmall holes or openings, about the middle of the indentations. From the numerous obfervations of this philofopher he has drawn the following conclufions :— 1. Openings are places where the luminous clouds of the fun are removed : large openings have generally (hallows about them 5 but fmall openings are generally without (hallows. They have generally ridges and nodules about them, and they have a tendency to run into each other. New openings often break out near other openings. Hence he fuppofes that the openings are occalioned by an elaftic but not luminous gas, which . comes up through the pores and incipient openings, and fpreads itfelf on the luminous clouds, forcing them out of its way, and widening its paffage. Openings fometimes differ in colour , they divide when decayed j fometimes they increafe again ; but when divided they ufually decreafe and vanifli j fometimes they become large indentations, and fometimes they turn into pores. 2. Shallows are depreffed below the general furface of the fun, and are places from which the luminous fo- lar clouds of the upper regions are removed. Their thicknefs is vifible ; fometimes they exift without open¬ ings in them. Incipient (hallows come from the open¬ ings, or branch out from (hallows already formed, and go forward. He fuppofes that the (hallows are occa- (ioned by fomething coming out of the openings, which, by its propelling motion, drives away the luminous clouds from the place where it meets with the lead refiftancej or which, by its nature, diffolves them as it comes up to them. If it be an elaftic gas, its levity muff be fuch as to make it afeend through the inferior region of the folar clouds, and diffufe xtfelf among the fuperior lumi¬ nous matter. 3. Ridges are elevations above the general furface of the luminous clouds of the fun. One of them, which he meafured, extended over an angular fpace of 2' 4 9".9, which is nearly 7 c,ooo miles. Ridges generally accompany openings : but they often alfo exiit in places where there are no openings. They ufually difperfe very foon. He fuppofes, that the openings permit a tranfparent elaftic fluid to come out, which difturbs the luminous matter on the top, fo as to occafion ridges and nodules ; or, more precife- ly, that fome elaftic gas, afting below the luminous clouds, lifts them up, or increafes them •, and at lad forces itfelf a paffage through them, by throwing them afide. 4. Nodules are fmall, but highly felevated luminous Vox.. HI. Part I. 73 Shallows. Ridges. 75 Nodules. N O M Y. 3.1 places. He thinks that they may be ridges fore-fhort- ene<^» . t 1 rr theHeaven- 5. Corrugations conftd ot elevations and deprelhons. iy Bodies. They extend all over the furface of the fun; they change w—^ .....a their drape and (ituation j they increafe, diminilh, di¬ vide, and vanidi quickly. Difperfed ridges and no¬ dules form corrugations. 7(* 6. The dark places of corrugations are indentations. Pores. Indentations are ufually without openings, though in fome places they contain fmall ones. T hey change to openings, and are of the fame nature as drallows. They are low places, which often contain very fmall openings. They are of different dzes, and are extend¬ ed all over the fun. With low magnifying powers they appear like points. The low places of indentations are pores. Pores increafe fometimes, and become openings : they vanifli quickly. “ It muff: be fufficiently evident,” fays Dr Herf- chel, “ from what we have (hewn of the nature of openings, (hallows, ridges, nodules, corrugations, in¬ dentations, and pores, that thefe phenomena could not appear, if the (hining matter of the fun were a liquid j fince, by the laws of hydroftatics, the openings, dial- lows, indentations, and pores,* would inllantly be fill¬ ed up ; nor could ridges and nodules preferve their elevation for a (ingle moment. Whereas, many open¬ ings have been known to laft for a whole revolution of the fun •, and extenfive elevations have remained fupported for feveral days. Much lefs can it be an elaftic fluid of an atmofpheric nature : this would be dill more ready to fill up the low places, and to ex¬ pand itfelf to a level at the top. It remains, therefore, only for us to admit this fhining matter to exift in the manner of empyreal, luminous, or phofphoric clouds, redding in the higher regions of the (olar atmo- fphere.” ^ From his obfervations, Dr Herfchel concludes, that Two re- there are two difierent regions of folar clouds j that the gions of fo. inferior clouds are opaque, and probably not unlike ‘ar cl°ucls* thof® of our planet; while the fuperior are luminous, and emit a vaft quantity of light : that the opaque inferior clouds probably fuft'er but little of the light of the felf-luminous fuperior clouds to come to the body of the fun. “ The (hallows about large openings,” he obferves, “ are generally of fuch a fize, as hardly to permit any dire6l illumination from the fuperior clouds to pafs over them into the openings; and the great height and clofenefs of the (ides of fmall ones, though not often guarded by (hallows, mull alfo have nearly the fame effeft. By this it appears, that the planetary clouds are indeed a mod effectual curtain, to k^ep the brightnefs of the fuperior regions from the body of the fun. “ Another advantage ariflng from the planetary- clouds of the fun, is of no lefs importance to the whole folar fyftem. Corrugations are everywhere difperfed over the fun ; and their indentations may be called (hallows in miniature. From this we may conclude, that the imroenfe curtain of the planetary folar clouds is everywhere clofely drawn ; and, as our photumetri- cal experiments have proved that thefe clouds refleiff no lefs than 469 rays out of 1000, it is evident that they mull add a mod capital fupport to the fplendour of the fun, by throwing back fo great a (hare of the E brightnefs 34 ASTRO Apparent brightnefs coming to them from the illumination of the rrin-WhfMUPe^-gions.” N O M Y. ]y Bodies. <78 Theory of the folar phenome¬ na. Thefe obfervations are fufficient to prove, that the fun has an atmofphere of great denfity, and extending to-a great height. Like our atmofphere, it is obvi- pufly fubjeft to agitations, fimilar to our winds; and it is alfo tranfparent. The following is Dr Her- fchel’s theoretical explanation of the folar pheno¬ mena. “.We have admitted,” fays he, “ that a tranfparent elaftic gas comes up through the openings, by forcing itfelf a paffage through the planetary clouds. Our obfervations feemed naturally to lead to this fuppofi- tion, or rather to prove it j for, in tracing the (hal¬ lows to their origin, it has been (hewn, that they al¬ ways begin from the openings, and go forwards. We have alfo feen, that in one cafe, a particular bias gi¬ ven to incipient (hallows, lengthened a number of them out in one certain direction, which evidently de¬ noted a propelling force atting the fame way in them all. I am, however, well prepared to diftinguiOi be¬ tween fadfs obferved, and the confequences that in rea- foning upon them we may draw from them ; and it will be eafy to feparate them, if that (hould hereafter be required. “ If, however, it be now allowed, that the caufe we have afiigned may be the true one, it will then appear, that the operations which are carried on in the atmofphere of the fun are very (imple and uni¬ form. _ “ By the nature and conftru&ion of the fun, an ela- flic gas, which may be called empyreal, is conftantly formed. This afeends everywhere, by a fpecific gra¬ vity lefs than that of the general folar atmofpheric gas contained in the lower regions. When it goes up in moderate quantities, it makes itfelf fmall palfages among the lower regions of clouds : thelh we have frequently obferved, and have called them pores. We have (hewn that they are liable to continual and quick changes, which muft be a natural confequence of their fleeting generation. “ When this empyreal gas has reached the higher regions of the fun’s atmofphere, it mixes with other gafes, which, from their fpecific gravity, have their relidence there, and occafions decompoiitions which produce the appearance of corrugations. It has been (hewn, that the elevated parts of the corrugations are fmall felf-luminous nodules, or broken ridges ; and I have ufed the name of felf-luminous clouds, as a gene¬ ral expreflion for all phenomena of the fun, in what (liape foever they may appear, that fhine by their own light. Thefe terms do not exaflly convey the idea af¬ fixed to them ; but thofe of meteors, corufcaLons, in¬ flammations, luminous wifps, or others, which I might have fele&ed, would have been liable to dill greater objections. It is true, that when fpeaking- of clouds, we generally conceive fomething too grofs, and even too permanent, to permit us to apply that expreffion properly to luminous decompofitions, which cannot float or fwim in air, as we are ufed to fee our planeta¬ ry clouds do. But it (hould be remembered, that, on account of the great compreffion aridng from the force of the gravity, all the elaftic folar gafes muft be much condenied ; and that, confequently, phenomena in the fun’s atmofphere, which in ours would be mere tranft- Part II, tory corufcations, fuch as thofe of the aurora borealis, Apparent will be fo compreffed as to become much more effica- Motions of cious and permanent. theHeaveir- “ The great i;gbt occafioned by the brilliant fupe- ,Iy Bodies». nor regions, muft fcatter itfelf on the tops of the infe- rior planetary clouds, and, on account of their great denfity, bring on a very vivid refleaion. Between the interftices of the elevated parts of the corrugations, or felf-luminous clouds, which, according to the ob¬ fervations that have been given, are not clofely con- nedled, the light reflected from the lower clouds will be plainly vifible, and, being confiderably lefs intenfe than the direft illumination from the upper regions, will occafion that faint appearance which we have call¬ ed indentations.' “ This mixture of the light reflefted from the inden¬ tations, and that which is emitted direttly from the higher parts of the corrugations, unlefs very attentive¬ ly examined by a fuperior telefcope, will only have the refemblance of a mottled furface. “ When a quantity of empyreal gas, more than what produces only pores in afeending, is formed, it will make itfelf fmall openings ; or, meeting perhaps wdth fome refiftance in palling upwards, it may exert its aftion in the production of ridges and nodules. “ Laftly, If (till further an uncommon quantity of this gas (hould be formed, it will burft through the pla¬ netary regions of clouds, and thus will produce great openings ; then, fpreading itfelf above them, it will oc¬ cafion large (hallows, and, mixing afterwards gradual¬ ly with other fuperior gafes, it will promote the in- creafe, and aflift in the maintenance, of the general luminous phenomena. “ If this account of the folar appearances (hould be well founded, we (hall have no difficulty in afeertain- ing the aflual ftate of the fun, with regard to its ener¬ gy in giving light and heat to our globe 5 and nothing will now remain, but to decide the queftion which will naturally occur, whether there be aftually any confiderable difference in the quantity of light and heat emitted from the fun at different times.” This queftion he decides in the affirmative, confidering the great number of fpots as a proof that the fun is emit¬ ting a great quantity of light and heat, and the want of (pots as the contrary. The firft is conneCled with ' a warm and good feafon ; the fecond, on the contra¬ ry, produces a bad one *. Chap. II. Of the Moon. Next to the fun, the moft confpicuous of all the heavenly bodies is the moon. The changes which it undergoes are more ftriking and more frequent than thofe of the fun, and its apparent motions much more rapid. Hence they were attended to even before thofe of the fun were known ; a faCl which explains why the firft inhabitants of the earth reckoned their time by the moon’s motions, and of courfe followed the lu¬ nar inftead of the folar year. In confidering the moon, we (hall follow' the fame plan that we obferved with refpedt to the fun. We (hall firft give an ac¬ count of her apparent motions ; and, fecondly, of her nature as far as it has been afeertained. Thefe topics fliall occupy the two following feeftions. * Phil. ,Tranf.l%o\. part ii. P- 265. Sect. Part II. Apparent Motions of tiu'Heavcn- ly Bodies, So Elliptical. 8r Its eccen¬ tricity. 82 Moon’s ir¬ regulari¬ ties. ASTRO Sect. I. Of the Apparent Motions of the Moon. The moon, like the fun, has a peculiar motion from eaft to weft. If we obferve her any evening when fhe is fituated very near any fixed ftar, we fhall find her, in 24 hours, about 130 to the eaft of that ftar, and her diftance continually increafes, till at laft, after a certain number of days, Ihe returns again to the fame ftar from the weft, having performed a complete revo¬ lution in the heavens. By a continued feries of obfer- vations it has been afcertained, that the moon makes a complete revolution in 27.32166118036 days, or 27 days 7 hours 43' 11" 31'" Such at leaft was the duration of its revolution at the commencement of 1700. But it does not remain always the fame. From a comparifon between the obfervations of the ancients with thofe of the moderns, it appears, that the mean motion of the moon in her orbit is accelerating. This acceleration, but juft fenfible at prefent, will gradually become more and more obvious. It is a point of great importance to difcover, whether it will always conti¬ nue to increafe, or whether, after arriving at a certain maximum, it will again diminilh. Obfervations could be of no fervice for many ages in the refolution of this queftion 5 but the Newtonian theory has enabled aftro- nomers to afcertain that the acceleration is periodi¬ cal. The moon’s motion in her orbit is ftill more une¬ qual than that of the fun. In one part of her orbit fire moves fafter, in another flower. By knowing the time of a complete revolution, wre can eafily calculate the mean motion for a day, or any given time 5 and this mean motion is called the mean anomaly. The true motion is called the true anomaly : the difference between the two is called the equation. Now the moon’s equation fometimes amounts to 6° 18' 32". Her apparent diameter varies with the velocity of her angular motion. When fhe moves fafteft, her dia¬ meter is largeft ; it is fmalleft when her angular mo¬ tion is floweft. When fmalleft, the apparent diameter is 0.489420° ; when biggeft, it is 0.558030°. Hence it follows, that the diftance of the moon from the earth varies. By following the fame mode of reafon- ing, which we have detailed in the laft chapter, Kep¬ ler afcertained that the orbit of the moon is an ellipfe, having the earth in one of its foci. Pier radius vedfor defcribes equal areas in equal times; and her angular motion is inverfely proportional to the fquare of her diftance from the earth. The eccentricity of the elliptic orbit of the moon, has been afcertained to amount to 0.0550368, (the mean diftance of the earth being reprefented by unity) ; or the greater axis is to the fmaller, nearly as 100,000 to 99,848. That point of the moon’s orbit which is neareft the earth, is called the perigee; the oppofite point is the apogee. The line which joins thefe oppofite points, is called the line of the moon’s apjides. It moves flowly eaftward, completing a fidereal revolution in 3232.46643 days, or nearly 9 years. The inclination of the moon’s orbit is alfo va¬ riable : the greateft inequality is proportional to the cofine. of twice the fun’s angular diftance from the afcending node, and amounts when a maximum to o.x 4679°. N O M Y. 35 Even the elliptical orbit of the moon reprefents but Apparent imperfectly her real motion round the earth j for that ^ luminary is fubjefted to a great number of irregulari- ^ Bodies, ties, evidently connected with the pofitions of the fun,. . ^ ^ which confiderably alter the figure of her orbit. The three following are the principal of thefe. 83 1. The greateft of all, and the one which was firft The evt .- afcertained, is called by aftronomers the moon’s evec-'1-™' tion. It is proportional to the fine of twice the mean angular diftance of the moon from the fun, minus the mean angular diftance of the moon from the perigee of its orbit. Its maximum amounts to 1.3410°. In the oppofiiions and conjunctions of the fun and moon it coincides with the equation of the centre, which it al¬ ways diminiflies. Hence the ancients who determined that equation by means of the eclipies, found that equa¬ tion fmaller than it is in reality. 84 2. There is another inequality in the motion of the Variation, moon, which difappears during the conjundfions and oppofitions of the fun and moon } and likewife when thefe bodies are 90° diftant from each other. It is at its maximum when their mutual diftance is about 45°, and then amounts to about 0.5940. Hence it has been concluded to be proportional to the fine of twuce the mean angular diftance of the moon from the fun. This inequality is called the variation. It difappears during the eclipfes. 85 3. The moon’s motion is accelerated wr hen that of A-nnua^ the fun is retarded, and the contrary. This occafionse'xuat:ior“ an irregularity called the annual equation. It follows exadfly the fame law with that of the equation of the centre of the fun, only with a contrary line. At its maximum it amounts to 0.18576°. During eclipfes, it coincides with the equation of the fun. The moon’s orbit is incltned to the ecliptic at an angle of 5.14692°. The points where it interfefts the ecliptic are called the nodes. Their pofition is not fix¬ ed in the heavens. They have a retrograde motion, that is to fay, a motion contrary to that of the fun. This motion may be eafily traced by marking theffuc- ceflive ftars which the moon paffes when Ihe croffes the 8(j ecliptic. They make a complete revolution of the Revolution heavens in 6793.3009 days. The afcending node is°fher that in which the moon rifes above the ecliptic towards ,!OC*es‘ the north pole, the defending node that in which fire finks belowr the equator towards the fouth pole. The motion of the nodes is fubjefted to feveral irregulari¬ ties, the greateft of which is proportional to the fine of twice the angular diftance of the fun from the afcend¬ ing node of the lunar orbit. When at a maximum, it amounts to 1.62945°. The inclination of the orbit itfelf is variable. Its greateft inequality amounts to 0.14679°. It is proportional to the cofine of the fame angle on which the irregularity in the motion of the nodes depends. The apparent diameter of the moon varies as well as that of the fun, and in a more remarkable manner. WThen fmalleft, it meafures 29.5' j when largeft, 34'. This muft be owing to the diftance of the moon from the earth being fubjedl to variations. 87 The great diftance of the fun from the earth ren- Moon’s pa- ders it difficult to determine its parallax, on account of rallax. its minutenefs. I his is not the cale with the moon. The diftance of that luminary from the earth may be determined without much difficulty. E 2 Let 36 ASTRO Apparent Let BAG (fig. 10.) be one half of the earth, AC tp.j^°nS its femidiameter, S the fun, m the moon, and EKOL ly Bodies "a ing a very agreeable appearance, wherever we find a globular ftone above the levdl of the eye, as fuppofe on the top of a gate. For, if the fun fhines on the ftone, and we place ourfelves fo as the upper part of the ftone may juft feem to touch the point of the moon’s lower- moft horn, we fhall then fee the enlightened part of the ftone exadlly of the fame fhape with the moon y horned as fire is, and inclined the fame way to the horizon. The reafon is plain y for the fun enlightens the ftone the fame way as he does the moon ; and both being globes, when we put ourfelves into the above fitua- tion, the moon and ftone have the fame pofition to our eyes y and therefore we muft fee as much of the illu¬ minated part of the one as of the other. The pofition of the moon’s cufps, or a right line touching the points of her horns, is very differently inclined to the horizon at different hours of the fame day of her age. Sometimes file Hands, as it were, up¬ right on Tier lower horn, and then fuch a line is per¬ pendicular to the horizon : when this happens, (he is in what the aftronomers call the nonagejimal degree ; Nonagefi- which is the higheft point of the ecliptic above the ho-mai degree, rizon at that time, and is 90° from both fides of" the horizon where it is then cut by the ecliptic. But this never happens when the moon is on the meridian, except when ftie is at the very beginning of Cancer or Capricorn. 99 The explanation of the phafes of the moon leads usEclipfesof to that of the cclipfes y thole phenomena which former-the moon, ly were the fubjefts of dread and error, but wdiich phi- lofophers have converted to the purpofes of utility and inftrudfion. The moon can only become eclipfed by the interpofition of an opaque body, which intercepts from it the light of the fun y and it is obvious that this opaque body is the earth, becaufe the eclipfes of the moon never happen except w;hen the moon is in oppo- fition, and confequently when the earth is interpofed between her and the fun. The globe of the earth pro- jefts behind it relatively to the motion of the fun a conical lhadow, whofe axis is the ftraight line that joins the centres of the earth and fun, and w hich ter¬ minates at the point wdten the apparent diameters of thefe two bodies become equal. The diameters of thefe bodies feen from the centre of the moon in oppo- fition, ASTRONOMY. Part II. Apparent jVlotions of theHeaven- ly Bodies. TOO Period of the eclipfes ioi Why the moon is vi¬ able when eclipfed. ASTRO fition, are nearly in tlie proportion of 3 for the fun and x 1 for the earth. Therefore the conical fhadow of the earth is at lead thrice as long as the diftance between the earth and moon, and its breadth at the point where it is traverfed by the moon more than double the dia¬ meter of that luminary. The moon, therefore, would be eclipfed every time that it is in oppolition if the plane of its orbit coincid¬ ed with the ecliptic. But in confequence of the mu¬ tual inclination of thefe two planes the moon, when in oppofition, is often elevated above the earth’s conical flradow', or depreffed below it j and never can pafs through that fhadow unlefs when it is near the nodes. If the whole of the moon’s difk. plunges into the fhadow, the eclipfe is faid to be total; if only a part of the difk enter the fhadow, the eclipfe is faid to be par¬ tial. The mean duration of a revolution of the fun rela- •tively to the nodes of the lunar orbit is 346.61963 days, and is to the duration of a fynodical revolution of the moon nearly as 223 to 19. Confequently, after a period of 223 lunar months, the fun and moon return nearly to the fame fituation relatively to the order of the lunar orbit. Of courfe the eclipfes muft return in the fame order after every 223 lunations. This gives us an eafy method of predifting them. But the ine¬ qualities in the motions of the fun and moon occafion fenfible differences; befides the return of the two lu¬ minaries to the fame points relatively to the nodes not being rigoroufly true, the deviations occafioned by this want of exacdnefs alter at lad the order of the eclipfes obferved during one of thefe periods. The following explanation of the lunar eclipfes be¬ ing more particular, may be acceptable to fome of our readers. That the moon can never be eclipfed but at the time of her being full, and the reafon why die is not eclipfed at every full, has been fhowm already. In fig. 13. let S be the fun, E the earth, RR the earth’s 'fhadow, and B the moon in oppofition to the fun : In this fituation the earth intercepts the fun’s light in its way to the moon •, and when the moon touches the earth’s fhadow at “y, Ihe begins to be eclipfed on her eaftern limb x, and continues eclipfed until her weftern limb v leaves the fhadow at w: at B fhe is in the mid¬ dle of the fhadow, and confequently in the middle of the eclipfe. The moon, when totally eclipfed, is not invifible if fhe be above the horizon and the fky be clear •, but ap¬ pears generally of a dufky colour, like tarnifhed cop¬ per, which fome have thought to be the moon’s native light. But the true caufe of her being vifible is the fcattered beams of the fun, bent into the earth’s fha¬ dow by going through the atmofphere ; which, being more or lefs denfe near the earth than at confiderable heights above it, refrafls or bends the fun’s rays more inward, the nearer they are palling by the earth’s fur- face, than thofe rays which ’go through higher parts of the atmofphere, where it is lefs denfe according to its height, until it be fo thin or rare as to lofe its refrac¬ tive power. Let the circle f, g, h, z, concentric to the earth, include the atmofphere whofe refra&ive power vanifhes at the heights f and i; fo that the rays W/u> and V/T go on fbaight without fuffering the lead: re- . N O M Y. 39 fraflion : but all thofe rays which enter the atmofphere Apparent between f and k, and between z and /, on oppofite fides 01 the earth, are gradually more bent inward as they go ^ Bodies. through a greater portion of the atmofphere, until ^ —z the rays W k and V / touching the earth at m and zz, are bent fo much as to meet at y, a little fhort of the moon j and therefore the dark fhadow of the earth is contained in the fpace mop q n, where none of the fun’s rays can enter; all the reft R, R, being mixed by the fcattered rays which are refracted as above, is in fome meafure enlightened by them; and fome of thofe rays falling on the moon, give her the colour of tarnifhed copper or of iron almoft red hot. So that if the earth had no atmofphere, the moon would be as- invifible in total eclipfes as fhe is when new. If the moon were fo near the earth as to go into its dark fhadow’, fuppofe about p 0, fhe w’ould be invifible during her flay in it 5 but vifible before and after in the fainter fhadow RR. When the moon goes through the centre of the earth’s fhadow fhe is dire&ly oppofite to the fun ; yet the moon has been often feen totally eclipfed in the ho¬ rizon when the fun was alfo vifible in the oppofite part of it-, for the horizontal refraftion being almoft 34 minutes of a degree, and the diameter ot the fun and moon being each at a mean ftate but 32 minutes, the refraftion caufes both luminaries to appear above the horizon when they are really below it. When the moon is full at 12 degrees from either of her nodes, flie juft touches the earth’s fhadowq but en¬ ters not into it. In fig. 14. let GH be the ecliptic, ef the moon’s orbit where fhe is X 2 degrees from the node at her full, c d her orbit where fhe is 6 degrees from the node, a b her orbit where fhe is full in the node, AB the earth’s fhadowq and M the moon. When the moon defcribes the line ef, fhe juft touches the fhadowq but does not enter into it; when fhe de¬ fcribes the line c d, fhe is totally, though not centrally, immerfed in the fhadow7} and when fhe defcribes the line a b, fhe palfes by the node at M in the centre of the fhadow, and takes the longeft line poflible, which is a diameter, through it : and fuch an eclipfe being both total and central, is of the longeft duration, name- ly, 3 h. 57 m. 6 fee. from the beginning to the end, if the moon be at her greateft diftance from the earth j and 3 h. 37 m. 26 fee. if fire be at her leaf! diftance. The reafon of this difference is, that when the moon is fartheft from the earth, fire moves flowed: ; andfwhen neareft to it, quickeft. f- The moon’s diameter, as well as the fun’s, is fuppo- fed to be divided into 12 equal parts, called digits ; and fo many of thefe parts as are darkened by the earth’s fhadow, fo many digits is the moon eclipfed. All that the moon is eclipfed above 1 2 digits, fhows how far the fhadow7 of the earth is over the body of the moon, on that edge to w7hich fire is neareft at the middle of the eclipfe. 1 _ ro*- It is difficult to obferve exa£!ly either the beginning Lunar or ending of a lunar eclipfe, even with a good telefcope, eclipfes becaufe the earth’s flradow is fo faint and ill-defined about the edges, that when the moon is either juft touching or leaving it, the obfeuration of her limb is fcarce fenfible } end therefore the niceft obfervers can hardly be certain to four or five feconds of time. But both i°3 Eclipfes of the fun. 4° Motions* of rff1 ^eg‘nning an4 ending of folar eclipfes are vi- theHeavan- uiffantaneous : for the moment that the edge of ly Bodies. *ne_ moon’s djfk touches the fun’s, his roundnefs feems .a iittle broke on that part j and the moment die leaves it, he appears perfectly round again. rlhe eclipfes of the fun only take place during the conjunctions of the fun and moon, or when the moon is placed between the fun and the earth. They are owing to the moon concealing the fun from the earth, or to the earth being plunged in the fhadow of the moon. . The moon is indeed much fmaller than the fun ; but it is fo much nearer to the earth that its apparent diameter does not differ much from the diameter of that luminary : and, in confequence of the changes which take place in the apparent diameters of thefe bodies, it happens that lometimes the apparent diame¬ ter of the moon is greater than that of the fun. If we fuppofe the centres of the fun and moon in the fame ftraight line with the eye of a fpe&ator placed on the eaitn, he will fee tne tun echpfed. If the apparent di- ameter of the moon happens to furpafs that of the fun, the eclipfe will be tota/: but if the moon’s diameter be’ fmalleft, the obferver ■will fee a luminous ring, formed by that part of the fun’s difk which exceeds that of the moon’s, and the eclipfe will in that cafe be annular. If the centre of the moon is not in the fame ftraight line which joins the obferver and the centre of the fun, the eclipfe can only be partial, as the moon can only conceal z part of the fun’s dilk. Hence there muft be a great variety in the appearance of the folar eclipfes. \\ e may add alfo to thefe caufes of variety the eleva¬ tion of the moon above the horizon, which changes its apparent diameter confiderably. For it is well known, that the moon’s diameter appears larger when (lie is near the horizon than when (lie is elevated far above it. Now', as the moon’s height above the horizon varies according to the longitude of the obferver, it follows, that the folar eclipfes will not have the fame appearance to the obfer- vers fttuated in different longitudes. One obferver may fee an eclipfe which does not happen relatively to another. In this refpecl the folar differ from the lunar eclipfes, which are the fame to all the inhabitants of the earth. In any year, the number of eclipfes of both lumi¬ naries cannot be lefs than twro, nor more than feven , the mod; ufual number is four, and it is very rare to have more than fix. For the fun paffes by both the nodes but once a-year, unlefs he paffes by one of them in the beginning of the year j and, if he does, he will pafs by the fame node again a little before the year be imifhed , becaule, as thefe points move ip-!- degrees backwards every year, the fun will come to either of them 173 days after the other. And when either node is within 17 degrees of the fun at the time of new moon, the fun wrill be eclipfed. At the fubfequent oppofition, the moon will be eclipfed in the other node, and come round to the next conjunction again ere the former node be_ 17 degrees pall the fun, and will there¬ fore eclipfe him again. When three eclipfes fall about either node, the like number generally falls about the oppofite ; as the fun comes to it in 173 days afterwards ; and fix lunations contain but four days more. Thus, there may be two eclipfes of the fun and one of the moon about each of her nodes. But ASTRONOMY. 104 Number of eclipfes in a year. Part Tl. when the moon changes in either of the nodes, the Apparent Cannot be near enough the other node at the next full Motions of to. be eclipled j and in fix lunar months afterward file t!iepe^eu" will change near the other node : in thefe cafes, there > ~ can be but two eclipfes in a year, and they are both of the fun. A longer period than the above-mentioned, for com¬ paring and examining eclipfes which happen at long in¬ tervals of time, is 557 years, 21 days, 18 hours, 30 mi¬ nutes, 11 feconds •, in which time there are 6890 mean lunations j and the fun ^nd node meet again fo nearly as to be but 11 feconds diftant ; but then it is not the fame eclipfe that returns, as in the fliorter period above mentioned. ^ _ Eclipfes of the fun are more frequent than of the Why mora moon, becaufe the fun’s ecliptic limits are greater than eclipfes of the moon’s 5 yet w’e have more vifible eclipfes of the l!ie Ult'0il moon than of the fun, becaufe eclipfes of the moon are fPn'a^ ob^ feen from all parts of that hemifphere of the earth ferved. which is next her, and are equally great to each of thofe parts : but the fun’s eclipfes are vifible only to that fmall portion of the hemifphere next him whereon the moon’s fhadow falls. The moon’s orbit being elliptical, and the earth in one of its focufes, fire is once at her leaft diftance from the earth, and once at her greateft, in every lunation. ^ When the moon changes at her leaft diftance from the Total and earth, and fo near the node that her dark fhadow’ falls annular upon the earth, (lie appears big enough to cover the eclipfc*. whole dific of the fun from that part on which her fliadow falls j and the fun appears totally eclipfed there for fome minutes : but wdien the moon changes at her greateft diftance from the earth, and fo near the node that her dark ftiadow is diredled towards the earth, her diameter fubtends a lefs angle than the fun’s; and therefore Ihe cannot hide his whole dilk from any part of the earth, nor does her lhadow reach it at that time; and to the place over which the point of her lhadow hangs, the eclipfe is annular, the fun’s edge appearing like a luminous ring all round the body' of the moon. When the change happens within 17 degrees of the node, and the moon at her mean diftance from the earth, the point of her lhadow juft touches the earth, and Ihe eclipfeth the fun totally to that fmall fpot whereon her lhadow falls 5 but the darknefs is not of a moment’s continuance. The moon’s apparent diameter, when largeft, ex¬ ceeds the fun’s, when leaft, only 1 minute 38 feconds of a degree ; and in the greateft eclipfe of the fun that can happen at any time and place, the total darknefs continues no longer than whilft the moon is going 1 minute 38 feconds from the fun in her or¬ bit, which is about 3 minutes and 13 feconds of an hour. 107 The moon’s dark Ihadow covers only a fpot on the Extent of earth’s furface about 180 Englifh miles broad, when the moon’s the moon’s diameter appears largeft, and the fun’s leaft ; ^iaclow and and the total darknefs can extend no farther than the Penura'jr** dark lhadow covers. Yet the moon’s partial lhadow or penumbra may then cover a circular fpace 4900 miles in diameter, within all which the fun is more or lefs eclipfed, as the places are lefs or more diftant from the centre of the penumbra. When the moon changes exaftly tvt II* Apparent Morions of theHeaven- ly Bodies. IQ'S Beginning, finding, See of a folar '?<£■ 13- ASTRO exactly in tKc node, tlie penumbra is circular on the earth at the middle of the general eclipfe ; becaule at that time it falls perpendicularly on the earth’s furface *, but at every other moment it falls obliquely, and will therefore be elliptical; and the more fo, as the time is longer before or after tbe middle of the general eclipfe •, and then much greater portions of the earth’s furface are involved in the penum '.'a. When the penumbra flrft touches the earth, the ge- • neral eclipfe begins 5 when it leaves the earth, the ge¬ neral eclipfe ends : irom the beginning to the end the fun appears eclipied in fome part of the earth or other. When the penumbra touches any place, the eclipfe be¬ gins at that place, and ends when the penumbra leaves it. When the moon changes in the node, the pe¬ numbra goes over the centre of the earth’s dilk. as feen from the moon > and cdnfequenfly, by defenbing the longeft line poffible on the earth, continues the longeft upon it ; namely, at a mean rate, 5 hours 50 minutes ; more, if the moon be at her greateft diftance from the earth, becaufe foe then moves floweft ; lefs, if foe be at her leaft diftance, becaufe of her quicker motion. To make feveral of the above and other phenomena plainer, let S be the fun, E the earth, M the rtioon, and AMP the moon’s orbit. Draw tbe right line We from the Weftern fide of the fun at W, touching the weftern fide of the moon at e, and the eaith at e. draw alfo the right line V d from the eaftern fide of the fun at V, touching the eaftern fide of the moon at 1 tropic of Capricorn, and the Heaven-x i 'je circumference of the earth’s enlightened di^k lyBodie, « feen from the fun or new moon at thefe times The v earth s axis has the pofition NES at the vernal equinox iymg towards the right hand, as feen from the fun £ new moon; its poles N and S being then in the cir- umference of tne dilk; and the equator and all its pa- ralle.s feem to be ftrmght lines, becaufe their planes pals through the obferver’s eye looking down upon the echoic FG^VT ? ?0°a dIreaiy °tver E’ where ecliptic FG inter eels the equator JE. At the fummer olllice the earth s axis has. the pofition NDS ; and nat part of the ecliptic FG, in which the moon is then new, touches tne tropic of Cancer T at D. 1’he north fair fallT f ^ tIme incliniag 234. degrees towards the ened^ f ^manJ degref within the earth’s enlight¬ ened dilk, becaufe tne fun is then vertical to D 22.4. dtf.reap ^ 0 equator or ALQj and the equator, ward a of11-3 U fTU fIIiptlc CUrves bending down¬ ward 01 towards the fouth pole, as feen from the fun • which pole together with 23F degrees all round it, is earth ^ At Fv- ^ ^ ci‘?rk hemifphere of the 1 ,* ”5.the autumnal equinox, the earth’s axis fromtntheFfritl0n N°S’ lying ,t0 the left h^d as feen O mJhe fu" °r ^w moon, which are then vertical to A where the ecliptic cuts the equator iEQ. Both poms now lie in the circumference of the dilk, {he north pole iuft g0'ng-t0dlfaP-Pear'behind k’ and the fouth pole jurt entering into it; and the equator with all its faialltls feem to be ftraight lines, becaufe their planes pafs through the obferver’s eye, as feen from the fun, and very neariy f° as feen from the moon. At the winter follbce, the earth’s axis has the pofition NNS funeiEnSs 2U^dP e 8 degrees towards the iun, falls 2degrees within the enlightened dilk, as cTtrfX °rpnew.moon» which are then verti- th! In f Tn0f Capr!C°rn 23i degrees fouth of r ]] qq r ^v’ -and the e, on the tropic oi Cancer T, at the middle of the general eclipfe, and then no part of it touches the tro¬ pic ot Capricorn t. At the autumnal equinox, the earth axis has the pofition NOS (i O h being then part of the moon’s orbit), and the penumbra equally includes part of both tropics T and /, at the middle of re general eclipfe : at the vernal equinox it does the ame». becaufe the earth’s axis has the pofition NES • but, m the former of thefe two laft cafes, the penum¬ bra enters the earth at A, north of the tropic of Can¬ cer 1, and leaves it at m fouth of the tropic of Ca¬ pricorn t; having gone over the earth obliquely fouth- ward, as its centre deferibed the line AO»r: whereas in the latter cafe, the penumbra touches the earth at n louth of the equator iEQ^and deferibing the line ,iEn (hmftar to the former line AO™ in opeS fpace), goe? oohquely northward over the earth, and leaves it at * north of the equator. In all thefe circumftances the moon has been fup- po.ed to change at noon in her defeending node : Had ue chained m her afeending node, the phenomena would have been as various the contrary way, with re- ipebt to the penumbra’s going northward or fouthward over the earth. _ But becaufe the moon changes at all hours, as often m one node as in the other, and at all diftances from them both at different times as it hap¬ pens, the variety of the phafes of eclipfes are almoft innumerable, _ even at the fame places; confidering ado how varioufly the fame places are fituated on the enlightened difk of the earth, with refpea to the pen¬ umbra’s motion, at the different hours when eclipfes happen. v When the moon changes 17 degrees fhort of her de- icenamg node, the penumbra Pi8 juft touches the northern part of the earth’s dilk, near the north Pole N ; and as feen from that place, the moon appears to touch the fun, but hides no part of him from fight Had the change been as far fhort of the afeending node, the penumbra would have touched the foutbern part of the difk near the fouth pole S. When the moon changes 1 2 degrees ftiort of the defeending node, more than a third part of the penumbra Pi 2 falls on the northern parts of the earth at the middle of the gene¬ ral eclipfe; Had file changed as far pall the fame node. 1X0 Duration Fart IT. ASTRO Apparent as mucli of the other fide of the penumbra about P Motions of have fallen on the fouthern parts of the earth ; ^ Bodies'1"t^ie re!^ t^le expanfum, or open fpace. When the moon changes 6 degrees from the node, almoft the whole penumbra P6 falls on the earth at the middle of the general eclipfe. And laftly, when the moon changes in the node at N, the penumbra PN takes the longeft courfe poflxble on the earth’s dilkj its centre falling on the middle thereof, at the middle of the ge¬ neral eclipfe. The farther the moon changes from ei¬ ther node, within 17 degrees of it, the Ihorter is the penumbra’s continuance on the earth, becaufe it goes over a lefs portion of the dilk, as is evident by the figure. The nearer that the penumbra’s centre is to the in different efluator at t^ie general eclipfe, the longer parts of the*8 t^ie duration of the eclipfe at all thofe places where earth. it is central; becaufe, the nearer that any place is to the equator, the greater is the circle it defcribes by the earth’s motion on its axis: and fo, the place mo¬ ving quicker, keeps longer in the penumbra,’ whole motion is the fame way vrith that of the place, though fafter, as has been already mentioned. Thus (fee the earth at D and the penumbra at 12) whilft the point b in the polar circle ab c d carried from £ to <• by the earth’s diurnal motion, the point d on the tropic of Cancer T is carried a much greater length from d to I) ; and therefore, if the penumbra’s centre goes one time over c and another time over D, the penumbra will be longer in palling over the moving place d than it was in palling over the moving place b. Confequent- ly, central echpfes about the poles are of the Ihorteft duration $ and about the equator, of the longed. In the middle of fummer, the whole frigid zone, in¬ cluded by the polar circle abed, is enlightened : and if it then happens that the penumbra’s centre goes over the north pole, the fun will be eclipfed much the fame number of digits at a as at c; but whilft the penumbra moves eaftward over c, it moves eallward over a ; be¬ caufe, with refpedl to the penumbra, the motions of a and c are contrary: for c moves the fame way with the penumbra towards d, but a moves the contrary way to¬ wards b; and therefore the eclipfe will be of longer duration at c than at a. At a the eclipfe begins on the fun’s eaftern limb, but at c on his weltern : at all places lying without the polar circles, the fun’s eclip- fes begin on his weftern limb, or near it, and end on or near his eaftern. At thofe places where the penum¬ bra touches the earth, the eclipfe begins with the ri¬ ling fun, on the top of his wreftern or uppermofl edge 5 and at thofe places where the penumbra leaves the earth, the eclipfe ends with the fetting fun, on the top of his eaftern edge, wdiich is then the uppermoft, juft at its difappearing in the horizon. About the new moon, that part of the lunar dilk which is not illuminated by the fun is perceptible, owing to the feeble light reftedled on it by the hemi- fphere of the earth that is illuminated. Sect. II. Of the Nature of the Moon. We havefeen that the moon is about 39 times fmal- ler than the earth. Her diameter is generally reck¬ oned about 2 180 miles. This is to the diameter of the earth nearly as 20 to 73 5 therefore, the furface of the moon is to that of the earth (being as the fquares of in Moon’sfize. N O M Y. 43 their diameters) nearly as I to 14 T* And, admitting Apparent the moon’s denlity to be to that of the earth as 5 to 4?tfgjj their refnedtive quantities of matter xVill be as 1 to 39 very nearly. —v-—> Bouguer has fhown by a fet of curious experiments 112 that the light emitted by the full moon is 300,000, times lefs intenfe than that of the fun. Even when concentrated by the moft porterful mirrors it produces no effedt on the thermometer. Ir^ Many dulkilh fpots may be feen upon the moon’s Spots on her difk, even wdth the naked eye ; and through a tele-iurface. fcope, their number is prodigioufly increafed : the alfo appears very plainly to be more protuberant in the mid¬ dle than at the edges, or to have the figure of a globe and not a flat circle. When the moon is horned or gibbous, the one fide appears very ragged and uneven, but the other always exadtly defined and circular. The fpots in the moon always keep their places exadtly ; never vanifhing, or going from one fide to the other, as thofe of the fun do. We fometimes fee more or lefs of the northern and fouthern, and eaflern and weftern part of the difk or face } but this is owing to what is called her libration, and will hereafter be explained. The aftronomers Florentius, Langrenus, John Heve- lius of Dantzic, Grimaldus, Ricciolus, Caffini, and M. de la Hire, have drawn the face of the moon as (he is feen through telefcopes magnifying between 200 and 300 times. Particular care has been taken to note all the finning parts in her furface 5 and, for the better diftinguifhing them, each has been marked with a pro¬ per name. Langrenus and Ricciolus have divided the lunar regions among the philofophers, aftronomers, and other eminent men ; but Hevelius and others, fearing left the philofophers fltould quarrel about the divifion of their lands, have endeavoured to fpoil them of their property, by giving the names belonging to different countries, iilands, and feas on earth, to different parts of the moon’s furface, without regard to fituation or figure. The names adopted by Ricciolus, however, are thofe which are generally followed, as the names of Hipparchus, Tycho, Copernicus, &c. are more pleafing to aftronomers than thofe of Africa, the Mediterra¬ nean Sea, Sicily, and Mount TEtna. Fig. 17. is a tolerably exaft reprefentation of the full moon in her mean libration, with the numbers to the principal fpots according to Ricciolus, Caflini, Mayer, &c. The afterilk refers to one of the volcanoes difeovered by Dr Her- fchel, to be afterwards more particularly noticed. The names are as follows : 16 Timocharis. 1,7 Plato. 18 Archimedes. 19 Infula Sinus Medii. Pitatus. Tycho. Eudoxus. Ariftoteles. 24 Manilius. 25 Menelaus. 26 Hermes. 27 Pofiidonius. 28 Dionyfius. 29 Plinius. J Cafharina Cyrillus. 0 (_ Theophilus. 2 31 Fracaftorius. * Herfchel’s Volcano. 1 Grimaldus. 2 Galilteus. 3 Ariftarchus. 4 Keplerus. 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 T4 *5 Gaffendus. Shikardus. Harpalus. Heraclides. Lanfbergius. Reinoldus. Copernicus. Helicon. Capuanus. Bullialdus. Eratofthenes. 20 21 22 23 44 .Apparent gj Motions of theHeaven- 3 2 ly Bodies. 34 35 36 37 38 AST 40 Taruntius. £ Mare Humorura, Mare Nubium Mare Imbrium. D Mare Neclaris. E Mare Tranquillitatis. F Mare Serenitatis. G Mare Foecunditatis. H Mare Crifium. 114 Great ine- of the moon. FracaSorxus. f Promontorium acutum \ Cenforinus. Mefala. Promontorium Somnii. Proclus. Cleomedes. Snellius ct Furnerius. Petavius. 39 Langrenus. ] . That there are prodigious inequalities on her furface theVuJface"15 pr°Ved b>' looking at her through a telefcope, at ~ any other time than when fhe is full; for then there is no regular line bounding light and darknefs : but the confines of thefe parts appear as it w'ere toothed and cut with innumerable notches and breaks : and even in the dark part, near the borders of the lucid furface, there are feen fome fmall fpaces enlightened bv the fun’s beams. Upon the fourth day after new moon, there may be perceived fome (hining points like rocks or fmall iilands within the dark body of the moon ; but not far from the confines of light and darknefs there are obferved other little fpaces which join to the en¬ lightened furface, but run out into the dark fide, which by degrees change their figure, till at laft they come wholly within the illuminated face, and have no dark parts round them at all. Afterwards many more finn¬ ing fpaces are obferved to arife by degrees, and to ap¬ pear within the dark fide of the moon, which before they drew near to the confines of light and darknefs tvere invifible, being without any light, and totally im- merfed in the fhadowu The contrary is obferved in the 4ecreafing phafes, wFere the lucid fpaces which joined the illuminated furface by degrees recede from it, and, alter they are quite feparated from the confines of light and darknefs, remain for fome time vifible, till at lalt they alfo difappear. Now it is impoffible that this fhould be the cafe, unlefs thefe fhining points were higher than the reft of the furface, fo that the light of the fun may reach them. f meafun'n ^0t content wkk perceiving the bare exiftence of the lun'ir tbePe kinar mountains, aftronomers have endeavoured mountains. t° meafure their height in the following manner. Let Fig- 20. EGD be the hemifphere of the moon illuminated by the fun, ECD the diameter of the circle bounding light and darknefs, and A the top of a hill wuthin the dark part when it firft begins to be illuminated. Obferve with a telefcope the proportion of the right line AE, or the diftance of the point A from the lucid furface to the diameter of the. moon ED •, and becaufe in this cafe the ray of light ES touches the globe of the moon, AEG will be a right angle by 16th prop, of Euclid’s third book •, and therefore in the triangle AEG ha¬ ving the two fides AE and EC, w^e can find out the third fide AC ; from which fubdudling EC or EC, there ‘will remain AB the height of the mountain. Ric- ciolus affirms, that upon the fourth day after new’ moon he has obferved the top of the hill called Si Ca¬ tharine's to be illuminated, and that it was diftant from the confines of the lucid furface about a fixteenth part of the moon’s diameter. Therefore, if CF=8, AE wall be 1, and AC1—CE*-}-AEJ by prop. 47. of Eu¬ clid’s firft book. Now, the fquare of CE being 64, and the fquare of AE being 1, the fquare of AC will be 65, whole fquare root is 8,062, which exprelfes the R O N O M Y. Part IT. ”5 Method of length of AC. From which dedufling BCr=8, there Apparent will remain AC=zO,o62. So that CB or CE is there- Motions of fore to AB as 8 is to 0,062, that is, as 8oco is to 62. If the diameter of the moon therefore w^as known, the > 7 height of this mountain would alfo be knowm. This de- monftration is taken from Dr Keill, who fuppofes the femidiameter of the moon to be 1182 miles j according to which, the mountain muft be fomewhat more than nine miles of perpendicular height : but aftronomers having now determined the moon’s femidiameter to be only 1090 miles, the height of the mountain wall be nearly 8|- miles. In the former edition of this wrork, w’e could not Height of help making fome remarks on the improbability thatthe JurfiF the mountains of the moon, a planet fo much inferior over0 ated in fize to the earth, fiiould exceed in fuch vaft proper- r And if fome of thefe dark parts be brighter than others, may not that be owing to the feas and lakes being of different depths, and to their having rocks in fome places and flats in others ? It has alfo been urged, that if all the dark fpots ob¬ ferved on the moon’s furface were really the ftiadows of mountains, or of the fides of deep pits, they could not poffibly be fo permanent as they are found to be ; but would vary according to the pofition of the moon with regard to the fun, as we find ftiadows on earth are varied according as the earth is turned towards or from the fun. Accordingly it is pretended, that va¬ riable fpotij are a&ually difeovered on the moon’s diik, and that the direftion of thefe is always oppofite to the fun. Hence they are found among thofe parts which are fooneft illuminated in the increafing moon, and in the decreafing moon lofe their light fooner than the intermediate ones ; running round, and appearino- fometimes longer, and fometimes {hotter. The perl manent Part II. Apparent Motions of theHeaven- ly Bodies. Part II, Apparent manent dark, fpots, therefore, it is faid, muft be feme Motions of matter which is not fitted for reflefting the rays of the ^j36 Bodies'”^uri ^'0 muc^ as t^ie bright parts do : and this property, — -> we know by experience, belongs to water rather than land , whence thefe philofophers conclude, that the moon, as well as our earth, is made up of land and 12i feas. Whether it has been a matter of difpute whether the moon hns an^at ^as an^ atmofphere or not. I’he following argu- mofphere. ments have been urged by thofe who take the nega¬ tive fide. i. The moon confiantly appears with the fame brightnefs when there are clouds in our atmofphere ; which could not be the cafe if (he wTere lurroundod with an atmofphere like ours, fo variable in its denfity, and fo frequently obfeured by clouds and vapours. 2. In an appulfe of the moon to a ftar, when (lie comes fo near it that part of her atmofphere is interpofed be¬ tween our eye and the ftar, refraefion would caufe the latter to feem to change its place, fo that the moon would appear to touch it later than by her own mo¬ tion (he would do. 3. Some philofophers are of opi¬ nion, that becaufe there are no feas or lakes in the moon, there is therefore no atmofphere, as there is no water to be raifed up in vapours. All thefe arguments, however, have been anfwered by other aftronomers in the following manner. 1. It is denied that the moon appears always with the fame •brightnefs, even when our atmofphere appears equally clear. Hevelius relates, that he has feveral times found in Ikies perfectly clear, when even ftars of the fixth and feventh magnitude were vilible, that at the fame altitude of the moon, and the fame elongation from the earth, and with one and the fame telefcope, the moon and its maculae do not appear equally lucid, clear, and confpicuous at all times-, but are much brighter and more diftimft at fome times than at others. From the circumftances of this obfervation, fay they, it is evi¬ dent that the reafon of this phenomenon is neither in our air, in the tube, in the moon, nor in the fpedtator’s eye *, but muft be looked for in fomething exifting about the moon. An additional argument is drawn from the different appearances of the moon already mentioned in total eclipfes, which are fuppofed to be owing to the different conftitutions of the lunar atmo¬ fphere. To the fecond argument Dr Long replies, that Sir Ifaac Newton has fhown {Vrincip. prop. 37. cor. 5.), that the weight of any body upon the moon is but a I2Z third part of what the weight of the fame would be Why the upon the earth : now the expanfion of the air is reci- hght is not procally as the weight that compreffes it : the air, tife'moo'n’? t^iere^ore5 furrounding the moon, being prefled toge- atmofphere. t^ier ^7 a weight, or being attrafted towards the centre of the moon by a force equal only to one-third of that which attracts our air towards the centre of the earth, it thence follows, that the lunar atmofphere is only one-third as denfe as that of the earth, which is too little to produce any fenfible refraction of the ftars light. Other aftronomers have contended that fuch refraCtion was fometimes very apparent. M. Caflini fays that he frequently obferved Saturn, Jupiter, and the fixed ftars, to have their circular figure changed in¬ to an elliptical one, when they approached either to the moon’s dark or illuminated limb j though they 47 own, that in other occultations no fuch change could Apparent be obferved. With regard to the fixed ftars, indeed, Mcn.Ionsot it has been urged, that, granting the moon to have jy'gojq6;11' an atmofphere of the fame nature and quantity as ours, y ' no fuch effeCt as a-gradual diminution of light ought to take place; at leaft, that we could by no means be capable of perceiving it. Our atmofphere is found to be fo rare at the height of 44 miles as to be incapable of refraCling the rays of light. This height is the 180th part of the earth’s diameter-, but fince clouds are never obferved higher than four miles, we muft conclude that the vaporous or obfeure part is only one 1980th. The mean apparent diameter of the moon is 31' 29", or 1889 feconds : therefore the obfeure parts of her atmofphere, when viewed from the earth, muft fubtend an angle of lefs than one feccnd \ which Ipace is paffed over by the moon in lefs than two fe¬ conds of time. It can therefore hardly be expeCled that obfervation ihould generally determine whether the fuppofed obicuration takes place or not. The third argument is neceffarily incohclufive, be¬ caufe we know not whether there is any water in the" moon or not-, nor, though this could be demonftrated, would it follow that the lunar atmofphere anfwers no other purpofe than the raifing of water into vapour. There is, however, a ftrong argument in favour ofLuminotis the exiftence of a lunar atmofphere, taken from the ring obfcr- appearance of a luminous ring round the moon in the a^out time of folar eclipfes. In the eclipfe of May 1. 1706, Captain Stanyan, from Bern in Switzerland, writes, eclipfes. that “ the fun was totally darkened there for the fpace of four-minutes and a half: that a fixed ftar and pla¬ net appeared very bright : that his getting out of the eclipfe was preceded by a blood-red ftreak of light from his left limb, which continued not longer than fix or feven feconds of time ; then part of the fun’s difk appeared all on a fudden, brighter than Venus was ever feen in the night ; and in that very inftant gave light and fhadow to things as ftrong as moon light ufes to do.” The publiflier of this account obferves that the red ftreak of light preceding the emerfion of the fun’s body, is a proof that the moon has an atmofphere ; and its Ibort continuance of five or fix feconds fhows that its height is not more than the five or fix hun¬ dredth part of her diameter. Fatio, who obferved the fame eclipfe at Geneva, tells us, that “ there was feen during the whole time of the total immerfion, a whitenefs which feemed to break out from behind the moon, and to encompafs her on all fides equally : this whitenefs was not well defined on its outward fide, and the breadth of it was not a twelfth part of the diameter of the moon. The planet appeared very black, and her dilk very well de¬ fined within the whitenels which encompaffed it about, and was of the fame colour as that of a white crown or halo, of about four or five degrees in diameter, which accompanied it, and had the moon for its centre. A little after the fun had begun to appear again, the whitenefs, and the crown which had encompaffed the moon, did entirely vanifti.” “ I muft add (fays Dr Long), that this de/cription is a little perplexed, ei¬ ther through the fault of the author or of the tranf- lator ; for I fuppofe Fatio wrote in French : however, it plainly appears by it that the moon’s atmofphere was viable, furrounded by a light of larger extent, which l ASTRONOM Y. k 4S ASTRO Apparent I think mull: he that luminous appearance (the zodiacal ^eH^av n mentioned from Caffini.” Flamftead, who pub- ^Jy Bodies^ hdred this account, takes notice, that, according to tr - - h thefe obfervations, the altitude of the moon’s atmo¬ sphere cannot be well fuppofed lefs than 180 geogra¬ phical miles ; and that probably this atmofphere was never difeovered before this eclipfe, by reafon of the fmallnefs of the refraction, and the want of proper ob- fervations. An account of the fame eclipfe, as it appeared at Zurich, is given by Dr Scheuchzer, in the following words : “ We had an eclipfe of the fun, which was both total and annular ) total, becaufe the whole fun was covered by the moon ; annular, not what is pro¬ perly fo called, but by refraflion : for there appeared round the moon a bright finning, which was owing to the rays of tile fun refra&ed through the atmofphere of the moon. Dom. Caffini, from a number of accounts fent him from different parts, fays, that in all thofe places where it was total, during the time of total darknefs, there was feen round the moon a crown or broad circle of pale light, the breadth whereof was about a 12th part of the moon’s diameter : that at Montpelier, where the obfervers were particularly attentive to fee if they could diftinguifh the zodiacal light already mentioned, they took notice of a paler light of a larger extent, which furrounded the crown of light before mentioned, and fpread itfelf on each fide of it, to the diftance of four degrees. He then mentions Kepler’s opinion, that Ate crown of light which appears round the moon du¬ ring the total darknefs in an eclipfe of the fun is cau- fed by fome celeffial matter furrounding the moon, of lufficient denfity to receive the rays of the fun and fend them to us and that the moon may have an at¬ mofphere fimilar to that of our earth, which may re- 124 fra£l the fun’s light. 13r Halley’s A total eclipfe of the fun was obferved on the 2 2d afolar1 ^ April (5. S. in the year 1715, by Dr Halley at Lon- eclipfe in ^on> and by M. Louville of the Academy of Sciences *715. at Paris. Dr Halley relates, that “ when the firft part of the fun remained on his eaft fide, it grew very faint, and was eafily fupportable to the naked eye even through the telefcope, for above a minute of time before the total darknefs •, whereas, on the contrary, the eye could not endure the fplendor of the emerging beams through the telefcope even from the firft moment. To this, two caufes perhaps concurred ; the one, that the pupil of the eye did neceffarily dilate itfelf during the dark¬ nefs, which before had been much contradled by look¬ ing on the fun : the other, that the eaftern parts of the moon, having been heated tvith a day near as long as 30 of ours, muft of neceflity have that part of its atmofphere replete with vapours raifed by the fo long continued adtion of the fun} and, by confequence, it was more denfe near the moon’s furface, and more capable of obftrutting the fun’s beams; whereas at the fame time the weftern edge of the moon had fuf- fered as long a night, during which there might fall in dews all the vapours that were raifed in the preced¬ ing long day ; and for that reafon, that that part of its atmofphere might be feen much more pure and tranf- parent. “ About two minutes before the total immerfion, the remaining part of the fun was reduced to a very O M Y. Part IT. fine horn, whofe extremities feemed to lofe their aCiite- Apparent nefs, and to become round like flars ; and for the ^l)Pon:’ ipace 01 about a quarter ot a minute a Imau piece ot ]y Bo(ijeS4 the fouthern horn of the eclipfe feemed to be cut off u, i-v-. from the reft by a good interval, ami appeared like an oblong ftar rounded at both ends •, which appearance would proceed from no other caufe but the inequalities of the moon’s furface ; there being fome elevated parts thereof near the moon’s fouthern pole, by whofe inte- pofition part of that exceedingly fine filament of light was intercepted. A few feconds before the fun was totally hid, there difeovered itfelf round the moon a luminous ring, about a digit, or perhaps a tenth part of the moon’s diameter, in breadth. It was of a pale whitenefs, or rather of a pearl colour, feeming to me a little tinged with the colour of the iris, and to be concenttic with the moon } tvhence I concluded it the moon’s atmofphere. But the great height of it, far , exceeding that of our earth’s atmofphere, and the ob¬ fervations of fome who found the breadth of the ring to increafe on the weft fide of the moon as the emerfion approached, together with the contrary fentiments ot thofe whofe judgments t ihall always revere, make me lefs confident, eipecially in a matter to which I gave not all the attention requifite. “ Whatever it was, this ring appeared much bright¬ er and whiter near the body of the moon than at a diftance from it 5 and its outward circumference, which was ill defined, feemed terminated only by the extreme rarity of the matter of which it was compofed, and in all refpe&s refembled the appearance of an enlightened atmofphere feen front far j but whether it belonged to the'fun or moon, 1 ftiall not pretend to determine. During the whole time of the total eclipfe, I kept myFlalhesof telefcope conftaritly fixed on the moon, in order to 0^* ferve what might occur in this uncommon appearance 5 irom and I fawT perpetual ftafhes or corufeations of light,pind the which feemed for a moment to dart out from behind moon, the moon, now here, now there, on all fides, but more efpecially on the weftern. fide, a little before the emerfion j and about twro or three feconds before it, on the fame weftern fide, where the fun was juft coming out, a long and very narrow ftreak of dulky but ftrong red light feemed to colour the dark edge of the moon, though nothing like it had been leen immediately after the emerfion. But this inftantly vanilhed after the appearance of the fun, as did alfo the aforefaid lumi¬ nous ring.” # . 126 Mr Louville relates, that a luminous ring of a filver Mr Lou- colour appeared round the moon as foonasthe fun was Mile s ob- entirely covered by her dilk, and ddappeared the. mo- ment he recovered" his light; that this ring was bright- eft near the moon, and grew gradually fainter towards its outer circumference, where it was, however, de¬ fined 5 that it was not equally bright all over, but had feveral breaks in it 1 but he makes no doubt of its be¬ ing occafioned by the moon’s atmofphere, and thinks that the breaks in it were occafioned by the mountains of the moon : he fays alfo, that this ring had the moon, and not the fun, for its centre, during the whole time of its appearance. Another proof , brought by him of the moon having an atmofphere is, that, to¬ wards the end of the total darknefs, there was feen on that fide of the moon on which the fun was going to appear, a piece of a circle, of a lively red, which might * See N* 144. etfcq. Part If. ASTRO Apparent be owing to the red rays that are lead: refrangible be- Motions of ing traniraitted through the moon’s atmofphere in the theHeayen- eatefl. qUantity : and that he might be affured this .!-v ^ Tednefs did not proceed from the glafles of his tele- fcope, he took care to bring the red part into the 12"] middle of his glaffes. Lightning He lays great ftrefs on the ftreaks of light which he fuppofed to jart inftantaneoufiy from different places of the "if the^Uent moon ^ur'in§ time of total darknefs, but chiefly moon. near the eaftern edge of the difk : thefe he takes to be lightning, fuch as a fpeftator would fee flafhing from the dark hemifphere of the earth, if he were placed upon the moon, and faw the earth come between him- felf and the fun. “ Now (fays Dr Long) it is highly probable, that if a man had, at any time, a view of that half of the earth where it is night, he would fee lightning in fome part of it or other.” Louville farther obferves, that the moft mountainous countries are moft liable to tempefts ; and that mountains being more frequent in the moon, and higher, than on earth*, thun¬ der and lightning muft be more frequent there than with us 5 and that the eaftern fide of the moon would be moft fubjeft to thunder and lightning, thofe parts having been heated by the fun for half the month immediately preceding. It muft here be obferved, that Halley, in mentioning thefe flafhes, fays they feemed to come from behind the moon •, and Louville, though lie fays they came fometimes from one part and fome- times from another, owns, that he himfelf only faw them near the eaftern part of the difk ; and that, not knowing at that time what it was that he faw, he did not take notice whether the fame appearance was to be feen on other parts of the moon or not. He tells us, however, of an Englifh aftronomer, who prefented the Royal Society with a draught of what he faw in the moon at the time of this eclipfe ; from which Lou¬ ville feems to conclude that lightnings had been ob¬ ferved by that aftronomer near the centre of the moon’s difk. “ Now (fays Dr Long) thunder and lightning wmuld be a demonftration of the moon having an at¬ mofphere fimilar to ours, wdierein vapours and exhala¬ tions may be fupported, and furnifh materials for clouds, ftorms, and tempefts. But the ftrongeft proof brought by Louville of the moon having an atmofphere is this, that as foon as the eclipfe began, thofe parts of the fun which were going to be hid by the moon grew fenfibly palifh as the former came near them, fuffer- ing beforehand a kind of imperfeft eclipfe or diminu¬ tion of light; this w'ould be orving to nothing elfe but the atmofphere of the moon, the eaftern part whereof going before her reached the fun before the moon did. As to the great height of the lunar atmofphere, which from the breadth of the luminous ring being about a whole digit would upon a calculation come out accoiinttd6 1 m^es» above three times as high as the atmofphere 128 Great height of the lunar for> of the earth, Louville thinks that no objection ; fince if the moon were furrounded with an atrnofphere of the fame nature with that which encompafles the earth, the gravitation thereof towards the moon wrould be but one third of that of our atmofphere towards the earth ; and confequently its expanfipn would make the height of it three times as great from the moon as is the height of our atmofphere from the earth.” The fame luminous ring has been obferved in other total eclipfes, and even in fuch as are annular, though Vol. III. Part I. N O M Y. 49 without the luminous ftreaks or flafhes of lightning Apparent^ above-mentioned 5 it is even taken notice of by Plutarch: . however, fome members of the academy at Paris have ]y Bodies, endeavoured to account for both thefe phenomena o——y— without having recourfe to a lunar atmofphere; and I29 for this purpofe they made the following experiments : Thefe pbe- The image of the fun coming through a fmall hole in-n°meiia^ to a darkened room, was received upon a circle of wood or metal of a diameter a good deal larger than that offor_ the fun’s image ; then the flradow of this opaque circle was caft upon white paper, and there appeared round it, on the paper, a luminous circle .ftxch as that which furrounds the moon. The like experiment being made with a globe of wood, and with another of ftone not polifhed, the fliadows of both thefe caft upon pa¬ per were furrounded with a palifh light, moft vivid near the fhadows, and gradually more diluted at a di- ftance from them. They obferve alfo, that the ring round the moon was feen in the eclipfe of 1706 by Wurzelbaur, who caft her fliadow upon white paper. The fame appearance was obferved on holding an o- paque globe in the fun, fo as to cover his whole body from the eye ; for, looking at it through a fmoked glafs, in order to prevent the eye from being hurt by the glare of light it would otherwife be expofed to, the globe appeared with a light refembling that round the moon in a total eclipfe of the fun. Thus they folve the phenomenon of the ring feen round the moon by the infleftion, or diffrahiHon as they call it, of the folar rays pafixng near an opaque fuh- ftance. As for the fmall ftreaks of light above-men¬ tioned, and which are fuppofed to be lightning, they explain thefe by an hypothefis concerning the cavities of the moon themfelves ; which they confider as con¬ cave mirrors refledting the light of the fun nearly to the fame point; and as thefe are continually chang¬ ing their lituation with great velocity by the moon’s motion from the fun, the light which any one of them fends to our eye is feen but for a moment. This, how¬ ever, will not account for the flafties, if any fuch there are, feen near the centre of the dilk, though it does, in no very fatisfadtory manner, account for thofe at the edges. T ,0 It has already been obferved, that the occultations ofOcculta- the fixed ftars and planets by the moon, in general hap-tions of the pen without any kind of refraction of their light by fixec! ^ars the lunar atmofphere. The contrary, however, has ^oen> fometimes been obferved, and the ftars have been feen manifeftly to change their fhape and colour on going behind the moon’s dilk. An inftance of this happen¬ ed on the 28th of June N. S. in the year 1715, when an occultation of Venus by the moon happened in the day-time. Some aftronomers in France obferving this with a telefcope, faw Venus change colour for about a minute before fire was hid by the moon ; and the fame change of colour was obferved immediately after her emeriion from behind the difk. At both times the edge of the difk of Venus that was neareft the moon appeared reddifh, and that which was moft diftant of a bluifh colour. Thefe appearances, however, which might have been taken for proofs of a lunar atmo¬ fphere, were fuppofed to be owing to the obfervers ha¬ ving direCled the axis of their telefcopes towards the moon. This would neceffarily caufe any planet or ftar near the edge of the moon’s difk to be feen through thofe parts of the glaffes which are near their circum- G ference, jo AST R Apparent ference, and confequently to appear coloured. This was evidently the cafe from other obfervations of an occultation of Jupiter by the moon the fame year, when no fuch appearance of refraction could be per¬ ceived while he was kept in the middle of the tele- fcope. Maraldi alfo informs us, that he had obferved before this twro other occultations of Venus and one of Jupiter j and was always attentive to fee whether thofe planets changed their figure or colour either up¬ on the approach of the moon to cover them, or at their firft coming again into fight ; but never could perceive any fuch thing. Nor could he, in a great number of occultations of the fixed ftars, perceive the fmalleft apparent change in any of them, except¬ ing once that a fixed ftar feemed to increafe its di- ftance a little from the moon as it was going to be co¬ vered by her; but this, he fufpefted, might be owing to his telefcope being directed fo as to have the ftar feen too far from the middle of its aperture. He con¬ cludes, therefore, that the moon has no atmofphere : and he remarks, that at Montpelier, perhaps becaufe the air is clearer there than at London, the luminous ring round the moon appeared much larger than at London •, that it w'as very white near the moon, and gradually decreafing in brightnefs, formed round her a circular area of about eight degrees in diameter. If, fays he, this light was caufed by the atmofphere of the moon, of what a prodigious extent muff that at- I3T mofphere be ? fbT ^ave related all thefe opinions at full length, in atmofphere orc^er to Put our readers in poffeffion of the arguments that have been advanced upon this fubjedf ; but it is now generally admitted, and indeed, fcarcely can be denied, that the atmofphere of the moon, if it really has any, is almoff entirely infenfible. From the fpots upon the moon’s difk it has been af- certained, that the fame hemifphere of that luminary is always directed towards the earth. Hence it fol¬ lows that fhe turns round her axis once during every revolution round the earth. Exa£t obfervations have afcertained that flight va- ©i the moon. rjetjes take p}ace refpedling the appearances of the moon’s dillc. The fpots are obferved alternately to approach towards and recede from the edge of the moon. Thofe that are very near the edge appear and difappear alternately, making periodical ofcillations, w'hich are diflinguilhed by the name of the libration of the moon. To form a precife idea of the nature of this libration we muff confider that the dilk of the moon, feen from the centre of the earth, is terminated by the circumference of a great circle of the moon, perpendi¬ cular to a line drawn from the earth’s centre to that of the moon. The lunar hemifphere is proje£led upon the plane of this circle turned tovrards the earth, and its appearances are due to the movements of ro¬ tation of that body relative to its radius veftor. If the moon did not revolve round her axis, this radius vedlor would defcribe a great circle on the moon’s furface, all the points of which wTould prefent themfelves fuccef- fively to us. But the moon, revolving in the fame time that this radius vector defcribfes the great circle, always keeps the fame point of the circle nearly upon the ra¬ dius, and of courfe the fame hemifphere turned towards the earth. The inequalities of her motion produce the T32 T urns round her axis. . T33 Libration O N O M Y. Part II. flight variations in her appearance : for the rotation Apparent of the moon does not partake fenfibly of thefe irregula- Motions of rities. Hence it varies fomewhat relatively to the ra. dieHeaven- dius veftor, which accordingly cuts fucceflively differ- . 1-v ent points of the furface. Of courfe the globe of the v moon makes ofcillations relatively to that radius cor- refponding to the inequalities of her motions, which alternately conceal from our view and difcover to us fome parts of her furface. Farther : the axis of rotation of the moon is not ex- a£tly perpendicular to the plane of her orbit. If we fuppofe the pofition of this axis fixed, during a revolu¬ tion of the moon, it inclines more or lefs to the radius vedlor, fo that the angle formed by thefe two lines is acute during one part of her revolution, and obtufe du¬ ring another part of it. Hence the poles of rotation are alternately vifible from the earth, and thofe parts of her furface that are near thefe poles. Befides all this, the obferver is not placed at the centre of the earth, but at its furface. It is the radius drawm from his eye to the centre ®f the moon, which determines the middle point of her vifible hemifphere. But in confequence of the lunar parallax, it is obvious that this radius muff cut the furface of the moon in points fenfibly different according to the height of that luminary above the horizon. All thefe caufes concur to produce the libration of the "moon, a phenomenon which is merely optical, and not connefted with her rotation, which relatively to us is perfectly equable j or at leafi: if it be fubjefted to any irregularities, they are too fmall to be obferved. This is not. the cafe with the variations in the plane Theory of of the moon’s equator. While endeavouring to de- it. termine its pofition by the lunar fpots, Caflini was led to this remarkable concluficn, which includes the whole aftronomical theory of the real libration of that lumi¬ nary. Conceive a plane paffing through the centre of the moon perpendicular to her axis of rotation, and of courfe coinciding with the plane of her equator 5 con¬ ceive a fecond plane, parallel to the ecliptic, to pafs 'through the fame centre ; and alfo a third plane, which is the mean plane of the lunar orbit: thefe three planes have a common interfeflion } the fecond, placed be¬ tween the two others, forms with the firff an angle of l°.503, and with the third an angle of 50.14692 ; therefore the interfeclions of the lunar equator with the ecliptic coincide always with the mean nodes of the lunar orbit, and like them have a retro¬ grade motion, which is completed in the period of 6793.3009 days. During that interval the twro poles of the equator and lunar orbit defcribe fmall circles parallel to the ecliptic, encloling between them the pole of the ecliptic, fo that thefe three poles are con- ftantly upon a great circle of the heavenly fphere. Chap. III. Of the Planets. , Amidst the infinite variety of ftars wftuch occupy a place in the fphere of the heavens, and which occupy nearly the fame relative pofition rvith refpefl to each other, there are eight wdrich may be obferved to move in a very complicated manner, but following cer¬ tain precife laws, for they always commence the fame motions again after every period. The motions of thefe Part II. ASTRONOMY. Apparent thefe ftars, called planets, conftitutes’one of the principal Motions of 0biefts of aftronomy. Thefe planets are called Mercury. c;. Pallas. Sl theHeaven- ly Bodies Venus. Mars. Ceres. 6. Jupiter. 7. Saturn. 8. Herfchel. Mercury and Venus never feparate from the fun farther than certain limits j the reft feparate to all the poflible angular diftances. The movements of all thefe bodies are included in a zone of the heavenly fphere called the zodiac. This zone is divided into two equal parts by the ecliptic. Its breadth was formerly confidered as only about 16° ; but it muft be much increafed if the orbits of Ceres and Pallas, the two newly difeovered planets, are to be comprehended in it. It will be pro¬ per to confider the motions and appearances of each of thefe planets. This will be the fubjedt of the follow¬ ing fedlions. Sect. I. Of Mercury. Mercury is a fmall ftar, but emits a very bright white light : though, by reafon of his always keeping near the fun, he is feldom to be feen 5 and when he does make his appearance, his motion towards the fun is fo fwift, that he can only be difeerned for a Ihort time. He appears a little after funfet, and again a lit- J35 tie before funrife. His appar- Mercury never goes to a greater diftance from the entmotions. fUn than about 2y0.5 5 fo that he is never longer in fetting after the fun than an hour and 50 minutes; nor does he ever rife fooner than 1 hour and 50 mi¬ nutes before that luminary. Very frequently, he goes fo near the fun as to be loft altogether in his rays. When he begins to make his appearance in the even¬ ing after funfet, he can fcarcely at firft be diftinguiih- ed in the rays of the twilight. But the planet difen- gages itfelf more and more, and is feen at a greater di¬ ftance from the fun every fucceflive evening ; and hav¬ ing got to the diftance of about 22°.5, it begins to re¬ turn again. During this'interval, the motion of Mer¬ cury referred to the ftars is diredl; but when it ap¬ proaches within 18° of the fun it appears for fome time ftationary ^ and then its motion begins to be retro¬ grade. The planet continues to approach the fun, and at laft plunges into his rays in the evening, and difap- pears. Soon after, it may be perceived in the morn¬ ing, before funrife, feparating farther and farther from the fun, his motion being retrograde, as before he dif- appeared. At the diftance of 180 it becomes ftation¬ ary, and aflumes a direft motion, continuing, however, to feparate till it comes to 22.50 of diftance ; then it returns again to the fun, plunges into his rays, and appears foon after in the evening, after funfet, to repeat the fame career. The angular diftance from the fun, which the planet reaches on both Tides of that lumina¬ ry, varies from 160 to nearly 28°. • I he duration of a complete ofcillation,or the inter¬ val of time that elaples before the planet returns again to the point from which it fet out, varies alfo from roo to 130 days. I he mean arc of his retrogradation is about 13J0; its mean duration 23 days. But the quantity differs greatly in different retrogradations. In general, the laws of the movements of Mercury are very complicated j he does not move exa&ly in the plane of the ecliptic; fometimes he deviates from it Apparent more than y°. Motions of Some confiderable time muft have elapfed before aftronomers fufpe&ed that the liars which were feen ap- ■ ' - ■ preaching the fun in the evening and in the morning were one and the fame. The circumftance, howrever, of the one never being feen at the fame time with the other would gradually lead them to the right conclu- fion. _ _ 135 The apparent diameter of Mercury varies as well as Diameter, that of the fun and moon, and this variation is obviouf- ly connected with his pofition relatively to the fun, and with the direflion of his movement. The diameter is at its minimum when the planet plunges into The folar rays in the morning, or when it difengages itfelf from them : it is at its maximum when the planet plunges into the folar rays in the evening, or when it difenga¬ ges itielf from them in the evening ; that is to fay$. when the planet paffes the fun it its retrograde mo¬ tion, its diameter is the greateft poflible ; when it paf¬ fes the fun in its direft motion, it is the fmalleft pof- fible 5—and the mean length of the apparent diameter of Mercury is 11". t ^ Sometimes, when the planet difappears during its Nature, retrograde motion, that is to fay, when it plunges into the fun’s rays in the evening, it may be feen crofling the fun under the form of a black fpot, which deferibes a chord along the dilk of the fun. This black fpot is recognized to be the planet by its pofition, its apparent diameter, and its retrograde motion. Thefe tranfts of Mercury, as they are termed, are real annular eclipfes of the fun : they demonftrate that the planet is an opaque body, and that it Sorrow's its light from the fun. When examined by means of telefcopes magni¬ fying about 2 00 or 300 times, he appears equally lu¬ minous throughout his w-hole furface, without the leaft dark fpot. But he exhibits the fame difference of phafes with the moon, being fometimes horned, fometimes gibbous, and fometimes fhining almoft w'ith a round face, though not entirely full, becaufe his enlightened fide is never turned direftly towards us j but at all times perfectly wTell defined without any ragged edge, and perfectly bright. .Like the moon, the crefcent is always turned towards the fun. Thefe different phafes throw confiderable light on the orbit of Mercury. Sect. II. Of Verms. Venus, the moft beautiful ftar in the heavens, known by the names of the morning and evening far, likewife keeps near the fun, though fhe recedes from him almoft double the diftance of Mercury. She is never feen in the eaftern quarter of the heavens when the fun is in the weftern j but always feems to attend him in the evening, or to give notice of his approach in the morning. The planet Venus prefents the fame phenomena with Mercury ; but her different phafes are much more fen- fible, her ofcillations wider, and of longer duration. Her greateft diftance from the fun varies from 450 to nearly 48°, and the mean duration of a complete of- cillation is 584 days. Venus has been fometimes feen moving acrofs the Her appar- fun’s dilk in the form of a round black fpot, with anentmotions* apparent diameter of about 59". A few days after this has been obferved, Venus is feen in the morning, Cr 2 weft 52 Apparent weft of the iun, in the form of a fine crefcent, with t^'^'ons ot the convexity turned toward the fun. She moves gra- ly dually weftward with a retarded motion, and the cref- ' - cent becomes more full. In about ten weeks Hie has moved 46° weft of the fun, and is now a femicircle, and her diameter is 26". She is now ftationary. She then moves eaftward with a motion gradually accele¬ rated, and overtakes the fun about 9^ months after having been feen on his dilk. Some time after, fhe is feen in the evening, eaft of the fun, round, but very fmall. She moves eaftward, and increafes in diame¬ ter, but lofes of her roundnefs, till fire gets about 46° eaft of the fun, when (he is again a femicircle. She now moves weftward, increafing in diameter, but be¬ coming a crefcent like the waning moon ; and, at laft,- after a period of nearly 584 days, comes again into conjunction with the fun with an apparent diameter . of 59". The mean arc of her retrogradation is about 160, and its mean duration is 42 days. She does not move exaftly in the plane of the ecliptic, but deviates from it feveral degrees. Like Mercury, the fometimes crofles the fun’s dilk. The duration of thefe tranfits, as obferved from different parts of the earth’s furface, are very different : this is owing to the parallax of Ve¬ nus, in confequence of which different obfervers refer to different parts of the fun’s dilk, and fee her deferibe different chords on that dilk. In the tranfit which happened.in 1769, the difference of its duration, as ob¬ ferved at Otaheite and at Wardhuys in Lapland, • amounted to 23 m. 10 fee. This difference gives us the parallax of Venus, and ~of courfe her diftance from the earth during a conjunction. The knowdedge of this parallax enables us, by a method to be afterwards deferibed, to afeertain that of the fun, and confequent- ly to difeover its diftance from the earth. The great variations of the apparent diameter of Venus demonftrate that her diftance from the earth is exceedingly variable. It is largeft when the planet paffes over the furface of the fun. Her mean appa¬ rent diameter is 58,,. From the movement of certain fpots upon the fur¬ face of Venus, it has been concluded that Ihe revolves round her axis once in 24 hours 5 but this requires to be correCled by future obfervations. It is extremely- difficult to perceive or examine thefe fpots in our cli¬ mate. The fubjecl merits the attention of aftrono- mers farther to the fouth, in more favourable circum- ftances. The following detail will Ihow the uncer¬ tainty which has prevailed among aftronomers refpeCt- 140 ing thefe rP0?' Spots when I^r Long informs us, that the earlieft account he firft difeo- had met with of any fpots feen by means of the tele- fcope on the dilk of Venus was in a colleCHon of let¬ ters printed at Paris in 1665, in one of which Mr Auzout relates his having received advice from Poland that Mr Burratini had, by means of large telefcopes, feen fpots upon the planet Venus fimilar to thofe upon the moon. In 1667, Cjifimi, in a letter to Mr Petit, mentions his having for a long time carefully obferved Venus through an excellent telefcope made by Campa- ni, in order to know w’hether that planet revolved on its axis or not, as he had before found Jupiter and Mars to do. But though he then obferved fome fpots upon her, he fays, that even when the air was quiet A S T R O N O M Y. Part IT. V9. Revolution round her axis. vered on the dhk of Venus. 141 Caffini’s ob fervations. and clear, they appeared faint, irregular, and not W'ell Apparent defined } fo that it was difficult to have fuch a diftindt view of any of them as to be certain that it was the Ve-goj fame fpot which was feen again in any fubfequent ob- ■ ^ . fervation ; and this difficulty was increafed, in the firft place, wffien Venus wras in her inferior femicircle 5 be- caufe at that time ffie mult be viewed through the thick vapours near the horizon ; though otherwife it was molt proper, on account of her being then nearelt to us. In the fecond place, if we would obferve her at fome height above thofe vapours, it could only be for a ftiort time ; and thirdly, when Ihe is low in her inferior circle, and at that time neareft the earth, the enlightened part of her is too fmall to difeover any motion in it. Lie was therefore of opinion, that he Ihould fucceed better in his obfervations when the pla¬ net was about its mean diftance from us, Ihowing about one half of her enlightened hemifpbere ; at which time alfo he could obferve her for a much longer time above the gx-ols atmofpherical vapours. His firft appearance of fuccefs w as Odlober 14. 1666, at three quarters pall five in the evening 5 when he faw a bright fpot (fig. 37.), but could not then view that fpot long enough to draw any inference concerning the planet’s motion. He had no farther fuccefs till the 20th of April the following year when, about a quarter of an hour be¬ fore funrife, he began again to perceive on the dilk of Venus, now about half enlightened, a bright part near the fe&ion, diftant from the fouthern horn a little more than a fourth part of the diameter of the dilk, and near the eaftern edge. He took notice alfo of a darkilh ob¬ long fpot nearer to the northern than the fouthern horn : at funrife the bright part was advanced farther from the fouthern horn than when he firft obferved it; but though he was pleafed to find that he bad now a T , convincing proof of the planet’s motion, he was fur-why the prifed that the fpots moved from fouth to north in the fpots feeai lower part of the dilk, and from north to fouth in thet0 move upper part 5 a kind of motion of which we have no ex- ample except in the librations of the moon. This, however, was occafioned by the fituation of the planet’s axis. Caffini expedited to have found the rotation of Venus fimilar to that of Jupiter and Mars, both of which have their axis perpendicular to their refpe<5tive orbits, and turn round according to the order of the figns fo that in each of them the motion of the infe¬ rior half of their refpe£tive globe, or that part next the fun, is from eaft to w-eft ; in the fuperior half from weft to eaft but in Venus, wffiofe axis is inclined 75 de¬ grees towards her orbit, the coincidence is fo near, that one half of her dilk appears to move from fouth to north, the other from north to fouth. r ^ On the 21ft of April, at funrife, the bright partPartkuIar was a good way off the fe£fion, and about a fourthaccoun£ °f part of the diameter diftant from the fouthern horn.t^e When the fun was eight degrees fix minutes high, itfp0ts at dif- feemed to be got beyond the centre, and w:as cutferent through by the fe&ion. At the time the fun was fe-dmes. ven degrees high, the fedftion cut it in.the middle, which Ihovved its motion to have fame inclination towards the centre. May 9. a little before funrife, the bright fpot was feen near the centre, a little to the northward, with twro obfeure ones fituated between the feflion and the circumference, at a diftance from each other, equal to that Part II. Apparent Motomof theHeaven- ly Bodies. 144 CatTmi’s conclulions concerning the revolu¬ tion of Ve¬ nus on her axis. X4S . Difficulties attending thefe ob- fervations. 146 Bianchini’s obferva- tions. ASTRO that of each of them from the neareft angular point or horn of the planet. The weather being at that time clear, he obferved fpr an hour and half a quarter the motion of the bright fpot, which feemed to be exaftly from fouth to north, without any fenllble de¬ clination to call or weft. A variation was at the fame time perceived in the darkilh fpot too great to be afcribed to any optical’caufe. The bright fpot was’al- fo feen on the 10th and 13th days of May beiore fun- rife between the northern horn and the centre, and the fame irregular change of darkiftr fpots was taken no¬ tice of •, but as the planet removed to a greater diftance from the earth, it became more difficult to obferve thefe appearances. The above phenomena are repre- fented as they occurred, in fig. 19 to 25. But though, from the appearances juft now related, M. Caffini was of opinion that Venus revolved on her axis he was by no means fo pofitive in this matter as with regard to Mars and Jupiter. “ The Ipots on thefe (fays he) I could attentively obferve for a whole night, when the planets were in oppofition to the fun : I could fee them return to tire fame fituation, and con- fider their motion during fome hours, and judge whe¬ ther they were the fame fpots or not, and vi hat time they took in turning round : but it was not the fame with the fpots of Venus ; for they can be obferved on¬ ly for fo fhort a time, that it is much more difficult to know with certainty when they return into the fame fituation. I can,- however, fuppofing that the bright fpot which I obferved on Venus, and particularly this year, was the fame, fay that (he finilhes her motion, whether of rotation or libration, in lefs than a day; fo that, in 23 days nearly, the fpot comes into the fame fituation on nearly the fame houi of the day, though not without fome irregularity. Now (fuppo¬ fing the bright fpot obferved to be always the fame) whether this motion is an entire turning round, or on¬ ly a libration, is what I dare not pofitively affirm.” In 1669, M. Caffini again obferved Venus through a telefcope, but could not then perceive any fpots up¬ on her furface j the reafon of which Du Hamel con- jethires to have been the llublnation of the vapours near the horizon, which prevented them from being vifible. However, rve hear nothing more of any fpots being feen on her diik till the year 1726-, when, on the 9th of February, Bianchini, with fome of Cam- pani’s telefcopes of 90 and 100 Roman palms, began to obferve the planet at the altitude of 40° above the horizon, and continued his oblervation till, by the motion of feveral fpots, he determined, the pofition of her axis to be inclined as above-mentioned, that the north pole pointed at a circle of latitude drawn through the 20th degree of Aquarius, elevated 15 °r 20 above, the orbit of Venus. He delineated alfo the figures of feveral fpots which he fuppofed to be feas, and com¬ plimented the king of Portugal and fome othei great men by calling them by their names. Though none of Bianchini’s obfervations were continued long enough to know whether the fpots, at the end of the period affigned for the rotation of the planet, wemd have been in a different fituation from what they were at the beginning of it *, yet, from obfervations of two and of four days, he concluded the motion of the fpots to be at the rate of x 50 per day 5 at which advance the planet muft turn round either once in 24 days or N O M Y. S3 in'23 hours*, but without farther obfervation it coffid App-ientf not be determined which of the two was the period or qieHeaven. revolution } for if an obferver ftiould at a particular jy ;g0(iieSj hour, fuppofe feven in the evening, mark exaftly the' — place of a fpot, and at the fame hour next evening I47 find the fpot advanced 150, he would not be able to Doubts determine whether the fpot had advanced only 15 , had gone once quite round with the addition ol 15. flie takes more in part of another rotation. Mr Bianchini, jn revoi_ however, fuppofes Venus to revolve in 24 days eightving round hours } the principal proof adduced for which is an her obfervation of three fpots, ABC, being fituated as in fig. 26. wffien they wrere viewed by himfexf and .fe¬ veral perfons of diilindlion lor about an hour, duiing which they could not perceive any change, of place. The planet being then hid behind the Barbanni palace, they could^not have another view ol her till three hours after, when the fpots Hill appeared unmoved. “ Now (fays Mr Bianchini) if her rotation -were fo fwift as to go round in 23 hours, in this fecond view, three hours after the former, the fpots muft have ad¬ vanced near 50 degrees 5 fo that the fpot C would have been gone off at R, the ipot B would have fuc- ceeded into the place of C, the fpot A into the place of B, and there w-ould have been no more but two fpots, A and B, to have been feen.” _ 14S Caffini, the fon, in a memoir for 1732, denies theDifpute be. conclufion of Bianchini to be certain. He fays, that tween Caf- during the three hours interval, the fpot C might be gone off the difk, and the fpot B got into the place thereof, where, being near the edge, it would, appear lefs than in the middle, ft hat A, fucceeding into the place of B, w’ould appear larger than it had done near the edge, and that another Ipot might come into the place of A } and there were other Ipots befides thefe three on the globe of the planet, as appears by the fi¬ gures of Bianchini himfelf, particularly one which would naturally come in the place of A. I hat if the rotation of Venus be fuppefed to be in 23 hours, it will agree wdth Bianchini’s obfervations, as well as with thofe of his father 5 but that, on the other fuppofition, the latter muft be entirely rejedled as erroneous : and he concludes with telling us, that Venus had frequent¬ ly been obferved in the moft favourable times by Mr Maraldi and himfelf with excellent telefcopes of 80 and 100 feet focus, without their being able to fee any di- ftincf fpot upon her diik. “ Perhaps (fays Dr Long) thofe feen by Bianchini had difappeared, or the air in France was not clear enough $ which latl might be the reafon why his father could never fee thofe Ipots in France which he had obferved in Italy, even when he made ufe of the longeft telefcopes.” Neither of thelc aftronomers take notice of any indentings in the curve which divides the illuminated part from the dark in the- diik of Venus, though in fome view-s of that planet by Fontana and Ricciolus, the curve is indented } and it has from thence been concluded, that the furface of the planet is mountainous like that of the moon. This had alfo been fuppofed by Burratini, already mention¬ edand a late wuiter has obferved, that, “ when the air is in a good ftate for obfervation, mountains like thofe of the mocn may be obferved with a very power¬ ful telefcope.” # I49, Caffini, befides the difeovery of the fpots on the dilk-Caffini di£ of Venus by which he was enabled to’afcertain her re-covers her volution fftellitfe. 54 Apparent Motions of theHeaven- ly Bodies. . 15° Difcovered alfo by Mr ■Short. , . ASTRO volution °n an axis, had alfo a view of her fatellite or “ T’-n' ^ glVCS the following account • ft- D’ f u^ft 28th, at 15 minutes after four n the mornmg, looking at Venus with a telefcope of 34 teet, I law, at the diftance of one-third of her dia¬ meter eaftward a luminous appearance, of a lhape not VC de ine^ that feemed to have the fame phafe with enus, which was then gibbous on the weflern fide. J he diameter of this phenomenon was nearly equal to a louith part of the diameter of Venus. I obferved it attentively ror a quarter of an hour, and having left off looking at it for four or five minutes, I faw it no more: but day-light was then advanced. I had feen a like phenomenon which refembled the phafe of Venus Jan. 25th, A. D. 1672, from 52 minutes after fix in the morning to two minutes after feven, when the rightnefs of the twilight made it difappear. Venus t as then horned • and this phenomenon, the diameter whereof was nearly a fourth part of the diameter of r;i\rS u therxarme fhape* 11 was diftant on th° ’T hT, °f diameter of Planet, on the weflern fide. In thefe two obfervations, I was n d0’^t whether 11 was not a fatellite of Venus of fuch a confidence as not to be very well fitted to reflea the light ol the fun ; and which, in magnitude, bore near- v the fame proportion to Venus as the moon does to the earth, being at the fame diftance from the fun and the earth as Venus was, the phafes whereof it refem- blea. Notwithftanding all the pains I took in looking for it after thefe two obfervations, and at divers othc? times, in order to complete fo confiderable a difcoverv 1 was never able to fee it. I therefore fufpended my judgment of this phenomenon. If it fhould return of¬ ten there will be thefe two epochas, which, compared Wlt.h J°.their obfervations, may be of ufe to find out the periodical time of its return, if it can be reduced to any rule.” A fimilar obfervation was made by Mr Short on the 23d of Oaober 1740, about funrife. He ufed at this time a reflecting telefcope of about 16.5 inches, which magnified between 50 and 60 times, with which he perceived a fmall ftar at about 1 o' diftance from Ve¬ nus, as meafured by the micrometer; and, putting on a magnifying power of 240 times, he found the ftar put on the fame appearance with the planet herfelf. Its diameter was fomewhat lefs than a third of that of the primary, but its light was lefs vivid, though ex¬ ceedingly (harp and well defined. The fame appear¬ ance continued with a magnifying power of 140 times. A line, palling through the centre of Venus and it made an angle of 18 or 20 degrees with the Equator : he faw it feveral times that morning for about thefpace' of an hour, after which he loft fight of it, and could never find it again. From this time the fatellite of Venus, though very frequently looked for by aftronomers, could never be perceived, which made it generally believed that Cafli- m and Mr Snort had been miftaken ; but as the tran- iits of the planet over the fun in 1761 and 1760 feem¬ ed to promife a greater certainty of finding it, the fa- telhte was very carefully looked for by almoft every one who had an opportunity of feeing the tranfit, but generally without fuccefs. Mr Baudouin at Paris had provided a telefcope of 25 feet, in order to obffrve the paffage of the planet over the fun, and to look for its T in O M \. part jp fatelhte ; but he did not fucceed either at that time or Apparent' - the months of April and May following. Mr Mon- Motions of aigne, however, one of the members of the Society 0fthefIeaven- Limoges, had better fuccefs. On the 2d of Mav frfodies- 176!, he perceived, about half an hour after nine at * mght, at the diftance of 20' from Venus a fmall cref c 151 cent with the horns poin,^ the fj’ ^ S of the planet; the diameter of the former being about « the tfan- one-fourth of that of the latter; and a line drawn fromfltin \enus to the fatellite making an angle with the verti- ca! of about 20° towards the fouth. But though he repeated this obfervation feveral times, feme doubt re roamed whether it was not a fmall ftar. Next dav he law the fame ftar at the fame hour, diftant from Venus about ha-f a minute, or a minute more than before and making with the vertical an angle of io° below on the north fide ; fo that the fatellite feemed to have defenbed an arc of about 30°, whereof Venus was the centre and the radius 20'. The two following nights were hazy, fo that Venus could only be feen - but on the 7th of May, at the fame hou/as before,’ L faw e latdhte again above Venus, and on the north fide at the diftance of 25' or 26' upon a line which made an angle of about 4 5° with the vertical towards the right 1 af • ' 1 i e hght °f the fatellite was always very weak mt it had the fame phafes with its primary, whether byftfei/08?] h ^ thC field °f his ^lefc°Pe or nffird * 1 • a telefr°Pe was r‘me fret long, and mag¬ nified an objeft between 40 and 50 times, but had no micrometer; fo that the diftances above-mentioned are only from ellimation. Fig. 27. reprefents the three obfervations of Mr Mon- Vi the planet Ve™si ZN the vertical. wfth ? r \° ecllPtlc’ making them an angle th the vertical of 450 ; the numbers 3, 4 7 mark the fituations of the fatellite on the relpedive days from the figure it appears that the points 2 and 7 would have been diametrically oppofite, had the fatel- lite gone 15® more round the point V at the laft obfer¬ vation ; lo that m four days it went through irc° I hen as 155° is to four days or 96 hours, fo is 360 to a fourth number, which gives 9 days 7 hours for ™.e Zh°\C ^ngth °f the fyn°dical revolution. Hence Mr Baudouin concluded, that the diftance of this fa- telhte was about 60 of the femidiameters of Venus irom its furface ; that its orbit cut the ecliptic nearly at right angles ; had its afeending node in 220 of Vir¬ go ; and was in its greateft northern digreflion on the 7th at nine at night; and he fuppofed that at the tran¬ fit at the primary the fatellite would be feen accompa¬ nying it. By a fubfequent obfervation, however, on the 11™ of May, he correaed his calculation of the periodical time of the fatellite, which he now enlarged to 1 2 days ; in confequence of which he found that it would not pafs over the difk of the fun along with its primary, but go at the diftance of above 20'from his outhern limb ; though if the time of its revolution mould be 15 hours longer than 12 days, it might then paft over the fun after Venus was gone off. He ima- WhftL • gmed the reafon why tins fatellite was fo difficult toktellite is be oblerved might.be, that one part of its globe was ^ difficult crufted over with fpots, or otherwife unfit to reflect t0 be feen* the light of the fun. _ By comparing the periodical time of this fatellite with that of our moon, he com¬ puted the quantity of matter in Venus to be nearly equal Part IT. ASTRONOMY. 55 Apparent equal to tliat in our eartli ; in which cafe it muft have Motions of eonfiderable influence in changing the obliquity of the 'lyBodieT? ecliptic, the latitudes and longitudes of liars, &c. v — > It is now known that this fuppofed fatellite of Cafli- ni was merely an optical deception. IS3 In the Philofophical Tranfaclions for 1761, Mr Hirft tions^con gives an account of his having obferved an atmofphere cerning the round the planet Venus. The obfervations were made atmofphere at Fort St George; and looking attentively at that of Venus. part 0f fun’s where he expedted the planet ■would enter, he plainly perceived a faint (hade or pe¬ numbra ; on which he called out to his two afliftants, “ ’Tis a coming !” and two or three feconds after, the firft external contadl took place, in the moment where¬ of all the three agreed ; but he could not fee the pe¬ numbra after the egrefs : and of the other two gentle¬ men, one had gone home, and the other loft the pla¬ net out of the field of his telefcope. Mr Dunn at Chel- fea faw a penumbra, or finall diminution of light, that grew darker and darker for about five feconds before the internal contadl preceding the egrefs ; from wdience he determines that Venus is furrounded with an atmo¬ fphere of about 50 geographical miles high. His ob¬ fervations, he tells us, were made with an excellent fix-feet Newtonian refledlor, with a magnifying power of 1 10, and of 220 times : he had a clear dark glafs next has eye, and the fun’s limb appeared well defin¬ ed ; but a very narrow waterilh penumbra appeared round Venus. The darkeft part of the planet’s phafis was at the diftance of about a fixth part of her diame¬ ter from its edge ; from which an imperfedl light in- creafed to the centre, and illuminated round about. In the northern parts of Europe this penumbra could not be feen. Mr Wargentin, who communica¬ ted feveral obfervations of the firft external contadf, fays, that he could not mark the time exadlly, be- caufe of the undulation of the limb of the fun ; but thought it very remarkable that, at the egrefs, the limb of Venus that was gone oflf the fun Ihowed itfelf with a faint light during almort the whole time of emerfion. Mr Bergman, who was then at the obfer- vatory at Upfal, begins his account at the time when three-fourths of the difk of the planet was entered up¬ on that of the fun ; and he fays, that the part which was not come upon the fun was vifible, though dark, and furrounded by a crefcent of faint light, as in fig. 28.: but this appearance was much more remarkable at the egrefs ; for as foon as any part of the planet was got off the fun, that part was vifible with a like crefcent, but brighter, fig. 29. As more of the planetary dilk >vent off that of the fun, however, that part of the crefcent which was fartheft from the fun grew fainter, and vaniflied, until at laft only the horns could be feen, as in fig. 30. The total ingrefs was not inftanta- neous: but, as two drops of wTater, when about to part, form a ligament between them ; fo there was a dark fwelling ftretched out between Venus and the fun, as in fig. 31. ; and when this ligament broke, the planet appeared to have got about an eighth part of her diameter from the neareft limb of the fun, fig. 32.: he faw the like appearance at going off, but not fo di- ftimft, fig. 33. Mr Chappe likewife took notice, that the part of Venus which was not upon the fun was vi¬ fible during part of the time of ingrefs and egrefs ; that it was farther furrounded by a fmaU luminous ring of a deep yellow near the place that appeared in Apparent^ the form of a crefcent, which was much brighter at Motions of the going off than coming upon the fun ; and that, du- Bodies, ring the whole time the difk of Venus was upon the l fun, he faw nothing of it. The time of total ingrefs was inftantaneous like a flaflr of lightning ; but at the egrefs the limb of the fun began to be obfcured three feconds before the interior contact. Some of the French aftronomers attributed this luminous ring round Venus to the inflexion of the fun’s r^ys, as they alfo do the light ieen round the moon in folar eclipfes ; but Mr Chappe fuppofes it to have been owing to the fun enlightening more than one half of the planetary globe, though he owns this caufe not to be altogether fuftr- cient. Mr Fouchy, who obferved the tranfit at La Muette in France, peixeived, during the whole time, a kind of ring round Venus, brighter than the reft of the fun, which became fainter the farther it went from the planet, but appeared more vivid in proportion as the fun was clearer. Mr Ferner, who obferved at the fame place, confirms the teftimony of Mr Fouchy. “ During the whole time (fays he) of my obferving with the telefcope, and the blue and green glaffes, I perceived a light round about Venus, wdiich followed her like a luminous atmofphere more or lefs lively, ac¬ cording as the air was more or lefs clear. Its extent altered in the fame manner ; nor was it well termi¬ nated, throwing out, as it were, fome feeble rays on all Tides.” 154 “ I am not clear (fays Dr Long) as to the mean-^r Fong’s, ing of the luminous circle here mentioned ; whether, when the whole planet was upon the fun, they faw a vations, ring of light round it, diftind! from the light of the fun ; or whether they mean only the light which fur¬ rounded that part of Venus that w^as not upon the fun.” Mr Chappe takes this and other accounts of the obfervations made in France in this latter fenfe ; and though he fometimes called the luminous part of the crefcent that furrounded the part of the planet not upon the fun a ring, he explains himfelf that he did fo, becaufe at the coming upon the fun he perceived it at one fide of the planet, and on the oppofite fide on its going off: for which reafon he fuppofed that it furrounded it on all fides. See fig. 34, 35. Sect. III. Of Mars. The two planets which wre have juft defcribed, ap¬ pear to accompany the fun like fatellites,. and their • • mean motion round the earth is the fame with that lu¬ minary. The remaining planets go to all the poffible angular diftances from the fun. But their motions ' have obvioufly a connedlion with the fun’s pofition. Mars is of a red fiery colour, and always gives a much duller light than Venus, though fometimes he equals her in fizc. He is not fubjedl to the fame li¬ mitation in his motions as Mercury or Venus ; but ap¬ pears fometimes very near the fun, and fometimes at a great diftance from him ; fometimes rifing when the fun fets, or fetting when he riles. Of this planet it is- remarkable, that when he approaches any of the fix¬ ed ftars, which all the planets frequently do, theie ftars change their colour, grow dim, and often be¬ come totally invifible, though at fome little diftance from the body of the planet : but Dr Herfchel thinks this has been exaggerated by former aftronomers. Mars- S6 A S T R Apparent Mars appears to move from rvefl to eaft round the tht'll -avctf eart^- mean duration of his fidereal revolution ly bodies. ^^^'979579 days. His motion is very unequal, w—When we begin to perceive this planet in the morn¬ ing when he begins to feparate from the fun, his mo¬ tion is direft and the moll rapid poflible. This rapi¬ dity diminilhes gradually, and the motion ceafes alto¬ gether when the planet is about diftant from the fun $ then his motion becomes retrograde, and increa- fes in rapidity till he comes into oppofition with the fun. It then gradually diminilhes again, and becomes nothing when Mars approaches within 137° of the fun. Then the motion becomes direct after having been re¬ trograde for 73 days, during which interval the pla¬ net defcribed an arch of about 160. Continuing to approach the fun, the planet at laft is loft in the even¬ ing in the rays of that luminary. All thefe different phenomena are renewed after every oppofition of Mars; but there are confiderable differences both in the ex¬ tent and duration of his retrogradations. Mars does not move exactly in the plane of the ecliptic, but deviates from it feveral degrees. His ap¬ parent diameter varies exceedingly. His mean appa¬ rent diameter is 27", and it increafes fo much, that when the planet is in oppofition, the apparent diame¬ ter is 81". Then the parallax of Mars becomes fenfi- ble, and about double that of the fun. The dilk of Mars changes its form relatively to its pofition with regard'to the fun, and becomes oval. Its phafes ftiew that it derives its light from that lumi¬ nary. The fpots obferved on its furface have inform¬ ed aftronomers that it moves-round its axis from weft .to eaft in 1.02733 days, and its axis is inclined to the ecliptic at an angle of about 59.7°. Spots when They were firlt obferved in 1666 by Caflini at Bo- firft feen on logna with a telefcope of Campani about 16^ feet long ; and continuing to obferve them for a month, he found they came into the fame fituation in 24 hours and 40 minutes. The planet -was obferved by fome aftronomers at Rome with longer telefcopes made by Euftachio Divini; but they afligned to it a rotation in 13 hours only. This, however, was afterwards fnown by Mr Caflini to have been a miftake, and to have arifen from their not diftinguilhing the oppofite fides of the planet, -which it feems have fpots pretty much alike. He made further obfervations on the fpots of this planet in 1670 ; from whence he drew an additional confirmation of the time the planet took to revolve. The fpots were again obferved in fubfequent oppofitions ; particularly for feveral days in 1704 by Maraldi, who took notice that they were not always well defined, and that they not only changed their fhape frequently in the fpace between two oppofitions, but even in the fpace of a month. Some of them, * however, continued of the fame form long enough to afcertain the time of the planet’s revolution. Among thefe there appeared this year an oblong fpot, refem- bling one of the belts of Jupiter when broken. Tt did not reach quite round the body of the planet ; but had, not far from the middle of it, a fmall protuberance to¬ wards the north, fo well defined that he w7as thereby enabled to fettle the period of its revolution at 24 hours 39 minutes ; only one minute lefs than what Caflini had determined it to be. See fig. 45. The near approach of Mars to the earth in 1719, O N O M Y. Part II. gave a much better opportunity of viewing him than Apparent had been obtained before : as he was then within 2±° ^ic>Uoris °f of his perihelion, and at the fame time the oppofition jy p^eT" to the fun. His apparent magnitude and brightnefs were thus fo much increafed, that he w as by the vul¬ gar taken for a new’ ftar. His appearance at that time, as feen by Maraldi through a telefcope of 34 feet long, is reprefented fig. 37. There was then a long belt that reached half w-ay round, to the end of which ano¬ ther fhorter belt was joined, forming an obtufe angle with the former, as in fig. 38. This angular point wras obferved on the 19th and 20th of Auguft, at 11 hours 15 minutes, a little eaft of the middle of the dilk ; and 37 days after, on the 25th and 26th of Sep¬ tember, returned to the fame fituation.. This interval, divided by 36, the number of revolutions contained in it gives 24 hours 40 minutes for the period of one re¬ volution ; w-hich wras verified by another fpot of a tri¬ angular ihape, one angle whereof .was towards the north pole, and the bafe towards the fouth, which on the 5th and 6th of Auguft appeared as in fig. 39. and after 72 revolutions returned to the fame fituation on the 16th and 17th of Oftober. The appearances of Mars, as delineated by Mr Hook, when viewed through a 36 feet telefcope, are reprefented fig. 40. He appeared through this inftrument as big as the full moon. Some of the belts of this planet are faid to be parallel to his equator; but that feen by Maraldi was very much inclined to it. z -5 Befides thefe dark fpots, former aftronomers took Blight notice that a fegment of his globe about the fouth pole fy°ts al>out exceeded the reft of his dilk fo much in brightnefs, P°1£S ul that it appeared beyond them as if it were the fegment of a larger globe. Maraldi informs us, that this bright fpot had been taken notice of for 60 years, and w?as more permanent than the other fpots on the planet. One part of it is brighter than the reft, and the leaft bright part is fubjeft to great changes, and has fome- times difappeared. A fimilar brightnefs about the north pole of Mars was alfo fometimes obferved ; and thefe obfervations are now confirmed by Dr Herfchel, who has viewed the planet with much better inftruments, and much higher magnifying pow-ers, than any other aftrcnomer x ^ ever was in poffeffion of. His obfervations w-ere madeBrHcr- with a view to determine the figure of the planet, the Abel’s ac- pofition of his axis, &c. A very particular account c.oullt ?f of them is given in the 74th volume of the Philofophi-116 e ‘'30t'’ cal Tranfa61ions, but which our limits wdll not allow us to infert. Tig. 41 to 64. Ihowthe particular appear¬ ances of Mars, as viewed on the days there marked. The magnifying powers he ufed were fometimes as high as 932 ; and with this the fouth polar fpot was found to be in diameter 4I'". Fig. 65 lhow7s the connexion of the other figures marked 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61,62, which complete the udiole equatorial fucceflion of fpots on the dilk of the planet. The centre of the circle marked 57 is placed on the circumference of the inner circle, by making its diftance from the circle marked c9 anfwer to the interval of time betw'een the two ob¬ fervations, properly calculated and reduced to fideieal meafure. The fame is done with regard to the circles marked 58, 59, &.c. and it will be found by placing any one of thefe connedled circles in fuch a manner as to have its contents in a fimilar fituation with the fi¬ gures Fart II. ASTRO Apparent gures in the fmgle reprefentation, which bears the Motions of fame number, that there is a fufficient refemblance be- thelleayen-tween tpiem . though fome allowance muft undoubted- iy ^ ma(je for the diftortions occahoned by this kind 3 of projeftion. Caufes of With regard to the bright fpots themfelves, Dr Her- tbe appear- fchel informs us, that the poles of the planets are not ance and cxa&ly 'm the middle of them, though nearly fo.^ ^nce of,ar" <4 From the appearance and difappearance (fays he) of thefe fpots, the bright north polar fpot in the year 1781, we^ col¬ lect that the circle of its motion was at fome conhder- able diftance from the pole. By calculation, its lati¬ tude muft have been about 76 or 77° J ^ov that, to the inhabitants of Mars, the declination of the fun, June 25th, 12 h. 15 m. of our time was about 90 56' fouth $ and the fpot muft have been fo far removed from the north pole as to fall a few degrees within the enlightened part of the difk to become vifible to us. The fouth pole of Mars could not be many degrees from the centre of the large bright fouthern fpot of the year 1781 j though this fpot was of fuch a magnitude as to cover all the polar regions farther than the 70th or 65th degree ; and in that part which was on the meridian, July 3d, at 10 h. 54 minutes, perhaps a lit¬ tle farther. “ From the appearances of the fouth polar fpot in 1781, we may conclude that its centre was nearly po¬ lar. We find it continued vifible all the time Mars revolved on his axis j and to prefent us generally with a pretty equal (hare of the luminous appearance, a ipot which covered from 450 to 6o° of a great circle T59 on the globe of the planet, could not have any confi- Of the ex- derable polar diftance. From the obfervations and act pofuion calculations made concerning the poles of Mars, we j-vp P°leS may conclude, that his north pole muft be directed to- »* wards forae point of the heavens, between 9® 24® 35' and o’ 70 15'} becaufe the change of the fituation of the pole from left to right, which happened in the time the planet palfed from one place to the other, is a plain indication of its having gone through the node of its axis. Next, we may alfo conclude, that the node muft be confiderably nearer the latter point of the ecliptic than the former j for, whatever be the inclination of the axis, it will be feen under equal angles at equal diftances from the node. But by a trigono¬ metrical procefs of folving a few triangles, we foon dif- covered both the inclination of the axis, and the place where it interfeas the ecliptic at reaangles (which, for want of a better term, 1 have perhaps improperly call¬ ed its node.) Accordingly I find by calculation, that the node is in 170 47' of Pifces, the north pole of Mars being direaed towards that part of the heavens •, and that the inclination of the axis to the ecliptic is 590 40'. By further calculations we find that the pole of Mars on the 17th of April 1777, was then aaually 81° 27'inclined to the ecliptic, and pointed towards the left as feen from the fun. “ The inclination and fituation of the node of tv axis of Mars, with refpea to the ecliptic, being found, may be thus reduced to the orbit of the planet him- felf. Let EC (fig. 66.) be a part of the ecliptic, OM part of the orbit of Mars, PEO a line drawn from P, the celeftial pole of Mars, through E, that point which has been determined to be the place of Vol. III. Part I. N O M Y. 57 the node of the axis of Mars in the._ ecliptic, and con- Apparent^ tinned to O, where it interfe&s his orbit. Now, theHeaven. according to M. de la Lande, we put the node ot the orbit of Mars for 1783 in Is 17° 58k we have from the place of the node of the axis, that is, 11s 17° 47' to the place of the node of the orbit, an arch EN of 6o° n'. In the triangle NEO, right-angled at E, there is alfo given the angle ENO, according to the fame author, x° fl', wdiich is the inclination ot the orbit of Mars to the ecliptic. Hence we find the angle EON 89° 5', and the fide_ ON 6o° 12'. A- gain, when Mars is in the node of its orbit N, wre have by calculation the angle PNF.rr63° 7; > to which adding the angle ENO=l° 51', we have PNOre 64° 58': from which two angles, PON and PNO, with the diftance ON, we obtain the inclination of the axis of Mars, and place of its node with refpeft to its own orbit; the inclination being 6i° l8', and the place of the node of the axis 58° 31' preceding the in- terfeflion of the ecliptic with the orbit of Mars, or in our 190 28'of Pifces.” r 160 Our author next proceeds to (how how the feamns Of the Tea- in this planet may be calculated, &c. Which con-^s m jeftures, though they belong properly to the next lec-"'a* ' tion, yet are lo much connedled with what has gone before, that we ihall infert here what he fays upon the fubje£h “ Being thus acquainted with what the inhabitants of Mars will call the obliquity of their ecliptic, and the fituation of their equinodtial and folftitial points, wre are furnhhed with the means ot calculating the tea- fons on that planet, and may account, in a manner which I think highly probable, for the remarkable ap¬ pearance about its polar regions. “ But firft, it may not be improper to give an in- ftance how to refolve any query concerning the Mar¬ tial feafons. Thus, let it be required to compute the declination of the fun on Mars, June 23. 1781, at midnight of our time. If qr, » D , S5, &c. (fig. 67.) reprefent the ecliptic of Mars, and T S3 =£> vy the ecliptic of our planet, Aa, the mutual interfe&ion of the Martial and terreftrial ecliptics, then there is given the heliocentric longitude of Mars, tn m: 9s io° 30'; then taking away fix figns, and b ot W a zz 1* 170 58', there remains b mzz i* 22u 32'. From this arch,' with the given inclination^ i° 51' oi: the orbits to each other, we have cofine of inclination to radius, as tangent of bm to tangent of BM = Is 220 33'. And taking away B ^ ~ I3 i'J 29', which is‘the complement to Vj? B (or ss A, already fhown to be Is 28° 31'), there will remain qp M ~ o® 21° 4', the place of Mars in its own orbit; that is, on the time above mentioned, the fun’s longitude on Mars will be 6® 21® 4'; and the obliquity of the Martial ecliptic, 28° 42', being alfo given, we find, by the ufual method, the fun’s declination 90 56' fouth. . 161 “ The analogy between Mars and the earth is per-Confider- haps by far the greateft in the whole folar fyftera. ajde refem. Their diurnal motion is nearly the fame ; the obliqui-J^*^' ty of their refpedlive ecliptics not very different: ofearth and all the fuperior planets, the diftance of Mars from the Mars, fun is by far the neareft alike to that of the earth; nor will the length of the Martial year appear very H different 58 ASTRONOM 163 Of the MononTof ^^crent i"rom w^at TVe enjoy, when compared to the theHeaven- urp”finS duration of the years of Jupiter, Saturn, ly Bodies. and the Georgium Sidus. If then we find that the — globe we inhabit has its polar region frozen and co- vered with mountains of ice and fhow that only part- abouteth?tSly meIt wlle.n alterniltely expofed to the fun, I may poles of ell be permitted to lurmile, that the fame caufes may Mars, f«p- probably have the fame effeft on the globe of Mars • pofed to be that the bright polar fpots are owing to the vivid re- £y?aowed defjion of light from frozen regions 5 and that the re- du&ion of thofe fpots is to be afcribed to their being expofed to the fitn. In the year 1781, the fouth po¬ lar fpot was extremely large, which we might well expeft, as that pole had but lately been involved in a whole twelvemonth’s darknefs and abfence of the fun • but in 1783, I found it confiderably fmaller than be¬ fore, and it decreafed continually from the 20th of May till about the middle of September, when it feem- ed to be at a Hand. During this lalt period the fouth pole had already been above eight months enjoying the benefit of fummer, and Hill continued to receive the fun-beams, though, towards the latter end, in fuch an oblique dire&ion as to be but little benefited by them. On the other hand, in the year 1781, the north polar fpot, which had then been its twelvemonth in the fun- fhine, and was but lately returning into darknefs, ap¬ peared final], though undoubtedly increafing in lize. Its not being vifible in the year 1783, is no objeftion to thefe phenomena, being owing to the pofition of the axis, by which it was removed out of fight. . , , “ That a planetary globe, fuch as Mars, turning on an a.xis’ ^ °(1CJk a fecond meafure it was 22" 31'", full large ; the polar diameter, very exact, was 21" 26,,/. On the firlt of October, at xoh. 50m. the equatorial diameter mealured 103 by the micrometer, and the polar 98 j the value of the divifions in feconds and thirds not being well determined, on account of fome changes lately made in the focal length of the objedt metals of the tele- fcope. On the 13th, the equatorial diameter w'as ex¬ actly 22" 35'" : the poiar diameter 21" 35"''.” In a great numoer of fucceeding obfervations, the fame ap¬ pearance occurred; but on account of the quick changes in the appearance df this planet, Dr Heri’chel thought proper to fettle the proportion betwixt the equatorial and polar diameters from thofe which were made on the very day of the appofition, and which wTere alfo to be preferred on account of their being re¬ peated with a very high power, and in a fine clear air, with two different inftruments of an excellent quality, from thefe he determined the proportions to be as 103 to 98, or 1355 to 1272. It has been commonly related by aftronomers, that of the^at- the atmofphere of this planet is poffeffed of fuch Itrong mofphere refraftive powers, as to render the fmall fixed ftars°f Mars, near which its paffes invifible. Dr Smith relates an ob- fervation of Caffini, where a ftar in the water of Aqua¬ rius, at the diftance of fix minutes from the difk of Mars, became fo faint before its occultation, that it could not be feen by the naked eye, nor with a three feet telefcope. This would indicate an atmofphere of a very extraordinary fize and denfity : but the follow¬ ing obfervations of Dr Herfchel feem to fhow that it is of much fmaller dimenfions. “ 1783, 061. 26th. '1 here are two fmall liars preceding Mars, of different fizes ; with 460 they appear both dulky red, and are pretty unequal; with 218 they appear confiderably unequal. The diftance from Mars of the neareft, which is alfo the largeft, with 227 meafured 3' 2G1' 20"'. Some time after, the fame evening, the diftance was 3' 8,/ 55"', Mars being retrograde. Both of them were feen very diilinclly. They were viewed with a new 20 feet refle£lor, and appeared very bright. Oc¬ tober 27th, the fmall ftar is not quite fo bright in pro¬ portion to the large one as it was laft night, being a good deal nearer to Mars, which is now on the fide of the fmall ftar ; but when the planet was drawn afide, or out of view, it appeared as plainly as ufual. The di¬ ftance of the fmall ftar was 2' 5" 27'". The largeft of the two liars (adds he), on which the above obfer¬ vations were made, cannot exceed the 12th, and the fmallefl the 13th or 14th magnitude ; and I have no reafon to fuppofe that they were any otherwife affefled by the approach of Mars, than what the brightnefs of its fuperior light may account for. From other pheno- '.ena it appears, however, that this planet is not with¬ out a confiderable atmofphere ; for befides the perma¬ nent fpots on its furface, I have often noticed occafion- al changes of partial bright belts, and alfo once a dark- ilh one in a pretty high latitude ; and thefe alterations we can hardly aferibe to any other caufe than the va¬ riable difpofition of clouds and vapours floating in the atmofphere of the planet.” Sect. Part II. Apparent Motions of theHeaven- ly Bodies. A S T R Sect. IV. Of'Jupiter. Jupiter is the brighteft of all the planets except Venus. He moves from weft to eaft in a period of 4332.6°22o8 days, exhibiting irregularities fimilar to thole of Mars. Before he comes into oppolition, and when diftant from the fun about 115°, his motion be¬ comes retrograde, and increafes in fwiftnefs till he comes into oppofition. The motion then becomes gradually flower, and becomes direct when the planet advances within 1150 of the fun. The duration of the retrograde motion is about 121 days, and the arch of retrogradation deferibed is about io°. But there is a confiderable difference both in the amount t66 and in the duration of this retrograde motion. Bdfts of Ju- Jupiter has the fame general appearance with Mars, fidt diilo" onty ^at the belts on his furface are much larger and v that the ring, be¬ ing commonly viewed at an oblique angle, appears of an oval form, and through very good telefcopes double as reprefented fig. 73- and 74. Both the outward and inward rim is projefted into an ellipfis, more or lets oblong according to the different degrees of obli¬ quity with which it is viewed. Sometimes our eye is in the plane of the ring, and then it becomes invifible | either becaufe the outward edge is not fitted to retied: the fun’s light, or more probably becaufe it is too thin to be feen at fuch a diftance. As the^ plane of this rino-keeps always parallel to itfelf, that is, its fituation in one part of the orbit is always parallel to that in any other part, it difappears twice in every revolution or the planet, that is, about once in 15 years j and be fome- times appears quite round for nine months together. At other times, the diftance betwixt the body of the planet and the ring is very perceptible mfomuch that Mr Whifton tells us of Dr Clarke’s father having feen a ftar through the opening, and^ fuppofed him to have been the only perfon who ever faw a fight fo rare, as the opening, though certainly very large, appears very finall to us. When Saturn appears round, if our eye be in the plane of the ring, it will appear as a dark line acrofs the middle of the planet’s difk j and it our eye be elevated above the plane of the ring, a lhadowy belt will be vifible, caufed by the fhadow of the ring as well as by the interpofition of part of it betwixt the eye and the planet. The ftiadow of the ring is bioad- eft when the fun is moft elevated, but its obfeure parts appear broadeft when our eye is moft elevated above 6l the plane of it. When it appears double the ring next the body of the planet appears bnghteft^hen tiieHeaven- the rine appears of an elliptical form, the parts abqut ly Bodies. the ends of the largeft axis are called the anfie, as has v > been already mentioned. Thefe, a little before and after the difappearing of the ring, are of unequal mag¬ nitude : the largeft anfa is longer vifible before the pla- lSo net’s round phafe, and appears again fooner than theRlngofSa- other. On the firll of Oftober ,7.+, the largeft anfa Mrn pro. ^ was on the eaft fide, and on the 12th on the weft Me ^ was on me can nuc^, _ , . . , revon of the difk of the planet, which makes it probable tbaton its the ring has a rotation round an axis. Herichel has demonftrated, that it revolves, in its own plane m l O hours 32' is4"* The obfervations of this philolopner have added greatly to our knowledge of Saturn’s ring. According to him there is one ftngle, dark, confidera- bly broad line, belt, or zone, which he has conftant- ly found on the north fide of the ring. _ As this dark belt is fubjeft to no change whatever, it is probably owing to iotne permanent conftruction of the Surface of the ring : this conftruaion cannot be owing to the iha- dow of a chain of mountains, fince it is vifible all round on the ring j for therevcould be no fliade at the ends of the ring : a fimilar argument will apply agauw the opinion of very extended caverns. It is pretty evident that this dark zone is contained between two concentric circles 5 for all the phenomena correfpond with the proieaion of fuch a zone. The nature of the ring; Dr Herfchel thinks no lefs fohd than that of Sa¬ turn itfelf, and it is obferved to caft a ftrong ffadow upon the planet. The light of the ring is alfo ge¬ nerally brighter than that of the planet j for the ring appears fufficiently bright when the telefcope affords fcarcely light enough for Saturn. The dodor con¬ cludes that the edge of the ring is not flat, but fpheri- cal or i'pheroidical. The dimenfions of the ring, or of the two rings with the fpace between them, Dr Her¬ fchel gives as below : M;]es_ Inner diameter of fmaller ring I46345 Outfide diam. of ditto i84393 Inner diam. of larger ring I9°^S Outfide diam. of ditto 204883 Breadth of the inner ring 20000 Breadth of the outer ring 7200 Breadth of the vacant fpace, or dark zone . 2o39 There have been various conjeaures relative to the nature of this ring. Some perfons have ima¬ gined that the diameter of the planet Saturn was once equal to the prefent diameter of the outer ring,, and that it was hollow; the prefent body being con¬ tained within the former furface, in like manner as a kernel is contained within its ffell: they fuppofe that, in confequence of fome concuffion,, or other caufe he the outer (hell all fell down to the inner body, and left, only the ring at the greater diftance from the centre,, as we now perceive it. This conjecture rs m fome meafure corroborated by tbe confideration, that both the planet and its ring perform their rotations about the fame common axis, and in very nearly the fame time. But from the obfervations of Dr Heifchel, he thus concludes: “ It does not appear to me that there is fufficient ground for admitting the ring of Saturn to be of a very changeable nature, and I gueft that it* phenomena will hereafter be fo fully explained, asto. axis £>2 A S T R O N o thellcuven ly Bodies. i8r His feven iateliites. In the meanwhile we muft a nnai judgment of its conlfrudion, till w e can have more obfervation*. Its divifion, however into two very unequal parts, can admit of no doubt.” . 1 hc diameters of Saturn are not equal : that which is perpendicular to the plane of his ring appears lefs Jby one-eleventh than the diameter fituated in that plane. H we compare this form with that of Jupiter, we have reaion to conclude that Saturn turns rapidly round his loner axis^ and that the ring moves in the plane of his equaton Herfchel has confirmed this opinion by adual obferyation. He has afcertained the duration of a re¬ volution of Saturn round his axis to amount to 0.428 day Huygens obferved five belts upon this planet nearly parallel to the equator. Saturn is Hill better attended than Jupiter (fee fijr. 18 and 186.) j having, befides the ring above-mentioned’ no fewer than fcven moons continually circulating round him. 1 he firft, at the diftance of 2.097 femidiameters of his img,_ and 4.893 of the planet itfelf, performs its revolution in I d. 21 h 18' 57" j the fecond, at 2.686 iem,diameters of the ring, and 6.268 of Saturn re¬ volves in 2 d. I7 h 41' 22"; the third, at the di- itance ot 8.754 femidiameters of Saturn, and of the ring, m 4 d. 12 h. 25' 12"; the fourth, 'called .e Huygeman Satellite, at 8.698 femidiameters of the ring, and 20.295 Saturn, revolves in 15 d. 22 h. ui' X2' ; while the fifth, placed at the valt diftance of 59.154 lemidiameters of Saturn, or 25.348 of his ring, does not perform its revolution in lefs than 79 d. 7 h. 47 O-. . I he orbits of all thefe fatellites, except the fifth are nearly in the fame plane, which makes an angle with the plane of Saturn’s orbit of about at0- and by reafon of their being inclined at fuch larg-e’ angles, they cannot pafs either acrofs their primary or behind it with refpea to the earth, except when very near their nodes; fo that eclipfes of them happen much more feldom than of the fatellites of Jupiter. There is, however, an account in the Philof. TranfaA. of an occultation of the fourth fatellite behind the body of oaturn ; and there is a curious account by Caflini in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy for 1692, of a fixed liar being covered by the fourth fatellite, fo that for 13 minutes they appeared both as one ftar. fometimes ^f011 °f w" fraallnefs> thefe fatellites cannot difappears, ^ ^ u"le{s the air be ver7 clear; and Dorn. Caflini •and why. f°r leverai years obferved the fifth fatellite to grow lefs and lefs as it went through the eaftern part of its or¬ bit until it became quite invifible ; while in the weftern part it gradually became more and more bright until it arrived at its greateft fplendor.—“This phenomenon Hays Hr Long) cannot be better accounted for than by luppofing one half the furface of this fatellite to be unfit to refleA the light of the fun in fufficient quantity to make it yifible, and that it turns round its axis nearly in the fame time as it revolves round its primary ; and that, by means of this rotation, and keeping always the fame face toward Saturn, we upon the earth may during one half of its periodical time be able to fee fucceflively more and more of its bright Me, and during th, other half of its period have mire and more of the fpotted or dark fide turned towards us. In the year 170J, this fatellite unexpefledly became rble 111 a11 Parts its orbit through the very fame M Y. Fart IL tdefcopes that were before often made ufc of to view it Apparent* le eaitern part without fuccefs : this fhows the fpots Modons of upon this fatelhte, like thofe upon Jupiter and fom>Heavcn. p,ane,s- *“ i he two other fatellites were difeovered by Dr Her¬ fchel in 1787 and 1788. They are nearer^ Saturn than any of the other five. But in order to prevent con- ThTcf hl h?rC b,eei\Called the 6th aild 7th fatellites. the fifth latelute has been obferved by Dr Herfchel to turn once round its axis, exaAly in the time in which L-mooT r°Und SatUrn‘ In this refI,ea tt refembles Sect. VI. Of Herfchel. 182 Fifth fa tellite Jhe planets Jntherto deferibed have been known aT™ antl.quUy 5 but the PIa»et Herfchel, called alfo the Georgium Sidus, and Uranus, efcaped the attention of the ancient aitronomers. Flamftead, Mayer, and Le h-oumer had obferved it as a fmall liar; but m 1781 Dr Herfchel difeovered its motion, and afcertained it to he a planet. Like Mars, TUpi- ter, and Saturn, it moves from weft to eaft round the lun. I he duration of its fidereal revolution is 30680 days.. Its motion, which is nearly in the plane of the ecliptic, begins to be retrograde before and after the oppofition, when the planet is 103.50 from the fun; ns retrograde motion continues for about 151 days- and the arc of retrogradation amounts to 3.6°. If we judge of the dillance of this planet by the flownefs of its motions, it ought to be at the verv confines of the planetary fyffem. The apparent magnitude of this planet is fo fmall Its that it can feldom be feen with the naked eye. It is^es accompanied by fix fatellites : two of them, which were diicovered by Dr HerfcVl in 1787, revolve about that planet in periods of 8 d. 17 h. 1 m. 19 fee. and 13 d. 11 h. 5 m. ij fee. refpeAively, the angular di- itances from the primary being 33" and 444"; their orbits are nearly perpendicular to the plane of the echptie I he hilfory of the difeovery of the other four with iuch elements as could then be afcertained are given in the Philofophical TranfaAions for .. rt L 1 he precife periods of thefe additional iatel- htes cannot be afcertained without a greater number of obiervations than had been made w’hcn Dr Herfchel lent the account of their difeovery to the Royal So- dety > but he gave the following eflimates as the moft probable which could be formed by means of the data then determined. Admitting the diftance of the in- tenor fatelhte to be zf.j, its periodical revolution will be y d. 21 h. 25 nr. If the intermediate fatellite be placed at an equal diftance betiveen the tw-o old fa- tellites, or at 38".57, its period will be 10 d. 23 h. 4 m. I he neareft exterior fatellite is about double the di- ftance of the fartheft old one 5 its periodical time will therefore be about 38 d. 1 h. 49 m. The moft diftant latelhte is full four times as far from the planet as the old feoond fatellite ; it will therefore take at leaft 107 d. 16 In 40 m. to complete one revolution. All theie fatellites perform their revolutions in their orbits contrary to the order of the figns ; that is, their real motion is retrograde. Sect. Part II. A Apparent Motions of theHcaven- ly Bodies. S T Sect. VII. Of Ceres and Id alias. R O N O M Y. Apparent These two planets, lately difcovered by Piazzi and Olbers, two foreign aftronomers, ought to have follow¬ ed Mars in the order of defcription, as their orbits are placed between thofe of Mars and Jupiter j but as they have been obferved only for a very Ihort time, we judged it more proper to referve the account of them till we came to the words Ceres and Pallas, when the elements of their orbits will in all probability be determined with more precifion than at prefent. They are invifible to the naked eye j and Dr Herfchcl has afcertained that their iize is extremely fmall. For that reafon, together with the great obliquity of their or¬ bits, he has propofed to diftinguifh them from the pla¬ nets, and to call them ajleroids. Chap. IV. Of the Comets, The planets are not the only moving bodies vifible in the heavens. There are others which appear at uncertain intervals, and with a very different afpett from the planets. Thefe are very numerous, and no fewer than 450 are fuppofed to belong to our folar fy- ffem. They are called Comets, from their having a long tail, fomewhat refembling the appearance of hair. This, however, is not always the cafe j for fome co¬ mets have appeared which were as well defined, and as round as planets : but in general they have a luminous matter diffufed around them, or prqjebling out from them, which to appearance very much refembles the Aurora Borealis. When thefe appear, they come in a diredl line towards the fun, as if they were going to fall into his body ; and after having difappeared for fome time in confequence of their proximity to that lu¬ minary, they llv off again on the other fide as fa ft as they came, projebling a tail much greater and brighter in their recefs from him than when they advanced to¬ wards him ; but, getting daily at a farther diftance from us in the heavens, they continually lofe of their fplendour, and at laft totally difappear. Their appa¬ rent magnitude is very different 5 foraetimes they ap¬ pear only of the bignefs of the fixed ftars } at other times they will equal the diameter of Venus, and fome- times even of the fun or moon. So, in 1652, Heve- lius obferved a comet which feemed not inferior to the moon in fize, though it had not fo bright a fplendour, but appeared with a pale and dim light, and had a dif- mal afpedf. Thefe bodies will alfo fometimes lofe their fplendour fuddenly, while their apparent bulk remains unaltered. With refpe£l to their apparent motions, they have all the inequalities of the planets; fome- times feeming to go forwards, fometimes backwards, and fometimes to be ftationary. The comets, viewed through a telefcope, have a very different appearance from any of the planets. The nucleus, or ftar, feems much more dim. Sturmius tells us, that obferving the comet of 1680 with a tele¬ fcope, it appeared like a coal dimly glownng 5 or a rude mafs of matter illuminated with a dufky fumid light, lefs fenfible at the extremes than in the middle ; and not at all like a ftar, which appears with a round dilk and a vivid light. Hevelius obferved of the comet in 1.661, that its 184 body was of a yellowifh colour, bright and confpicu- ous, but without any glittering light. In the middle ^ot“ms ot~ was a denfe ruddy nucleus, almoit equal to Jupiter, encompaffed with a much fainter thinner matter.— ' February 5th. The nucleus was fomewhat bigger and brighter, of a gold colour, but its light more dufky than the reft of the ftars j it appeared alfo divided in¬ to a number of parts.—Feb. 6th. The nuclei ftill ap¬ peared, though lefs than before. One of them on the left fide of the lower part of the difk appeared to be much denfer and brighter than the reft; its body round, and reprefenting a little lucid ftar; the nuclei ftil! encompaffed with another kind of matter.—Feb. 10th. The nuclei more obfcure and confufed, but brighter at top than at bottom.—Feb. 1 jth. The head dimi- nifhed much both in brightnefs and in magnitude.—. March 2d. Its roundnefs a little impaired, and the edges lacerated.—March 28th. Its matter much dif- perfed j and no diftincl nucleus at all appearing. Wiegelius, who faw through a tclefcope the comet of 1664, the moon, and a little cloud illuminated by the fun, at the fame time, obferved that the moon ap¬ peared of a continued luminous furface, but the comet very different, being perfectly like the little cloud en¬ lightened by the fun’s beams. The comets, too, are to appearance furrounded with Atmo? atmofpheres of a prodigious fize, often riling ten timesfi)lieres a51^ higher than the nucleus. They have often likewife P^ales °f dift’erent phafes, like the moon. cornleg^ “ The head of a comet (fays Dr Long) to the eye, Dr Long's unaftifted by glalfes, appears fometimes like a cloudy account of ftar j fometimes fhines wdth a dull light like that of t^em* the planet Saturn : fome comets have been faid to equal, fome to exceed, ftars of the firft magnitude ; fome to have furpaffed Jupiter, and even Venus j and to have call a ftiadow' as Venus fometimes does. “ The head of a comet, feen through a good tele¬ fcope, appears to confift of a folid globe, and an at- mofphere that furrounds it. The folid part is fre¬ quently called the nucleus ; tvhich through a telefcope is eafily diftinguiihed from the atmofphere or hairy ap¬ pearance. " . “ A comet is generally attended with a blaze or tail, whereby it is diftinguifhed from a ftar or planet •, as it is alfo by its motion. Sometimes the tail only of a comet has been vifible at a place where the head has been all the while under the horizon j fuch an appear¬ ance is called a beam. “ The nucleus of the comet of 1618 is faid, a few Appearaa*. days after coming into view, to have broken into three ces of or four parts of irregular figures. One obferver corn- comet of 1618. pares them to fo many burning coals 5 and fays they changed their fituation while he was looking at them, as wdren a perlon ftirs a fire ; and a few days after were broken into a great number of fmaller pieces. Another account of the fame is, that on the ift and 4th of De¬ cember, the nucleus appeared to be a round, folid, and luminous body, of a dulky lead colour, larger than any ftar of the firft magnitude. On the 8th of the fame month it was broken into three or four parts of irre¬ gular figures : and on the 20th was changed into a cluster of fmall ftars. As the tail of a comet is owung to the heat of the Phenome*; fun, it grows larger as the comet approaches near to. "a of their d tails. i3? 64 Apparent and fhortens as it recedes from, that luminary. Motions of the tail of a comet were to continue of the fame length, theHeayen--t appear longer or (hotter according to the dif- ,ly bodies. ^ £erent views 0f t^g fpe&ator j for if his eye be in a line drawn through the middle of the tail lengthwife, or nearly fo, the tail will not be diftinguifhed from the reft of the atmofphere, but the whole will appear round *, if the eye be a little out of that line, the tail will appear (hort as in fig. 75.5 and it is called a bearded comet when the tail hangs down towards the horizon, as in that figure. If the tail of a comet be viewed fidewife, the whole length of it is feen. It is obvious to remark, that the nearer the eye is to the tail, the greater will be the apparent length thereof. “ The tails of comets often appear bent, as in fig. 76. and 77. owing to the refiftance of the tether j w-hich, though extremely (mail, may have a fenfibie effect on fo thin a vapour as the tails confift of. This bending is feen only when the earth is not in the plane of the orbit of the comet continued. When that plane paffes through the eye of the fpe&ator, the tail appears ftraight, as in fig. 78, 79. “ Longomontanus mentions a comet, that, in 1618, Dec. 10th, had a tail above 100 degrees in length; which (hows that it muft then have been very near the earth. The tail of a comet will at the fame time ap¬ pear of different lengths in different places, according as the air in one place is clearer than in another. It need not be mentioned, that in the fame place, the dif¬ ference in the eyes of the fpe&ators will be the caufe of their diiagreeing in their eftimate of the length of 188 the tail of a comet. Difference “ Hevelius is very particular in telling us, that he between obferved the comet of 1665 to caft a ihadow upon the vationsof > for iu t^e thereof there appeared a dark Hevelius line. It is fomewhat furprifing, that Hooke fliould and Hooke, be pofitive in affirming, on the contrary, that the place where the ftiadow of the comet (hould have been, if there had been any ffiadow, was brighter than any other part of the tail. He was of opinion that comets have fome light of their own : His obfervations were made in a hurry *, he owns they were ffiort and tranfi- tory. Hevelius’s were made with fo much care, that there is more reafon to depend upon them. Dom. Caf- fini obferved, in the tail of the comet of 1680, a dark- nefs in the middle ; and the like was taken notice of by a curious obferver in that of 1744. 1S9 « There are three comets, viz. of 1680, 1744, ami the comet I759> th^ deferve to have a farther account given of of 1680. them. The comet of 1680 was remarkable for its near approach to the fun ; fo near, that in its perihe¬ lion it was not above a fixth part of the diameter of that luminary from the furface thereof, big. 77-. ta¬ ken from Newton’s Principia, reprefents fo much of the trajectory of this comet as it paffed through while it was vifible to the inhabitants of our earth, in going from and returning to its perihelion. It (hows alio the tail, as it appeared on the days mentioned in the figure. The tail, like that of other cornets, increafed in length and brightnefs as it came nearer to the (un ; and grew' (hotter and fainter as it went farther from him and from the earth, till that and the comet were too far off to be any longer vifible. * with an error of 2 degrees of longi¬ tude. 24. 33 Serpentis. This ftar was miffing in 1784$ nor could it be perceived with a night-glafs in 1785. 25. A ftar marked by Bayer near e Urfee majoris. This ftar could not be feen by Caffini ; nor was Mr Pigot able to difcover it with a night-glafs in 1782. 26. The or Ptolemy and Ulug Beigh’s 14th Ophi- uchi, or Flamftead’s 36th. Mr Pigot has no doubt that this is the ftar which is faid to have difappeared before the year 1695 ; and it is evident that it was not feen by Hevelius. In 1784 and 1785 Mr Pigot found it of the fourth or fifth magnitude j but he is far from being certain of its having undergone any change, efpe- cially as it has a fouthern declination of 26 degrees 5 for which reafon great attention muft be paid to the ftate of the atmofphere. 27. Ptolemy’s 13th and 18th Ophiuchi, fourth mag¬ nitude. Mr Pigot is of opinion that thefe ftars are mifplaced in the catalogues. The 18th of Ptolemy he thinks ought to be marked with a north latitude inftead of a fouth, which would make it agree nearly with Flamftead’s 58th j and he is alfo of opinion that the 13th of Ptolemy is the 40th of Flamftead. 28. way. Thefe fpots are called nebulcc. ——v—J We lhall fubjoin in this place, for the entertainment of the reader, the theories of Mr Michell and Dr Her- fchel, concerning the nature and pofition of the fixed liars. . 212 “ The very great number of liars (fays Mr Mi-Mr Mi¬ chell) that have been dilcovered to be double, triple,5 con"' &c. particularly by Mr Herfchel, if we apply the doc-J^^l^ trines of chances, as I have heretofore done in my in- the natUre quiry into the probable parallax, &c. of the fixed liars, of the ftx- publifhed in the Philofophical Tranfa£tions for the year ed ftars* 1767, cannot leave a doubt with any one who is pro¬ perly acquainted with the force of thole arguments, that by far the greatell part, if not all of them, are fyllems of liars fo near each other, as probably to be liable to be affe£led fenfibly by their mutual gravita¬ tion 5 and it is therefore not unlikely, that the periods - of the revolutions of fome of thefe about their princi¬ pals'(the fmaller ones being, upon this hypothefis, to be confidered as fateliites to the other) may fome time or other be difeovered.” Having then Ihown in what manner the magnitude of a fixed liar, if its denfity were known, would affe£t the velocity of its light, he 2I3 concludes aflalt, that “ if the femidiameter of a fphere In what of the fame denfity with the fun were to exceed his in cafes hght the proportion of 500 to I, a body falling from an in-f^ofed to finite height towards it (or moving in a parabolic return to curve at its furface) would have acquired a greater ve- the body locity than that of light 5 and confequently, fuppofing emits light to be attrafled by the fame force in proportion lt;‘ to its vis inet-tice with other bodies, all light emitted from fuch a body would be made t© return towards it by its own proper gravity. But if the femidiameter of a fphere, of the fame denfity with the fun, was of any other fize lefs than 497 times that of the fun, though the velocity of light emitted by fuch a body would never be wholly dellroyed, yet it wmuld always fuffer fome diminution, more or lefs according to the magnitude of the fphere. The fame effeiSls would like- wife take place if the femidiameters were different from thofe already mentioned, provided the denfity was greater or lefs in the duplicate ratio of thele fe¬ midiameters inverfely. 214 After proceeding in his calculations, in order to find Compara- the diameter and diltance of any liar, he proceedstlve bJ;1Sht* thus : “ According to Mr Bouguer the brightnefs of 1C the fun exceeds that of a wax candle in no lefs a pro- fixed ftar& portion than that of 8oco to 1. If therefore the brightnefs of any of the fixed liars fhould not exceed that of our common candles, which, as being fome- thing lefs luminous than wax, w7e will fuppofe in round numbers to be only one ten thoufandth part as bright as the fun, fuch a liar would not be vifible at more than one hundredth part of the dillance at which it would be feen if it were as bright as the fun. Now, becaufe the fun would Hill, I apprehend, appear as bright and luminous as the liar Sirius, if removed to 400,000 times his prefent dillance, fuch a body, if no brighter than our common candles, would only appear equally luminous with that liar at 4000 times the di¬ llance of the fun 5 and we might then be able, with the bell telefcopes, to diltinguiflr fome fcnfible ap¬ parent ■; 7-2 Apparent parent diameter of it: but the apparent diameters theHir'ven ^le ^Lars °f leffer magnitudes would ft ill be too ly Bodies. fmaii to be diftiaguilhable even with our bell; telefcopes, t—-y-— unlefs they were yet a good deal lefs luminous j which may poflibly, however, be the cafe with fome of them : for though we have indeed very flight grounds to go upon with regard to the fpecific brightnefs of the fixed flars, compared with that of the fun at prefent, and can therefore form only very uncertain and random conjectures concerning it; yet from the infinite variety which we find in the works of the creation, it is not unreafonable to fufpett, that very poflibly fome of the fixed ftars may have fo little natural brightnefs in pro¬ portion to their magnitude, as to admit of their dia¬ meters having fome fenfible apparent fize when they ill all come to be more carefully examined, and with larger and better telefcopes than have been hitherto in 215 common ufe. abearance “ With refpeft to the fun, we know that his wdiole otthe'fun bar face is extremely luminous, a very fmall and tem- fuppofed to porary interruption fometimes, from a few fpots, ex- proceed cepted. This univerfal and exceflive brightnefs of'thc from an at- whole furface is probably owing to an atmofphere, Pam . bgiHg luminous throughout, and in fome mea- fure alfo tranfparent, the light proceeding from a con- fiderable depth of it, all arrives at the eye, in the fame manner as the light of a great number of candles would do if they were placed one behind another, and their flames were fulEciently tranfparent to permit the light of the more diflant ones to pafs through thofe that wrere nearer without interruption. “ How far the fame conflitution may take place in the fixed flars we do not know : probably, however, it may ftill do fo in many ; but there are fome appear¬ ances, with regard to a few7 of them, which feem to make it probable that it does not do fo univerfally, Nowr, if I am right in fuppofing the light of the fun to proceed from a luminous atmofphere which mull neceffarily dififufe itfelf equally over the whole furface, and I think there can be very little doubt that this is really the cafe, this conflitution cannot w'ell take place in thofe ftars wdiich are in fome degree periodically 216 more and lefs luminous, fuch as that in Collo Ceti, Oftheva- jt *s a|p0 not very improbable, that there is fome m ' el ai • difference from that of the fun in the conftitution of thofe ftars which have fometimes appeared and difap- peared. of which that in the conftellation of Cafliopeia is a notable inftance. And if thefe conjeCtures are wTell founded which have been formed by fome philo- fophers concerning ftars of this kind, that they are not wholly luminous, or at leaft not conftantly fo, but that all, or by far the greateft part of their fur- faces, is fubjeft to confiderable changes, fometimes becoming luminous, at other times extinguifhed } it is amongft ftars of this fort that we are moft likely to meet wfith inftances of a fenfible apparent diameter, their light being much more likely not to be fo great in proportion as that of the fun, which if removed to Part IT. 400,000 times his prefent diftanee, would ftill appear, Apparent I apprehend, as bright as Sirius, as I have obferved above*, w’hereas it is hardly to be expedted, with any jy telefcope whatfoever, that we fnould ever be able to di- ■ ftinguifh a wTell-defined difk of any body of the fame fize with the fun at much more than 10,coo times his prefent diftance. “ Hence the greateft diftance at which it wTould be poftible to diftinguifh any fenfible apparent diameter of a body as denfe as the fun, cannot well greatly exceed five hundred times ten thoufand j that is, five million times the diftance of the fun ; for if the diameter of fuch a body was not lefs than 500 times that of the fun, its light, as has been fhowm above, could never arrive at us.” 2if Dr Herfchel, improving on Mr Michell’s idea ofDrHer- the fixed ftars being colledled into groups, and af- 1\hel’s °P1* filled by his own obfervations with the extraordinary telefcopic powers already mentioned, has fuggefted a conflruc- theory concerning the conftrudlion of the univerfe en- tion of the tirely new and lingular. It had been the opinion ofim^ver^e* former aftronomers, that our fun, befides occupying the centre of the fyftem which properly* belongs to him, occupied alfo the centre of the univerfe : but Dr Herfchel is of a very different opinion. “ Hither¬ to (fays he) the fidereal heavens have, not inadequately for the purpofe defigned, been reprefented by the con¬ cave furface of a fphere, in the centre of which the eye of the obferver might be fuppofed to be placed. It is true, the various magnitudes of the fixed ftars. even then plainly fuggefted to us, and would have better fuited, the idea of an expanded firmament of three dimenfions j but the obfervations upon which I am now going to enter, ftill farther illuftrate and en¬ force the neceflity of confidering the heavens in this point of view. In future therefore we ftiall look upon thofe regions into wdiich w7e ma^ now penetrate by means of fuch large telefcopes (a), as a naturalift re¬ gards a rich extent of ground or chain of mountains, containing ft rata varioufly inclined and directed, as wTell as confifting of very different materials. A fur¬ face of a globe or map therefore wall but ill delineate the interior parts of the heavens.” 2lg With the powerful telefcope mentioned in the note, His obfer- Dr Herfchel firft began to furvey the Via Laftea, and vations oa found that it completely refolved the w’hitifh appear- ance into ftars, which the telefcopes he formerly ufed had not light enough to do. The portion he firfl: ob¬ ferved was that about the hand and club of Orion 5 and found therein an aftonifhing multitude of ftars, w'hofe number he endeavoured to eftimate by counting many fields (b), and computing from a mean of thefe how many might be contained in a given portion of the milky-W'ay. In the moft vacant place to be met with in that neighbourhood he found 63 ftars j other fix fields contained no, 60, 70, 90, 70, and 74 ftars j a mean of all which gave 79 for the number of ftars to each field 5 and thus he found, that by allowing 15 minutes ASTRONOMY. (a) Dr Herfchel’s obfervations, on which this theory is founded, were made with a Newtonian refle&or of 20 feet focal length, and an aperture of 18 inches. (b) By this word w'e axe to underftand the apparent fpace in the heavens he could fee at once through his telefcope. theHeaven ly Bodies. 219 On the nebulas. Part II. ASTRO Apparent minutes for the diameter of his field of view, a belt of Motions of degrees long and two broad, which he had often theHeaven-pafs before his telefcope in an hour’s time, could not contain lefs than 50,000 ftars, large enough to be diftinftly numbered •, befides which, he fufpefted twice as many more, which could be feen only now and then by faint glimpfes for want of fuf- ficient light. The fuccefs he had within the milky-way foon indu¬ ced him to turn his telefcope to the nebulous parts of the heavens, of which an accurate lift had been publifh- ed in the ConnoiJJance des 'Temps for 1783 and I7®4* Moft of thefe yielded to a Newtonian redeftor of 20 feet focal diftance and 12 inches aperture ; which plain¬ ly difcovered them to be compofed of ftars, or at leaft to contain ftars, and to (how every other indication of confifting of them entirely. “ The nebulae (fays he) into ftrata. are arranged into rtrata, and run on to a great length ; and fome of them I have been able to purfue, and to guefs pretty well at their form and direftion. It is probable enough that they may furround the whole ftarry fphere of the heavens, not unlike the milky-way, which undoubtedly is nothing but a ftratum of fixed ftars : And as this latter immenfe ftarry bed is not of equal breadth or luftre in every part, nor runs on in one rtraight direftion, but is curved, and even divided into two ftreams along a very confiderable portion of it; we may likewife expe& the greateft variety in the ftrata of the clufters of ftars and nebulae. One of thefe nebulous beds is fo rich, that, in palling through a fe&ion of it in the time of only 36 minutes, I have N O M Thus in fig. 83. Y. 73 an eye at S within the ftratum Apparent^ 220 They are arranged Variety of detected no lefs than (hapes af- fumed by Ihem. Why the 31 nebulae, all diftinftly vifible upon a fine blue Iky. Their fituation and lhape, as well as condition, feem to denote the greateft variety imaginable. In another ftratum, or perhaps a differ¬ ent branch of the former, I have often feen double and treble nebulce varioufly arranged ; large ones with fmall feeming attendants *, narrow, but much extended lucid nebulae or bright dallies; fome of the lhape of a fan, refembling an eleftric brulh iffuing from a lucid point; others of the cometic lhape, with a feeming nucleus in the centre, or like cloudy ftars, furrounded with a ne¬ bulous atmofphere : a different fort again contain a ne- bulofity of the milky kind, like that wonderful inex¬ plicable phenomenon about 5 Orionis •, while others Ihine with a fainter mottled kind of light, wThich de¬ notes their being refolvable into ftars. “It is very probable that the great ftratum called an ^arsttf t^ie milky-way, is that in which the fun is placed, though furround perhaps not in the very centre of its thicknefs. We the hea- gather this from the appearance of the galaxy, which vens. feems to encompafs the whole heavens, as it certainly mull do if the fun is within the fame. For luppofe a number of ftars arranged between two parallel planes, indefinitely extended every way, but at a given confi¬ derable diftance from one another, and calling this a fidereal ftratum, an eye placed fomewhere within it will fee all the ftars in the direction of the planes of the ftratum proje&ed into a great circle, which will appear lucid on account of the accumulation of the ftars, while the reft of the heavens at the fides will on¬ ly feem to be fcattered over wufh conftellations, more or lefs crowded according to the diftance of the planes or number of ftars contained in the thicknefs or fides of the ftratum. Vox.. III. Part I. ab, will fee the ftars in the direaion of its length a b, or height r very near each other ; and by adding their fums, and cutting off one decimal on the right, a mean of the contents of the heavens in all the parts which are thus gauged are obtained. Thus it appears that the number of ftars increafes very much as we approach the milky-way •, for in the pa¬ rallel from 92 to 94 degrees north polar diftance, and right afcenfion 15 h. 10', the ftar-gauge runs up from 9.4 ftars in the field to 18.6 in about an hour and a half j whereas in the parallel from 78 to 80 degrees north polar diftance, and R. A. 11, 12, 13, and 14 hours, it very feldom rifes above 4. We are, however, to remember, that, with different inftruments, the ac¬ count of the gauges will be very different, efpecially on our fuppoiition of the fun in a ftratum of ftars. For let a b, fig. 84. be the ftratum, and fuppofe the fmall circleto reprefent the fpace into which, by the light and power of a given telefcope, we are ena¬ bled to penetrate, and let GHLK be the extent of another portion which we are enabled to vifit by means of a larger aperture and power, it is evident, that the gauges with the latter inftrument will differ very much in their account of ftars contained at MN and at KG or LH, when with the former they will hardly be af- fefted with the change from m n \.o k g or lh. “ The fituation of the lun in the fidereal ftratum will be found by confidering in what manner the ftar- gauge agrees with the length of a ray revolving in fe- veral direftions about an affumed point, and cut off by the bounds of the ftratum. Thus, in fig. 85. let S be the place of an obferver : S r r r, £ r, lines in the plane r S r, r r, drawn from S within the ftratum to one of the boundaries here reprefented by the plane AB. Then, fince neither the fituation of S nor the form of the limiting furface AB is known, we are to affume a point, and apply to it lines proportional to the feve- ral gauges that have been obtained, and at fuch angles from each other as they may point out : then will the termination of thefe lines delineate the boundary of the ftratum, and confequently manifeft the fituation of the fun within the fame. “ In my late obfervations on nebulae, I foon found, that I generally detefled them in certain directions ra¬ ther than in others : that the fpaces preceding them were generally quite deprived of their ftars, fo as often to afford many fields without a fingle ftar in it : that the nebulae generally appeared fome time after among ftars of a certain confiderable fize, and but feldom among very fmall ftars : that when I came to one ne¬ bula, I generally found feveral more in the neighbour¬ hood : that afterwards a confiderable time paffed before I came to another parcel. Thefe events being often repeated in different altitudes of my inftrument, and fome of them at confiderable diftances from each other, it occurred to me that the intermediate fpaces between the fweeps might alfo contain nebulae j and finding this to hold good more than once, I ventured to give notice to my afliftant at the clock, that ‘ I found my- felf on nebulous ground.’ But how far thefe circum- flances of vacant places preceding and following the nebulous ftrata, and their being as it were contained in 9 bed of liars fparingly featured between them, may N O M Y. Part II, hold good in more diftant portions of the heavens, and Apparent which I have not been yet able to vifit in any regular manner, I ought by no means to hazard a conjeCture. ]y g0(]]es/ I may venture, however, to add a few particulars about v—j the direftion of fome of the capital ftrata or their 228 branches. The well known nebula of Cancer, vifible Direcftion to the naked eye, is probably one belonging to a cer- tain ftratum, in which I fuppofe it to be fo placed as to pai ftrata lie neareft to us. This ftratum I fhall call that of of ftars. Cancer. It runs from % Cancri towards the fouth, over the 67th nebula of the Connoiffance des Temps, which is a very beautiful and pretty much compreffed clufter of ftars, eafily to be feen by any good telefcope j and in which I have obferved above 2CO ftars at once in the field of view of my great refle&or with a power of 157. This clufter appearing fo plainly with any good common telefcope, and being fo near to the one which may be feen with the naked eye, denotes it to be probably the next in diftance to that wfithin the quartile formed by y, «, 6. From the 67th nebula the ftratum of Cancer proceeds towards the head of Hy¬ dra ; but I have not yet had time to trace it farther than the equator. “ Another ftratum, which perhaps approaches nearer to the folar fyftem than any of the reft, and whofe fi¬ tuation is nearly at reftangles with the great fidereal ftratum in which the fun is placed, is that of Coma Berenices, as I fhall call it. I fuppofe the Coma it- felf to be one of the clufters in it, and that on account of its nearnefs it appears to be fo fcattered. It has many capital nebulae very near it: and in all probabi¬ lity this ftratum runs out a very confiderable way. It may perhaps even make the circuit of the heavens, though very likely not in one of the great circles' of the fphere ; for unlefs it ftiould chance to interfeft the great fidereal ftratum of the milky-way before men¬ tioned, in the very place in which the fun is ftationed, fuch an appearance would hardly be produced. How¬ ever, if the ftratum of Coma Berenices ftrould extend fo far as I apprehend it may, the direftion of it to¬ wards the north lies probably, with fome windings, through the Great Bear onwards to Cafliopeia, thence through the girdle of Andromeda and the Northern Fifh, proceeding towards Cetus ; while towards the fouth it paffes through the Virgin, probably on to the tail of Hydra and Centaurus.” By a continued feries of obfervations, Dr Herfchel became confirmed in his notions j and in a fucceeding paper * has given a fketch of his opinions concerning * the interior conftruftion of the heavens. “ That the ‘Iran/. milky-way (fays he) is a moft extenfive ftratum ofvoi. 75, ftars of various fizes, admits no longer of the 0f the^in doubt ; and that our fun is one of the heavenly bodies belonging to it is as evident. I have now viewed and ftruaion of gauged this finning zone in almoft every direftion, and the hea- find it compofed of firming ftars, whofe number, by’vens' the account of thofe gauges, conftantly increafes and decreafes in proportion to its apparent brightnefs to the naked eye. But in order to develope the ideas of the univerfe that have been fuggefted by my late ob¬ fervations, it will be beft to take the fubjedt from a point of view at a confiderable diftance both of fpace and time. “ Let us then fuppofe numberlefs ftars of various fizes Mattered over an indefinite portion of fpace, in fuch 231 Nebulae, bow form¬ ed. Part II. ASTRO Apparent fuch a manner as to be almoft equally diftributed Motions of throUgh the whole. The laws of attraftion, which no theSSn"d°ubt extend to the remoteft regions of the fixed ftars, .1* will operate in fuch a manner as moll probably to pro- 230 duce the following remarkable effedts. Confequen- « will frequently happen, that a ftar, being ces ot the confl(lcrably larger than its neighbouring ones, will traftion'ac- attradl them more than they will be attracted by ting among others that are immediately around them; by which the Itars. means they will be in time, as it were, condenfed about a centre ; or, in other words, form themfelves into a clufter of ftars of almoft a globular figure, more or lefs regularly fo according to the fize and original di- ftance of the furrounding ftars. The perturbations of thefe mutual attradlions muft undoubtedly be very intricate, as we may eafily comprehend, by confidering what Sir Ifaac Newton has faid, Princtp. lib. i. prop. 38. et feq: but in order to apply this great author’s reafoning of bodies moving in ellipfes to fuch as are here for a while fuppofed to have no other motion than what their mutual gravity has imparted to them, we muft fuppofe the conjugate axes of thefe ellipfes indefi¬ nitely diminilhed, whereby the ellipfes will become ftraight lines. “ II. The next cafe, which will happen almoft as frequently as the former, is where a few' ftars, though not fuperior in fize to the reft, may change to be ra¬ ther nearer each other than the furrounding ones ; for here alfo will be formed a prevailing attraftion in the combined centre of gravity of them all, which will oc- cafion the neighbouring ftars to draw together; not, indeed, fo as to form a regular globular figure, but, however, in fuch a manner as to be condenfed towards the common centre of gravity of the whole irregular clufter. And this conftruftion admits of the utmoft variety of Ihapes, according to the number and fituation of the ftars which firft gave rife to the condenfation of the reft. “ HI. From the compolition and repeated conjunc¬ tion of both the foregoing forms, a third may be de¬ rived, when many large ftars, or combined fmall ones, ■are fituated in long extended regular or crooked rows, hooks, or branches; for they will alfo draw the fur- rounding ones fo as to produce figures of condenfed ftars coarfely fimilar to the former, which gave rife to thefe condenfations. “ IV. We may likewife admit of ftill more extenfive combinations ; when, at the fame time that a clufter of ftars is forming in one part of fpace, there may be ano¬ ther colle&ing in a different, but perhaps not far di- ftant, quarter, which may occafion a mutual approach towards their common centre of gravity. “ V. In the laft place, as a natural confequence of the former cafes, there will be great cavities or vacan¬ cies formed by the retreat of the ftars towards the va¬ rious centres which attraft them; fo that, upon the whole, there is evidently a field of the greateft variety for the mutual and combined attradlions of the heaven¬ ly bodies to exert themfelves in. “ From this theoretical view of the heavens, wTich has been taken from a point not lefs diftant in time than in fpace, we will now retreat to our owm retired ftation, in one of the planets attending a ftar in its great combination wuth numberlefs others: and in or¬ der to inveftigate what will be the appearances from 232. Vacancies, how they are occa- lioned in the hea¬ vens. N O M Y. 75 this contradled fituation, let us begin with the naked Apparent eye. The ftars of the firft magnitude, being in all pro- tj^eaven bability the neareft, will furnifh us with a ftep to begin jy £p^-es_ our feale. Setting off, therefore, with the diftance *-—^——■> of Sirius or Ardturus, for inftance, as unity, we will 233 at prefent fuppofe, that thofe of the fecond magnitude ^ow are at double, thofe of the third at treble, the diftance, app^^0 &c. Taking it for granted, then, that a ftar of the us accor(}_ feventh magnitude (the fmalleft fuppofed vifible with ing to this the naked eye) is about feven times as far as one ofhyP01*16!1*' the firft, it follows, that an obferver wTho is enclofed in a globular clufter of ftars, and not far from the centre, will never be able with the naked eye to fee to the end of it; for fince, according to the above eftimations, he can only extend his view to above feven times the diftance of Sirius, it cannot be expedled that his eyes fhould reach the borders of a clufter which has perhaps not lefs than 50 ftars in depth everywhere around him. The whole univerfe to him, therefore, will be comprifed in a fet of conftellations richly ornamented with fcattered ftars of all fizes : Or, if the united brightnefs of a neighbouring clufter of ftars fhould, in a remarkable clear night, reach his fight, it will put on the appearance of a fmall, faint, whitifh, nebulous cloud, not to be perceived without the greateft atten¬ tion. Let us fuppofe him placed in a much extended ftratum or branching clufter of millions of ftars, fuch as may fall under the third form of nebulae already con- fidered. Here alfo the heavens will not only be richly fcattered over writh brilliant conftellations, but a ftii- ning zone or milky-way will be perceived to furround the whole fphere of the heavens, owing to the com¬ bined light of thefe ftars which are too fmall, that is, too remote to be feen. Our obferver’s fight will be fo confined, that he will imagine this Angle colledtion of ftars, though he does not even perceive the thoufandth part of them, to be the whole contents of the heavens. Allowing him now the ufe of a common telefcope, he begins to fufpedl that all the milkinefs of the bright path w'hich furrounds the fphere may be owing to ftars. He perceives a few clufters of them in various parts of the heavens, and finds alfo that there are a kind of nebulous patches : but ftill his views are not extended to reach fo far as to the end of the ftratum in which he is fituated; fo that he looks upon thefe patches as belonging to that fyftem which to him feems to comprehend every celeftial objedt. He nowr in- creafes his pow7er of vifion ; and, applying himfelf to a clofe obfervation, finds that the milky-w ay is indeed no other than a colledlion of very fmall ftars. He perceives, that thofe objedls which had been called nebula, are evidently nothing but clufters of ftars. Their number increafes upon him; and when he re- folves one nebula into ftars, he difeovers ten new ones which he cannot refolve. He then forms the idea of immenfe ftrata of fixed ftars, of clufters of ftars, and of nebulae ; till, going on with fuch interefting obferva- tions, he now perceives, that all thefe appearances muft naturally arife from the confined fituation in which we are placed. Confined it may juftly be called, though in no lefs a fpace than what appear¬ ed before to be the vrhole region of the fixed ftars, but which now has affumed the ftiape of a crookedly branching nebula ; not indeed one of the leaft, but per¬ haps very far from being the moft confiderable, of thofe K 2 numberlefs 7<5 Apparent Motions of theHeaven- ly Bodies. 234 Arguments in favour of the fore¬ going theo¬ ry from ob- fervations On nebulae. 235 Method of meafuring the dimen- fions of the heavens. ASTRO numberlefs cluflers that enter into the conftrudlion of the heavens.” Our author now proceeds to (how that this theoreti¬ cal view of the heavens is perfectly confident with fafts, and feems to be confirmed by a feries of obfervations. Many hundreds of nebulae of the firlt and fecond forms are to be feen in the heavens ; and their places, he fays, will hereafter be pointed out; many of the third form defcribed, and inftances of the fourth related j a few of the cavities mentioned in the fifth particular- rized, though many more have been already obferved : ib that, “ upon the whole (fays be), I believe it will be found, that the foregoing theoretical view, with all its confequential appearances, as feen by an eye enclo-1 fed in one of the nebulae, is no other than a drawing from nature, wherein the features of the original have been clofely copied : and I hope the refemblance will not be called a bad one, when it (hall be confidered how very limited mud be the pencil of an inhabitant of fo fmall and retired a portion of an indefinite fydem in attempting the picture of fo unbounded an extent.” Dr Herfchel next prefents us with a long table of dar-gauges, or accounts of the number of dars at once in the field of his telefcope, which go as high as 588 5 after which he propofes the following Problem. “ The dars being fuppofed nearly equally fcattered, and their number, in a field of view of a known angu¬ lar diameter, being given) to determine the length of the vifual ray. “ Here, the arrangement of the dars not being fix¬ ed upon, we mud endeavour to find which way they may be placed fo as to fill a given fpace mod equally. Suppofe a rectangular cone cut into frudula by many equididant planes perpendicular to the axis ) then, if one dar be placed at the vertex and another in the axis at the fird interfeftion, fix dars may be let around it fo as to be equally didant from one another and from the central dar. Thefe petitions being carried on in the fame manner, we fliall have every dar within the cone furrounded by eight others at an equal didance from that dar taken as a centre. Fig. too. contains four feclions of fuch a cone didinguifhed by alternate drades; which will be fufficient to explain what fort of arrange¬ ment I would point out. “ The feries of the number of dars contained in the feveral fedions will be 1, 7, 19, 37, 61, 91, &c. which continued to « terms, the fum of it, by the differential method, will be na-\-n. d'-\-n. 2 2 n~—'-d", &c. where a is the fird term, d\ d’\ d’", &c. 3 the fird, fecond, and third differences. Then, fince a— 1, d!—6, 6, o, the fum of the feries will be ni. Let S be the given number of dars) 1 the diameter of the bafe of the field of view) and B the diameter of the great redangular cone 5 and by trigonometry we lhall have B=r=-——Now, fince the field of view x rr held of a telefcope is a cone, we fhall have its folidity to that of the great cone of the dars formed by the above condruftion, as the fquare of the diameter of the bafe of the field of view, to the fquare of the diameter N O M Y. Part II. of the great cone, the height of both being the fame 5 Apparent and the dars in each cone being in the ratio of the fo- ^0t’011s 0 3 theHeaven- lidity, as being equally fcattered, we have n~ V/B*S; 'B the utmod attention. I fuppofe thefe miniature nebulae to be at double the didance of the fird. An indance equally remarkable and indrudlive is a cafe where, in the neighbourhood of two fuch nebulae as have been mentioned, I met with a third fimilar, refolvable, but much fmaller and fainter nebula. The dars of it are no longer to be perceived } but a refemblance of colour with the former two, and its diminidied fize and light, may wrell permit us to place it at full twdce the di¬ dance of the fecond, or about four or five times the didance of the fird. And yet the nebulofity is not of the milky kind : nor is it fo much as difficultly re¬ folvable or colourlefs. Now in a few of the extend¬ ed nebulae, the light changes gradually, fo as from the refolvable to approach to the milky kind ; which appears to me an indication, that the milky light of nebulae is owdng to their much greater didance. A nebula, therefore, whofe light is perfedlly milky, can¬ not well be fuppofed to be at lefs than fix or eight thoufand times the didance of Sirius j and though the numbers here afi'umed are not to be taken otherwife than as very coarfe edimates, yet an extended nebula, which an oblique fituation, where it is pofiibly fore- diortened by one-half, two-thirds, or three-fourths of its length, fubtends a degree or more in diameter, can¬ not be otherwife than of a wonderful magnitude, and may well outvie our milky way in grandeur.” 24- Dr Herfchel next proceeds to give an account of fe-Vaft length veral remarkable nebulae, and then concludes thus : °f dme rc" “ Now, what great length of time mud be required to produce thefe effedls (the formation of nebulae) may nebul». eafily be conceived, when, in all probability, our whole fydem of about 800 dars in diameter, if it were feen at fiich a didance that one end of it might affume the refolvable nebulofity, would not, at the other end, prefent us with the irrefolvable, much lefs with the colourlefs and milky, fort of nebulofities.”. Great in¬ deed mud be the length of time requifite for fuch di- dant bodies to form combinations by the laws of at- traftion, fince, according to the didances he has af- fumed, the light of fome of his nebulae mud be thirty- fix or forty-eight thoufand years in arriving from them to us. It would be worth while then to inquire, whe¬ ther attraBion is a virtue propagated in time or not $ or whether it moves quicker or flower than light ? . 246' In the courfe of Dr Herfchel’s obfervations and in- Why the quiries concerning the drufture of the heavens, an ob-^J* do not jeftion occurred, that if the different fydems were formed by the mutual attra£lions of the dars, the whole tiier. would be in danger of dedruftion by the falling of them one upon another. A fufficient anfwer to this, he thinks, is, that if we can really prove the fydem of the univerfe to be what he has faid, there is no doubt but that the great Author of it has amply provided for the prefervation of the whole, though it diould not appear to us in what manner this is effefled. Several circumdances, however, he is of opinion, manifedly tend to a general prefervation : as, in the fird place,, the indefinite extent of the fidereal heavens; wffiich * mud produce a balance that will effeftually fecure all the parts of the great whole from approaching to each other. 8o ASTRONOMY. Part II. Apparent Motions of theHeaven- ly bodies. 247 Of the pla¬ netary nebulae. 448 Method of afcertain- ingthefitu- ation of the ftars. other. “ There remains then (fays he) only to fee how the particular ftars belonging to feparate clufters are prevented from rulhing on to their centres of at- traftion.” This he fuppofes may be done by projec¬ tile forces 5 “ the admiihon of which will prove fuch a barrier ag&inft the feeming dellructive power of attrac¬ tion, as to fecure from it all the ftars belonging to a clufter, if not for ever, at leaft for millions of ages. Befides, we ought perhaps to look upon fuch clufters, and the deftru&ion of a ftar now and then in fome thoufands of ages, as the very means by which the whole is preferred and renewed. Thefe clufters may be the laboratories of the univerfe, wherein the moil falutary remedies for the decay of the whole are pre¬ pared.” In fpeaking of the planetary nebulae, by which name he diftinguilhes thofe fpots that are all over equally lu¬ minous, he fays, “ If we ihould fuppofe them to be Angle ftars with large diameters, we ihall find it diffi¬ cult to account for their not being brighter, unlefs we fhould admit that the intrinfic light of fome ftars may be very much inferior to that of the generality j which, however, can hardly be imagined to extend to fuch a degree. We might fuppofe them to be comets about their aphelion, if the brightnefs, as well as magnitude of their diameters, did not oppofe this idea ; fo that, after all, we can hardly find any hypothefis,fo probable as that of their being nebulae ; but then they muft con- ftft of ftars that are comprefl'ed and accumulated in the higheft degree. If it were not perhaps too hazardous to purfue a former furmife of a renewal in what I figu¬ ratively called the Laboratories of the Utiiverfe, the ftars forming thefe extraordinary nebulae, by fome decay or wafte of nature being no longer fit for their former purpofes, and having their projeflile forces, if any fuch they had, retarded in each other’s atmofphere, may ruffi at laft together ; and, either in fucceffion or by one general tremendous ffiock, unite into a new body. Perhaps the extraordinary and hidden blaze of a new ftar in Caffiopeia’s chair, in 1572, might pof- fibly be of fuch a nature. If a little attention to thefe bodies fhould prove that, having no annual parallax, they belong moft probably to the clafs of nebulae, they may then be expedled to keep their ftation better than any one of the ftars belonging to our fyftem, on ac¬ count of their being probably at a very great di- ftance.” As the fixed ftars conftantly keep nearly the fame fituation relative to each other, aftronomers have agreed to refer to them, as to fo many fixed points, the differ¬ ent motions of the other heavenly bodies. Hence the reafon of dividing them into conftellations. But it was neceffary befides, for the fake of perfeft precifion to mark exaftly the relative fituation of every ftar in the celeftial fphere. This is accomplilhed in the following manner. “ A great circle is fuppofed to pafs through the two poles, and through the centre of every ftar. This cir¬ cle is called a circle of declination. The arc of this circle included between the ftar and the equator mea- fures the declination of the ftar. The declination of a liar then is its perpendicukf diftance from the equator. It is north or fouth, according as the ftar is fituated on the north or fouth fide of the equator. All the ftars t fituated in the fame parallel of the equator have of Apparent courfe the fame declination. The declination then marks the fituation of a ftar north or fouth from the equator. Precifion requires ftill another circle from which their diftance eaft or weft may be marked, in order to give the real place. The cir¬ cle of declination which pafles through that point of the equator, called the vernalequinoBialpoint, has been cho- fen for that purpofe. The diftance of the circle of decli¬ nation of a given ftar from that point meafured on the e- quator, or the arc of the equator included between the vernal equinox, and the circle of declination of the ftar is called its right afcenfon. If we know the declina¬ tion and the right afcenfion of a ftar, we know its pre- cife fituation in the heavens. The declination of any ftar may be eafily found by obferving the following rule : I ake the meridian alti¬ tude of the ftar, at any place where the latitude is known ; the complement of this is the %enith difance, and is cal¬ led north or fouth, as the ftar is north or fouth at the time of obfervation. Then, I. When the latitude of the place and zenith diftance of the ftar are of differ¬ ent kinds, namely, one north and the other fouth, their difference will be the declination 5 and it is of the fame kind with the latitude, when that is the greateft of the two, otherwife it is of the contrary kind. 2. If the la¬ titude and the zenith diftance are of the fame kind, i. e. both north or both fouth, their fum is the declin¬ ation j and it is of the lame kind with the latitude. To prove the truth of this rule, turn to fig. 86. where Z is the zenith of the place, EQjhe equinotfial, and ^ EZ the latitude. 1. Let r reprefent the place of a ftar Rules for on the meridian, and Z r the zenith diftance, the lati-finding the tude being greater : then E r (the declination) will be dechnatl0i,» equal to EZ—Zr (the zenith diftance)-, again, let c be the place of a ftar in the meridian, when the zenith diftance exceeds the latitude ; then E c (the declina¬ tion — Z c (the zenith diftance)—EZ (the latitude). And it is manifeft, that in the former inftance Z and r are on the fame fide of the equinoftial 5 and that in the latter cafe Z and c are on contrary fides. 2dly, Let^< be the place of a ftar on the meridian, having its zenith diftance Thy of the lame kind with EZ the latitude of the place: then Ej (the declination)” EZ +zy, and the declination is of the fame kind as the latitude, becaufe Z and^y are on the fame fide of the equinoflial. Q^E. D. For an Example, fuppofe that in north latitude 5 2° 15', the meridian altitude of a ftar is 510 28 on the fouth ; then 38° 32' the zenith diftance, being taken from 5 2° 15' the latitude, leaves 130 43' for the declina¬ tion of the ftar north. _ 25° Having, by means like the above, found the decli- nation of a ftar, it becomes requilite, in the next place, to know the right afcenfion, as its fituation with regard to the equator will then be known. Now the right afcenfion being eftimated from the point where the e- quator and ecliptic interfeft each other in the fprkig, a point which is marked out by nothing that comes under the cognizance of our fenfesj fome phenomenon, there¬ fore, muft be chofen, whofe right afcenfion is either given, or may be readily known, at any time that the right afcenfions of other objetts may be difcovered by comparifon with it. For this purpofe nothing appears Motions ot theHeaven- ly Bodies, j Part IT. ASTRONOMY. Si Apparent fo proper as the fun j becaufe its motion is the moft Motions of gmpje> an(l Ji;S ri^ht afcenhon quickly found. '^Bodies*1* h'or ’‘n 87. we have given (jS the declination . ^ 'h of the fun (which maybe ealily taken every day at noon by obfervation), and the angle SEQ^the obliquity of the ecliptic—i. e. one leg of a right-angled fpherical triangle, and its oppofite angle, to find the adjacent leg EQ, the right afeenfion—it may be done by this pro¬ portion •, as the tangent of the obliquity of the ecliptic: the tangent of the declination : : radius : the fine of the right afeenfion reckoned from the nearer equinoftial point. For example : fuppofe on the 13th of February the fun’s fouth declination is obliquity of the ecliptic is the fun’s right afeenfion : As tangt. 23° To tangt. 130 24' So is radius found to 130 24', and the 2 30 28'} we fliall thus find 28' 9.6376106 9-377oo30 10.0000000 To fine 330 16' 58" 9.7393924 Here 330 16' 58" is the fun’s diflance from T ; but as the declination is at that time decreafing, and the fun approaching T, this mull be taken from 360°, and the remainder 326° 43' 2" is the right afeenfion. In a iimilar maimer may the fun’s right alcenfion be calculated for every day at noon, and arranged in ta¬ bles for ufe : for any intermediate time between one day at noon and the following, the right afeenfion may be determined by proportion. The longitude ES of the fun, when required, may be readily found by the rules to afeertain the hypothe- nufe of the fame triangle. The apparent diurnal motion of the heavenly bodies being uniform, and performed in circles parallel to the equator, the interval of the times in which tw'O ftars pafs over, any meridian mull bear the fame proportion to the period of the diurnal motion, as that arc of the equator intercepted, betwreen the two fecondaries puf¬ fing through the ftars, does to 360°, as is evident from the nature of the fphere : w e may therefore find the right afeenfion of a ftar thus : Let an accurate pendu¬ lum clock be fo regulated that the index may pafs over th# tw'enty-four hours during the time in wdiich any fixed ftar after departing from the meridian will return to it again, which is rather lefs than tw^enty-four hours. Then let the index of a clock thus regulated be fet to twelve o’clock w'hen the fun is on the meridian ; and obferve the time the index points to, w'hen the fixed ftar w'hofe right afeenfion is fought comes to the meri¬ dian ; which may be moft accurately known by means of a tranfit telefcope. Let thefe hours and parts, as marked by the clock, be converted into degrees, &c. of the equator, by allowing 150 to an hour ; and the difference between the right afeenfions of the fixed ftar and the fun will be known : this difference added to the fun’s right afeenfion for that day at noon, gives the right afeenfion of the fixed ftar fought. Or, if a clock whofe dial plate is divided into 360°, inftead of twrelve hours, be ordered in fuch a manner, that the index may pafs round the wdiole circle in the interval which a ftar requires to come to the fame meri¬ dian again, and another index be fo managed as to point out the fexagefimal parts : then, when the fun is on the meridian, let the indices of the clock be put to V©1. III. Part I. , bodies. his right afeenfion*at noon that dayj and when the ftar Apparent comes to the meridian, its right afeenfion w-ill be Ihown A'lotions ot by the clock, without any kind of reduction. Y Bodies? The ftars are referred likewife to the ecliptic as w’ell C— as to the equator. In that cafe the terms longitude and latitude are ufed. ' 251 The longitude of any of the heavenly bodies is an Longitude arc of the ecliptic contained between the firft point ofoi the ljea* Aries, and a fecondary to the ecliptic or circle of lati-^c" ' tude, palling through the body 5 it is always meafured according to the order of the figns. If the body be fuppofed feen from the centre of the earth, it is called geocentric longitude ) but if it be fuppofed feen from the centre of the fun, then is the longitude heliocen- trw' . ... 252 The latitude of a heavenly body is its diftance from Latitude?* the ecliptic, meafured upon a fecondary to the eclip¬ tic drawn through the body. If the latitude be fuch as is feep from the earth’s centre, it is called geocentric latitude } but if it be fuppofed feen from the centre of the fun, it is heliocentric. The equator being the principal circle which re- fpefts the earth, the latitudes and longitudes of terref- trial objects are referred to it, and, for a fimilar reafon (the fun’s motion in the ecliptic rendering that the pidncipal of the celeftial circles), the fituations of hea¬ venly objects are generally afeertained by their lati¬ tudes and longitudes referred to the ecliptic : it has therefore become a ufeful problem to find the latitudes and longitudes of the ftars, &c. having their declina¬ tions, and right afeenfions, with the obliquity of the ecliptic, given. One of the beft methods of perform- ing this problem has been thus inveftigated : Let How tound. S be the place of the body (fig. 88.), EC the ecliptic, EQ^the equator 5 and SL and SR being re- fpeiSlively perpendicular to EC and EQ^ ER will re- prefent the right afeenfion, SR the declination, EL the longitude, and SL the latitude ; then, by fpherics, rad. : fine ER : : co-tang. SR : co-tang. SER 5 and SER-fCEQ=:SEL. Alfo, co-fine SER : rad.: : tang. ER : tang. ES $ and rad.: co-fine SEL : : tang. ES : tang. EL ; therefore, co-fine SER : co-fine SEL : : tang. ER : tang. EL j whence wre readily get, co-fine SEL x tang. ER , . , — — the tangent of EL, the co-lme SER 0 longitude. Then, rad.: fine of EL : : tang. SEL : tang, SL, the latitude. But the fame thing may be performed very expedi- tioufiy by means of the following excellent rule, given by Dr Malkelyne, the prefent worthy aftronomer royal: I. The fine of the right afeenfion co-tang, de¬ clination —.10— co-tang, of arc A, which call north, or fouth, according as the declination is north or fouth. 2. Call the obliquity of the ecliptic fouth in the fix firft figns of right afeenfion, and north in the fix laft. Let the fum of arc A, and obliquity of ecliptic, ac¬ cording to their titles, ~ arc B with its proper title. [If one be north and the other fouth, the proper title is that which belongs to the greater; and in this cafe, arc B is their difference.] 3. The arithmetical com¬ plement of co-fine arc A-f- co-fine arc'Bx tang- right afeenfion rr tangent of the longitude : this is of the fame kind as the right afeenfion, unlefs arc B be more than 90°, when the quantity found of the fame kind as L the 32 ASTRONOM Y. Part IT, Apparent the right afcenfion mufi: be fubtrafied from I 2 figns, Motions of or ^60®. 4. The fine of longitude -f- tang, arc ''iy Bodies'1' B —xo= tang, of the required latitude, of the fame -y-i—- title as arc B. Note, If the longitude be found near o° or near 1800, for the fine of longitude, in the laft operation, fubfiitute tang, longitude -j- co-fine longi¬ tude —10 ; and then the laft operation will be tang, longitude -j- co-fine longitude -(- tang, arc B —20= tang, latitude. By fine, tang. &c. are meant loga¬ rithm fine, log. tang. &c. This rule may be exemplified by inquiring what are the latitude and longitude of a ftar whofe declina¬ tion is 12° 59' north, and right afcenfion 4f 290 38', the obliquity of the ecliptic being 230 28' ? Here, fine of right afcenfion 290 38' 9-7037486 Co-tang, of declination 12 59 io-6372I26 Co-tang, of arc A, north 24 31 io-34o696i2 Obliquity of ecliptic, fouth 23 28 Arc B, north - 1 3 cof. 9*9999271 Arith.comp.ofco-finearc A 0*0410347 Tangent of right afcenfion 9*7678344 Tangent of longitude 147° 13' 26" 9*8087962 Or 4f 270 13' 26", anfwTering to 270 13' 26" of Leo. Then, fine of longitude - - 9‘7334^43 Tangent of arc B - - 8*2631153 Tang, of latitude, north, 34' 6" 7.9965996 254 Stars vary Aftronomers have obferved that the ftars vary in in right a- r;g*ht afcenfion and in declination, but keep the fame and decli latitude : hence it was concluded that their variations nation. in declination and right afcenfion were owing to the revolution of the celeftial fphere round the poles of the ecliptic. Or they may be accounted for by fuppofing that the poles of the equator revolve llowly round thofe of the ecliptic. This revolution is called the precef- fion of the equinoxes. A more particular account of 255 it will be neceffary. Obferva- By a long feries of obfervations, the fhepherds of Afia tions of the were aye to mark out the fun’s path in the heavens ; fhepherds he beIng always in the 0PP°fite P0^1 to tllat wllich 1 Uj' comes to the meridian at midnight, with equal but op- pofite declination. Thus they could tell the ftars among which the fun then was, although they could not fee them. They difcovered that this path was a great circle of the heavens, afterwards called the Ecliptic; which cuts the equator in two oppofite points, dividing it, and being divided by it, into two equal parts. They farther obferved, that when the fun was in either oT thefe points of interfe&ion, his circle of diurnal revolution coincided with the equa¬ tor, an ttvo or three days before and after the equinoctial day. On two confecutive days of this number, his declination muft have changed from north to fouth, or from fouth to north. If his declination on one day wras obferved to be 21' north, and on the next 5' fouth, it folknvs that his declination was nothing, or that he was in the equi- noCtial point about 23 minutes after 7 in the morning of the fecond day. Knowing the precife moments, and knowing the rate of the fun’s motion in-the ecliptic, it is eafy to afcertain the precife point of the ecliptic in which the equator interfered it. . By a feries of fuch obfervations made at Alexandria Hippar- between the years 161 and 127 before Chrift, Hippar-chus’s dif- chus, the father of our aftronomy, found that the pointcovene!* of the autumnal equinox was about fix degrees to the eaftward of the ftar called Spica virginis. Eager to determine everything by multiplied oblervations, he ran- facked all the Chaldean, Egyptian, and other records, to which his travels could procure him accefs, for obfer¬ vations of the fame kind ; but he does not mention his having found any. He found, however, fome obferva¬ tions of Ariftillus and Timochares made about 150 years before. From thefe it appeared evident that the point of the autumnal equinox was then about eight de¬ grees eaft of the fame ftar. He difcufies thefe obferva¬ tions with great fagacity and rigour ; and, on their au¬ thority, he afferts that the equinoftial points are not fixed in the heavens, but move to the w’eftw-ard about a degree in 75 years or fomewhat lefs. * This motion is called the Precession of the Eqjji- Why called noxes, becaufe by it the time and place of the iun’s the piecel- equino&ial ftation precedes the ufual calculations : it is fully confirmed by all fubfequent oblervations. In 1750 ^ the autumnal equinox w^as obferved to be 20° 21'weft- ward of Spica Virginis. Suppofing the motion to have been uniform during this period of ages, it lollow’s that the annual preceflion is about 5^ t i that is, if the ce¬ leftial equator cuts the ecliptic in a particular point on any day of this year, it will on the fame day of the fol¬ lowing year cut it in a point 5® and the fun wall come to the equinox 2Q/ 2^" before he has completed his round of the heavens. Thus the equinoftial or tropical year, or true year of feafons, is fo much fhorter than the revolution of the fun or the fidereal year. _ > . 259 It is this difcovery that has chiefly immortalized Importance the name of Hipparchus, though it muft be acknow-of the dif- ledged that all his aftronomical refearches have been covery. conduced with the fame fagacity and intelligence. It was natural therefore for him to value himfelf highly for the difcovery. It muft be acknowledged to be one of the moft Angular that has been made, that the re¬ volution of the whole heavens ftiould not be liable, but its axis continually changing. For it muft be ob¬ ferved, that fince the equator changes its pofition, and the equator is only an imaginary circle, equidiftant from the two poles or extremities of the axis; thefe poles and this axis muft equally change their pofitions. The equino&ial points make a complete revolution m about 25,741; years, the equator being all the while inclined -to the ecliptic in nearly the fame angle. Therefore the poles of this diurnal revolution xnuft defcribe a * circle Part II. Apparent Motions of theHeaven- Jy Bodies. 4n i.w —'-y-” — 26c Hipparchus has been accufed of j»Iagiarifm, * See Du- plus fur le uadiaque des Egyp- tiens, Mtm de l'Acad, dcs Inf trip. 7.61 But falfely. A S T R circle round tlie poles of tbe ecliptic at the diftance of about 234 degrees in 25,745 years \ and in the time of Timochares the north pole of the heavens mull have been 30 degrees eaflward of where it now is. Hipparchus has been accufed of plagiarifm and in- fincerity in this matter. It is now very certain that the preceflion of the equinoxes was known to the aftro- nomers of India many ages before the time of Hip¬ parchus. It appears allb that the Chaldeans had a pretty accurate knowledge of the year of feafons. From their faros wre deduce their mealure of this year to be 365 days 5 hours 49 minutes and 11 fecdnds, exceeding the truth only by 26", and much more exadt than the year of Hipparchus. They had alfo a fidereal year of 365 days 6 hours 11 minutes. Now what could occafron an attention to two years, if they did not fuppofe the equinoxes moveable ? The Egyptians alfo had a knowledge of fomething equivalent to this : for they had difeovered that the dog-ftar was no longer the faithful forewarner of the overflowing of the Nile $ and they combined him with the liar Fomalhafet * in their myftical calendar. ’ This knowledge is alfo involved in the precepts of the Chinefe aflronomy, of much older date than the time of Hipparchus. But all thefe acknowledged fadls are not fufficient for depriving Hipparchus of the honour of the dilco- very, or fixing on him thp charge of plagiarifm. This motion was a thing unknown to the afltondmers of the Alexandrian fchool, and it was pointed out to them by Hipparchus in the way in which he afeertained every other pofition in aftronomy, namely, as the ma¬ thematical refult of aftual obfervations, and not as a thing deducible from any opinions on other fubjedls re¬ lated to it. We fee him, on all other occafions, eager to confirm his own obfervations, and his deductions from them, by every thing he could pick up from other afl.ro- nomers \ and he even adduced the above-mentioned practice of the Egyptians in corroboration of his doc¬ trine. It is more than probable then that he did not know any thing more. Had he known the Indian preceflion of 54" annually, he had no temptation what¬ ever to withhold him from ufing it in preference to one which he acknowledges to be inaccurate, becaufe de¬ duced from the very fliort period of 150 years, and from the obfervations of Timochares, in which he had no great confidence. Small periodical irregularities in the inclination of the equator to the ecliptic, and in the preceflion of the equinoxes, were difeovered and examined by Bradley with great fagacity. He found that the pole deferibed an epicycle, whofe diameter wTas about 18", having for its centre that point of the circle round the pole of the ecliptic in which the pole would have been found inde¬ pendent of this new motion. Fie alfo obferved, that the period of this epicyclical motion was 18 years and feven months. It ftruck him, that this was precifely the period of the revolution of the nodes of the moon’s orbit. He gave a brief account of thefe refults to Lord Macclesfield, then prefident of the Royal So¬ ciety, in 1747. Mr Machin, to whom he alfo com¬ municated the obfervations, gave him in return a very neat mathematical hypothefis, by which the motion might be calculated. Let E (fig. 89.) be the pole of the ecliptic, and SPQ^ circle diftant from it 230 28', reprefenting the circle o N o M Y. - 8.3 deferibed by the pole of the equator during one revolu- Apparent tion of the equino&ial points. Let P be the place ^H^aven. this laft-mentioned pole at fome given time. Round jy Bodies. P deferibe a circle ABCD, W'hofe diameter AC is iS'k 1 — / 1 i"1 The real fituation of the pole will be in the circumference 262 of this circle j and its place, in this circumference, de- Mathema- pends on the place of the moon’s afeending node, Draw EPF and GPL perpendicular to it j let GL be ^^ ^ the colure of the equinoxes, and EF the colure of the tOT be fup- folftices. Dr Bradley’s obfervations {bowed that the pofed to pole was in A when the node was in L, the vernal equi- defenbe a nox. If the node recede to H, the winter folftice, the circ e" pole is in B. When the node is in the autumnal equi¬ nox at G, the pole is at C ; and when the node is in F, the fummer folftice, the pole is in D. In inter¬ mediate fituations of the moon’s afeending node, the pole is in a point of the circumference ABCD, three figns or 90° more advanced. Dr Bradley, by comparing together a great number More exa& of obfervations, found that the mathematical theory, if an elljpfe and the calculation depending on it, would correfpond much better with the obfervations, if an ellipfe were ^circle, fubftituted for the circle ABCD, making the longer axis AC 18" and the fhorter, BD, 16". M. d’Alem¬ bert determined, by the phyfical theory of gravitation, the axis to be 18" and X3'/-4. 264 Thefe obfervations, and this mathematical theory, Thefe ob- muft be confidered as fo many fafts in aftronomy, and fervations we muft deduce from them the methods of computing an(^ the places of all celeftial phenomena, agreeable to the ° univerfal praftice of determining every point of the hea- aftronomy, vens by its longitude, latitude, right afeenfion, and de¬ clination. 265 It is evident, in the firft place, that the equation Obliquity of the pole’s motion makes a change in the obliquity °f t*56 e- of the ecliptic. The inclination of the equator to the chptic» ecliptic is meafured by the arch of a great circle inter¬ cepted between their poles. Nowt, if the pole be in O inftead of P, it is plain that the obliquity is meafured by EO inftead of EP. If EP be confidered as the mean obliquity of the ecliptic, it is augmented by 9" when the moon’s afeending node is in the vernal equi¬ nox, and confequently the pole in A. It is on the contrary, diminilhed 9" when the node is in the au¬ tumnal equinox, and the pole in C j and it is equal to the mean when the node is in the colure of the folftices. This change of the inclination of the earth’s axis to the plane of the ecliptic was called the nutation of the axis by Sir Ifaac Newton. Dr Bradley alfo difeovered a general and periodical, motion in all the ftars, which alter a little their relative fituations. To form an idea of this motion, let us fup¬ pofe that each ftar deferibes annually a fmall circum¬ ference parallel to the ecliptic, whofe centre is the mean pofition of the ftar, and whofe diameter, as feen from the earth, fubtends an angle of about 40" 5 and that it w'as in that circumference as the fun in its orbit, - but fo that the fun always precedes it by 90°. This circumference,^projedled upon the furface of the celef¬ tial fphere, appears under the form of an ellipfe, more or lets flattened according to the height of the ftar above the equator, the fmaller axis of the ellipfe be¬ ing to the greater axis as the fine of that height to ra¬ dius. Thefe periodical movements of th(? ftars have received the name of aberrations of the Jixed fars. L 2 Befides 84 ASTRO Apparent^ Befides tliefe genei'cil motions, particular motions the Heaven ^ave ^een detected in feveral liars, exceflively How in¬ ly Bodies, deed, but which a long fucceflion of ages has rendered C——v- < fenfible. Thefe motions have been chiefly obferved in Sirius and Arfturus. But aflronomers fuppofe that all the liars have fimilar motions, which may become evi- 266 dent in procefs of time. Diitance of No method of aicertaining the diftance of fixed liars the fixed }lath hitherto been found out. Thofe who have formed ■n^afunible.conje(^ures concerning them, have thought that they "’were at kail 400,000 times farther from us than we are from the fun. rJhey are faid to be fixed, becaufe they have been generally obferved to keep at the fame diltances from each other ; their apparent diurnal revolutions being 267 cRufed folely by the earth’s turning on its axis. They feem aPPear a feeble magnitude to the bare eye, be- — ^ caufe t1‘ie retina is affefled not only by the rays of light .yaked eye. which are emitted direflly from them, but by many thoufands more, which falling upon our eyelids, and upon the aerial particles about us, are redefled 'into our eyes fo llrongly as to excite vibrations not only in thofe points of the retina where the real images of the liars are formed, but alfo in other points at fome di- liance round about. This makes us imagine the liars to be much bigger than they wrould appear if we faw them only by the few rays which come diredlly from them, fo as to enter our eyes without being intermixed with others. Any one may be fenfible of this, by looking at a liar of the firll magnitude through a long narrow tube 5 wdrich, though it takes in as much of the Iky as would hold 1000 fuch liars, yet fcarce ren¬ ders that one vilible. The more a telefcope magnifies, the lefs is the aper¬ ture through which the liar is feen ; and confequent- ly, the fewer ray£ it admits into the eye. Now, fince the liars appear lefs in a telefcope which magnifies 200 times, than they do to the bare eye, infomuch that they feem to be only indivifible points, it proves at once that the liars are at immenfe dillances from us, and that they Ihine by their own proper light. If they fhone by borrowed light, they would be as invi- fible without telefcopes as the fatellites of Jupiter are 5 for thefe.fatellites appear bigger when viewed with a good telefcope than the large!! fixed liars do. n f Ur Herfchel has propofed a method of afeertaining the fixed ° t^ie Parallax ^ie fixed liars, fomething fimilar, but ilars. more complete, than that mentioned by Galileo and others •, for it is by the parallax of the fixed liars that wTe Ihould be bell able to determine tbeir dillance. The method pointed out by Galileo, and firll attempt¬ ed by Hooke, Flamllead, Molineux, and Bradley, of taking dillances of liars from the zenith that pafs very near it, has given us a much jufter idea of the immenfe dillance of the liars, and furnilhed us with an approxi¬ mation to the knowledge of their parallax, that is much nearer the truth than we ever had before. But Dr Herfchel mentions the infufficiency of their inltru- ments, which were fimilar to the prefent zenith fee- tors, the method of zenith dillances tfeeing liable to confiderable errors on account of refraction, the change of pofition of the earth’s axis arifing from nutation, precellion of the eepainoxes, and other caufes, and the aberration of the light. The method of his own is by N O M Y. Part IT. means of double liars ^ which is exempted from thefe Apparent errors, and of fuch a nature that the annual parallax, Motions of even if it fhould not exceed the tenth part of a fecond, ^godt'es'" may Hill become more vifible, and be afeertained, at r . ^ kail to a much greater degree of approximation than it has ever been done. This method is capable of eve- ph'd.Tranf, ry improvement which the tekfeope and mechanifm of vol. IxxiL micrometers can furnilli. The method audits theoryP*S2* will be feen by the following inveltigation, extracled from his paper on the fubjeft. Let O, E, (fig. 90.) be two oppofitc points in the annual orbit, taken in the fame plane with two liars #, b, of unequal magni-1 tudes. Let the angle « O be obferved, w hen the earth is at O, and 17 E £ be obferved when the earth is at E. From the difference of thefe angles, if there Ihould be any, wre may calculate the parallax of the liars, according to the theory fubjoined. 7'hefe two liars ought to be as near each other as poffible, and alfo to differ as much in magnitude as we can find them. Dr Herfchel’s theory of the annual parallax of double liars, with the method of computing from thence wrhat is generally called the parallax of the fixed liars, or of lingle liars of the firll magnitude, luch as are nearelt to us, fuppofes, Jh'J}, that the liars, one with another, are about the fize of the fun 5 and, fecondly, that the difference of tbeir apparent magnitudes is ow¬ ing to their different diftances; fo that the liar of the fecond, third, ’or fourth magnitude, is twro, three, or four times as far 01T as one of the firll. Thefe princi¬ ples which he premifes as pollulata, have fo great a probability in their favour, that they will hardly be objefted to by thofe who are in the kail acquainted with the doftrine of chances. Accordingly, let OE (fig. 91.) be the wdiole diameter of the earth’s an¬ nual orbit, and let b, c, be three liars fituated in the ecliptic, in fuch a manner that they may be feen all in one line O a b c, when the earth is at O. Let the line Q a b c be perpendicular to OE, and drawr PE parallel to cOj then, if On, a b, be, are equal to each other, a will be a liar of the firll magnitude, b of the fecond, and c of the third. Let us nowT fuppofe the angle O tz E, or parallax of the whole orbit of the earth, to be 1" of a degree 5 then we have PE a—O a Em" : and becaufe very fmall angles, having the fame fubtenfe OE, may be taken to be in the inverfe ratio of the lines O a, O b, O c, &c. we lliall have O b E=r-H', O c Erz-J", &c. Now when the earth i& removed to E, we lhall have ¥¥*b—JLb o— V', and PE a—PE b—a E b—f, i. e. the liars a, b, will ap¬ pear to be diflant. We alfo have PE crzE c Q— f, and PE a—PE czza E czzzf ; i. e. the liars a, cr will appear to be dillant when the earth is at E. Now, fince we have b EPzrTh an<3 c EP—1-", there¬ fore b EP—c EP=£ E c=\"—\"=y'; i. e. the liars b, c, wall appear to be only removed from each other when the earth is at E, Whence we may de¬ duce the following expreflion, tc denote the parallax that will become vifible in the change of dillance be¬ tween the two liars, by the removal of the earth from one extreme of its orbit to the other. Let P exprel’s the total parallax of a fixed liar of the firll magnitude, M the magnitude of the largelt of the two liars, m the magnitude of the fmallell, and p the partial parallax to Part II. Apparent to be obferved by the change in the diftance of a dou- Motions of m—M _ , i • r j tlieHeaven-bk ftar j then will Pj and />, being tound ly Bodies. mm ‘——v——' ^ • ... . T. PMw „ „ c by obfervation, will give us P~-——. x.. Cr. oup- pofe a ftar of the firft magnitude fliould have a fmall liar of the twelfth magnitude near it; then will the 12 X I? partial parallax we are to expert to fee be ^ y, or of the total parallax of a fixed flar of the firfl mag¬ nitude j and if we Ihould, by obfervation, find the partial parallax between two fuch liars to amount to i", we (hall have the total parallax P ASTRONOMY. X X I X 12 i".o9og. If the liars are 12—i of die third and twenty- 24—3 '.3428. fourth magnitude, the partial parallax will be ^ ^ 24 P . and if, by obfervation, /> is found to be a 72 tenth of a fecond, the whole parallax will come ouc ■ i X3 X 24 24—3 Farther, fuppofe the liars, being ftill in the ecliptic, to appear in one line, when the earth is in any other part of its orbit between O and E •, then will the pa¬ rallax Hill be expreffed by the fame algebraic formula, and one of the maxima will Hill lie at O, the other at E j but the whole elleft will be divided into two parts, which will be in proportion to each other as radius — fine to radius -j- fine of the liars diilance from the nearelt conjundlion or oppofition. When the liars are anywhere out of the ecliptic, fituated fo as to appear in one line O a b c perpendicu¬ lar to OE, the maximum of parallax will Hill be ex- -M expreffion for which will be A -M, x ss 'RR ‘ H B b (or D Q^and B b will be 7071 Again, let; the liars be at fome diilance, EP, imagine them all to be planes at right angles to the figure j and it will appear that the parallax of the liars in longitude mull be the fame as if the fmall liar had been without latitude. And fince the liars b, c, by the motion of the earth from O to E, will not change their latitude, we lhall have the following con- llrudlion for finding the diilance of the liars a b, tic, at E, and from thence the parallax B. Let the tri¬ angle a b (S (fig. 94.) reprefent the fituation of the liars j is the fubtenfe of 5", the angle under which they are fuppofed to be feen at O. The quantity b ; 771—M. 2 M P for the liars will apparently deferibe two ellipfes in the heavens, whofe tranfverfe axes will be to each other in the ratio of M to 7n (fig. 93.), and A <7, B C r, Vi d, will be the cotemporary fituations. Now, if b be drawn parallel to AC, and the parallelogram b q BQ^be completed we lhall have Z» Q_=r 4 C A—*- c a— 4 C p, or femiparallax 90° before or after the fun, and B b may be refolved into, or is compound¬ ed of, b Q^and b q ; but b q~\- BD—4 b d — the fe- miparallax in the conjunction or oppofition. We alfo therefore the diftance have R : S by the former theorem is found, P, which is J 1V1 771 the partial parallax that would have been feen by the earth’s moving from O to E, if both liars had been in the ecliptic 5 but on account of the difference in lati¬ tude, it will be nowr reprefented by a g, the hypothe- nufe of the triangle ab : therefore, in general, put- /DD—ddx M irt ting a b—d, and a /3rrD, we have V — P. Hence D being taken by obfervation, and dr M, and 771, given, we obtain the total parallax. If the fituation of the liars differs in longitude as well as latitude, we may refolve this cafe by the following method. Let the triangle a b fS (fig. 169.) reprefent the fituation of the liars, a b—d being their dillance feen at O, a /SrrD their dillance feen at E. That the change b ji, which is produced by the earth’s motion . n- 1 1 m— will be truly expreued by -rr-; P may be proved aa M 77Z before, by fuppofing the liar a to have been placed at 86 ASTRONOMY. Part II. Apparent Motions of theHeaven- ly Bodies *. Now let the angle of pofition b a uhe taken by a micrometer, or by any other method fufficiently exa6t $ then, by folving the triangle ab k, we (hall have the Ion. gitudinal and latitudinal differences a « and £ « of the two liars. Put a u~x, b a—y, and it will be x-^-bp ~ 0 q, whence D MP VD1—v1 x VPw—ixhn M. + y y; and -M :P. If neither of the liars fliould be in the ecliptic, nor have the fame longitude or latitude, the laft theorem will {till ferve to calculate the total parallax whofe maximum will lie in E. There will, moreover, arife another parallax, whofe maximum will be in the con¬ junction and oppofition, which will be divided, and lie on different lides of the large liar ; but as we know the W'hole parallax to be exceedingly frnall, it will not be neceffary to inveltigate every particular cafe of this kind ; for by reafon of the divifion of the parallax, which renders obfervations taken at any other time, except where it is greateft, very unfavourable, the for¬ mulas would be of little ufe. Dr Herfchel clofes his account of this theory with a general obfervation on the time and place where the maxima of parallax will happen. When two unequal liars are both in the ecliptic, or, not being in the ecliptic, have equal latitudes, north or fouth, and the largell liar has moll longitude 5 the maximum of the apparent dillance will be when the fun’s longitude is 90 degrees more than the liars, or when obferved in the morning 5 and the minimum when the longitude of the fun is 90 degrees lefs than that of the liars, or when obferved in the evening. When the Imall liar has molt longitude, the maximum and minimum, as well as the time of obfervation, will he the reverfe of the former. When the liars differ in latitudes, this makes no alteration in the place of the maximum or minimum, nor in the time of obferva¬ tion j i. e. it is immaterial whether the largeff liar has the lealt or the greatell dillance of the two liars. Chap. VI. Of the Figure of the Earth- Having now deferibed the apparent motions of the heavenly bodies, let us return to the earth, in order to examine the information which has been colle&ed con- cerning its figure. Earth fphe- We have feen already, that the earth is fpherical. rical. The force of gravity conllantly directed towards its centre retains bodies on its furface, though lituated on places diametrically oppofite, or though antipodes to each other. The fun and liars appear always" above the earth ; for above and below are merely relative to 2^o the direction of gravity. Dimenfions AsToon as the fpherical figure of the earth was dif- hqw afeer- covered, curiolity naturally led men to endeavour to tamed. meafure its dimenfions. Hence it is probable, that at¬ tempts of that nature were made in very ancient times. The reference which feveral of the ancient meafures have to the fize of the globe is a confirmation of this. But among the moderns Picard was the firft who exe¬ cuted the talk with any degree of fuccefs. He mea- fured a degree of the meridian in France about the Apparent middle of the 17th century, Motions of Since a meridian, or any other circle on a fphere, t^^eoaVn" may be conceived to be divided into 360 equal parts, . ^ 1 '^*r called degrees, and thefe into minutes and feconds, as explained by the writers on trigonometry, the circum¬ ference of the earth, and thence its diameter, may be determined by meafuring the length of a degree on the meridian or any other great circle. To perform this important problem, there have been various methods invented by different philofophers of early and later times 5 one of thefe methods, which unites confider- able accuracy with great facility, will be readily under- Hood from fig. 95. where PB and ST reprefent two mountains or very high buildings, the dillance PS between which muff be very nicely determined by longimetry : then, by meafuring the angles RBT and RTB with an accurate inllrument, their fum taken from 1800 leaves the angle BRT, which is meafured alfo by the arc PS j whence PS is known in parts of the whole circle. Thus, if the angle BTR be 89° 45' 32", the angle TBR 89° 54' 28", and the diltance PS 23-/5- Englilh miles; then the angle R or arc PS being equal to x8o°—89° 45' $2"zB"—20', it will be, as 20' : 6o' or 1° : : 23TT : 69-5- Englilh miles, length of a degree. Hence the circumference of the earth is (according to this example) 24912 miles, and its diameter nearly 7930 miles.-—A material advantage attending this method is, that there is no oc- calion to meafure the altitudes of the mountains, an obje6l which can feldom be attained without confider- able difficulty. The method which is given above is, it mull be confeffed, as well as all the other methods which aim at the meafurement of a degree without having re- courfe to the heavenly bodies, liable to feme inaccu¬ racy ; for, by reafon of the changes in the Hate of the atmofphere, dillant terreftrial obje6ts never appear in their true places; they always feem more or lefs ele¬ vated or dillant, according to the nature of the feafon, and the time of the day. On this account—and be- caufe it could not efcape obfervation, that as perfons changed their fituation on the earth by moving towards the north or the fouth, the liars and other heavenly bodies either increafed or decreafed their apparent alti¬ tudes proportionally—the meafurement of a degree was attempted, even by the earlieff philofophers, by means of known fixed liars. Every perfon who is ac¬ quainted with plane trigonometry will admit, that the dillance of two places, north and fouth of each other, may be accurately meafured by a feries of triangles; for if we meafure the diftance of any two objects, and take the angles which each of them make with a third, the triangle formed by the three obje£is will become known; fo that the other two fides may be as truly determined by calculation, as if they had been actu¬ ally meafured. And by making either of thefe fides the bafe of a new triangle, the diftances of other ob- je£l$ may be found in the fame manner; and thus by a feries of triangles, properly connected at their bafes, we might mealure any part of the circumference of the earth. And if thefe dillances were reduced to the north and fouth, or meridian line, and the altitude of fame liar was meafured at the extremities of the diltancer I Part II. Apparent Motions of theHeaven- ly Bodies. ASTRONOMY. S7 271 Different meafure- ments. diliance, the difference of the altitudes would be equal to the length of the grand lines in degrees, minutes, &c. whence the length of a degree would be known. This method was, we believe, firft praftifed by Eratofthenes in Egypt; and has been frequently ufed fince with greater and greater accuracy, in proportion as the in- ftruments for taking angles became, by gradual im¬ provements, more exa£t and minute. By this method, or fome others not widely different, and which it is needlefs here to explain, the length of a degree has been meafured in different parts of the earth •, the refults of the mod noted of thefe admea- furements it may be proper to give. Snell found the length of a degree by two different methods : by one method he made it 57064 Paris toifes, or 342384 feet j and by the other 57057 toifes, or 342342 feet. M. Picard, in 1669, found by menfuration from Amiens to Malvoifin, the quantity of a degree to be 57060 toifes, or 342360 feet ; being nearly an arith¬ metical mean between the numbers of Snell. Our countryman Norwood, about the year 1635, (by meafuring between London and York, determined a degree at 367196 Englifh feet, or 57300 Paris toifes, or 69 miles 288 yards. Mufchenbroek, in 1700, with a view of correfting the errors of Snell, found by particular obfervations that the degree between Alcmaer and Bergen-op-zoom contained 57033 toiles. Meffrs. Maupertuis, Clairaut, Monnier, and others from France, were fent on a northern expedition, and be^an their operations in July 1736 5 they found the length of a degree in Srveden to be 57439 toifes, when reduced to the level of the fea. About the fame time Meffrs. Godin, Bouguer, and Condamine, from France, with fome philofophers from Spain, were fent to South America, and meafured a degree in the province of Quito in Peru 5 the medium of their refults gives about 56750 toifes for a degree. M. de la Caille, being at the Cape of Good Hope in 1752, found the length of a degree our the meridian there to be 57037 toifes. In 1755 Father Bofcovich found the -length of a degree between Rome and Ri¬ mini in Italy to be 56972 toifes. In 1764, F. Beccaria meafured a degree near Tu¬ rin •, from his meafuremenfhe deduced the length of a degree there 57024 toifes. At Vienna the length of a degree was found 57091 toifes. And in 1766 Meffrs. Mafon and .Dixon meafured a degree in Maryland and Pennfylvania, North America, which they determined to be 363763 Engliili feet, or 569047- Paris toifes. The difference of thefe meafures leads us to conclude that the earth is not exactly fpherical, but that its axis which paffes through the poles, is fiiorter than that which paffes through thq equator. But the obferva¬ tions which have been made to determine the magni¬ tude and figure of the earth, have not hitherto led to refults completely fatisfadlbry. They have indeed de- monftrated the compreffion or oblatenefs of the terre- ftrial fpheroid, but they have left an uncertainty as to the quantity of that compreffion, extending from about the 170th, to the 330th part of the radius of the equa¬ tor. Between thefe two quantities, the former of which is nearly double of the latter, molt of the re¬ fults are placed, but in ffich a manner that thofe bell Apparent entitled to credit are much nearer to the leaft extreme t^^‘c°“en. than to the greateff. Sir Ifaac Newton, as is well jy gc,c|ies> known, fuppofmg the earth to be of uniform denfity, C—y-— affigned for the compreffion at the poles 7^? nearly a mean between the two limits juft mentioned ; and it is probable, that, if the compreffion is lefs than this, it is owing to the increafe of the denfity toward the centre. Bofcovich, taking a mean from all the mea¬ fures of degrees, fo as to make the pofitive and nega¬ tive errors equal, found the difference of the axis of the meridian ~ 248" By comparing the degrees mea¬ fured by Father Leifganic in Germany, with eight others that have been meafured in different latitudes, La Lande finds anc^j fuppreffing the degree in Lapland, which appears to err in excefs, for the cdmpreflion. La Place makes it j Sejour 3°7 and, laftly, Carouge and La Lande 300 272 Thefe anomalies have induced fome aftronomers, sUpp0fe lection • • • « J o aaftvered. motIon on lts axls> they are all eafily anfwered and fet O N O M Y. 91 afide. That it may turn without being feetl or felt ft-eal Mo¬ by us to do fo, has been already fhown. But fome are apt to imagine, that if the earth turns eaftward (as Bodies/ it certainly does if it turns at all), a ball fired perpen- u—v— dicularly upward in the air muft fall confiderably well- ward of the place it was projected from. The objec¬ tion which at firft feems to have fome weight, will be found to have none at all, w hen we confider that the gun and ball partake of the earth’s motion ; and there¬ fore the ball being carried fomard with the air as quick as the earth and air turn, rouft fall down on the fame place. A (tone let fall from the top of a main- maft, if it meets wuth no obftacle, falls on the deck as near the foot of the maft when the fliip fails as when it does not. If an inverted bottle full of liquor be hung up to the ceiling of the cabin, and a fmall hole be made in the cork, to let the liquor drop through on the door, the drops will fall juft as far forward on the door when the ftiip fails as when it is at reft. And gnats or dies can as eafily dance among one another in a moving cabin as in a fixed chamber. As for thofe Scripture expreflions which feem to contradict the earth’s motion, this general anfwer may be made to them all, viz. It is plain from many inftances, that the Scriptures were never intended to inftruCt us in philofophy or aftronomy 5 and therefore on thofe fub- jeCts expreflions are not always to be taken in the li¬ teral fenfe, but for the molt part as accommodated to the common apprehenfions of mankind. Men of fenfe in all ages, when not treating of the fciences purpofely, have followed this method : and it would be in vain to follow' any other in addreffmg ourfelves to the vul¬ gar, or bulk of any community. Chap. II. Of the Revolution of the Planets round the Sun. Th e apparent motions of the planets lead us to con¬ clude that they all move in orbits nearly circular round the fun, while the fun moves round the earth : that the orbits of Venus and Mercury are nearer the fun than the earth ; but the orbits of the other planets include the earth within them. All the apparent mo¬ tions are reconcilable to this opinion, and lead us to form it. It removes all the inexplicable intricacy of their apparent motions. But the earth itfelf is a planet, and bears a very ex- aft refemblance to the reft. Shall we fuppofe all the other planets to revolve round the fun while it alone remains ftationary ? Or fliall wTe fuppofe that the earth, like the Other planets, revolves round the fun in the courfe of a year ? The phenomena in both cafes will be exaftly the fame, but the motion of the earth will reduce the whole fyftem to the greateft fimplicity, whereas the motion of the fun carrying with it the re¬ volving planets would leave the whole complicated and involved. Various opinions on this fubjeft have been maintained by aftronomers. Concerning the opinion of the very firft aftronomers about the fyftera of nature, w'e are neceffarily as igno¬ rant as we are of thofe aftronomers themfelves. What- ever opinions are handed down to us, muft be of a vaft- ly later date than the introduction of aftronomy a- mong mankind. If we may hazard a conjefture, how¬ ever, wre are inclined to think that the firft opinions M2 on « 92 ASTRONOMY. Real Mo- on this fubject were much more juft than thofe that afforded by the Ptolemaic hypothefis. held afterwards for many ages. We tions of the, Heavenly- Bodies. 279 Pythagore¬ an fyitem. were neld afterwards tor many ages. We are told that Pythagoras maintained the motion of the earth, which is now univerfally believed, but at that time appears to have been the opinion of only a few detach¬ ed individuals of Greece. As the Greeks borrowed many things from the Egyptians, and Pythagoras had travelled into Egypt and Phenice, it is probable he might receive an account of this hypothelis from thence: but whether he did fo or not, we have now no means of knowing, neither is it of any im¬ portance whether he did or not. Certain it is, how¬ ever-, that this opinion did not prevail in his days, nor for many ages after. In the 2d century after Chrift, the very name of the Pythagorean hypothefis wTas fup- prefled by a fyftem creeled by the famous geographer and aftronomer Claudius Ptolemaeus. This fyftem, <- t which commonly goes by the name of the Ptolemaic, by the PtpTe feems not to have originally invented, but adopted iemaic. as the prevailing one of that age and perhaps made it fomewhat more confiftent than it was before. He fuppofed the earth at reft in the centre of the univerfe. Round the earth, and the neareft to it of all the hea¬ venly bodies, the moon performed its monthly revolu¬ tions. Next to the moon wras placed the planet Mer¬ cury ; then Venus 5 and above that the fun, Mars, Ju¬ piter, and Saturn, in their proper orbits ; then the fphere of the fixed ftars j above thefe, two fpheres of what he called cry/lalline heavens 5 above thefe was the primum mobile, which, by turning round once in 24 hours, by fome unaccountable means or other, car¬ ried all the reft along with it. This primum mobile was encompaffed by the empyrean heaven, which wras of a cubic form, and the feat of angels and bleffed fpirits. Befides the motions of all the heavens round the earth once in 24 hours, each planet was fuppofed to have a particular motion of its own; the moon, for inftance, once in a month, performed an additional revolution, the fun in a year, &c. See fig. 98. It is eafy to fee, that, on this fuppofition, the con- fufed motions of the planets already deferibed could never be accounted for. Had they circulated uniformly round the earth', their apparent motion ought always to have been equal and uniform, without appearing either ft&tionary or retrograde in any part of their courfes. In confequence of this objection, Ptolemy was obliged to invent a great number of circles, inter¬ fering with each other, which he called epicycles and eccentrics. Thefe proved a ready and effectual falvo for all the defedls of his fyftem as, whenever a planet w-as deviating from the courfe it ought on his plan to have followed, it was then only moving in an epicycle or an eccentric, and would in due time fall into its proper path. As to the natural caufes by which the planets were diredled to move in thefe epicycles and eccentrics, it is no wonder that he found himfelf much at a lofs, and was obliged to have recourfe to divine power for an explanation, or in other wrords, to own that his fyftem was unintelligible. This fyftem continued to be in vogue till-the begin- rean fyftem ning of the t6th century, when Nicolaus Copernicus, revived by a native of Thorn (a city of Regal Pruflia), and a man opermeus. of great abilities, began to try whether a more fatis- faeftory manner of accounting for the apparent motions o£ the heavenly bodies could not be obtained than was 281 Ptolemy’s fyftem in- fufficient. 282 Pythago Part III, He had recoufe Real Mo. to every author upon the fubject, to fee whether any hadtions ot the been more confiftent in explaining the irregular mo- tions of the ftars than the mathematical fchools: but he , ° leS' received no*fatisfafticn, till he found firft from Cicero, v that Nicetas the Syracufan had maintained the motion of the earth and next from Plutarch, that others of the ancients had been of the fame opinion. From the fmali hints he could obtain from the ancients, Coperni¬ cus then deduced a moft complete fyftem, capable of folving every phenomenon in a fatisfaftqry manner. From him this lyftem hath ever afterwards been called the Copernican, and is reprefented fig. 99. Here the fun is fuppofed to be in the centre ; next him revolves the planet Mercury 5 then Venus ; next, the Earth, with the Moon : beyond thefe, Mars, Jupiter, and Sa¬ turn and far beyond the orbit of Saturn, he fuppofed the fixed ftars to be placed, which' formed the bound¬ aries of the vilible creation. 283 Though this hypothefis afforded the only natural and Tychonic fatisfadlory folution of the phenomena which fo much^ftcm- perplexed Ptolemy’s fyftem, it met with great oppofi- tion at firft ; which is not to be wmndered at, confider- ing the age in which he lived. Even the famous aftro¬ nomer Tycho Brahe could never affent to the earth’s motion, which w-as the foundation of Copernicus’s fcheme. He therefore invented another fyftem, w here-IOO» by he avoided the aferibing of motion to the earth, and at the fame time got clear of the difficulties with which Ptolemy was embarraffed. In this fyftem, the earth was fuppofed the centre of the orbits of the fun and moon ; but the fun was fuppofed to be the centre of the orbits of the five planets ; fo that the fun with all the planets were by Tycho Brahe fuppofed to turn round the earth, in order to fave the motion of the earth round its axis once in 24 hours. This fyftem was never much followed, the fuperiority of the Copernican fcheme being evident at firft fight. The fun is fo immenfely bigger and heavier than the earth, that, if he w-as moved out of his place, not only the earth, but all the other planets, if they were united into, one mafs, wmuld be carried along with the fun as the pebble wmuld be with the mill-ftone. 284 By confidering the law of gravitation, which takes Fr°m the place throughout the folar fyftem, in another light, it ProPortlon- w ill be evident that the earth moves round the fun in a year, and not the fun round the earth. It has beengcc. ’ obferved, that the pow*er of gravity decreafes as the fquare of the diftance increafes \ and from this it fol¬ low's with mathematical certainty, that wffen two or more bodies move round another as their centre of mo¬ tion, the fquares of their periodic times will be to one another in the fame proportion as the cubes of their diftances from the central, body. This holds precifely with regard to the planets round the fun, and the fa- tellites round the planets} the relative diftances of all which are wTell known. But, if w7e fuppofe the fun to move round the earth, and compare its period w ith the moon’s by the above rule, it will be found that the fun would take no lefs than 173,510 days to move round the'earth; in which cafe our year would be 475 times as long as it now' is. To this we may add, that the afpedls of increafe and decreafe of the planets, the times of their feeming to ftand {fill, and to move dired! and retrograde, anfwer precifely to the earth’s motion; but Part III. A S 1 R O Real Mo- but not at all to the fun’s without introducing the moft tions of the abfurd and monftrous fuppofitions, which would deftroy ^Bodies^ harmony, order, and fimplicity,- in the fyflem. Moreover, if the earth be fuppofed to ftand Hill, and the ftars to revolve in free fpaces about the earth in 24 honrs, it is certain that the forces by which the ftars revolve in their orbits are not direfted to the earth, but to the centres of the feveral orbits ; that is, of the fe- veral parallel circles which the liars on different fides of the equator defcribe every day ; and the like infe¬ rences may be drawn from the fuppofed diurnal mo¬ tion of the planets, fince they are never in the equi- noflial but twnce in their courfes with regard to the Har¬ ry heavens. But, that forces Ihould be directed to no central body, on w'hich they phyfically depend, but to innumerable imaginary points in the axis of the earth produced to the poles of the heavens, is an hypo- thefis too abfurd to be allowed of by any rational creature. And it is Hill more abfurd to imagine that thefe forces Ihould increafe exactly in proportion to the ditlances from this axis ; for this is an indication of an increafe to infinity 5 whereas the force of attrac¬ tion is found to decreafe in receding from the fountain from whence it Hows. But the farther any dar is from the quiefcent pole, the greater mud be the orbit which it defcribes •, and yet it appears to go round in the fame time as the neared dar to the pole does. And if we take into confideration the twofold motion obferved in the dars, one diurnal round the axis of the earth in 24 hours, and the other round the axis of the ecliptic in 25,920 years, it would require an explication of fuch a perplexed compofition of forces, as could by no means be reconciled with any phyfical theory. The dronged objedlion that can be made againd againft the the earth’s motion round the fun is, that in oppofite earth’s points of the earth’s orbit, its axis, which ahvays keeps motion an- a para]lel direction, wmuld point to different fixed dars; which is not found to be facl. But this objection is eafily removed, by confidering the immenfe didance of the liars in refpeft of the diameter of the earth’s orbit; the latter being no more than a point when compared to the former. If we lay a ruler on the fide of a table, and along the edge of the ruler view the top of a fpire at ten miles didance ; then lay the ruler on the oppo¬ fite fide of the table in a parallel fituation to what it had before, and the fpire wall dill appear along the edge of the ruler; becaufe our eyes, even when adided by the bed indruments, are incapable of didinguilhing fo fmall a change at fo great a didance. Dr Bradley, our late adronomer-royal, found by a motion j>, that the flame may be ftill in the plane of the circle j and twilling the thread as before, that the globe may turn round its axis the fame way as you carry it round the candle, that is, from weft to eaft *, let the globe down into the lowermolfc part of the wire circle at py : and if the circle be pro¬ perly inclined, the candle will thine perpendicularly on the tropic of Cancer ; and the frigid zone, lying within the ardlic or north polar circle, will be all in the light, as in the figure ; and will keep in the light, let the globe turn round its axis ever fo often. From the equator to the north polar circle, all the places have longer days and ftiorter nights 5 but from the equator to the fouth polar circle, juft the reverie. The fun does not fet to any part of the north frigid zone, as Ihown by the candle’s fhining on it, fo that the motion of the globe can carry no place of that zone into the dark ; and at the fame time the fouth frigid zone is involved in darknefs, and the turning of the globe brings none of its places into the light. If the earth were to continue in the like part of its orbit, the fun would never fet to the inhabitants of the north frigid zone, nor rife to thofe of the fouth. At the equator it would be always equal day and night; and as places are gradually more and more diftant from the equator towards the arclic circle, they would have longer days and {hotter nights; whilft thofe on the fouth fide of the equator would have their nights longer than their days. In this cafe, there would be continual fummer on the north fide of the equator, and continual winter on the fouth fide of it. But as the globe turns round its axis, move your hand flowly forward, fo as to carry the globe from H towards E, and the boundary of light and darknefs will approach towards the north pole, and recede to¬ wards the fouth pole ", the northern places will go through lefs and lefs of the light, and the fouthern places through more and more of it; fhowing how’ the northern days decreafe in length and the fouthern days increafe, whilft the globe proceeds from H to E, When the globe is at E, it is at a mean ftate between the loweft and higheft parts of its orbit ; the candle is diredlly over the equator, the boundary of light and darknefs juft reaches to both the poles, and all places on the globe go equally through the light and dark hemifpheres, {flowing that the days and nights are then equal at all places of the earth, the poles only except¬ ed ; for the fun is then fetting to the north pole and rifing to the fouth pole. Continue moving the globe forward, and as it goes through the quarter A, the north pole recedes ftill far¬ ther into the dark hemifphere, and the fouth pole ad¬ vances more into the light, as the globe comes nearer to 25 : and when it comes there at F, the candle is directly over the tropic of Capricorn ; the days are at the ftiorteft and nights at the longeft, in the northern hemifphere, all the way from the equator to the arflic circle; and the reverfe in the fouthern hemifphere from the equator to the antar&ic circle } within which circles Part HI. A S T R Real Mo- circles it is dark to tlie north frigid zone, and light to lions of the fouth. ^Bodit's ^ Continue both motions ; and as the globe moves . through the quarter B, the north pole advances to¬ wards the light, and the fouth pole recedes towards the dark ; the days lengthen in the northern hemifphere and fliorten in the fouthern ; and when the globe comes to G, the candle will be again over the equator (as when the globe was at E), and the days and nights will again be equal as formerly •, and the north pole will be juft coming into the light, the fouth pole going out of it. Thus we fee the reafon why the days lengthen and fhorten from the equator to the polar circles every year •, why there is fometimes no day or night for many turnings of the earth, within the polar circles ; why there is but one day and one night in the whole year at the poles; and why the days and nights are equally long all the year round at the equator, which is always equally cut by the circle bounding light and darknefs. The inclination of an axis or orbit is merely relative, becaufe we compare it with fome other axis or orbit which we confider as not inclined at all. Thus, our horizon being level to us, whatever place of the earth we are upon, we confider it as having no inclination ; and yet, if we travel 90 degrees from that place, we {hall then have an horizon perpendicular to the former ; 2y1 but it will ftill be level to us. Different Bet us now take a view of the earth in its annual feafons par-courfe round the fun, coniidering its orbit as having no ticularly inclination ; and its axis as inclining 23-!-degrees from tip ainet. a j|ne perpen3icular to the plane of its orbit, and keep¬ ing the fame oblique direction in all parts of its annual courfe *, or, as commonly termed, keeping always pa¬ rallel to itfelf. Fig. 102. Let a, b, c, d, e, f g, b, be the earth in eight diffe- i-ent parts of its orbit, equidiftant from one another ; Nr its axis, N its north pole, j- its fouth pole, and S the fun nearly in the centre of the earth’s orbit. As the earth goes round the fun according to the order of the letters abed, &c. its axis Nr keeps the fame ob¬ liquity, and is ftill parallel to the line MN,r. When the earth is at a, its north pole inclines towrards the fun S, and brings all the northern places more into the light, than at any other time of the year. But when the earth is at e in the oppofite time of the year, the north pole declines from the fun, which occafions the northern places to be more in the dark than in the light, and the reverfe at the fouthern places \ as is evi¬ dent by the figure wdiich is taken from Dr Long’s aftronomy. When the earth is either at c or g, its axis inclines not either to or from the fun, but lies fide- wife to him, and then the poles are in the boundary of light and darknels •, and the fun, being diredlly over the equator, makes equal day and night at all places. When the earth is a b, it is half-way between the fummer folftice and harveft equinox when it is at d, it is half-way from the harveft equinox to the winter folftice } at f, half-way from the winter folftice to the fpring equinox ; and at h, halLway from the fpring equinox to the fummer folftice. From this oblique view of the earth’s orbit, let us fuppofe ourfelves to be raifed far above it, and placed juft over its centre S, looking down upon it from its 95 Real Mo- O N O M Y. north pole-, and as the earth’s orbit differs but very _ little from a circle, we (hall have its figure in fuch a ‘l^venly* view reprefented by the circle ABCDEFG. Let Bodies, us fuppofe this circle to be divided into 12 equal parts, .. .» called Jtgns, having their names affixed to them } and 103. each fign into 30 equal parts, called degrees, number¬ ed 10, 20, 30, as in the outermoft circle of the figure, which reprefents the great ecliptic in the heavens. Hie earth is fhown in eight different pofitions in this- circle ; and in each pofition At. is the equator, F the tropic of Cancer, the dotted circle the parallel of Lon¬ don, U the arftic or north polar circle, and P the north pole, where all the meridians or hour-circles meet. As the earth goes round the fun, the north pole keeps conftantly towards one part of the heavens, as it keeps in the figure towards the right-hand fide of the place. When the earth is at the beginning of Libra, name¬ ly on the 20th of March, in this figure the fun S as feen from the earth, appears at the beginning of A- ries in the oppofite part of the heavens, the north pole is juft coming into the light, and the fun is vertical to the equator ; which, together with the tropic of Can¬ cer, parallel of London, and arftic circle, are all equally cut by the circle bounding light and darknefs, coinciding with the fix o’clock hour-circle, and there¬ fore the days and nights are equally long at all places : for every part of the meridian ALTLo comes into the light at fix in the morning, and, revolving with the earth according to the order of the hour-letters, goes into the dark at fix in the evening. There are 24 me¬ ridians or hour-circles drawn on the earth in this figure, to (how the time of fun-rifing and fetting at different feafons of the year. As the earth moves in the ecliptic according to the order of the letters ABCD, &c. through the figns Libra, Scorpio, and Sagittarius, the north pole P comes more and more into the light ; the days increale as the nights decreafe in length, at all places north of the equator At, ; which is plain by viewing the earth at b on the 5th of May, when it is in the 15th degree of Scorpio, and the fun as feen from the earth appears in the 15th degree of Taurus. For then the tropic of Cancer T is in the light from a little after five in the morning till almoft feven in the evening ; the parallel of London, from half an hour paft four till half an hour paft feven 5 the polar circle U, from three till nine ; and a large tradl round the north pole P has day all the 24 hours, for many rotations of the earth on its axis. When the earth comes to c (fig. 104.) at the be¬ ginning of Capricorn, and the fun as feen from the earth appears at the beginning of Cancer, on the 21ft of June, as in this figure, it is in the pofition C in fig. 103 ; and its north pole inclines towards the fun, fo as to bring all the north frigid zone into the light, and the northern parallels of latitude more into the light than the dark from the equator to the polar cir¬ cle : and the more fo as they are farther from the equa¬ tor. The tropic of Cancer is in the light from five in. the morning till feven at night, the parallel of London from a quarter before four till a quarter after eight ; and the polar circle juft touches the dark, fo that the fun has only the lower half of his diik hid from the in¬ habitants on that circle for a few minutes about midT sdghtj 96 ASTRONO MY. Fart III. Real Mo- night, fuppofmg no inequalities in the horizon, and no tiOns ol the refra£tions. Balh-c ^ ^are v^ew t^ie figure ^ enough to (how, that as , the earth advances from Capricorn towards Aries, and the fun appears to move from Cancer towards Libra, the north pole recedes from the light, which caufes the days to decreafe and the nights to increafe in length, till the earth comes to the beginning of Aries, and then they are equal as before j for the boundary of light and darknefs cuts the equator and all its parallels equally or in halves. The north pole then goes into the dark, and continues therein until the earth goes half¬ way round its orbit; or, from the 23d of September till the 20th of March. In the middle between thefe times, viz. on the 2zd of December, the north pole is as far as it can be in the dark, which is 234- degrees, equal to the inclination of the earth’s axis from a per¬ pendicular to its orbit : and then the northern paral¬ lels are as much in the dark as they were in the light on the 21 ft of June ; the winter nights being as long as the fummer days, and the winter days as ftiort as the fummer nights. Here it mull be noted, that of all that has been faid of tire northern hemifphere, the con¬ trary muft be underftood of the fouthern •, for on dif¬ ferent ftdes of the equator the feafons are contrary, be¬ came, when the northern hemifphere inclines towards jp* the fun, the fouthern declines from him. Effedts of Taking it for granted, then, that the earth revolves the earth’s rouncJ tlie fun? let us fee what effect that motion has thea011 ear uPon t^e aPParent motions of the other planets. For ances^ofthe the better comprehending of thefe motions, however, planets. we have hitherto fuppofed the earth to Hand ftill in fome part of its orbit, while they go round the fun in theirs : but as this is not the cafe, it now remains to confider the changes which take place in confequence of the earth’s motion. Were the earth to Hand ftill in any part of its orbit as at A, the places of conjunftion both in the fuperior and inferior femicircle, as alfo of the greateft elongation j and confequently the places of direft and retrograde motion, and of the ftations of an inferior planet, would always be in the fame part of the heavens. Thus, in fig. 105. upon this fuppofition, the places of Mercury’s ftations would always be the points P and R, the arc of his motion PR, and of his retrograde motion RP ; whereas, on account of the earth’s motion, the places where thefe appearances happen are continually advancing forward in the eclip¬ tic according to the order of the figns. In fig. 106. let ABCD be the orbit of the earth *, efg b that of Mercury , Q the fun *, GKI an arc of the ecliptic ex¬ tended to the fixed ftars. When the earth is at A, the fun’s geocentric place is at F j and Mercury, in order to a conjunftion, muft be in the line AF; that is, in his orbit he muft be at f or h. Suppofe him to be at / in his inferior femicircle : if the earth flood ftill at A, his next conjunftion would be when he is in his fuperior femicircle at h ; the places of his greateft elongation alfo would be at e and g, and in the eclip¬ tic at E and G : but fuppofing the earth to go on in its orbit from A to B; the fun’s geocentric'place is now at K j and Mercury, in order to be in conjunction, ought to be in the line BK at m. As by the motion of the earth, the places of Mercury’s conjunctions with the fun are thus continually carried round in the eclip¬ tic in confequence, fo the places of his utmoft elonga¬ tions muft be carried in confequence. alfo, Thus, tvhen j on the other hand, they are in oppofition to him plained. when the earth is between the fun and them. They are in quadrature with him when their geocentric pla¬ ces are 90° dirtant from that of the fun. In order to underftand their apparent motions, we fliall fuppofe them to ftand ftill in fome part of their orbit while the earth makes a complete revolution in hers j in which cafe, any fuperior planet would then have the follow¬ ing appearances : 1. While the earth is in her moft diftant femicircle, the motion of the planet will be di- rett. 2. While the earth is in her neareft femicircle, the planet will be retrograde. 3* While the earth is near thofe places of its orbit where a line drawn from the planet would be a tangent, it would appear to be ftationary. Thus, in fig. 147. let 0 £ £• ^' ' > rnay be determined. In this manner Kepler determin¬ ed the orbit of Mars, and found it to be an ellipfe with the fun in the .focus. He inferred that the other planets moved likewife in ellipfes round the fun, and this inference has been confirmed by adtual examina- 296 tion. Heliocen- 'J’q a fpeftator placed in the fun, all the planets ofthe^la* woulcl aPPcar to defcribe circles annually in the hea- aets^ P 5 39 18 3 54 16" 30 ^i2 4>6 10 37 16 Mean di¬ ameters in Englifli miles. Mean diltances from the fun, in round num¬ bers of miles. 883246 3224 7687 791 L73 2180 4189 160 80 89170 79042 35112 More accu¬ rate propor¬ tional num¬ bers of the preceding mean di- ftances. 37000000 68000000 95000000 95000000 I440OOOOO 260000000 266000000 49OOOOOOO 900000000 ISOOOOOOOO Denfities to that of ‘-water, I'hich is 1. 38710 72333 IOOOOO IOOOOO 152369 273550 279IOO 520279 954072 !908352 Proper tions of the quantities of matter. 9i 5 VT 4t 34 0-3T 333928 0,1654 0,8899 I 0,025 0,0875 312>i 97,76 16,84 Inclinations of orbits to the ecliptic in 1780. 7 O o" 3 23 35 000 5 9 3 at a mean. 1 51 o 10 37 56,6 in 1801. 34 5° 40 in 1801. x 1856 in 1780. 2 29 50 in 1780. o 46 20 in 1780. Inclinations of axes to orbits. Rotations diurnal, or round their own axes. 82° 44' o" 66 88 59 S2 17 22 90 nearly. 60 probably. 25d 1411 8m of o 23 21 1 29 !7 44 3 o 24 39 22 0 9 55 37 o 10 16 2 Part III. astronomy. ios XL XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. The Sun Mercury Venus The Barth The Moon Mars Ceres Pallas Jupiter Saturn Herfchel Tropical revolution^. Sidereal revolutions. Places of Aphelia, January 1800. Secular mo¬ tions of the Aphelia. 87d 23h i4m 32,7f 224 16 41 27,5 365 5 48 49 686 22 18 27,4 1681 12 9 o 433° H 39 2 10746 19 16 15,5 30637 400 87ci 23h i5m 43>6f 224 16 49 10,6 365 6 9 12 686 23 30 35,6 1703 16 48 o 4332 H 27 IO>8 IO759 I 51 H,2 30737 18 o o 8r 140 20' 50'' 10 7 59 1 9 8 40 12 5 2 24 4 10 25 57 15 in 1802. 6 11 8 20 in 1800. 8 29 4 11 in 1800. 11 16 30 31 in 1800. Eccentrici¬ ties; the mean dis¬ tances being 100000. Greateft equa¬ tions of the centres. 1° 33' 45" I 21 O o 19 35 1 51 40 1 34 33 1 50 7 1 29 2 7955-4 498 1681,395 Ht83>7 8140,64 24630 25013,3 53640,42 90804 230 40' o o 47 20 1 55 30,9 10 40 40 9 20 8 5 3° 38 6 26 42 5 27 16 Longitudes of SL ' or places of afcendnig nodes in 1750. Secular mo¬ tions of nodes. if 150 20' 43" 2 14 26 18 17 38 38 20 58 40 in 1802. 22 28 57 in 1802. 7 55 32 in 1750. 21 32 22 in 1750. 12 47 in 1788. 1° 12' 10" o 51 40 o 46 40 o 59 30 ° 55 3° 1 44 35 From the above tables it appears that the time of the revolution of the planets increafes with their di- ftance from the fun. This induced Kepler to hifpeit that fome relation exifted between them. After many attempts continued for 17 years, he at Lift difcovered that the fquares of the periodic times of the planets are proportional to the cubes ol the greater axis of their orbits. Chap. IV. Of the Orbits of the Comets. Of all the celeftial bodies, comets have given rife to the greateft number of fpeculations and conjeftures. Their itrange appearance has in all ages been a mat¬ ter of terror* to the vulgar, who uniformly have look¬ ed upon them to be evil omens and forerunners 01 war, peftilence, &c. Others, lefs fuperftitious, fuppofed them to be meteors raifed in the higher regions of the air. But we find that fome part of the modern doc- q trine concerning them had been received into the an- Suppofed cient Italic and Pythagorean fcbools : for they held by the an- them to be fo far of the nature of planets, that they had cients to be their periodical times of appearing j that they were pianets. out of f ht for a long t;me? while they were carried aloft at an immenfe diftance from the earth, but be¬ came vifible when they defcended into the lower re¬ gions of the air, when they were nearer to us. Thefe opinions were probably brought from Egypt, from whence the Greeks borrowed great part of their 0 learning. However, it feems not to have been gene- Ariftotle’s rally received } for Ariftotle, who mentions it, allerted opinion that the heavens were unchangeable, and not liable, to concerning generat;0n or corruption. Comets, therefore, which them. believed to be generated when they firft made their appearance, and deftroyed when they vaniftied from our fight, he maintained could not be heavenly bodies, but rather meteors or exhalations raifed into the upper regions of the atmofpherej where they blazed out for a while, and difappeared when the matter of which they were formed was confumed. Seneca, who lived in the firft century, mentions Apollonius of Myndus, a very careful obferver of natural caufes, to have been of the fame fentiments with the moft ancient Greek pbilofophers with regard to comets. . He himfelf had feen twTo ; one in the reign of Claudius, the other in that of Nero ; befides another which he faw while a boy, before the death of Auguftus. He plainly inti¬ mates, that he thought them above the moon ; and argues ftrongly againft thofe who fuppofed them, to be meteors, or held other abfurd opinions concerning them y declaring his belief that they were not fires fuddenly kindled, but the eternal produttions of na¬ ture. He points out alfo the only way. to come at a certainty on this fubjeft, viz. by colle6ling a numbci of obfervations concerning their appearance, in order to difcover whether they return periodically or. not. “ For this purpofe (fays he) one age is not fufficient j but the time will come when the nature of comets and their magnitudes wdll be demonftrated, and the routes they take, fo different from the planets, explained. Pofterity will then wonder that the preceding ages ftiould be ignorant of matters fo plain and eafy to be ■ known.” For a long time this prediction of Seneca feemed very unlikely to be fulfilled. The great authority which Ariftotle maintained for many ages, determined them to be nothing but meteors cafually lighted up in the air; though they were manifeftly at a great height, not only above the clouds, but fubjeft to the diurnal revolution of the earth. In the dark and fu¬ perftitious ages, they were held to be the forerunners of every kind of calamity, and w^ere fuppofed to have dif- # ferent degrees of malignity according to the fhape they affumedj from whence alfo they were differently deno¬ minated. Thus, fome were faid to be bearded, fome hairy ; fome to reprefont a beam, fword, or fpear; othera \ 102 Real Mo¬ tions of the Heavenly Bodies. 300 Only one fpecies of them exifts. 301 Kepler and Bodin’s o- pinion of . fhejn. 302 .Bernouilli’s opinion 3°3 True doc¬ trine con¬ cerning them re¬ vived by Tycho Brahe. otliers a target, &c. ; wliereas modem aftronomers ac¬ knowledge only one fpecies of comets, and account for their different appearances from their different fitua- 1 tions from the fun and earth. It was not till feme time after people began to throw off the fetters of fuperftition and ignorance which had fo long held them, that any rational hypo¬ thecs was formed concerning comets. Kepler in other refpefts a very great genius, indulged the wall extravagant conjectures, not only concerning comets bat the whole fyftera of nature in general. The pla- nets he imagined to be huge animals who fwam round* the fun by means of certain fins ading upon the ethe¬ real fluid, as thofe of fiihes do on the water : and agree¬ able to this notion, he imagined the comets to beroon- ffrous and uncommon animals generated in the celefiial fpacesj and he explained how the air engendered them by an animal faculty. A yet more ridiculous opinion if poffible, was that of John Bodin, a learned man of fiance in the 16th century^ He maintained that co¬ mets “ are fpirits, which have lived on the earth in¬ numerable ages, and being at laft arrived on the con¬ fines of death, celebrate their laft triumph, or are re¬ called to the firmament like fhining ftars ! This is fol¬ lowed by famine, plague, &c. becaufe the cities and people deftroy the governors and chiefs who appeafe the wrath of God.” This opinion (he fays) he borrow¬ ed from the philofopher Democritus, who imagined them to be the fouls of famous heroes: but that being irreconcilable with Bodin’s Chriftian fentiments he was obliged to fuppofe them to be a kind of genii’ or pints fubjeft to death, like thofe fo much mentioned in the Mahometan fables. Others, again, have denied even the exiftence of comets, and maintained that they were only falfe appearances occafioned by the refraClion or reflection of light. The fir ft rational conjeaure we meet* with is that of James Bernouilli, an Italian aftronomer, who imagined tnem to be the fatellites of fome very diftant planet, which was invifible to us on account of its diftance, as Here alfo the fatellites, unlefs when in a certain part of their courfe. Tycho Brahe was the firft who reftored the comets to their true rank in the creation. Before his time feveral comets had been obferved with tolerable exaa’ nefs by Regiomontanus, Appian, Fabricius, and others: jet they all thought them below the moon. But Ty¬ cho, being provided with much better inftruments, let himfelf with great diligence to obferve the famous comet of 15775 and from many careful obfervations, deduced that it had no fenfible diurnal parallax 5 and therefore was not only far above the regions of our at- mofphere, but much higher than the moon. But though few have come fo near the earth as to have any diurnal parallax, all of them have what may be called an annual parallax 5 that is, the revolution of the earth m her orbit caufes their apparent motion to be very different from what it would be if viewed from tne fun 5 and this fhows them to be much nearer than the fixed ftars, which have no fuch parallax. Kepler the difciple of Tycho, notwithftanding his ridiculous conjeClure already mentioned, wras very attentive to the motions of the comets, and found that they did not move in ftraight lines, as had been fuppoled. He A S T R O N O M Y. Part III, Ihowed that their paths were concave towards the fun, Real Mo.’ ^TJupPOied them to move in parabolic trajectories. lions of the I heir true motion, however, was only difeovered ^Y.6111? from the obfervations made by Sir Ifaac Newton on B°dleS‘ f the great comet of 1680. This defeended almoft per- ^7“^ pendicularly towards the fun with a prodigious velo-Their mo- city} afeending again with the fame velocity retarded fion exa tails of comets are ftreams of eleftric matter. An hy- pothefis of this kind was publilhed by Dr Hamilton of 315 Dublin in a fmall treatife, entitled, ConjeBures on the ^ Nature of the Aurora Borealis, and on the ‘Tails of Co- mets. His hypothefis is, that the comets are of ufe toni0n> bring back the eledlric fluid to the planets, which is continually difeharged from the higher regions of their atmofpheres. Having given at length the above-men¬ tioned opinion of i^ir ifaac, “ We find (lays he) in this account, that Sir Ifaac aferibes the afcent of co¬ mets tails to their being rarer and lighter, and moving round the fun more fwiftly than the folar atmofphere, with which he fuppofes them to be furreunded whilft in the neighbourhood of the fun j he fays alfo, that whatever pofition (in refpe£l to each other) the head and tail of a comet then receive, they will keep the fame afterwards moft freely ; and in another place he obferves, ‘ That the celeftial fpaces muft be entirely void of any power of refifting, fince not only the {olid bodies of the planets and comets, but even the exceed¬ ing thin vapours of which comets' tails are formed, move through thofe {paces with immenfe velocity, and yet with the greateft freedom.’ I cannot help think¬ ing that this account is liable to many difficulties and obje&ions, and that it feems not very confiftent with itfelf or with the phenomena. “ I do not know7 that w7e have any proof of the ex¬ igence of a folar atmofphere of any confiderable ex¬ tent, nor are w7e anywhere taught how to guefs at the limits of it. It is evident that the exiftence of fuch an atmofphere cannot be proved merely by the afcent of comets tails from the fun, as that phenomenon may poflibly arife from fome other caufe. However, let us fuppofe for the prefent, that the afcent of comets tails is owing to an atmofphere furrounding the fun ; and fee how7 the effe£ts arifing from thence will agree with the phenomena. When a comet comes intp the folar atmofphere, and is then defeending almoft direft- ly to the fun, if the vapours which compofe the tail are raifed up from it by the fuperior denfity and weight of that atmofphere, they muft rife into thofe parts that the comet has left, and therefore at that time they may appear in a diredlion oppofite to the fun. But as foon as the comet comes near the fun, and moves in a di- redlion nearly at right angles with the diredlion of its tail, the vapours which then arife, partaking of the great velocity of the comet, and being fpecifically lighter than the medium in which they move, and be¬ ing vaftly expanded through it, muft neceffaiily fuffer a refiftance immenfely greater tnan what the (mall and denfe body of the comet meets with, and confequently cannot poflibly keep up with it, but muh be left be¬ hind, or, as it w7ere, driven backwards by the refift¬ ance of that medium into a line direfted towards the parts which the comet has left, and therefore can no longer appear in a direflion oppofite to the fun. And, in Hke manner, w7hen a comet paffes its perihelion, and begins to afcend from the fun, it certainly ought to appear ever after wdth its tail behind it, or in a direc¬ tion pointed towards the fun 5 for if the tail of the co¬ met be fpecifically lighter than the medium in which it moves with fo great velocity, it muft be juft as im- poffible Part III. A S T R O N O M: Y. Renl Mo- poffible it fliould move foremoft, as it is that a torch tions of the move —^ the earth ; and therefore we Ihould very fenfibly per¬ ceive the fmalleft refradtion that the light of the ftars might fuffer in pafling through a comet’s tail. The confequence of fuch a refradtion muft be very remark¬ able : the ftars that lie near the tail would, in fome cafes, appear double j for they w'ould appear in their proper places by their diredt rays, and we fhould fee their images behind the tail, by means of their rays which it might refradt to our eyes 5 and thofe ftars that wrere really behind the tail would difappear in fome fituations, their rays being turned afide from us by refradtion. In Ihort, it is eafy to imagine what ftrange alterations would be made in the apparent pla¬ ces of the fixed ftars by the tails of comets, if they had a power of refradting their light, which could not fail to be taken notice of if any fuch ever happened. But fince altronomers have not mentioned any fuch appa¬ rent changes of place among the ftars, I take it for granted that the ftars feen through all parts of a co¬ met’s tail appear in their proper places, and with their ufual colours •, and confequently I infer, that the rays of light fuffer no refradtion in pafling through a co¬ met’s tail. And thence I conclude (as before), that the matter of a comet’s tail has not the pow’er of re¬ fradting or refledting the rays of light, and muft there¬ fore be a lucid or felf-lhining fubftance.” But whatever probability the Dodtor’s conjedture Sir ifaac’s concerning the materials whereof the tails are formed account de¬ may have in it, his criticifm on Sir liaac New’ton’s ac- fentions. ties are reprefented pretty well, by fuppofing the incli¬ nation of the orbit to the equator of Jupiter 17 30.968", and that its nodes move retrograde in that plane in a period of 30 years. A fmall eccentricity is obferved in the orbit of the third fatellite. The extremity of its longer axis next Jupiter, called the perijove, has a direeft motion. The eccentricity of the orbit has been obferved to vary con- fiderably. The equation of the centre was at its maxi¬ mum about the end of the 17th century 3 it then a- mounted - *10 Real Mo- mounted to about 862'^ it gradually diminiflied, and 1IIeavent],ie*n t^e ^ear ^ was at *ts niinimum, and amounted Bodies. onty to about 229.y". The inclination of the orbit of t,—this fatellite to that of Jupiter, and the pofition of its nodes, are variable. Thefe different variations are re- prefented pretty nearly, by fuppofing the orbit inclin¬ ed to that of Jupiter, at an angle of about 726", and giving to the nodes a retrograde motion in the plane of the equator, completed in the period of 137 years. The orbit of the fourth latellite is very fenfibly el¬ liptical. V.s perijove has a direft motion, amounting to about 2112", This orbit is inclined to that of Jupiter, at an angle of about 147'. It is in con- lequence of this inclination, that the fourth fatellite often palfes behind the planet relatively to the fun with¬ out being eclipfed. From the firft difcovery of this planet, till the year 1760, the inclination of its orbit appeared conftant: but it has fenfibly increafed fince that period. Betides all thefe variations, the fatellites of Jupiter are fubjeiSied to feveral irregularities, which difturb their elliptical motion, and render their theory very complicated. Thefe irregularities are moil confpicuous in the three firft fatellites. Their mean motions are fuch, that the mean mo¬ tion of the firft fatellite, together with twice the mean motion of the third, is nearly equal to thrice the mean motion of the fecond. The fame relation holds in their fynodical motions. The mean longitude both fy- nodical and fidereal of the firft three fatellites, feen from the centre of Jupiter, is fuch, that the longi¬ tude of the firft, minus thrice that of the fecond, plus twice that of the third, is nearly equal to the femi-cir- cumference. This relation is fo very near the truth, that one is tempted to confider it as rigorous, and to afcribe the fuppofed errors to the imperfedtion of ob- iervations. It will hold at leafl for a long time to come, and fhews us that the three fatellites cannot be eclipfed at once. The periods and laws of the principal irregularities of thefe fatellites are the fame in all. The irregularity of the firft advances or retards its eclipfes 20" of time at its maximum. If we compare the changes on this inequality, with the relative pofitions of the two firft iatellites, we find that it difappears when thefe two fa¬ tellites, feen from the centre of Jupiter, are in oppofi- tion at the fame time j that it increafes gradually, and acquires its maximum when the firft fatellite, at the in- ftant of oppofition, is 450 more advanced than the fe¬ cond ; that it vanifhes when the firft is 90° before the fecond. Beyond that point it becomes negative and retards the eclipfes, and increafes till the two fatellites are 135 degrees from each other, when it acquires its negative maximum. Then it diminifties and difap¬ pears when they are 1800 diftant. In the fecond half of the circumference the very fame laws are obferved as in the firft. From thefe phenomena it has been concluded, that there exirts in the motion of the firft fatellite round Jupiter, an inequality amounting to 1733.6'' at its maximum, and proportional to the fine of twice the excefs of the mean longitude of the firft fatellite above that of the fecond ; which excefs is equal to the difference between the mean fynodical longitudes of the two fatellites. The period of this inequality does not amount to 4 days. How comes it Part III, then, it will be aiked, to change into a period of 43 7.*7 3 Real Mo- days, with refpeft to the eclipfes of the firft fatellite ?tlons o{ tlic Let us fuppofe, that the firft and fecond fatellite fet ^dk-V out together from their mean oppofition to the fun, > ; During every revolution of the firft fatellite, in confe- quence of its mean fynodical motion, it will be in mean oppofition. Sup pole a fidlitious liar, whofe angular motion is owing to the excefs of the mean fynodical motion of the firft fatellite, over that of the fecond, then twice the difference of the mean fynodical motions of the two fatellites will in the eclipfes of the firft be equal to a multiple of the circumference toge¬ ther with the motion of the fi&itious liar. Of courfe the fine of this laft motion will be proportional to the ine¬ quality of the firft latellite in its eciipfes, and may re- prefent that inequality. Its period is equal to the dura¬ tion of the revolution of the fi£Htious ftar, which ac¬ cording to the mean motion of the two fatellites is 437*75 days. Thus it is determined with more pre- cilion than by direft obfervation. The irregularity of the fecond fatellite follows a law fimilar to that of the firft; but its fign is always con¬ trary. It accelerates, or retards the eclipfes 932''' in time when at its maximum. When compared with the pofition of the two fateilites we perceive that it difappears when they are in oppofition to the fun at the fame time; that it retards the time of the eclipfes more and more, till the two fatellites are diftant from each other 90° at at the time when they take place ; then the retardation diminilhes and vanilhes altogether, when the two fatel¬ lites are 1800 from each other at the time of the eclip¬ fes. It then accelerates the eclipfes in the other half of the circumference precifely as it had retarded them before. From thefe obfervations it has been concluded that there exifts in the motion of the fecond fatellite an irregularity of 3647" at its maximum proportional, (bur with a contrary fign') to the fine of the excefs of the mean longitude of the firft fatellite above that of the fe¬ cond, which excefs is equal to the difference of the meai* fynodical motions of the two fatellites. If the two fatellites fet out together from their mean oppofition to the fun ; the fecond fatellite will be in mean oppofition every time that it completes a fynodi¬ cal revolution. If we fuppofe as before, a ftar whofe angular motion is equal to the excefs of the mean fy¬ nodical movement of the firft fatellite, or twice that of the fecond, then the difference of the two fynody;al movements of the two fatellites will, at the eclipfes of the fecond, equal a multiple of the circumference to¬ gether with the motion of the fiftitious ftar. Of courfe the inequality of the fecond during its eclipfe will be proportional to the fine of the angular motion of that fiftitious ftar. Hence the reafon that the period and law of that irregularity are the fame as in the irregularity ot the firft fatellite. If the third fatellite produces in the motion of the fecond an inequality refembling that which the fecond feems to produce in the motion of the firft, that is tp fay, proportional to the fine of twice the difference of the mean longitudes of the fecond and third fatellite j that new inequality will coincide with that which is due to the firft fatellite. For in confequence of the re¬ lation which the mean longitude of the three firft fatel¬ lites have to each other, the difference of the mean lon¬ gitudes of the two firft fatellites is equal to the femicir- cumference ASTRONOMY. Part nr. ASTRONOMY. 111 Real Mo- cumference together with twice the difference of the tions of the mean longitudes of the fecond and third fatellites, fo that ^Bodies^ t^e ^ne t^ie difference is the fame as the fine of ■ t ' double the fecond difference, but with a contrary fign. The inequality produced by the third fatellite in the motion of the fecond, will therefore have the fame fign, and will follow the fame law as the inequality obferv- ed in that motion. It is, therefore, very probable that this inequality is the refult of two inequalities depend¬ ing on the firft and third fatellite. If in the courfe of ages, the preceding relation between the mean longi¬ tudes of thefe three fatellites fhould ceafe to exift, thefe two inequalities at prefent compounded, would fepa- rate, and their refpective values might be difcover- ed. The inequality relative to the third fatellite in its eciipfes, compared with the refpeftive pofitions of the fecond and third, offers the fame relations with the inequality of the fecond compared with the ref- pedlive fituations of the two firft. There exifts then in the motion ®f the third fatellite, an inequality which at its maximum amounts to 268". If we fuppofe a ftar whofe angular motion is equal to the excefs of the mean fynodical motion of the fecond fatellite, above twice the mean fynodical motion of the third, the inequa¬ lity of the third fatellite will in its eciipfes be pro¬ portional to the motion of this fiftitious ftar. But in confequence of the relation which exifts between the mean longitude of the three fatellites, the fine of this motion is the fame (except its fign), with that of the motion of the firft fictitious ftar which we formerly confidered. Therefore the inequality of the third fa¬ tellite in its eciipfes has the fame period, and follows the fame laws, with the inequalities of the two firft fa¬ tellites : fuch are the laws of the principal irregularities 12r) of the three firft fatellites of Jupiter. Satellites Let us now confider the fatellites of Saturn, which of Saturn, are feven in number. The fatellites of Saturn have not as yet proved fo ufeful to aftronomy or geography as thofe of Jupiter; principally becaufe they cannot be feen unlefs very powerful telefcopes be ufed. Five oi thofe fatellites were difcovered in the year i68<;, by Caffim and Huygens, who ufed telefcopes confifting of two limple lenfes, but upwards of 100 feet in length; and thofe were called ift, 2d, 3d, &c. rec¬ koning from the planet. Two others were difcover- by Dr Herfchel in the years 1787 and 1788, and thefe are fmaller and nearer to the planet, on which account they ought toffave been called the firft and fecond, at the fame time that the other five ought to have been called 3d, 4th, 5^, 6th, and 7th j but, imagining that this might create feme confufion in the reading of old allronomical books, the five old fatelhtes have been fuffered to retain their numerical names, and the twm new fatellites are now called the 6th and the 7th ; fo that the 7th is the neareft to the planet, then comes the 6th, then the ill ; and this is followed by the 2d, 3d, 4th, nd 5th. 1 he inclinations of the orbits of the ift, 2d, 3d, and 4th fatellites, to the ecliptic, are from 30° to 310. That of the 5th is from 170 to 1S0. Of all the Real Mo- fa tellites of the folar fyftem, none, except the 5th Qft'om^ofjhe Saturn, has been obferved to have any foots, from the Bodies." motion of which the rotation of the fatellite round its 1 -1—t,r own axis might be determined. Then the 5th fatellite of Saturn, as Dr Herfchel has difcovered, turns round its own axis ; and it is remarkable, that, like our moon, it revolves round its axis exaftly in the fame time that it revolves round its primary. The following table ftates the particulars which have been afeertained with refpett to the fatellites of Saturn. The Satellites of Saturn. Satellites. Periods. Dift. in femi-dia. ofSaturn, Dift. in miles. App. diam. of orbits. Seventh Sixth Firft Second Third Fourth Fifth d. h. m. O 22 40 46 1 8 53 9 1 21 l8 27 2 17 41 22 4 12 25 12 15 22 41 13 79 7 48 o 2 s- 3 5 4l 5v 8 18 54 107,000 135,000 170,000 217,000 303.000 704,000 2,050,000 o 1 1 1 2 6 l7 57 14 27 52 18 4 The planet Herfchel, with its fix fatellites, have Satellites been entirely difcovered by Dr Herfchel. The planet of Herfche£> itfelf may be feen with almoft any telefcope ; but its fatellites cannot be perceived without the moft power¬ ful inftruments, and the concurrence of all other fa¬ vourable circumftances. One of thefe fatellites Dr Herfchel found to revolve round its primary in 8 d. 17 b. 1 m. 19 fee.; the period of another he found to be 13 d. 11 h. 5 m. 1.5 fee. The apparent dift mce of the former from the planet is 33"; that of the lecond 44,,£. Their orbits are nearly perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic. The other four fatellites were difcovered a confider- able time after, and of courfe Dr Herfchel has had lefs time to make obfervations upon them. They are al¬ together very minute objefts ; fo that the following particulars muft be confidered as being not accurate but probable. “ Admitting the diftance of the inte¬ rior fatellite to be 2S"-Sf its periodical revolution will be 5 d. 2 1 h. 25 m. _ “ If the intermediate fatellite be placed at an equal diftance between the two old fatellites, or at S^"-57t its period will be 10 d. 23 h. 4 m. The neareft ex¬ terior fatellite is about double the diftance of the fartheft old one ; its periodical time will therefore be about 38 d. 1 h. 49 m. The moft diftant fatellite is full four times as far from the planet as the old fecond fatellite; it will therefore take at leaft 107 d. 16 h. 40 m. to complete one revolution. All thefe fatellites perform their revolutions in their orbits contrary to the order of the figns; that is, their real motion is re¬ trograde.” Part I 12 Theory of Univerfal Gravita¬ tion. ASTRONOMY. Part IV. OF THE THEORY OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION. Part IY. Theory of Univerfal Gravita¬ tion. Having in the laft two parts of this treatife given an account of the apparent and real motions of the heavenly bodies, it only remains for us to compare thefe motions with the laws eltablilhed by mathema¬ ticians, in order to afcertain the forces that animate the folar fyftem, and to acquire notions of the general principle of gravitation on which they depend. To de- velope this part of the fubjeft properly, three particu¬ lars claim our attention. We mull in the- firft place lay down the la .vs of motion as eftablilhed by mathe¬ maticians 5 in the fecond place, we mult apply thefe laws to the heavenly bodies, which wall furnilh us with the theory of gravitation j and, in the third place, we mull apply this cheory to the planetary fyftem, and demonftrate that the whole motions of the heavenly bodies are explicable by that theory, and merely cafes of it. Thefe particulars ftiall be the fubjeft of the three following chapters. Chap. I. Of the Laws of Motion. The laws of motion, by which all matter is regula¬ ted, and to which it is fubjedl notwithftanding the variety of phenomena which it continually exhibits, conftitute the firft principles of mechanical philofophy. They will claim a feparate place hereafter in this work, under the title of dynamics j but feme notions of them are requifite in order to underftand the theory of gravitation. We lhall fatisfy ourfelves in this place 331 with the following ftiort fketch. Motion. a body appears to us to move when it changes its fituation with refpeft to other bodies which we con- fider as at reft. Thus in a veffel failing down a river, bodies are faid to be in motion tvhen they correfpond fucceflively to different parts of the veffel. But this motion is merely relative. The veffel itfelf is moving along the furface of the river, which turns round the axis of the earth, while the centre of the earth itfelf is carried round the fun, and the fun with all its at¬ tendant planets is moving through fpace. This renders it neceffary to refer the motion of a body to the parts of fpace, which is confidered as boundlefs, immove¬ able, and penetrable. A body then is laid to be in motion when it correfponds fucceflively to different 332 parts of fpace. Moving Matter, as far as we know, is equally indifferent iorces. to motion or reft. When in motion it moves for ever unlefs ftopt by fome caufe, and when at reft it remains fo, unlefs put in motion by fome caufe. The caufe •which puts matter in motion is called a force. The nature of moving forces is altogether unknown, but we 333 can meafure their effe&s. Compofi- Whenever a force a61s upon matter it puts it in mo- forcef tion, ifno other force prevent this effedl \ the ftraight line which the body deferibes, is called the direftion of the force. Two forces may a£l upon matter at the fame time. If their direflion be the fame, they increafe the motion^ if their direftion be oppofite they defiroy each other; and the motion is nothing if the two forces be 1 equal; it is merely the excefs of the one force above the other if the motions be unequal. If the direftions of the two forces make wfith each other any angle whatever, the refulting motion will be in a dire&ion between the two. And it has been demonftrated, that if lines be taken to reprefent the dire&ion and amount of the forces, if thefe lines be converted into a paralellogram by drawing parallels to them j the diagonal of that paralellogram will reprefent the direftion and quantity of the refulting motion. This is called the compolition of forces. For two forces thus afting together, we may fubfti- tute their refult, and vice verfa. Hence we may de- compofe a force into two others, parallel to two axes fituated in the fame plane, and perpendicular to each other. Thus finding that a body A, fig. 117. has mov¬ ed from A to C, tve may imagine either that the body has been impelled by a Angle force in the direc¬ tion of A C, and proportionate to the length of A C, or that it has been impelled by twro forces at once, viz. by one in the direftion of A D, and proportionate to the length of A D •, and by another force in the direc¬ tion of A B or D C, and proportionate to A B or D C. Therefore, if tw7o fides of any triangle (as AD and DC) reprefent both the quantities and the diredtions of tw'O forces ailing from a given point, then the third fide (as AC) of the triangle will reprefent both the quantity and the direction of a third force, which ail¬ ing from the fame point, will be equivalent to the other tw7o, and vice verfa. Thus alfo in fig. 118. finding that the body A has moved along the line A F from A to F in a certain time ; we may imagine, ift, that the body has been impelled by a Angle force in the diredfion and quantity reprefented by A F j or adly, that it has been impelled by trvo forces, viz. the one reprefented by A D, and the other reprefented by A E j or thirdly, that it has been impelled by three forces, viz. thofe reprefented by AD, A B, and A C ; or laftly, that it has been impelled by any other number of forces in any diredlions j provided all thefe forces be equivalent to the Angle force which is reprefented by A F. This fuppofition of a body having been impelled by two or more forces to perform a certain courfe j or, on the contrary, the fuppofition that a body has been im¬ pelled by a Angle force, when the body is adlually known to have been impelled by ieveral forces, which are, however, equivalent to that Angle force ; has been called the compofition and reiolution of forces. The knowledge of thefe principles gives mathemati- Refoiutio» cians an eafy method of obtaining the refult of any of forces, number of forces w'hatever adting on a body. For every particular force may be refolved into three 'others, parallel to three axes given in pofition, and per¬ pendicular to each other. It is obvious, that all the forces parallel to the fame axis are equivalent to a fingle force, equal to the lum of all thoie which adt in one diredlion, diminifhed by the lum of thofe which adi 335 Velocity. Part IV. Theory of aa In the oppofite dlreaion. Thus the body will be Grlvita- ^ed 0n ^ ,three forces perpendicular to each other : tion. ^ the diieftion of thefe forces be reprefented by the Tides of a parallelepiped, the refulting force will be re¬ prefented by the diagonal of that parallelepiped. 1 ae indifference of a material body to motion or reft, and its perfeverance in either ftate when put into it, is called the vis inertia; of matter. This property is confidered as the firft law of motion. Hence/ when¬ ever the ftate of a body changes, we aferibe the change to the adfion of fome caufe : hence the motion of a body when not altered by the aftion of fome new force, muft be uniform and in a ftraight line. . f n luch uniform motions the fpace pafled over is pro¬ portional to the time : but the time employed to de- Icribe a given fpacc will be longer or fhorter according to the greatnefs of the moving force. This difference in the time of traverfing the fame fpace gives us the notion of velocity, which in uniform motions is the ra¬ tio between the fpace and the time employed in tra¬ vel fing it. As fpace and time are heterogeneous quan¬ tities, they cannot indeed be compared together ; it is the ratio between the numbers reprefenting each that conftitutes velocity. A unity of time, a fecond for in- flance, is chofen, and in like manner a unity of fpace, as a foot. I hus, if one body move over 20 feet in one fecond, and another only 10, then the velocity of the firft is double that of the fecond ; for the ratio between to and 1 is twice as great as the ratio of 10 to 1. When the fpace, time, and velocity, are reprefented by numbers, we have the fpace equal to the velocity mul¬ tiplied by the time, and the time equal to the fpace di¬ vided by the time. I he force by whi^h a body is moved is proportional to the velocity, and therefore is meafured by the velo¬ city. This has been difpufed by fome philofophers but has been diffidently eftablifhed. We fliall confi- dei it, theiefore, as a matter of fad, referring the read¬ er for a difeuffion of the fubjed to the article Dy¬ namics. When a body is put in motion by forces which not only ad at firft, but which continue to ad uniformly, it will deferibe a curve line, the nature of which de¬ pends upon ^ the forces which occafion the motion. Gravitation is an inftance of a force which ads in this manner. Let us confider it a little. It appears to ad in the fame manner in a body at reft and in motion. A body abandoned to its adion acquires a very fmall velocity the firrt inftant; the fecond inftant it acquires a new velocity equal, to what it had the firft inftant; and thus its. velocity increafes every inftant in propor- t,/nut°ctJhe dme' SuPPofe a right-angled triangle, one o; the Tides of which reprefents the time, and the other the velocity. The fludion of the furface of the tri¬ angle being equal to the fludion of the time multiplied by that of the velocity, will reprefent the fludion of tne fpace. Hence the whole triangle will reprefent the ipace defenbed in a given time. But the triangle increafing as the fquare of either of its fides, it is ob¬ vious, that in the accelerated motion produced by gra¬ vitation the velocities increafe with the times, and the heights from which a body falls from reft increafe as the fquares of the times or of the velocities. Hence if we denote by 1 the fpace through which a body falls the firft fecond it will fall 4 in 2", 9 in 3", and fo on ; astronomy. Accelerat¬ ing force'. I I fo that every fecond it will deferibe fpaces increafing Theory ot as the odd numbers I, 3, 5, 7, &c. This important Univerial point will perhaps be rendered more intelligible by the Gra.vlta" following diagram. ’ , U'n' , Let AB, fig. 119. reprefent the time during which a body, is defeending, and let BC reprefent the velocity acquired at the end of that time. Complete the tri¬ angle ABC, and the parallelogram A BCD. Alfo fuppofe the time to be divided into innumerable par¬ ticles, ei, wi, nip, po, §cc. and draw ej", ih, mn, &c. all parallel to the bale BC. T hen, fince the velocity of the defeending body has been gradually increafing from the commencement of the motion, and BC reprefents the ultimate velocity 5 therefore the parallel lines ef, tk, mn, &c. will reprefent the velocities at the ends of the refpedlive times Ac, Az, Km, &c. Moreover, fince the velocity during an indefinitely fmall particle of time, may be confidered as uniform ; therefore the right line ef will be as the velocity of the body in the indefinitely fmall particle of time ei; He will be as the velocity in the particle of time im, and fo forth. Now the fpace pafled over in any time with any velocity is as the velocity multiplied by the time ; Viz. as the redlangle under that time and velocity ; hence the fpace pafled over in the time ei with the velocity ef, will be as the redlangle if; the fpace pafled over in the time im with the velocity ik, will be as the reftangle mh; the fpace pafled over in the time mp with the velocity mn, M ill be as the re&angle pn, and fo on. Therefore the fpace pafled over in the lum of all thofe times, M’ill be as the redlangle pn, and fo on. Therefore the fpace pafled over in the firm of all thofe times, will be as the fum. ef all .thofe reftangles. But fince the particles of time are infinitely fmall, the fum of all the reftangles will be equal to the triangle ABC. Now fince the fpace paffed over by a moving body in the time AB Math a uniform, velocity B.C, is as the reft angle ABCD, (viz. as the time multiplied by the velocity) and this re<51- angle is equal to twice the triangle ABC (Eucl. p.31. B. I.) therefore the fpace pafled over in a given time by a body falling from reft, is equal to half the fpace pafled over in the fame time with an uniform velocity, equal to that Mffiich is acquired by the defeending bo¬ dy at the end of its fall. 6 . Since the fpace run over by a falling body in the time reprefented by AB, fig. 120. with the velocity BC is as the triangle ABC, and the fpace run over in any other time AD, and velocity DE is reprefented by the triangle ADE j thofe fpaces muft be as the fquares of the times AB AD ; for the fimilar triangles ABC, and ADE, are as the fquares of their homologous fides, viz. ABC is to ADE as the fquare of AB is to the fquare of AD, (Eucl. p. 29. B. VI.) When a body is placed upon an inclined plane the lo.rce of gravity which urges that body downwards, ads with a power fo much lefs, than if the body defeended freely and perpendicularly downwards, as the elevation of the plane is lefs than its length. The fpace which is deferibed by a body defeending freely from reft towards the earth, is to the fpace which it will defenbe upon the furface of an inclined plane in the lame time as the length of the plane is to its eleva¬ tion, or as radius is to the fine of the plane’s inclina- tion to the horizon. If upon the elevation BC, fig. 121. of the plane BD P ■L as 114 ASTRO Theory of as a diameter, the femicircle BEGC be defcrlbed, the Gr'vita'11 Part t^e inclined plane, which is cut off by the femicircle, is that part of the plane over which a body > will defcend, in the fame time that another body will defcend freely and perpendicularly along the diameter of the circle, viz. from B to C, which is the altitude of the plane, or fine of its inclination to the horizon. The time of a body’s defcending along the whole length of an inclined plane, is to the time of its de¬ fcending freely and perpendicularly along the altitude of the plane, as,the length of the plane is to its alti¬ tude 5 or as the whole force of gravity is to that part of it which a61s upon the plane. * A body by defcending from a certain height to the fame horizontal line, will acquire the fame velocity whether the defcent be made perpendicularly, or ob¬ liquely, over an inclined plane, or over many fucceffive inclined planes, or laftly over a curve furface. From tliefe propofitions, which have been fufficient- ly effablilhed by mathematicians, it follows, that in the circle ABC (fig. 12 2.), a body will fall along the dia¬ meter from A to B, or along the chords CB, DB, in exactly the fame line by the aftion of gravity. When a body is projected in any line whatever not perpendicular to the earth’s furface, it does not conti¬ nue in that line, but continually deviates from it, de- fcribing a curve, of which the piimary line of direc¬ tion is a tangent. The motipn of the body relative to this line is uniform. But if vertical lines be drawn from this tangent to the curve, it will be perceived that its velocity is uniformly accelerated in the direc¬ tion of thefe verticals. They are proportional to the fquares of the correfponding parts of the tangent. This property fhows us that the curve in which the body ^ projected moves is a parabola. Of the pen- The ofcillations of the pendulum are -regulated tlulum. likewife by the fame lawr of gravitation. The funda¬ mental propofitions refpe&ing pendulums are the fol- pendulum be moved to any diftance from its natural and perpendicular dire£lion, and there be let go, it will defcend towards the perpendicular, then it will afcend on the oppofite fide nearly as far from the perpendicular, as the place whence it began to defcend 5 after which it wall again defcend towards the perpen¬ dicular, and thus it will keep moving backwards and forwards for a confiderable time 5 and it would conti¬ nue to move in that manner for ever, w^ere it not for the refiftance of the air, and the fri&ion at the point of fufpenfion, which always prevent its afcending to the fame height as that from which it laftly began to de¬ fcend. The velocity of a pendulum in its loweft point is as the chord of the arch which it has defcribed in its de¬ fcent. z The very fmall vibrations of the fame pendulum are performed in times nearly equal *, but the vibra¬ tions through longer and unequal arches are perform¬ ed in times fenfibly different. As the diameter of a circle is to its circumference, fo is the time of a heavy body’s defcent from reft through half the length of a pendulum to the time of one of the fmalleft vibrations of that pendulum. It is from thefe propofitions, and the experiments made with pendulums, that the fpace defcribcd by a lowing If a N O M Y. Part IV body falling from reft by the action of gravity has been Theory of afcertained. Univerial The late Mr John Whitehurft, an ingenious mem- ber of the Royal Society, feems to have contrived and . performed the leaft exceptionable experiments rela¬ tively to this iubjecl. T he refult of his experiments {hews, that the length of the pendulum which vibrates feconds in London, at 113 feet above the level of the fea, in the temperature of 6o° of Fahrenheit’s thermo¬ meter, and when the barometer is at 30 inches', is 39, 1196 inches j wTience it follows that the fpace which is paffed over by bodies defcending perpendicularly, in the firft fecond of time, is 16,087 feet* This length of a fecond pendulum is certainly not mathematically exa£l, yet it may be confidered as inch for all common purpofes ; for it is not likely to differ from the truth by more than ToWth pai't an inch. By thefe propofitions, alfo, the variations of gravity in different parts of -the earth’s iurface and on the tops of mountains has been afcertained. Newton alfo has fhoxvn, by means of the pendulum, that gravity does not depend upon the furface nor figure of a body. 338 The motion of bodies round a centre affords another Of central well known inftance of a conftant force. As the meAorccs' tion of matter left to itfelf is uniform and reflilinear, it is obvious that a body moving in the circumference of a curve, muff: have a continual tendency to fly off at a tangent. This tendency is called a centrifugal force, while every force direfted towards a centre is called a central or centripetal force. In circular motions the central force is equal, and direflly contrary, to the centrifugal force. It bends conftantly, to bring the body towards the centre, and in a very fliort interval of time, its effecft is meafured by the verfed fine of the fmall arch defcribed. Let A (fig. 123.) be the centre of a force. Let a body in B be moving in the diredlion of the ftraight line BC, in wTiich line it would continue to move if undiffurbed; but being attracted by the centripetal force towards A, the body muff: neceffarily depart from this line BC j and being drawn into the curve line BD, muff pafs between the lines AB and BC. It is evi¬ dent, therefore, that the body in B being gradually turned off from the ftraight line BC, it will at firft be convex towards that line, and concave towards A. And that the curve will always continue to have this conca¬ vity towards A, may thus appear : In the line BC, near to B, take any point, as E, from which the line EFG may be fo drawn as to touch the curve line BD in fome point, as F. Now, when the body is come to F, if the centripetal power were immediately to be fufpended, the bbdy would no longer continue to move in a curve line, but, being left to itfelf, wmuld forth¬ with reaffume a ftraight courfe, and that ftraight courfe would be in the line FG j for that line is in the direc¬ tion of the body’s motion of the point F. But the centripetal force continuing its energy, the body wall be gradually drawn from this line FG fo as to keep in the line FD, and make that line, near the point F, to be concave towards the point A 5 and in this manner the body may be followed in its courfe throughout the line BD, and every part of that line be ftiown to be concave towards the point A. Again, the point A (fig. 124.) being the centre of a centripetal force, let a body at B fet out in the di- re&ion PartlV. ASTRO Theory of region of the ftraight line EC, perpendicular to the line AB. It will be eafily conceived, that there is no other point in the line BC fo near to A as the point B 3 that AB is the Ihorteft of all the lines which can be drawn from A to any part of the line BC ; all others, as AD or AE, being longer than AB. Hence it fol¬ lows, that the body fetting out from it, if it moved in the line BC, would recede more and more from the point A. Now, as the operation of a centripetal force is to draw a body towards the centre of that force, if fuch a force adt upon a refting body, it muft- necef- farily put that body fo into motion as to caufe it move towards the centre of the force : if the body were of itfelf moving towards that centre, it would accelerate that motion, and caufe it to move fafter down 3 but if the body were in fuch a motion that it would of itfelf recede from the centre, it is not neceffary that the ac¬ tion of a centripetal power Ihould make it immediately approach the centre from which it would otherwife have receded ; the centripetal force is not wdthout ef- fe£l: if it caufe the body to recede more flowly from that centre than otherwife it would have done. Thus, the fmallefl: centripetal pow'er, if it ad on the body, will force it out of the line BC, and caufe it to pafs in a bent line between BC and the point A, as has been already explained. When the body, for inftance, has advanced to the line AD, the effed of the centri¬ petal force difcovers itfelf by having removed the body out of the line BC, and brought it to crofs the line AD fomewdiere between A and D, fuppofe at F. Now, AD being longer than AB, AF may alfo be longer than AB. The centripetal power may indeed be fo flrong, that AF lhall be fhorter than AB 3 or it may be fo evenly balanced with the progreffive motion of the body that AF and AB (hall be juft equal; in which cafe the body would defcribe a circle about the centre A 3 this centre of the force being alfo the centre of the circle. If now the body, inftead of fetting out in the line BC perpendicular to AB, had fet out in another line BG more inclined towards the line AB, moving in the curve line BH 3 then, as the body, if it w-e'-e to continue its motion in the line BG, would for fome time approach the centre A, the centripetal force would caufe it to make greater advances towards that centre : But if the body were to fet out in the line BI, reclined the other way from the perpendicular BC, and were to be drawn by the centripetal force into the curve line BK 3 the body, notwithftanding any cen¬ tripetal force, would for fome time recede from the centre 3 fince fome part at lead of the curve line BK lies between the line BI and the perpendicular BC. Let us next fuppofe a centripetal power direfted to¬ ward the point A (fig. 09.', to a£l: on a body in B, which is moving in the diretftion of the ftraight line BC, the line BC reclining off from AB. If from A the ftraight lines AD,-AE, AF, are drawn to the line CB, prolonged beyond B to G, it appears that AD is inclined to the line GC more obliquely than AB, AE more obliquely than AD, and AF than AE 3 or to fpeak more correaiy, the angle under ADG is lefs than that under ABG, that under AEG is lefs than ADG, and AFG lefs than' AEG. Now fup- pofe the body to move in the curve line BHIK, it is likewife evident that the line BHIK being concave N O M Y» 1*5 towards A and convex towards BC, it is more and Theory of more turned off from that line; fo that in the point H, the line AK will be more obliquely inclined to the curve line BHIK than the fame line AHD is inclined to BC at the point D ; at the point I the inclination of the line AI to the curve line will be more diffe¬ rent from the inclination of the (ame line AIE to the line BC at the point IE 3 and in the points K and F the difference of inclination will be ftill greater 5 and in' both, the inclination at the curve will be lefs ob¬ lique than at the ftraight line BC. But the ftraight. line AB is lefs obliquely inclined to BG than AD is inclined towards DG : therefore, although the line AH be lefs obliquely inclined towards the curve HB than the fame line AHD is inclined towards DG, yet it is poftible, that the inclination at H may be more oblique than the inclination at B. The inclina¬ tion at H may indeed be lefs oblique than the other, or they may be both the fame. This depends upon the degree of ftrength wherewith the centripetal force exerts itfelf during the paffage of the body from B to H : and in like manner the inclinations at 1 and K depend entirely on the degree of ftrength wherewith the centripetal force a£!s on the body in its paffage from H to K : if the centripetal force be weak enough, the lines AH and AI drawn from the centre A to the body at El and at I, (hall be more obliquely in¬ clined to the curve than the line AB is inclined to¬ wards BG. The centripetal force may be of fuch a ftrength as to render all thefe inclinations equal 3 or if Wronger, the inclination at I and K will be lefs ob¬ lique than at B 3 and Sir Ifaac New ton has particu¬ larly (hown, that if the centripetal pow’er decreafes af¬ ter a certain manner without the increafe of diftance, a body may defcribe fuch a curve line, that all the lines drawn from the centre to the body (hall be equal¬ ly inclined to that curve line. We muft further remark, that if the centripetalRevotution power, while the body increafes its diftance from the0i a ' oily centre, retain fufficient ftrength to make the linesround a drawn from the centre to the body to become at length lefs oblique to the curve 5 then, if this diminu-1 tion of the obliquity continue, till at laft the line drawn from the centre to the body (hall ceafe to be obliquely inclined to the curve, and become perpendi¬ cular thereto 3 from this inftant the body (hall no longer recede from the centre, but in its following mo¬ tion (hall again defcend, and defcribe a curve in all refpefls like that which it has defcribed already, pro¬ vided the centripetal power, everywhere at the fame diftance from the body, afts with (the fame ftrength. This return of the body may be proved by the follow¬ ing propofition : That if tl^e body in any place, fup¬ pofe at I, were to be (topped, and thrown diredtly backward with the velocity wherewith it w^as moving forward in that point I, then the body, by the aftion of the centripetal force upon it, would move back again over the path IHB, in which it had before ad¬ vanced forward, and would arrive again at the point B m the fame fpace of time as was taken up in its paffage from B to I ; the velocity of the body at' its return from the point B being the fame as that wherewith it firft fet out from that point. The truth of this propofition may be illuftrated m the following manner. Suppofe, in fig. no. that a B 2 - body 339 I iff ASTRO Theory of body were carried after tbe following manner through Univerial t]le flgure ABCDEF, compofed of the ftraight Hrtes AB, BC, CD, DE, EF: let the body then firft be fuppofed to receive an impulfe to fome point within the concavity of the figure, as G. Now, as this bodv, when once moving in the tlraight line AB, will con¬ tinue to move on in this line as long as it ihall be left to itfelf; but being difturbed at the point B by the impulfe given it, it will be turned out of this line AB into fome other ftraight line, wherein it will afterwards continue to move as long as it fhall be left to itfelf; therefore, let this impulfe have ftrength fufficient to turn the body into the line BC j then let the body move on undifturbed from B to C : but at C let it re¬ ceive another impulfe pointed alfo towards G, and of fufficient ftrength to turn the body into the line CD 5 at D let a third impulfe turn it into the line DE ; and at E let another turn it into EF. Now, if the bodv, while moving on in the line EF, be flopped and turn¬ ed back again with the fame velocity with which it was moving forward, then by the repetition of the former impulfe at E, the body will be turned into the line E D, and move in it from E to D with the fame velocity as that wherewith it was moving forward in this line : then by a repetition of the impulfe at D, when the body fhall have returned to that point, it will be turned into the line DC •, and by the repetition of the former impulfes at C and at B, the body will be brought back again into the line BA, with the velo¬ city wherewith it firft moved in that line. To illuftrate this ftill farther, let D£ and FE be con¬ tinued beyond E. In DEthus continued, take at plea- fure the length EH, and let HI be fo drawn as to be equidiftant from the line GE •, then, from the fecond law of motion, it follows, that after the impulfe on the body on E, it will move through the fpace El in the fame time it would have employed in moving from E to H with the velocity it had in the line DE. In FE prolonged, take EK equal to El and draw KL equidiftant from GE. Then, becaufe tire body is thrown back in the line FE, with the fame velocity with which it went forward in that line, if, when the body was turned to E, it were ' permitted to go ftraight on, it would pafs through EK in the fame time as it took up in palling through El, when it went forward in the line EF. But if, at the body’s return to the point E, fuch an impulfe direfted toward the point D were to be given it as w7as fufficient to turn it into the line DE, it is plain that this impulfe muft be equal to that which originally turned the body out of the line DE into EF •, and that the velocity wfith which the body wfill return into the line ED is the fame as that wherewith it moved before through this line from D to E. Becaufe EK is equal to El, and KL and HI being each equidiftant from GE, are by confequence equidiftant from each other •, it follows, that the twm triangular figures IEH and KEL, are altogether like and equal to each other. EK there¬ fore being equal to El, and EL equal to KH, and KL equal to fdL, it is plain, that the body, after its return to E, being turned out of the line FE into ED by an impulfe adling upon it in E after the manner above mentioned, it will receive fuch a velocity by this impulfe as will carry it through EL in the fame time it would have taken to go through EK, if it had N O M Y. Part IV. palled through it undifturbed. It has already been Theory of obferved, that the time in which the body would pafs Univerfal over EK, with the velocity wherewfith it returns, is Gr^v,ta- equal to the time it took up in going forwrard from E ■ tl°n* ■■ to I j that is, to the time in which it wmuld have gone through EH with the velocity wherewith it moved from D to E j therefore the time in which the body will pafs from E to L, after its return into the line ED, is the fame as would have been taken up by the body in paffing through the line EH wfith the velocity wherewfith it firft moved in the line DE. Since, there¬ fore, EL and EH are equal, the body returns into the line DE with the velocity which it had before in that line.—Again, w7e may affirm, that the fecond impulfe in E is equal to the firft ; for, as the impulffi in E, whereby the body was turned out of the line DE into the line EF, is of fuch ftrength, that if the body had been at reft when this impulle had afted up¬ on it, it would have communicated as much motion to it, as would have been fufficient to carry it through a length equal to HI, in the time wherein the body would have paffed from E to H, or in the time wherein it palled from E to I. In the fame manner, on the return of the body, the impulfe in E, whereby it is turned out of the line FE into ED, is of fuch ftrength, that if it had afted on the body at reft, it would have caufed it move through a length equal to KL in the fame time as the body wmuld employ in paffing through EK with the velocity wherewith it re¬ turns in the line FE : therefore the fecond impulfe, had it afled on the body at reft, ivould have caufed it to move through a length equal to KL, in the fame fpace of time as would have been taken up by the body in paffing through a length equal to HI wmre the firft impulfe to aft on the body while at reft •, that is, the effefts of the firft and fecond impulfe on the body wffien at reft would be the fame •, for KL and HI are equal : confequently the fecond impulfe is equal to the firft. Thus, if the body be returned through FE with the velocity wherewith it moved forward, it has been Ihown howr, by the repetition of the impulfe wdiich afted on it in E, the body will return again into the line DE with the velocity which it had before in that line. By the fame method of reafoning it may be proved, that wffien the body is returned back to D, the impulfe which before afied on that point will throw the body into the line DC with the velocity wffiich it firft had in that line ; and the other impulfes being fucceffively repeated, the body will at length be brought back again into the line BA with the velocity wherewith it fet out in that line.—-Thus thefe impul¬ fes, by afting over again in an inverted order all their operations on the body, bring it back again through the path in wffiich it had proceeded forward ; and this obtains equally whatever be the number of ftraight lines wffiereof this curve figure is compofed. Now, by a method of reafoning of which Sir Ifaac Newton made much ufe, and wffiich he introduced into geo¬ metry, thereby greatly enriching that fcience, we might make a tranfition from this figure, compofed of a number of ftraight lines, to a figure of one continued curvature, and from a number of feparate impulfes re¬ peated at diftindf intervals to a continued centripetal force, and ftiow, that becaufe what has been here ad¬ vanced holds univerfally true whatever be the num, ber Part IV. ASTRONOMY. Theory of ber of ftraight lines whereof the curve figure ACF is Umverfal compofed, and however frequently the impulfes at the Gtionta" angles figure are repeated j therefore the fame < will ftiil remain true although this figure (hould be converted into one of a continued curvature 5 and thefe diftinft impulfes (hould be changed into a conti¬ nual centripetal force. This being allowed, fuppofe the body in K to have the line AK no longer obliquely inclined to its mo¬ tion. In this cafe, if the body be turned back in the manner we have been confidering, it mud be directed back perpendicularly to AK : but if it had proceeded forward, it would likewife have moved in a direftion perpendicular to AK : confequently, whether it move from this point K backward or forward, it mud de- fcribe the fame kind of courfe. Therefore, fince by being turned back it will go over again the line KIHB, if It be permitted to go forward, the line KL, which it diall defcribe,- will be altogether fimilar to the line KHB. In like manner we may determine the nature of the motion, if the line wherein the body fets out be in¬ clined, as in fig. 127. down toward the line BA drawn between the body and the centre. If the centripetal power fo much increafes in drength as the body ap¬ proaches, that it can bend the path In which the body moves to that degree as to caufe all the lines, AH, AI, AK, to remain no lefs oblique to the motion of the body than AB is oblique to BC, the body (hall continually more and more approach the centre. But if the centripetal power increafes in fo much lefs a degree as to permit the line drawn from the centre to the body, as it accompanies the body in its motion, at length to become more and more eredl to the curve wherein the body moves, and in the end, fuppofe at K, to become perpendicular to it ; from that time the bo¬ dy (hall rife again. This is evident from w’hat has been faid above j becaufe, for the very fame reafon, here alfo, the body will proceed from the point K to defcribe a line altogether fimilar to that in which it has moved from B to K. Thus.it happens as in the pendulum, which, all the time it approaches a perpendicular pofi- tion towards the horizon, defcends more and more 5 but as foon as it is come into that fituation, it imme¬ diately rifes again by the fame degrees as it defcended before : fo here the body more and more approaches the centre all the time it is moving from B to K ; but thenceforward it rifes from the centre again by the fame degrees as it approached before. If, as in fig. 127. the line BC be perpendicular to AB ; then, as has already been obferved, the centri¬ petal power may be fo balanced with the progreflive motion of the body, that it may keep moving round the centre A confiantly at the fame diftance ; as the body does when whirled about any point to which it is tied by a firing. If the centripetal power be too weak to produce this efledl, the motion of the body will prefently become oblique to the line drawn from itfeif to the centre j but if it be ftronger, the body mufi confiantly keep moving in a curve to which a line drawn from it to the body is perpendicular. It the centripetal power change rvith the change of diftance, in fuch a manner that the body, after its mo¬ tion has become oblique to the line drawn from itfeif to the centre, lhall again become perpendicular there¬ to j then the body (hall, in its fubfequent motion, re- Ti.eoiy of turn again to the diftance of AB, and from that di- Umraual fiance take a courfe fimilar to the former: and thus, Grt^ta_ if the body move in a fpace void of all refiftance, wftiich . 1 has been all along fuppofed, it will continue in a per¬ petual motion about the centre, defeending and afeend- ing from it alternately. If the body, fetting out from B (fig. 126.) in the line EC perpendicular to ABr defcribe the line BDE, wftiich in D (hall be ob¬ lique to the line AD, but in E (hall again become ere£t to AE, drawn from the body in E to the centre A) then from this point E the body lhall defcribe the line EFG entirely fimilar to BDE, and at G (hall be at the fame diftance as it was at B ; and the line AG (hall be ere£t to the body’s motion. Therefore the body (hall proceed to defcribe from G the line GHI altogether fimilar to the line GFE, and at I it will have- the fame diftance from the centre as it had at E 5 and alfo have the line AI ere of fhould return again into its firft conrfe, for the curve centripetal may have fome fuch figure as ABCDBE in Part IV. %•_ 131- In this curve line, if the body fet out from Theory 0f B in the diredlion BF, and moved through the line tlniverfal BCD till it returned to B ; here the body would not GrT’ita' enter again into the line BCD, becaufe the two parts BD and BC of the curve line make an angle at the point B : fo that the centripetal power, which at the point B would turn the body from the line BF into the curve, will not be able to turn it into the line BC from the direction in which it returns to the point B. A forcible impulie muft be given the body in the point B to produce that effe£E If, at the point B, whence the body fets out, the curve line return into itfelf, as in fig. 130. then the body, upon its arrival again at B, may return into its former courfe, and thus make an endlefs circuit about the centre. The force requifite to carry a body in any curve line Caillation propofed, is to be deduced from the curvature which of the force the figure has in any part of it. Sir liaac Newton has r godne to laid down the following propofition as a foundation forcarr^ a ^°" difcovering this, viz. that if a line be drawn from fome curve Ime. fixed point to the body, and remaining by one ex¬ treme united to that point, it be carried round along with the body ; then if the power whereby the body is kept in its courfe be always pointed to this fixed point as a centre, this line will move over equal fpaces in equal portions of time. Suppofe a body were moving through the curve line ABCD (fig. 132.), and paffed over the arches AB, BC, CD in equal portions of time; then if a point, as E, can be found, from whence the line EA being drawn to the body in ac¬ companying it in its motion, it fliall make the fpaCes EAB, EBC, and ECD, over which it paffes, equal where the times are equal ; then is the body kept in this line by a power always pointed to E as a centre. To prove this, fuppofe a body fet out from the point A, fig- 133. to move in the ftraight line AB j and after it had moved for fome time in that line, it were to receive an impuife directed to fome point, as C. LtS it receive that impuife at D, and thereby be turned in¬ to the line DE ; and let the body after this impuife, take the fame time in pafling from D to E that is em¬ ployed in pafling from A to D. Then the ftraight lines CA, CD, and CE being drawn, the triangular fpaces CAD and CDE are proved to be equal in the following manner. Let EF be drawn parallel to CD. Then it follows, from the fecond law of motion, that fince the body was moving in the line AB when it re¬ ceived the impuife in the dire&ion DC, it will have mo¬ ved after that impuife through the line DE in the fame time as it would have moved through DF, provided it had received no difturbance in D. But the time of the body’s moving from D to E is fuppofed to be equal to the time of its moving through AD ; therefore the time which the body would have employed in moving through DF, had it not been difturbed in D, is equal to the time wherein it moved through AD : confe- quently DF is equal in length to AD 5 for if the bo¬ dy had gone on to move through the line AB without interruption, it would have moved through all the parts of it with the fame velocity, and have paffed over equal parts of that line in equal portions of time. Now CF be¬ ing drawn, fince AD and DF are equal, the triangular fpace CDF is equal to the triangular fpace CAD. Fur¬ ther, the line EF being parallel to CD, it follows from the 37th propofition of Euclid’s firft book, that the tri. ASTRONOMY. Part IV. A S T R Theory of angle CED Is equal to the triangle CFD : therefore Umverfal t]le triangle CED is equal to the triangle CAD. Gt1ona" . In 1^e >manner> ^ the body receive at E another t ■—, impulfe direfted toward the point C, and be turned by that impulfe into the line EG $ if it move after¬ wards from E to G, in the lame fpace of time as was taken up by its motion from D to E, or from A to D } then CG being drawn, the triangle CEG is equal to CDE. A third impulfe at G, diredled as the two former to C, whereby the body fhall be turned into the line GH, will have alfo the like effect wuth the reft. If the body move over GH in the fame time as it took up in moving over EG, the triangle CGH will be equal to the triangle CEG. Laftly, if the body at H be turned by a frefti impulfe directed to¬ wards C into the line HI, and at I by another impulfe direfted alfo to C be turned into the line IK j and if the body moke over each of the lines HI and IK in the fame time as it employed in moving over each of the preceding lines AD, DE, EG, and GH : then each of the triangles CHI and C1K will be equal to each of the preceding. Likewife, as the time in which the body moves over ADE is equal to the time of its moving over EGH, and to the time of its mo¬ ving over HIK •, the fpace CADE will be equal to the fpace CEGH and to the fpace CHIK. In the fame manner, as the time in tviuch the body moved over AD EG is equal to the time of its moving over GH1K, fo the 4pace CADEG tvill be equal to the fpace CGHIK. From this principle Sir Ifaac New¬ ton demonftrates the above-mentioned propofition, by making the tranfition from this incurvated figure com- pofed of ftraight lines, to a figure of continued cur- vation ; and by (bowing, that fince equal fpaces are de- fcribed in equal times in this prefent figure compofed of ftraight lines, the fame relation between the fpaces defcribed, and the times of their defcription, will alfo have place in a figure of one continued curvature. He alfo deduces from this propofition the reverfe of it j and proves, that whenever equal fpaces are continual¬ ly defcribed, the body is acted upon by a centripetal force 343 directed to the centre at which the fpaces terminate. Compari- As the eflect of a central force in a very fmall inter- fionot the val of time is meafured by the verfed fine of the fmall force 'with arcla defcr!bed» we ma7 eafily compare the centrifugal gravitation. for.ce produced by the rotation of the earth with gravi¬ tation. At the equator, a body in confequence of the rotation of the earth defcribes an arch of 15" of the cir¬ cumference of the earth, In G of time. The radius of the equator is about 19634778 French feet; the ver¬ fed fine of w’hich is 0.0389704 feet. At the equator a body falls 11.23585 French feet in a fecond. The centrifugal force is to gravity as 0.0389704 to x 1 23585, or nearly as 1 to 288.3. The centrifugal force diminifti- es gravity, and bodies only fall in confequence of the excels of the laft above the firft. If the whole force whole effect would be evident, wrere there no rotation, be called gravity ; then at the equator the centrifugal force is about of gravity. If the earth revolved 1 7 times fafter than it does, the arch defcribed in a fe- coud would be 1 7 times greater, and its verfed fine 289 times longer; the centrifugal force wmuld then be equal (o gravity, and at the equator, bodies would ceafe to have any weight. O N O M Y. 119 In general the expreffion of a uniformly accelerating Theory of force, adding conllantly towards the fame point, is Univ. al equal to twice the fpace which it caufes the body to <^rt^ta’ deferibe, divided by the fquare of the time. Every > y - > accelerating force may be fuppofed conftant for a very imall interval of time, and adding in the fame direc¬ tion. The fpace defcribed by a body moving in a cir¬ cle in confequence of the central force, is the verfed fine of the fmall arch defcribed ; and this veiled fine is very nearly equal to the fquare of the arch divided by radius. ri he expreflion of the accelerating force is then the.fquare of the arch deferibed, divided by the fquare of the time, and by radius. The arch divided by the time gives the velocity. Hence the centripetal qnd centrifugal forces are equal to the fquare of the velocity divided by radius. We have feeh that gravity is equal to the fquare of the acquired velocity divided by twice the fpace gone through. Of courfe the centrifugal force is equal to gravity, if the velocity of the revolving body be that which it would acquire by falling from a height equal to half the radius of the circumference defcribed. The velocities of different revolving bodies are as the circum- .ferences which they deferibe divided by the time of their revolution. Thefe circumferences are as their radii. T he fquares of the velocity of courfe are as the fquares of the radii divided by the fquares of the times. Hence centrifugal forces are to each other as the radii of the circumferences defcribed divided by the fquares of the times of the revolutions. Hence in different paral¬ lels of latitude, the centrifugal forces produced by the rotation of the earth are proportional to the radii of thefe parallels. Thefe remarks will give the reader an idea of the law's of motion. For a more particular inveftigation he muft have recourfe to thofe articles that treat par¬ ticularly of Dynamics. Chap. II. Of Univerfal Gravitatmi. The principles of dynamics being underftood, let us make ufe of them to examine the motions of the heavenly bodies, in order to detect the general law's which produce and regulate thefe motions. We have feen that the planets and comets move in piane4f! re_ ellipfes round the fun, and that the areas defcribed by volve round their radii vedtors are proportional to the time. The the funJ principles of dynamics laid down 'in the lart chapter, inform us that this could not happen unlefs each of thefe bodies were conftantly adted on by a force turn¬ ing them from the ftraight line in the diredlion of the centre of thefe radii vedlors. Hence it fol¬ low's, that the planets are conftantly adted upon by a force which urges them towards the fun as a centre. Let us fuppofe that, the planets revolve round the ;n c^e_ fun in circles, which is not very far from the truth, quence of 3 In that cafe, the fquares of their velocities are proper-lorce re~ tional to the fquares of the radii of their orbits, divid- fidinp in ed by the fquares of the times of their revolution. Butthe lun” by the law's of Kepler, the fquares of the times are as the cubes of the radii of the orbits of the planet, or of thediftance. Therefore, the fquares of the velocity are reciprocally as thefe radii. Perhaps this reafoning will be better underftood by employing fymbols. Let t ~ the . 345 This force inverfely as the fquare of the di- flance. 320 A S T R i ’ieory the time, v =r the velocity, and r ~ the radius, we have Univerfal Gravita- J3ut therefore, fubftituting- r3 in the tion. r ' ° firft formula, we have v*== but therefore • ;-3 r3 r we have or d' always reciprocally proportional to r. We have feen formerly that the central forces of different forces revolving in a circle, are as the fquares of the velocity divided by the radii of their or¬ bits. Therefore, the tendency of the planets to the fun, then, are reciprocally as the fquares of the radii of their orbits, or their diftance from the fun. This will be better underitood if w7e exprefs it by fymbols. We have i>*==—. Let c denote the central force, c-==l~\ ' r r for v% fublfitute its equivalent —, and we have £•== —. r ' rx It is true that the orbits of the planets are not ex¬ actly circular 5 but as the law of the fquares of the times, proportional to the cubes of the diltances, is in¬ dependent of the eccentricity of the planetary orbits, it is natural to fuppofe, that it would exift, even though the eccentricity were deftroyed. The law, therefore, that the tendency to the fun is inverfely as the fquare of the diftance, is clearly indicated by this ratio. Analogy leads us to fuppofe, that this law, which extends from one planet to another, holds alfo w'ith refpefl to the fame planet in all its different diftances from the fun. That this is actually the cafe, follows with certainty from the elliptical orbits of the planets. When the planet is in its perihelion, its velocity is a maximum, and its tendency to feparate from the fun in confequence of this velocity overcoming the ten¬ dency towards the fun, the radius ve&or increafes in length, and forms obtufe angles writh the direftion of the planet. Hence it oppofes, and of courfe, tends to diminilh the velocity, till the planet reaches its aphe¬ lion. Then the radius veflor becomes perpendicular to the curve, the velocity is at its minimum; and the tendency to feparate from the fun being lels than the tendency towards the fun, the planet approaches to¬ wards it, defcribing the fecond part of its elliptical or¬ bit. In that part, the tendency to the fun increafes the velocity of the planet, as in the former part it had diminilhed it: the planet accordingly comes to its pe¬ rihelion with a maximum of velocity. Now the cur¬ vature of the ellipfe being the fame at the perihelion and aphelion, the radii of the equicurve circles will be the fame, and, of courfe, the centrifugal forces in thefe two points wull be to each other as the fquares of the velocity. The fe£lors defcribed in the fame times be- ing equal, the velocities at the aphelion and perihelion are reciprocally as the correfponding diftances of the planet from the fun. Of courfe, the fquares of the velocities are reciprocally as the fquares of thefe di¬ ftances, or at the perihelion and aphelion the centrifu¬ gal forces are equal to the tendency of the planet to¬ wards the fun. Therefore this tendency is inverfely , as the fquare of the diftance of the planet from the Tendency hin. . the fame We fee then, in general, that all the planets tend in ali the towards the fun, with a force inverfely as the fquare planets, 2 347 O N 0 M Y. Part IV, of their diftance. Newton demonftrated, that this Theory 0f force would caufe them, if proje&ed with a given ve¬ locity, to defcribe ellipfes round the fun as a centre. He demonftrated farther, that this tendency is the ' fame in all the planets, varying only according to their diftances. Hence it follows, that if they were all at reft, and placed at the fame diftance from the fun, they would all, in confequence of this tendency, fail into the fun at the fame inftant } the fame refult mult be applied alfo to the comets, for in them alfo the fqua'res of the times are undoubtedly proportional to the cubes of their diftance from the fun. The fatellites tend equally to the fun with the pla- andlfatel. nets around which they revolve. Were not the moon''tcs> under the influence of this tendency, inftead of delcrib- ing a circle round the earth, it would foon abandon it altogether. Unlefs the fatellites of Jupiter and the moon tended towards the fun, irregularities would be perceptible in their orbits, which they do not exhi¬ bit. The planets, comets, and fatellites, then, all tend to the fun in confequence of the aftion of the fame force. While the fatellites move round their planet, the entire fyftem of planet and fatellites is car¬ ried round the fun, and retained in their orbits by the fame force. Of courfe, the motion of the fatellites round the planet, is merely the fame as if the planet were altogether at reft, and* not afted upon by any fo¬ reign body. _ < * ' 348 1 huswe have been led, without affuming anyhypothe- Hence the fis, by the neceffary confequence of the laws of the cele- fun’s centre ftial movements, to confider the centre of the fun as the attra^ focus of a force, which extends itfelf indefinitely through 'L'tK ;v'‘ fpace, diminifhing inverfely as the fquares of the di¬ ftance, and which attraBs all bodies within the fphere of its aclivity. Each of Kepler’s law^ points out a pro-* perty of this attractive force. The law of the areas pro¬ portional to the times, informs us, that the force is di¬ rected towards the fun j the elliptical figure of the planets proves to us, that its intenfity diminifhes as the fquare of the diftance augments; and the law7 of the fquares of the times proportional to the cubes of the diftance, informs us, that the tendency, or gravitation of all the planets to the fun is the fame, provided the diftances were the fame. We may call this force fo- lar attraBion, fuppoling for the fake of a diftinCt con¬ ception, that it is a force refiding in the fun. The tendency or gravitation of the fatellites to- Satellites wards their planets, is a neceffary confequence of the tend to areas defcribed by their radii veCtors being proportion- alto the times j that this gravitation is inverfely asmariet' the fquare of their diftance, is indicated by the ellip- ticity of their orbits. This ellipticity, indeed, being fcarcely apparent in moft of the fatellites of Jupiter, Saturn, and Herfchel, W'ould leave fome uncertainty, did not the third law7, namely, the fquares of the times being inverfely as the cubes of their diftance, demon- ftrate, that from one fatellite to another, the tendency to the planet is inverfely as the fquare of the diftance. This proof, indeed, is wanting with refpeCt to our Moon’s moon j but the defied may be fupplied by the follow-ten<*ency ing ronfiderations. Gravity, or the weight by which a body tends towards the earth, extends itfelf to the vitatio^ top of the higheft mountains, aud the very trifling di¬ minution which it experiences at that height, cannot permit us to doubt, that it would ftill be lenfible at a confidctably Part IV. ASTRONOMY. 121 Theory of confiderably greater diftance from the earth’s centre. Umverfal js not n3tural to extend it as far as the moon, and tlon^" t0 ^uPP°^e t^at force which retains that fatellite in f ^ / its orbit, is its gravitation towards the earth, juft as it is the folar attraction which retains the planets in their orbits ? The forces at leaft feem to be of the fame na¬ ture ; they both aft upon every particle of bodies, and caufe them to move at the fame rate •, for the folar at¬ traction afts equally upon all bodies placed at the fame diftance from the fun, juft as gravitation caufes all bo¬ dies to fall from the fame height with the fame velo¬ city. A body projefted horizontally, falls upon the earth at fome diftance after defcribing a curve fenfibly parabolic. It would fall at a greater diftance, if the ‘force of projeftion were more confiderable ; and, if projefted with a certain velocity, it would not fall back at all, but revolve round the earth like a fatellite. To make it move in the orbit of the moon, it would be neceflary only to give it the fame height and the fame projefting force. But what demonftrates the identity of gravitation and of the force which retains the moon in its orbit is, that if we fuppofe gravity to diminilh inverfely as the fquare of the diftance from the centre of the earth, at the diftance of the moon it will be precifely equal t® the moon’s tendency to the earth. Let A in fig. 134. reprefent the earth, B the moon, BCD the moon’s orbit; which differs little from a cir¬ cle of which A is the centre. If the moon in B were left to itfelf to move with the velocity it has in the point B, it would leave the orbit, and proceed ftraight forward in the line BE which touches the orbit in B. Suppofe the moon would upon this condition move Irom B to E in the fpace of one minute of time : By 3SI the aftion of the earth upon the moon, wdiereby it is Her motion retained in its orbit, the moon will really be found at particularly the end of this minute in the point F, from whence a explained, ftraight line drawn to A ftiall make the fpace BFA in the circle equal to the triangular fpace BE A j fo that the moon in the time wherein it would have moved from B to E, if left to itfelf, has been impelled to¬ wards the earth from E to F. And when the time of the moon’s palling from B to F is fmall, as here it is only one minute, the diftance between E and F fcarce differs from the fpace through which the moon would defccnd in the fame time if it were to fall direftly down from B toward A without any other motion. AB, the diftance of the moon from the earth, is about 60 of the femidiameters of the latter ; and the moon com¬ pletes her revolution round the earth in about 27 days 7 hours and 43 minutes: therefore the fpace EF will here be found by computation to be about i6£ feet. Confequently, if the power by which the moon is re¬ tained in its orbit be near the furface of the earth greater than at the diftance of the moon in the dupli- ■152 cate ProPorti given in the firlt chapter of this part, that the fities of the gravitation of a fatellite towards its planet is to the piauets. gravitation of the earth towards the fun as the mean diflance of the fatellite from its primary, divided by the fquare of the time of its fidereal revolution, or the sjiean diftance of the earth from the fun divided by the astronomy. tion. Part IV. fquare of a fidereal year. To bring thefe gravitations Theory of to the fame diftance from the bodies which produce Univeifal them, we muft multiply them refpeftively by the fquares Gravita- of the radii of the orbits which are delcribed : and, as v at equal diftancesthe maffes are proportional to the at- traftions, the mafs of the earth is to that of the fun as the cube of the mean radius of the orbit of the fatel¬ lite,. divided by the iquare of the time of its fidereal motion, is to the cube of the mean diftance of the earth from the fun, divided by the fquare of the fide¬ real year. Let us apply this refult to Jupiter. The mean di¬ ftance of his 4th fatellite fubtends an angle of 1 decimal feconds. Seen at the mean diftance of the earth from the lun, it would appear under an angle of 7964y75 decimal feconds. The radius of the circle contains 636619".8 decimal feconds. Therefore the mean radii of the orbit of Jupiter’s 4th fatellite and of the earth’s orbit are to each other as thefe two num¬ bers. 1 he time of the fidereal revolution of the 4th fatellite is 16.6890 days j the fidereal year is 365.2564 days. Thefe data give us —^ for the mafs of 1066.08 Jupiter, that of the fun being reprefented by 1. It is neceffary to add unity to the denominator of this frac¬ tion, becauie the force which retains Jupiter in his orbit is the fum of the attraftions of Jupiter and the fun. The mafs of Jupiter is then -. The mafs 1067.08 of Saturn and Herfchel may be calculated in the fame manner. rI hat of the earth is belt determined by the following method : If w e take the mean diftance of the earth from the fun for unity, the arch deferibed by the earth in a fe- cond of time wall be the ratio of the circumference to the radius divided by the number of feconds in a fide¬ real year. If w^e divide the Iquare of that arch by the diameter, we obtain —for its verfed fine, which is the defleftion of the earth towards the fun in a fe- cond. But on that parallel of the earth’s furface the fquare of the fine of whofe latitude is y, a body falls in a fecond 16J feet. To reduce this attraftion to the mean diftance of the earth from the fun, we muft di¬ vide the number by the feet contained in that diftance; but the radius of the earth at the above mentioned pa¬ rallel is 19614648 French feet. If we divide this num¬ ber by the tangent of the folar parallax, we obtain the mean radius of the earth’s orbit expreffed in feet. The effeft of the attraftion of the earth at a di¬ ftance equal to the mean radius of its orbit, is equal to 19614648 mult‘P^e(* by tbe cube of the tangent of the folar parallax = . Hence th a rule w^ich holds, with refpeft to the 7r‘m ‘i' earth, Jupiter, and Saturn. The following table exhi¬ bits the maffes of the different planets, that of the fun being unity : tion. 3S7 Table of the maffes. Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Herfchel 20258x0 1 "P3T3T 329809 1 1846082 1 1067.09 1 3359-40 i 358 Of their ffenfities. 359 / I95°4 The denfities of bodies are proportional to their maffes divided by their bulks ; and, when bodies are nearly fpherical, their bulks are as the cubes of their femidiameters, of courfe the denfities in that cafe are as the maffes divided by the cubes of the femidiame¬ ters. For greater exaftnels, we muft take that femi- diameter of a planet which correfponds to the parallel, the fquare of the fine of which is equal to -f, and which is equal to the third of the fum of the radius of the pole, and twice the radius of the equator. This me¬ thod gives us the denfities of the principal planets as follows, that of the fun being unity : Earth 3-93933 Jupiter 0.86014 Saturn ©.49512 Herfchel 1.13797. Of gravity To have the intenfity of gravitation at the furface of at their the fun and planets, let us confider, that, if Jupiter and ut aces. Jijg eart]1 were exa(q.]y fpherical, and deftitute of their rotatory motion, gravitation at their equators would be proportional to the maffes of thefe bodies divided by the fquares of their diameters. But at the mean diftance of the fun from the earth, the diameters of the equators of Jupiter and of the earth are to each other as the numbers 626.26 and 54.5. If then we repre- fent the weight of a body at the earth’s equator by 1, the fame body, if tranfported to the equator of Jupi¬ ter, would weigh 2.509. But the difference of the centrifugal forces on the furface of the earth and Jupiter renders it neceffary to diminifh this laft num¬ ber by about The lame body at the furface of the fun would weigh 27.65. Sect. II. Of the Perturbations in the Elliptical Orbit of the Planets. If the planets were influenced only by the fun, they would defcribe ellipfes round that luminary : but they aft upon one another, and from thefe various at- traftions there refult difturbances in their elliptical mo¬ tions, difcoverable by obfervation, and which it is ne- cefiary to determine, in order to be able to conflruft accurate tables of the planetary motions. The rigor¬ ous solution of this problem is above the reach of the N O M Y. 123 mathematical analyfis 5 mathematicians have been obli- Theory of ged to fatisfy themfelves with approximations. Univerfal The difturbances in the elliptical motions of the pla- 7t-on nets may be divided into two claffes. The firft clafs affefts the elements of the elliptical motion : they in- 360 creafe very flowly, and have been called fecular ine- Secular and qualities. The other clafs depends upon the configu- fnequalT* ration of the planets, either with refpeft to each other, ties, or with refpeft to their nodes and perihelions, and are renewed every time that the relative fituation of the planets becomes the fame. They are called periodical inequalities, to diftinguilh them from the fecular, whole periods are much longer and altogether independent of the mutual configuration of the planets. Before pro¬ ceeding farther, we beg leave to introduce the follow¬ ing quotation from Dr Pemberton, becaufe it will convey fome notion of thefe difturbances in a very fa¬ miliar manner to our readers. “The only inequalities which have been obferved com¬ mon to all the planets are, the motion of the aphelion and the nodes. The tranfverfe axis of each orbit does not remain always fixed, but moves about the fun with a very flow progreffive motion 5 nor do the planets keep conftantly in the fame planes, but change them and the lines by which thefe planes interfeft each other by infenfible degrees. The firft of thefe inequalities. Motion of which is the motion of the aphelion, may be accounted h*16 afhe- for, by fuppofing the gravitation of the planets to_ ll0'lacc°un- wards the fun to differ a little farther from the fore- C °r’ mentioned reciprocal duplicate proportion of the di- ftances 5 but the fecond, which is the motion of the nodes, cannot be accounted for by any power direfted towards the fun 5 for no fuch power can give it any la¬ teral impulfe to divert it from the plane of its motion into any new plane, but of neceflity muft be derived from fome other centre. Where that power is lodged, remains to be difcovered. Now it is proved, as ftiall afterwards be explained, that the three primary planets Saturn, Jupiter, and the Earth, which have fatellites revolving about them, are endowed with a power of caufing bodies, in particular thofe fatellites, to gravi¬ tate towards them with a force which is reciprocally in the duplicate proportion of their diftances ; and the planets are, in all refpefts in which they come under our confideration, fo fimilar and alike, that there is no reafon to queftion but they have all the fame proper¬ ty, though it be fufficient for the prefent purpofe to have it proved of Jupiter and Saturn only ; for thefe planets contain much greater quantities of matter than the reft, and proportionally exceed the others in power. But the influence of thefe two planets being allowed, it is evident how the planets come to fliift their places continually 5 for each of the planets mov¬ ing in a different plane, the aftion of Jupiter and Sa¬ turn upon the reft will be oblique to the planes of their motion, and therefore will gradually draw them into new ones. The fame aftion of thefe two planets upon the reft will likewife caufe a progreflive motion • and therefore will gradually draw them into new ones! I he fame aftion of thefe two planets upon the reft will likewife caufe a progreffive motion of the aphe¬ lion ; fo that there will be no neceftity for having re- courfe to the other caufe for this motion, which was before hinted at, viz. the gravitation of the planets toward the fun differing from the exaft duplicate pro- Qj portion 124 Theory of Univerfal Gr ‘ vita- tion. A S T R portion of tlieir didances. And, in the laft place, the action of Jupiter and Saturn upon each other will pro¬ duce in their motions the fame inequalities as their joint action produces upon the reft. All this is effect¬ ed in the fame manner as the fun produces the fame kind of inequalities and many others in the motion of the moon and other fecondary planets; and there¬ fore wall be beft apprehended by what is faid after¬ wards. Thofe other irregularities in the motion of the fecondary planets have place likewife here, but are too minute to be obfervable, becaufe they are produced and rectified alternately, for the moft part in the time of a Angle revolution ; w'hereas the motion of the aphelion and nodes which increafe continually, become Saturn"arU' fenftble after a long feries of years. Yet fome of thefe influence ot;^er inequalities are difcernible in Jupiter and Sa- each other’s turn 5 in Saturn chiefly: for when Jupiter, who moves motions. fafter than Saturn, approaches to a conjunclion with him, his aftion upon the latter will a little retard the motion of that planet; and by the reciprocal adtion of Saturn, he will himfelf be accelerated. After con- jundtion, Jupiter will again accelerate Saturn, and be likewife retarded in the fame degree as before the firft was retarded and the latter accelerated. Whatever inequalities befides are produced in the motion of Sa¬ turn by the adtion of Jupiter upon that planet, will be fufficiently redlified by placing the focus of Saturn’s ellipfis, which ftiould otherwife be in the fun, in the common centre of gravity of the fun and Jupiter. And all the inequalities of Jupiter’s motions, caufed by the adlion of Saturn upon him, are much lefs con- fiderable than the irregularities of Saturn’s motion. This one principle, therefore, of the planets having a power as well as the fun to caufe bodies gravitate to- xvards them, wdiich is proved by the motion of the fe¬ condary planets to obtain in fadl, explains all the irre¬ gularities relating to the planetary motions ever obferv- ed by aftronomers (c). “ Sir Ifaac Newton after this proceeds to make an improvement in aftronomy, by applying this theory to the farther corredlion of their motions. For as we have here obferved the planets to poffefs a principle of gravitation as well as the fun ; fo it will be, explained at large hereafter, that the third law of motion, which makes adlion and readlion equal, is to be applied in this cafe, and that the fun does not only attradl each planet, but is alfo itfelf attradled by them j the force wherewith the planet is adled on, bearing to the force wherewith the fun itfelf is adled upon at the fame time, the proportion which the quantity of matter in the fun bears to the quantity of matter in the planet. From the adlion of the fun and planet being thus mu¬ tual, Sir Ifaac Newton proves that the fun and planet will deferibe about their common centre of gravity fimilar ellipfes; and then, that the tranfverfe axis of the him and the which w’ould be deferibed about the fun at reft ” ■' in the fame time, the fame proportion as the quantity 363 Me hod of corr cl the plane¬ tary mo¬ tions. 364 Sun moves round the common centre of gravity of O N O M Y. Partly. of folid matter in the fun and planet together bears to Theory of the firft ot two mean proportionals between this quan- Tniverial tlty and the quantity of matter in the fun only. G|,^ta* “ It will be aiked, perhaps, how this corredlion can _f be admitted, when the caufe of the motions of the planets was before found, by fuppofing them to be the centre of the power which adled upon them ? for, ac¬ cording to the prelent corredlion, this power appears rather to be diredled to the common centre of gravity. But whereas the fun was at firft concluded to be the centre to which the power adling on the planets w7as diredled, becaufe the fpaces deferibed in equal times round the fun were found to be equal j fo Sir Ifaac Newton proves, that if the fun and planet move round their common centre of gravity, yet, to an eye placed in the planet, the fpaces which will appear to be de¬ feribed about the fun will have the fame relation to the times of their defeription as the real fpaces wTould if the fun were at reft. I further afiferted, that, fup¬ pofing the planets to move round the fun at reft, and to be attradled by a power which Ihould everywhere adl with degrees of ftrength reciprocally in the dupli¬ cate proportions of their dillances ; then the periods of the planets muft obferve the fame'relations to their diftances as aftronomeis have found them to do. But here it muft not be fuppofed, that the obiervations of aftronomers abfolutely agree without any the leaft dif¬ ference : and the prefent corredlion will not caufe a deviation from any one aftronomer’s obfervations fo much as they difter from one another; for in Jupiter, where this corredlion is greateft, it hardly amounts to the 3000th part of the whole axis. ^65 “ Upon this head, I think it not improper to men-Argument tion a refledlion made by our excellent author upon againft the thefe fmall inequalities in the planets motions, which eterri’ty °f contains in it a very ftrong philofophical argument againft the eternity of the world. It is this, that thefe inequalities muft continually increafe by flow degrees, till they render at length the prefent frame of nature unfit for the purpofes it nowr ferves. And a more con¬ vincing proof cannot be defired againft the prefent conftitution’s having exifted from eternity than this, that a certain period of years v. ill bring it to an end. I am aware, that this thought of our author has been reprefented even as impious, and as no lefs than calling a refledlion upon the wifdom of the Author of nature for framing a perifhable work. But I think fo bold an aflertion ought to have been made with fingular caution : for if this remark upon the increafing irre¬ gularities in the heavenly motions be true in fadt, as it really is, the imputation muft return upon the afler- tor, that this does not detradl from the divine wifdom. Certainly we cannot pretend to know all the omnifei- ent Creator’s purpofes in making thisjworld, and there¬ fore cannot pretend to determine how long he defigned it.fhould laft ; and it is fufheient if it endure the time defigned by the Author. The body of every animal ftiows the world. (c) Profeifor J. Robifon, however, informs us in his paper on the Georgium Sidus (Edinburgh Philofophical Tranfadlions, Vol. I. ), That all the irregularities in the planetary motions cannot be accounted for from the laws of gravitation j for w’hich reafon he was obliged to fuppofe the exiftence of planets beyond the orbit of Saturn, even before the difeovery of the Georgium Sidus. M. de la Lande alfo has obferved fome unaccountable inequalities in the motion of Saturn for more than 30 years part. Part IV. Theory of fliows the unlimited wlfdom of the Author no lefs, nay, Univeifni jn many j-efpedls more, than the larger frame of na¬ ture : and yet we fee they are all defigned to lafl but a fmall fpace of time.” 366 Sir Ifaac Newton had no fooner difcovered the uni- Defie however, diftindlly proves from aftrono- vmbleyuntilmical obfervation, that the comets pafs through the they come planetary regions, and are generally invifible at a fmal- nearer than ler diftance than that of Jupiter. Hence, finding that Jupiter. were evidently within the fphere of the fun’s ac¬ tion, he concludes, that they muft neceffarily move about the fun as the planets do : and he proves, that the power of the fun being reciprocally in the dupli¬ cate proportion of the diftance, every body atted upon by him muft either fall dire&ly down, or move about him in one of the conic fe&ions; viz. either the ellipfis parabola, or hyperbola. If a body which defcends to¬ wards the fun as low as the orbit of any planet, move with a fwifter motion than the planet, it will defcribe an orbit of a more oblong figure than that of the pla¬ net, and have at leaft a longer axis. The velocity of the body may be fo great, that it fliall move in a para¬ bola, fo that having once palled the fun, it lhall afcend for ever without returning, though the fun will ftill continue in the focus of that parabola 5 and with a ve¬ locity ftill greater, they will move in an hyperbola. It is, however, moft probable, that the comets move in yery eccentric ellipfes, fuch as is reprefented in fig. 136. ASTRONOMY. Part IV. where S reprefents the fun, C the comet, and ABDE Theory of its orbit; wherein the diftance of S and D far exceeds Univerfal that of S and A. Hence thoie bodies are fometimes found at a moderate diftance from the fun, and appear < ^ ‘ t within the planetary regions j at other times they afcend to vaft diftances, tar beyond the orbit of Saturn, and thus become invifible. That the comets do move in this manner is pro-, 373 ved by our author from computations built upon the ■ „™t°rlc obferyations made by many aftronomers. Thefe com-ellipfes. putations were made by Sir Ifaac Newton himfelf up¬ on the comet which appeared toward the latter end of the year 1680 and beginning of 1681, and the fame were profecuted more at large by Dr Halley upon this and other comets. They depend on this principle, that the eccentricity of th ■ orbits of the comets is fo great, that 'f they are r„..Ty elliptical, yet that part of them which comes under our view approaches fo near to a parabola that they may be taken for fuch without any fenfible error, as in the foregoing figure the parabola FAG, in the lower part of it about A, differs very little 374 from the ellipfis DEAB $ on which foundation Sir I-How to faac teaches a method of finding the parabola in which calculate any comet moves, by three obfervations made upon itt r6 m0t*0'* in that part of its orbit where it agrees neareft with a pa- ° a t0:ne * rabola: and this theory is confirmed by aftronomical ob¬ fervations'j for the places of the comets may thus be com¬ puted as exaffly as thofe of the primary planets. Our author afterwards Ihows how to make ufe of any fmall deviation from the parabola which may be obferved, to determine whether the orbits of the comets be elliptical or not j and thus to know whether or not the fame co¬ met returns at different feafons. On examining by this rule the comet of 1680, he found its orbit to agree more exa&ly with an ellipfis than a parabola, though the ellipfis be fo very eccentric, that it cannot perfoim its revolution in 500 years. On this Dr Halley obferved, that mention is made in hiftory of a comet with a fimi- lar large tail, which appeared three feveral times bo- fore. The firft was before the death of Julius Ctefar ; and each appearance happened at the interval of 575 years, the lafl coinciding with the year 1680. He therefore calculated the motion of this comet to be in fuch an eccentric orbit, that it could not return in lefs than 575 years : which computation agrees yet more perfectly with the obfervations made on this comet than any parabolic orbit will do. To compare together dif¬ ferent appearances of the fame comet, is indeed the only method of difcovering with certainty the form of its or¬ bit j for it is impoffible to difcover the form of one fo exceedingly eccentric from obfervations taken in a fmall part of it. Sir Ifaac Newton therefore propofes to com¬ pare the orbits, on the fuppofition that they are parabo¬ lical, of fuch comets as appear at different times; for if we find the fame orbit defcribed by a comet at diffe¬ rent times, in all probability it will be the fame comet that defcribes it. Here he remarks from Dr Halley, that the fame orbit very nearly agrees to two appear¬ ances of a comet about the fpace of 75 years diftance ; fo that if thefe two appearances were really of the fame comet, the tranfverfe axis of its orbit would be x 8 times that of the axis of the earth’s orbit ; and therefore, when at its greateft diftance from the fun, this comet would be removed not lefs than 35 times the mean di¬ ftance of the earth from the fame luminary. The Part IV. A S T R 375 They are Theory of The comets may be conflderably aiTeaed by tbe Umverlal pianetSi The very important phenomenon of the re¬ turn of the comet of 1682, which was to decide whether they were revolving planets defcribing ellipfes, or bodies which come but once into the planetary re- affedted by glOUS’ and then r^tire ever, caufed the allrono- the planets mers to conbder this matter with great care. Halley had rtiown, in a rough way, that this comet muft have been conflderably affe&ed by Jupiter. Their motion near the aphelion mull be very How, that a very fmall change of velocity or diredlion, while in the planetary regions, muft conflderably aflfedl; ther periods. Halley thought that the action of Jupiter might change it half a year.. M. Clairaut, by coniidering the difturbing forces of Jupiter and Saturn through the whole revolution, fhowed that the period then running would exceed the former nearly two years (618 days), and afligned the middle of April 1759 f°r the time of its perihelion. It really paffed its perihelion on the 12th of March. This was a wonderful preci/ion, when we refleft that the co¬ met had been feen but a very few days in its former apparitions. A comet obferved by Mr Profperin and others in 1771 llas greatly puzzled the aftronomers. Its motions appear to have been extremely irregular, and it certainly came fo near Jupiter, that his momentary influence was at leaft equal to the fun’s. It has not been recognifed fmce. that time, although there is a great probability that it is continually among the planets. Confe7 the other half period of its motion, it would again be¬ come perpendicular to the forementioned line, and the moon return to the place whence it fet out, and have recovered again its greateft diftance. But the moon in its real motion, after fetting out as before, fome¬ times makes more than half a revolution before its mo¬ tion comes again to be perpendicular to the line drawn from itfelf to the earth, and the moon is at its neareft N O M Y. 133 diftance, and then performs more than another half of Theory of an entire revolution before its motion can a fecond time recover its perpendicular direftion to the line drawn tjon> - from the moon to the earth, and the former arrive y—— again at its greateft diftance from the earth. At other times the moon will defcend to her neareft diftance be¬ fore flie has made half a revolution, and recover again its greateft diftance before it has made an entire revolu- 386 tion. The place •where the moon is at its greateft: di- Apogeon fiance is called the moon's apogeon, and the place of her an^ neareft diftance her perigeon ; and this change of place, where the mocr. comes fucceflively to its greateft di¬ ftance from the earth, is called the motion of the apogeon. The manner in which this motion of the apogeon is caufed by the fun, comes now- to be explained. Sir Ifaac Newton has fhown, that if the moon were attrafted toward the earth by a compofition of two powers, one of which was reciprocally in the dupli¬ cate proportion of the diftance from the eaith, and the other reciprocally in the triplicate proportion of the fame diftance ; then, though the line defcribed by the moon would not be in reality an ellipfis, yet the moon’s motion might be perfeftly explained by an ellipfis whole axis Ihould be made to move round the earth : this motion being in confequence, as aftronomers exprefs themfelves, that is, the fame way as the moon itfelf moves, if the moon be attrafted by the fum of the two 0 powers 5 but the axis muft move in antecedence, or j^0q0n in- the contrary way, if the moon be afted upon by theanteced- difference of thefe forces. We have already explained ence and what is meant by duplicate proportion, namely, thatconte_ if three magnitudes, as A, B, and C, are fo related that j ex the fecond B bears the fame proportion to the third C1 383 as the firft A bears to the fecond B -, then the proper-Triplicate tion of the firft A to the third C is the duplicate of proportion the proportion of the firft A to the fecond B. iqowexplained, if a fourth magnitude as D be aflumed, to which C {hall bear the fame proportion as A bears to B, and B to C ; then the proportion of A to D is the triplicate of the proportion of A to B. Let now T (fig. 147, 148.) denote the earth, and jvi0ti0n 0f fuppofe the moon in the point A its apogeon or the moon’s- greateft diftance from the earth, moving in the direc - apogeon tion AF perpendicular to AB, and afted upon fromc^et;erm^“ the earth by two fuch forces as already mentioned. By nC^' that power alone, which is reciprocally in the duplicate proportion of the diftance, if the moon fet out with a proper degree of velocity, the ellipfis AMB may be defcribed : but if the moon be afted upon by the fum of the forementioned pow’ers, and her velocity in the point A be augmented in a certain proportion ; or if that velocity be diminifhed in a certain proportion *>*5ee^7- and the moon be afted upon by the difference of thofe pr,nc^ powers 5 in both thefe cafes the line AE, which fhally,; that when the bon of the llne AB coincides with the line that joins the fun and apogeon. earth, the progreflive motion of the apogeon, wdien the moon is in conjunffion ox oppofition, exceeds the retrograde, in the quadratures, more than in any other fituation of the line AB. On the contrary, when the line AB makes right angles with that which joins the ed.rth and fun, the retrograde motion wall be more con- fiderable, nay, is found fo great as to exceed the pro- greffive 5 fo that in this cafe the apogeon, in the com¬ pels 01 an entiie revolution of the moon, is carried in antecedence. \ et from the confiderations already men¬ tioned, the progreflive motion exceeds the other 5 f0 .na^, on the W’hole, the motion ot the apogeon is in confequence. The line AB alfo changes its fituation with that which joins the earth and fun by fuch flow n o m t. ran tv. degrees, that the inequalities of the motion of the Theory 0f 390. Inequality ^ ' .. ~ ux uic morion or tne iiieoryof apogeon anfing from this laft confideration, are much Univerfal greater than what anfe from the other. Gravitai This unfteady motion of the apogeon gives rife to , tion- another inequality in the motion of the moon herfelf, io that it cannot at all times be explained by the fame Occafions eliipiis. for whenever the apogeon moves in confe-another in' quence, the motion of the luminary muft be referred e.(lualit-v m to an orbit more eccentric than what the moon would tricS de.cnbe, ft the .whole power by which the moon was the moon’s acted upon in its palling from the apogeon changedorbit- according to the reciprocal duplicate proportion of its diftance from the earth, and by that means the moon did delcribe an immoveable ellipfis : and when the apo¬ geon moves in antecedence, the moon’s motion muft: be referred to an orbit lefs eccentric. In the former of the two figures laft referred to, the true place of the moon L falls without the orbit AMB, to which its motion is referred : whence the orbit ALE truly de- lenbed by the moon, is lefs incurvated in the point A than is the orbit AMB ; therefore this orbit is more oblong, and differs farther from a circle than the ellip¬ fis would, whofe curvature in A were equal to that of the line ALB : that is, the proportion of the diftance of the earth T from the centre of the ellipfis to its axis, will be greater in AMB than in the other: but that other is the ellipfis which the moon would deferibe it the power ading upon it in the point A were alter¬ ed m the reciprocal duplicate proportion of the di¬ ftance ; and confequently the moon being drawn more forcibly toward the earth, it will defeend nearer to it. On the other hand, when the apogeon recedes, the power a&ing on the moon increafes with the decreafe o diftance, in lefs than the duplicate proportion of the diftance ; and therefore the moon is lefs impelled to¬ wards^ the earth, and will not defeend fo low. Now. fuppofe, in. the former of thefe figures, that the apo- gcon A is in the fituation where it is approaching to- wards the conjun&ion or oppofition of the fun ; in this cale its progreflive motion will be more and more ac¬ celerated. Here fuppofe the moon, after having de¬ fended from A through the orbit AE as far as F wnere it is come to its neareft diftance from the earth* aicends again up the line EG. As the motion of the apogeon is here more and more accelerated, it is plain that the caufe of its motion muft alfo be on the in¬ crease $ that is, the power by which the moon is drawn to the earth, will decreafe with the increafe of the moon’s diftance in her afeent from F, in a greater pro¬ portion than that wherewith it is- increafed with the decreafe of diftance in the moon’s defeent to it. Con- fequently the moon will afeend to a greater diftance than AT from whence it is defended ; therefore the proportion of the greateft diftance of the moon to the leaft is,increafed. But farther, when the moon aaain defends, the powder will increafe yet farther with the decreafe of diftance than in the laft af ent it increafed with the augmentation of diftance. The moon there¬ fore muft defend nearer to the earth than it did before and the proportion of the greatert diftance to the leaft be yet more increafed. Thus, as long as the apogeon is advancing to the conjunaion or oppofition, the pro¬ portion of the greateft diftance of the moon from the earth to the leaft will continually increafe 5 and the el¬ liptical orbit to which the moon’s motion is referred will Tart IV. A S T R Theory of Univerfal Gravita¬ tion. . 392 Computa¬ tion of the lunarine- ^ualitic*. 393 The fecu- lar equa¬ tion of the moon’s mean di- ftance. will become more and more eccentric. As foon, how¬ ever, as the apogeon is part the conjunction or oppo- lition rvith the fun, its progredive motion abates, and * with it the proportion of the greateft dilfance of the moon from the earth to the leaft will alfo diminifh : and when the apogeon becomes retrograde, the diminution of this proportion will be ftill farther continued, until the apogeon comes into the quarter; from thence this proportion, and the eccentricity of the orbit, wall in- creafe again. Thus the orbit of the moon is molt eccentric when the apogeon is in conjunction with the fun, or in oppofition to it, and leaft of all when the apogeon is in the quarters. Thefe changes in the nodes, the inclination of the orbit to the plane of the earth’s motion, in the apogeon and in the eccentricity, are varied like the other inequalities in the motion of the moon, by the different diftance of the earth from the fun being greateft when their caufe is greateft : that is, when the earth is neareft the fun. Sir Ifaac Newton has computed the very quantity of many of the moon’s inequalities. That acceleration of the moon’s motion which is called the variation, when greateft, removes the luminary out of the place in which it would otherwife be founds fomewhat more than half a degree. If the moon, without difturbance from the fun, would have deferibed a circle concentri- cal to the earth, his a&ion will caufe her approach nearer in the conjunction and oppofition than in the quarters, nearly in the proportion of 69 to 70. It has already been mentioned, that the nodes perform their period in almoit 19 years. This has been found by obfervation 5 and the computations of Sir Ifaac aftigned to them the fame period. The inclina¬ tion of the moon’s orbit, when leaft, is an angle about one-eighteenth of that which conftitutes a right angle 5 and the difference between the greateft and leaft inclination, is about one-eighteenth of the leaft inclination, according to our author’s computation : which is alfo agreeable to the general obfervations of aftronomers. There is one empirical equation of the moon’s mo¬ tion which the companion of ancient and modern eclip- les obliges the aftronomers to employ, without being able to deduce it, like»the reft, a priori, from the theory of an univerfal force inverfely proportional to the fquare of the diftance. It has therefore been confidered as a Humbling block in the Newtonian philofophy. This is what is called the fecular equation of the moon's mean motion. The mean motion is deduced from a compari- fon of diftant obfervations. The time between them, being divided by the number of intervening revolutions, gives the average time of one revolution, or the mean lunar period. When the ancient Chaldean obfervations are compared with thole of Hipparchus, we obtain a certain period ; when thofe of Hipparchus are compa¬ red with fome in the 9th century, we obtain a period fomewhat Ihorter ; wh n the laft are compared with thole ot Fycho Brahe, we obtain one ftill Ihorter; and when Brahe's are compared with thofe of our day, we obtain the (horteft period of all—and thus the moon’s mean motion appears to accelerate continually ; and the accelerations appear to be in the duplicate ratio of the times. 1 he acceleration for the century which ended in I 700 is about 9 feconds of a degree ; that is to fay, the whole motion of the moon during the 17th centu- O N O M Y. 135 ry muft be increafed 9 feconds, in order to obtain its Theory of motion during the 18th; and as much muft be taken ’ " r ' from it, or added to the computed longitude, to obtain its motion during the 16th; and the double of this muft be taken from the motion during the 16th, to obtain its motion during the 15th, &c. Or it will be iufficient. to calculate the moon’s mean longitude for any time paft or to come by the fecular motion which obtains in the prefent century, and then to add to this longitude the produft of 9 feconds, multiplied by the fquare of the number of centuries which intervene. Thus having found the mean longitude for the year 1200, add 9 fe¬ conds, multiplied by 36, for fix centuries. By this me¬ thod we fiiall make our calculation agree with the moft ancient and all intermediate obfervations. If we ne- gleft this correftion, we (hall differ more than a de¬ gree from the Chaldean obfervation of the moon’s place in the heavens. The mathematicians having fucceeded fo completely in deducing all the obferved inequalities of the plane¬ tary motions, from the fingle principle, that the de- flefting forces diminilhed in the inverfe duplicate ratio of the diftances, were fretted by this exception, the reality of which they could not conteft. Many opi¬ nions were formed about its caufe. Some have at¬ tempted to deduce it from the aftion of the planets on the moon ; others have deduced it from the oblate form of the earth, and the tranllation of the ocean by the tides; others have fuppofed it owing to the refift- ance of the ether in the celeftial fpaces ; and others have imagined that the aftion of the defledting force requires time for its propagation to a diftance : But their deductions have been proved unfatisfadtory, and' have by no means the precifion and evidence that have been attained in the other queftions of phyfical aftro- nomy. At laft M. de la Place, of the Royal Acade¬ my of Sciences at Paris, has happily fucceeded, and de¬ duced the fecular equation of the inqon from the New¬ tonian law of planetary defledtion. It is produced in the following manner. , Suppofe the moon revolving round the earth, undi- Deduced fturbed by any defledtion toward the fun, and that the dom the time of her revolution is exadtly aicertained. Now let Newtonian the influence of the fun be added. This diminilhes her tendency to the earth in oppofition and conjunction, flea ion. ^ and increafes it in the quadratures : but the diminutions exceed the augmentations both in quantity and dura¬ tion ; and the excels is equivalent to T4-gth of her ten¬ dency to the earth. Therefore this diminilhed tenden¬ cy cannot retain the moon in the fame orbit; fhe muft retire farther from the earth, and deferihe an orbit which is lefs incurvated by i-fgB1 part; and flie muft employ a longer time in a revolution. The period therefore which we obferve, is not that which would have obtain¬ ed had the moon been influenced by the earth alone. We Ihould not have known that her natural period was increafed, had the dillurbing influence of the fun re¬ mained unchanged ; but this varies in the inverfe -tri¬ plicate ratio of the earth’s diftance from the fun, and is therefore greater in our winter, when the earth is nearer to the fun. This is the fource of the annual equation, by which the lunar period in January is made to exceed' that in July nearly 24 minutes. The angular velocity of the moon is diminifhed in general and this nu¬ merical coefficient varies in the inverfe ratio of the cube ■136 Theory^of 0f tlie earth’s diftance from the fun. If we expand this Giavita^ *nvcr^e cube of the earth’s diitance into a feries arran- tion. ged according to the fines and cofines of the earth’s -v——' mean motion, making the earth’s mean diftance unity, we {hall find that the feries contains a term equal to of the fquare of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit. Therefore the expreffion of the diminution of the moon’s angular velocity contains a term equal to T47 of this ve¬ locity, multiplied by 4 of the fquare of the earth’s ec¬ centricity ; or equal to the produdl of the fquare of the eccentricity, multiplied by the moon’s angular velocity, and divided by 119,33 (t of Did this eccentri¬ city remain conftant, this produft would alfo be con- flant, and would ftill be confounded with the general diminution, making a conflant part of it : but the ec¬ centricity of the earth’s orbit is known to diminilh, and its diminution is the refult of the univerfality of the Newtonian law of the planetary defleftions. Although this diminution is exceedingly fmall, its effeft on the lu¬ nar motion becomes fenfible by accumulation in the courfe of ages. The eccentricity diminifiiing, the dimi¬ nution of the moon’s angular motion muft alio diminiih, that is, the angular motion muft increafe. During the 18th century, the fquare of the earth’s eccentricity has diminifhed 0,0000015325, the mean diftance from the fun being =r 1. This has increafed the angular motion of themoon in thattime 0,00000001285. As this augmentation is gradual, we muft multiply the angular motion during the century by the half of this quantity, in order to obtain its accumulated effedft. This will be found to be 9" very nearly, which exceeds that deduced from a moft careful comparifon of the motion of the laft two centuries, only by a fraction of a fe- cond. As long as the diminution of the fquare of the eccen¬ tricity of the earth’s orbit can be fuppofed proportion¬ al to the time, this effeft will be as the fquares of the times. When this theory is compared with obferva- tions, the coincidence is wonderful indeed. The effedl on the moon’s motion is periodical, as the change of the folar eccentricity is, and its period includes millions of years. Its effedl on the moon’s longitude will amount to feveral degrees before the fecular acceleration change to a retardation. ' Thofe who are not familiar with the difquifitions of modern analyfis, may conceive this queftion in the fol¬ lowing manner. Let the length of a lunar period be computed for the earth’s diftance from the fun for every day of the year. Add them into one fum, and divide this by their num¬ ber, the quotient will be the mean lunar period. This will be found to be greater than the arithmetical me¬ dium between the greateft and the leaft. Then fuppofe the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit to be greater, and make the fame computation. The average period will be found ftill greater, while the medium between the greateft and leaft periods will hardly differ from the former. Something very like this may be obferved without any calculation, in a cafe very fimilar. The angular velocity of the fun is inverfely as the fquare of his diftance. Look into the folar tables, and the great¬ eft diurnal motion will be found 3673", and the leaft 3433/;. The mean of thefe is 3553", but the medium of the whole is 3548''. Nowt make a fimilar obfervation in tables of the motion of the. planet Mars, whofe ec- Part IV* centricity is much greater. We {hall find that the me- Theory of dium betwr-'u the greateft and leaft exceeds the true Unive>fal medium of all in a much greater proportion. Gravita- It has been fuppoled by fome philofophers that the > ^n' moon was originally a comet, which pafimg very near the earth, had been made to revolve round her by the force of attraclion. But if w^e calculate ever fo far backwards, we ftill find the moon revolving round the earth as the planets round the fun, which could not be the cafe if this opinion w^ere true. Hence it follows, that neither the moon nor any of the fatellites have ever been comets. Sect. V. Of Irregularities in the Satellites of Jupiter. The fubferviency of the eclipfes of Jupiter’s fatel¬ lites to geography and navigation had occalioned their motions to be very carefully obferved, ever fince thefe ufes of them were firft fuggefted by Galileo ; and their theory is as far advanced as that of the primary pla¬ nets. It has peculiar difficulties. Being very near to Jupiter, the great deviation of his figure from perfedl fphericity makes the relation between their diftances from his centre and their gravitations towrard it vaftly complicated. But this only excited the mathematici¬ ans lb much the more to improve their analyfis ; and they faw, in this little fyftem of Jupiter and his attend¬ ants, an epitome of the folar fyftem, where the great rapidity of the motions muft bring about in a Ihort time every variety of configuration or relative pofition, and thus give us an example of thofe mutual difturbances of the primary planets, which require thoufands of years for the difcovery of their periods and limits. We have derived fome very remarkable and ufeful pieces of information from this inveftigation •, and have been led to the difcovery of the eternal durability of the folar fyftem, a thing which Newton greatly doubt¬ ed of. Mr Pound had cbferved long ago, that the irregu¬ larities of the three interior fatellites wrere repeated in a period of 437 days j and this obfervation is found to be juft to this day. Days H. M. 247 revolutions of the firft occupy 437 3 44 123 feccnd 437 3 42 61 third 437 3 36 26 fourth 435 14 16 This naturally led mathematicians to examine their mo¬ tions, and fee in what manner their relative pofitions or configurations, as they are called, correfponded to this period ; and it is found, that the mean longitude of the firft fatellite, minus thrice the mean longitude of the fecond, plus twice the mean longitude of the third, always made 180 degrees. This requires that the mean motion of the firft, added to twice that of the third, {hall be equal to thrice the mean motion of the fecond. This correfpondence of the mean motions is of itfelf a fingular thing, and the odds againft its probability feems infinitely great j and when w e add to this the particular pofitions of the fatellites in any one moment, which is neceffary far the above conflant relation of their longitudes, the improbability of the coincidence, as a thing quite fortuitous, becomes infi¬ nitely greater. Doubts were firft entertained of the coincidence, ASTRONOMY. Part IV. ASTRO Theory of coincidence, becaufe it was not indeed accurate to a fecond. The refult of the inveftigation is curious. When we follow out the confequences of mutual gra¬ vitation, we find, that although neither the primitive motions of projection, nor the points of the orbit from which the fatellites were projefted, were precifely fuch as fuited thefe obferved relations of their revolutions and their contemporaneous longitudes j yet if they dif¬ fered from them only by very minute quantities, the mutual gravitations of the fatellites would in time bring them into thofe pofitions, and thofe ftates of mean mo¬ tion, that would induce the obferved relations 5 and when they are once induced they will be continued for ever. There will indeed be a fmall equation, depend¬ ing on the degree of unfuitablenefs of the firft motions and pofitions} and this caufes the whole fyftem to of- cillate, as it were, a little, and but a very little way on each fide of this exaCl and permanent ftate. The permanency of thefe relations will not be deftroyed by any fecular equations arifing from external caufes j fuch as the aCtion of the fourth fatellite, or of the fun, or of a refifting medium •, becaufe their mutual aCtions will diitribute this equation as it did the original error. For a full difeuffton of this curious but difficult fubjeCt, we refer the reader to the differtations of La Grange and La Place, and to the tables lately pub- lifhed by Delambre. Thefe mathematicians have Ihown, that if the mafs of Jupiter be reprefented by unity, that of his fatellites will be reprefented by the following numbers. .395 Saturn’s ring. Firft fatellite Second fatellite Third fatellite Fourth fatellite 0.0000172011 0.0000237103 0.00008721 28 0.0000544681 Sect. VI. Of Saturn's Ring. The moft important addition (in a philofophical view) which has been made to allronomical fcience fince the difeovery of the aberration of light and the nuta¬ tion of the earth’s axis, Is that of the rotation of Saturn’s ring. The ring itfelf is an objeCt quite peculiar 5 and when it was difeovered that all the bodies which had any immediate connexion with a planet gravitated to¬ ward that planet, it became an interefting queftion to afeertain what was the nature of this ring ? What fup- ports this immenfe arch of heavy matter without its reding on the planet ? What maintains it in perpetual concentricity with the body of Saturn, and keeps its furface in one invariable pofition ? The theory of univerfal gravitation tells us what things are poffible in the folar fyftem •, and our conjec¬ tures about the nature of this ring muft always be re¬ gulated by the circumftance of its gravitation to the planet. Philofophers had at firft fuppofed it to be a luminous atmofphere, thrown out into that form by the great centrifugal force arifing from a rotation : but its well-defined edge, and, in particular, its being two very narrow rings, extremely near each other, yet perfeftly feparate, rendered this opinion of its conftitution more improbable. Difeovery F)r Herfchel’s difeovery of brighter fpots on its fur- of Dr Her- face, and that thofe fpots were permanent during the fchel rela- wh0]e time of his obfervation, feem to make it more ting to it. .pj-Qbable that the parts of the ring have a folid con- Vol. III. Part I. N O M Y. 137 nexion. Mr Herfchel has difeovered, by the help of Tll50ry.t,t thofe fpots, that the ring turns round its axis, and that Unxveriai this axis is alfo the axis of Saturn’s rotation. The time of rotation is 1 oh. 32^'. But the other circumftances are not narrated with the precifion fufficient for an ac¬ curate comparifon with the theory of gravity. He in¬ forms us, that the radii of the four edges of the ring are 590, 751, 774, 830, of a certain fcale, and that the angle fubtended by the ring at the mean diftance from the earth is 46J-". Therefore its elongation is 23J-". The elongation of the fecond Caffinian fatellite is 56", and its revolution is 2d. 17b. 44'. This flrould give, by the third law of Kepler, 17b. 10' for the revolution of the outer edge of the ring, or rather of an atom of that edge, in order that it may maintain itfelf in equili- brio. The fame calculation applied to the outer edge of the inner ring gives about 13b. 36'; and rve obtain llh. 16' for the inner edge of this ring. Such varie¬ ties are inconfiftent with the permanent appearance of a fpot. We may fuppofe the ring to be a luminous fluid or vapour, each particle of which maintains its fituation by the law' of planetary revolution. In fuch a flate, it would confift of concentric ftrata, revolving more flowly as they wTere more remote from the planet, like the con¬ centric ftrata of a vortex, and therefore having a relative motion incompatible with the permanency of any fpot. Befides, the rotation obferved by Herfchel is too rapid even for the innermoft part of the ring. We think therefore that it confifts of cohering matter, and of con- fiderable tenacity, at leaft equal to that of a very clam¬ my fluid, luch as melted glafs. We can tell the figure which a fluid ring muft have, fo that it may maintain its form by the mutual gravita¬ tion of its particles to each other, and their gravitation to the planet. Suppofe it cut by a meridian. It may be in equilibrio if the feftion is an ellipfe, of which the longer axis is directed to the centre of the planet, and very fmall in comparifon 'with its diftance from the centre of the planet, and having the revolution of its middle round Saturn, fuch as agree with the Keplerean lawn Thefe circumftances are not very confiftent with the dimenfions of Saturn’s inner rinp. The diftance O between the middle of its breadth and the centre of Sa¬ turn is 670, and its breadth is 161', nearly one-fourth of the diftance from the centre of Saturn. De la Place' fays, that the revolution of the inner ring obferved by Herfchel is very nearly that required by Kepler’s huv : but we cannot fee the grounds of this affertion. The above comparifon with the fecond Caffinian fatellite Ihows the contrary. The elongation of that fatellite is taken from Bradley’s obfervations, as is alfo its pe¬ riodic time. A ring of detached particles revolving in loh. 32^ muft be of much fmaller diameter than even the inner edge of Saturn’s ring. Indeed the quan¬ tity of matter in it might be fuch as to increafe the gra¬ vitation confiderably 5 but this would be feen by its difturbing the feventh and fixth fatellites, which are exceedingly near it. We cannot help thinking there- its proba- fore that it confifts of matter w’hich has very confider- ble confif- able tenacity. An equatorial zone of matter, tenacious tency like melted glafs, and whirled brifldy round, might be thrown off, and, retaining its great velocity, wrould ftretch out while whirling, enlarging in diametey and diminiftung in thicknefs or breadth, or both, till the centrifugal force wras balanced by the united force of S gravity 1.38 ASTRONOMY. Theory of gravity and tenacity. We find tliat the equilibrium Gravita*1 not fenhbly dillurbed by confiderable devia¬ tion, tions, fuch as equal breadth, or even want of fiatnefs. V—Such inequalities appear on the ring at that time of its difparition, when its edge is turned to the fun or to us. The appearances of its different fides are then confider- ably different. Such a ring or rings muff have an ofcillatory motion round the centre of Saturn, in confequence of their mutual a61ion, and the aftion of the fun, and their own irregularities: but there will be A certain po- iition which they have a tendency to maintain, and to which they will be brought back, after deviating from it, by the ellipticity of Saturn, which is verv great. The fun will occafion a nutation of Saturn’s axis and a preceflion of his equinoxes, and this will drag along with it both the rings and the neighbouring fatellites. The atmofphere which furrounds a whirling planet cannot have all its parts circulating according to the third law of Kepler. The mutual attrition of the pla¬ net, and of the different ftrata, arifing from their diffe¬ rent velocities, muff accelerate the flowly moving ftrata, and retard the rapid, till all acquire a velocity propor¬ tional to their diftance from the axis of rotation ; and this will be fuch that the momentum of rotation of the planet and its atmofphere remains always the fame. It will fwell out at the equator, and fink at the poles, till the centrifugal force at the equator balances the height of a fuperficial particle. The greateft ratio which the equatorial diameter can acquire to the polar axis is that of four to three, unlefs a cohefive force keeps the par¬ ticles united, fo that it conllitutes a liquid, and not an elaftic fluid like air ; and an elaftic fluid cannot form an atmofphere bounded in its dimenfions, unlefs there be a certain rarity which takes away all elafticity. If the equator Iwells beyond the dimenfion which makes the gravitation balance the centrifugal force, it muft imme¬ diately diffipate. If we fuppofe that the atmofphere has extended to this limit, and then condenfes by cold, or any chemical or other caufe different from gravity, its rotation ne- ceflarily augments, preferring its former momentum, and the limit will approach the axis •, becaufe a greater tand origin, velocity produces a greater centrifugal force, and re¬ quires a greater gravitation to balance it. Such an at¬ mofphere may therefore defert, in fucceflion, zones of its own matter in the plane of its equator, and leave them revolving in the form of rings. It is not unlikely that the rings of Saturn may have been furnifhed in this very way \ and the zones, Raving acquired a common velocity in their different ftrata, will preferve it ; and they are fufceptible of irregularities arifing from local caufes at the time of their feparation, which may afford permanent fpots. Sect. VII. Of the yhmofpheres of the Planets. By atmofphere is meant a rare, tranfparent, compref- fible, and elaftic fluid furrounding a body. It is fup- pofed that all the heavenly bodies poffefs atmofpheres. The atmofphere of the earth is familiar to all its inha¬ bitants. Obfervation points out the atmofpheres of the fun and of Jupiter ; but that of the other planets is fcarcely perceptible. The atmofphere becomes rarer in proportion to its tion. Part IV, diftance from the body to which it belongs, in confe- Theory of quence of its elafticity, which, caufes it to dilate the Univ«fal more the lefs it is compreffed. If its moft remote parts Gravita* were ftill poffeffed of elafticity, they would feparate - indefinitely, and the whole would be fcattered through fpace. To prevent this effe& it is neceffary that the elafticity fhould diminifh at a greater rate than the compreffing force, and that when it reaches a certain degree of rarity its elafticity fhould vanifh altogether. All the atmofpheric ftrata muft gradually acquire the fame rotatory motion with the bodies to which they belong in confequence of the continual friction to which their different parts muft be fubjefled, which will gradually accelerate or retard the different parts till a common motion is produced. In all thefe changes, and indeed in all thofe which the atmofphere undergoes, the fum of the products of the particles of the body and of its atmofphere multiplied by the areas deferibed round their common centres of gravity by their radii veftors projected in the plane of the equa¬ tor continue always the fame, the times being the fame. It we fuppofe then, by any caufe whatever, the height of the atmofphere is dimini died, and a portion of it condenfes on the furface of the planet 5 the confe¬ quence will be, that the rotatory motion of the planet and of its atmofphere will be accelerated. For the radii veftors of the areas deferibed by the particles of the primitive atmofphere becoming fhorter, the fum of the produfts of all thefe particles by the correfponding areas cannot remain the fame unlefs the rotatory mo¬ tion augment. At the upper furface of the atmofphere the fluid is retained only by its weight. Its figure is fuch that the diredlion refulting from the combination of the centri¬ fugal forces and the attradling forces is perpendicular to it. It is flattened at the poles, and more convex at the equator. But this flattening has its limits. When a maximum the axis of the poles is to that at the equa¬ tor as 2 to 3. At the equator the atmofphere can only extend to the place where the centrifugal force and gravitation exaftly balance each other ; for if it pais that limit, it will be diflxpated altogether. Hence it follows that the folar atmofphere does not extend as far as Mercury ; confequently it is not the caufe of the zodiacal light which appears to extend even beyond the earth’s orbit. The place where the centrifugal force and gravita¬ tion balance each other is fo much the nearer a body the more rapid its rotatory motion is. If we fuppofe the atmofphere to extend to that limit, and then to con- denfe by cooling, &c. at the furface of the planet the rotatory motion will increafe in rapidity in proportion to this condenfation, and the limit of the height of the atmofphere will conftantly approach the planet. The atmofphere would of courfe abandon fucceffively zones of fluid in the plane of the equator, which would con¬ tinue to circulate round the body. We have ftiown in the laft fedlion that Saturn’s ring may pwe its origin to this caufe. WTe may add alfo, that the aftion of another bo-Probable dy may c'onfiderably change the conflitution of this reafbn why atmofphere. Thus, fuppofing that the moon hadwe originally an atmofphere, the limit will be that di- abou/the fiance from the moon where the centrifugal force, ari-moon. fing from the moon’s rotation, added to the gravita¬ tion Tort IV. ASTRO 400 tlaufe of Theory of tion to tlie earth, balances the gravitation to the moon. Univerfal jf the m0on be TTyth of the earth, this ,limit will be about -Jth of the moon’s diltance from the earth. If at this diftance the elafticity of the atmofphere is not annihilated by its rarefaction, it will be all taken olf by the earth, and accumulate round it. This may be the reafon why w’e fee no atmofphere about the moon. Sect. VII. Of the Tides. The caufe of the tides was difcovered by Kepler, the tides who, in iris lvtrod 11Bion to the Phyfcs of the Heavens, d'feoveied tllus explains it : “ The orb of the attrafting power J 1 ’ which is in the moon, is extended as far as the earth j and draws the waters under the torrid zone, afling upon places where it is vertical, infennbly on confined feas and bays, but fenfibly on the ocean, whofe beds are large, and where the waters have the liberty of recipro¬ cation, that is, of rifing and falling.” And in the 70th. page of Ins Lunar Hf ronomy—“ But the caufe of the tides of the fea appears to be the bodies of the fun and moon drawing the waters of the fea.” This hint be¬ ing given, the immortal Sir Ifaac Newton improved it, and wrote fo amply on the fubjeCI, as to make the theory of the tides in a manner quite his own, by dif- covering the caufe of their rifing on the fide of the earth oppofite to the moon. For Kepler believed that • ' the prefence of the moon occafioned an impulfe which caufed another in her abfence. It has been already obferved, that the power of gra¬ vity diminifhes as the fquare of the diftance increafes j and therefore the waters at Z on the fide of the earth Fig. 149. ABCDEFGH next the moon M, are more attradbed than the central parts of the earth O by the moon, and the central parts are more attracted by her than the wa¬ ters on the oppofite fide of the earth at n : and therefore the diftance between the earth’s centre and the waters on its furface under and oppofite to the moon will be increafed. For, let there be three bodies at H, O, and I) : if they are all equally attracted by the body M, they will all move equally fall towards it, their mutual diftances from each other continuing the fame. If the attraftion of M is unequal, then that body which is molt Itrongly attracted W'ill move fafteft, and this wall increafe its diftance from the other body. Therefore, by the law7 of gravitation, M will attraCt H more ftrongly than it does O, by which the diftance between H and O will be increafed ; and a fpeCtator on O wfill perceive H rifing higher toward Z. In like manner, O being more ftrongly attracted than D, it will move farther towards M than I) does : confequently, the di¬ ftance between O and D will be increafed ; and a fpec- tator on O, not perceiving his own motion, w7ill fee D receding farther from him towards n ; all effeCts and appearances being the fame, whether D recedes from O, or O from 1). Suppofe now there is a number of bodies, as A, B, N O M Y. 139 C, D, E, F, G, H, placed round O, fo as to form a flex- Theory of ible or fluid ring : then, as the wrhole is attraClcd to- wards M, the parts at H and D will have their dl- Eon ~ fiance from O increafed •, whilft the parts at B and F ■ r —^ < being nearly at the fame diftance from M as O is, thefe parts will not recede from one another •, but rather, by the oblique attraClion of M, they will approach nearer to O. Hence the fluid ring will form itfelf into an ellipfe ZIBLnKFNZ, w'hofe larger axis «GZ pro¬ duced will pafs through M, and its lliorter axis EOF will terminate in B and F. Let the ring be filled with fluid particles, fo as to form a fphere round O ; then, as the wThole moves towards M, the fluid fphere being lengthened at Z and n, will aflume an oblong or oval form. If M is the moon, O the earth’s centre, ABC DEFGH the fea covering the earth’s furface, it is evi¬ dent, by the above reafoning, that whilft the earth by its gravity falls towards the moon, the water direClly below her at B will fwell and rife gradually towards her ; alfo the water at D wfill recede from the centre [ftriflly fpeaking, the centre recedes from D], and rife on the oppofite fide of the earth j whilft the water at B and F is deprefled, and falls below- the former le¬ vel. Hence as the earth turns round its axis from the moon to the moon again in 24! hours, there will be two tides of flood and tw7o of ebb in that time, as wre find by experience. ^0I As this explanation of the ebbing and flowing of the Why the fea is deduced from the earth’s conftantly falling to- tf^es arc wards the moon by the pow'er of gravity, fome may at ^lui find a difficulty in conceiving how this is poffible, when the moon is full, or in oppofition to the fun j fince the earth revolves about the fun, and muft continually fall towards it, and therefore cannot fall contrary ways at the fame time : or if the earth is conftantly falling to¬ wards the moon, they muft come together at laft. To remove this difficulty, let it be confidered, that it is not the centre of the earth that defcribes the annual orbit round the fun, but the (e) common centre of gravity of the earth and moon together; and that whilft the earth is moving round the fun, it alfo defcribes a circle round that centre of gravity ; going as many times round it in one revolution about the fun as there are lunations or courfes of the moon round the earth in a year : and therefore the earth is conftantly falling to¬ wards the moon from a tangent to the circle it defcribes round the faid common centre of gravity. Let M be Fig. ico. the moon, TW part of the moon’s orbit, and C the centre of gravity of the earth and moon; whilft the moon goes round her orbit, the centre of the earth de¬ fcribes the circle dg e round C, to which circle gab is a tangent j and therefore when the moon has gone from M to a little paft W, the earth has moved from g to e; and in that time has fallen towards the moon, from the tangent at a to e: and fo on, round the whole circle. The fun’s influence in- raifing the tides is but fmall Si' in (e) 'This centre is as much nearer the earth’s centre than the moon’s as the earth is heavier, or contains a greater quantity of matter thanjffie moon, namely, about 40 times. If both bodies were fufpended on it, they would hang m equilibria. So that dividing 2^0,000 miles, the moon’s diftance from the earth’s centre, by 40, the excels ot the earth s wreight above the moon’s, the quotient will be 6000 miles, which is the diftance of the common centre oi gravity ot the earth and moon from the earth's centre. 140 A S T R 403 IVliy they are not higheft ■when the moon is in the meri¬ dian. Theory of in comparifon of the moon’s j for though the earth’s Umverial aiameje,- bears a confiderable proportion to its diftance from the moon, it is next to nothing when compared to its diftance from the fun. And therefore the dift'er- 402 ence of the fun’s attraftion on the Tides of the earth Influence °func[er and oppofite to him, is much lefs than the differ- raiiing ence t^e moon,s attraction on the Tides of the earth tides. under and oppofite to her 5 and therefore the moon mult raife the tides much higher than they can be raifed by the fun. On this theory, the tides ought to be higheft direCf- ly under and oppofite to the moon ; that is, when the moon is due north and fouth. But we find, that in open Teas, where the wrater flowTs freely, the moon M is generally paft the north and fouth meridian, as at />, when it is high water at Z and at n. The reafon is obvious : for though the moon’s attraction w’as to ceafe altogether when fhe was paft the meridian, yet the mo¬ tion of afeent communicated to the water before that time would make it continue to rife for fome time af¬ ter ; much more muft it do fo when the attraction is only diminiftied 5 as a little impulfe given to a moving ball will caufe it ftill to move farther than otherwife it could have done ; and as experience ftiows that the day is hotter about three in the afternoon, than when the fun is on the meridian, becaufe of the increafe made to the heat already imparted. The tides anfwer not always to the fame diftance of the moon from the meridian at the fame places ; but are varioufly affeCted by the aCtion of the fun, wdiich brings them on fooner when the moon is in her firft and third quarters, and keeps them back later wrhen The is in her fecond and fourth : becaufe, in the former cafe, the tide raifed by the fun alone would be earlier than the tide raifed by the moon : and, in the latter cafe, later. The moon goes round the earth in an elliptic orbit j and therefore, in every lunar month, ihe approaches nearer to the earth than her mean diftance, and recedes farther from it. When fhe is neareft, Tne attrafts ftrongeft, and fo raifes the tides moft : the contrary happens when ftie is fartheft, becaufe of her wreaker at- tradion. When both luminaries are in the equator, and the moon in perigee, or at her leaf! diftance from the earth, fhe raifes the tides higheft of all, efpecially at her conjunction and oppofition ; both becaufe the equatorial parts have the greateft centrifugal force from their deferibing the largeft circle, and from the concur¬ ring aClions of the fun and moon. At the change, the attractive forces of the fun and moon being united, they diminifh the gravity of the wraters under the moon, and their gravity on the oppofite fide is diminiftied by means of a greater centrifugal force. At the full, whilft the moon raifes the tide under and oppofite to her, the f un, aCting in the fame line, raifes the tide un¬ der and oppofite to him; whence their conjoint effect is the fame as at the change; and, in both cafes, occafion what we call the Spring 'Tides. But at the quarters the fun’s aCHon on the wraters at O and H diminiihes the effeft of the moon’s aCtion on the waters at Z and N; fo that they rife a little under and oppofite to the fun at O and H, and fall as much under and oppofite to the moon at Z and N; making what we call the Neap Tides, becaufe the fun and moon then aft crofs-wife to each other. But thefe tides happen not till ibme time O N O M Y. Part IV. after ; becaufe in this, as in other cafes, the aCtions do Theory of not produce the greateft effeCt when they are at the tTniverfal ftrongeft:, but fome time aftCrward. Gnmta- The fun being nearer the earth in winter than in fummer, is of courfe nearer to it in February and Oc¬ tober than in March and September ; and therefore the greateft tides happen not till Ibme time after the autumnal equinox, and return a little before the ver¬ nal. The fea, being thus put in motion, would continue to ebb and flow for feveral times, even though the fun 1 and moon were annihilated, or their influence ftiould ceafe ; as, if a bafon of water were agitated, the wra- ter would continue to move for fome time after the balon was left to ftand ftill; or like a pendulum, which, having been put in motion by the hand, con¬ tinues to make feveral vibrations without any new im¬ pulfe. When the moon is in the equator, the tides are equally high in both parts of the lunar day, or time of the moon’s revolving from the meridian to the meridian again, which is 24 hours 50 minutes. But as the moon declines from the equator towards either pole, the tides are alternately higher and lowrer at places ha¬ ving north or fouth latitude. For one of the higheft elevations, which is that under the moon, follows her towards the pole to which ftie is neafeft, and the other declines towards the oppofite pole ; each elevation de¬ feribing parallels as far diftant from the equator, on oppofite Tides, as the moon declines from it to either fide ; and confequently the parallels deferibed by thefe elevations of the water are twice as'many degrees from one another as the moon is from the equator ; increa- fing their diftance as the moon increafes her declina¬ tion, till it be at the greateft, when the faid parallels aie, at a mean ftate, 47 degrees from one another : and on that day, the tides are moft unequal in their heights. As the moon returns towards the equator, the parallels deferibed by the oppofite elevations approach towards each other, until the moon comes to the equator, and then they coincide. As the moon declines towards the oppolite pole, at equal diftances, each elevation de- feribes the fame parallel in the other part of the lunar day, which its oppofite elevation deferibed before. Whilft the moon has north declination, the greateft tides in the northern hemifphere are when ftie is above the horizon ; and the reverfe whilft her declination is fouth. Let NESQ^be the earth, NSC its axis, EQFig. 151, the equator, T 25 the tropic of Cancer, t the tro- I52> IS> pic of Capricorn, a b the ardftic circle, the antarbfic, N the north pole, S the fouth pole, M the moon, F and G the two eminences of water, whofe loweft parts are, at a and d, at N and S, and at b and c, always 90 degrees from the higheft. Now, when the moon is in her greateft Tiorth declination at M, the higheft eleva¬ tion G under her is on the tropic of Cancer T 25, and the oppofite elevation F on the tropic of Capri¬ corn t Vj ; and thefe twTo elevations deferibe the tropics by the earth’s diurnal rotation. All places in the northern hemifphere ENQJiave the higheft tides when they come into the pofition b 25 Q^, under the moon ; and the loweft tides when the earth’s diurnal rotation carries them into the pofition a TE, on the fide oppo¬ fite to the moon ; the reverfe happens at the fame time in the fouthern hemifphere ESQ. as is evident to fight. The Part IV. ASTRO Theory of The axis of the tides a C d had now its poles a and d Gravita-1 al^a7s 9° degrees from the higheft elevations) tion. ■ ':ile ar,-^^c and antarflic circles j and therefore it is -v—i ' plain, that at thefe circles there is but one tide of flood, and one of ebb, in the lunar day. For, when the point a revolves half round to b \w 12 lunar hours, it has a tide of flood j but when it comes to the fame point a again in 12 hours more, it has the loweft ebb. In feven days aftenvard, the moon M comes to the equino&ial circle, and is over the equator EQ^, when both elevations defcribe the equator 5 and in both he- mifpheres, at equal diftances from the equator, the tides are equally high in both parts of the lunar day. I he whole phenomena being reverfed, when the moon has louth declination, to what they were when her de¬ clination was north, require no farther defcription. In the three laft-mentioned figures, the earth is or- thographically projedled on the plane of the meridian 5 but in order to c-lefcribe a particular phenomenon, we now projefl it on the plane of the ecliptic. Let Eg- I5I- HZON be the ear,th and fea, FED the equator, T the tropic of Cancer, C the ardfic circle, P the north pole, and the curves, 1, 2, 3, &c. 24 meridians or hour circles, interfering each other in the poles : AGM is the moon’s orbit, S the fun, M the moon, Z the water elevated under the moon, and N the oppoflte equal elevation. As the loweft parts of the water are always 90 degrees from the higheft, when the moon is in either of the tropics (as at M), the elevation Z is on the tropic of Capricorn, and theoppofite elevation N on the tropic of Cancer; the low-water circle HCO touch¬ es the polar circles at C ; and the high-water circle ETP 6 goes over the poles at P, and divides every pa¬ rallel of latitude into two equal fegments. In this cafe, the tides upon every parallel are alternately higher and lower; but they return in equal times: the point T, ior example, on the tropic of Cancer, (where the depth of the tide is reprefented by the breadth of the dark fhade) has the ihallower tide of flood at T than rvhen it revolves half round from thence to 6, according to the order of the numeral figures ; but it revolves as foon from 6 to T as it did from T to 6. When the moon is in the equinoctial, the elevations Z and N are tranf- ferred to the equator at O and H, and the high and low-water circles are got into each other’s former pla¬ ces ; in which cafe the tides return in unequal times, but are equally high in both parts of the lunar day; for a place at 1 (under D) revolving as formerly, goes fooner from 1 to 11 (under F) than from 11 to i,be- caufe the parallel it deferibes is cut into unequal fer¬ ments by the high-water circle HCO : but the points 1 and 11 being equidiftant from the pole of the tides at C, which is direftly under the pole of the moon’s orbit MG A, the elevations are equally high in both 404 parts of the day. Tides turn And thus it appears, that as the tides are governed of tluT aX1S m°on’ they muft turn on t1le axis on the moon’s moon’s or- °rbit’ which is inclined 23v degrees to the earth’s axis hit. at a mean ftate : and therefore the poles of the tides muft be fo many degrees from the poles of the earth, or in oppofite points of the polar circles, going round thefe circles in every lunar day. It is true, that ac¬ cording to fig. 13 3.. when the moon is vertical to the equator ECQ^the poles of the tides feem to fall in with the poles of the world N and S : but when we tion. N O M Y. I42 confider that FGH is under the moon’s orbit, it will Theory of appear, that when the moon is over H, in the tropic Univeriai of Capricorn, the north pole of the tides (which can Gravi,:a* be no more than 90 degrees from under the moon) muft be at C in the arClic circle, not at P the north pole of the earth ; and as the moon afeends from H to G in her orbit, the north pole of the tides muft ftiift from c to ci in the arctic circle, and the fouth poles as much in the antarsftic. it is not to be doubted, but that the earth’s quick rotation brings the poles of the tides nearer to the poles of the world than they would be if the earth were at reft, and the moon revolved about it only once a month ; for otherwife the tides would be more unequal in their heights and times of their returns, than we find they are. Eut how near the earth’s rotation may bring the poles of its axis and thofe of the tides toge¬ ther, or how far the preceding tides may affeft thofe which followq fo as to make them keep up nearly to the lame heights and times of ebbing and flowing, is a problem more fit to be folved by obfervation than by theory. Thofe who have opportunity to make obfervations, and choofe to fatisfy themfelves whether the tides are really affedfed in the above manner by the different po- fitions of the moon, efpecially as to the unequal times- of their return, may take this general rule for know¬ ing when they ought to be fo affe&ed. When the earth’s axis inclines to the moon, the northern tides, if not retarded in their paffage through ftioals and chan¬ nels, nor affedled by the winds, ought to be greateft when the moon is above the horizon, leaft when Ihe is below it, and quite the reverfe when the earth’s axis declines from her; but in both cafes, at equal inter¬ vals of time. When the earth’s axis inclines lidewife to the moon, both tides are equally high, but they happen at unequal intervals of time. In every lunation the earth’s axis inclines once to the moon, once from her, and twice fidewife to her, as it does to the fun every year ; becaufe the moon goes round the ecliptic every month, and the fun but once in a year. In fum- mer, the earth’s axis inclines towards the moon wdien new 1 and therefore the day-tides in the north ought to be higheft, and night-tides loweft, about the change : at the full, the reverfe. At the quarters, they ought to be equally high, but unequal in their returns : be¬ caufe the earth’s axis then inclines fidewife to the moon. In wdnter, the phenomena are the fame at full moon as. in fummer at new. In autumn the earth’s axis inclines fidewife to the moon wEen new and full • therefore the tides ought to be equally high and une¬ ven in their returns at thefe times. At the firft quar¬ ter, the tides of flood fhould be leaft when the moon is above the horizon, greateft when flie is below it; and the reverfe at her third quarter. In fpring, the phenomena of the firft quarter anfwer to thofe of the third quarter in autumn ; and vice verfa. The nearer any tide is to either of the feafons, the more the tides^ partake of the phenomena of thefe feafons ; and in the middle between any two of them the tides are at a mean ftate between thofe of both. In open Teas, the tides rife but to very fmall heights m proportion to what they do in wide-mouthed rivers, opening in the direftion of the ftream of tide. For in channels growing narrower gradually, the water is ac¬ cumulated — T42 Theory of Univerfal Gravita¬ tion. 4°5 Irregulari¬ ties ot' tides accounted for. 406 Preceffion of the equi. nodlial points, See. 407 Obferva- tions of Newton and others on this fub- jtft. ASTRO cumulated by tbe oppcutlon of the contracting bank ; like a gentle wind, little felt on an open plain, but llrong andbrilk in a llreet j efpecially if the wider end of the llreet be next the plain, and in the way of the wind. The tides are fo retarded in their paffage through different Ihoals and channels, and otherwile to variouf- ly affected by linking again!! capes and headlands, that to different places they happen at all diltances of the moon from the meridian, confequently at all hours cf the lunar day. The tide propagated by the moon in the German ocean, when Ihe is three hours pall the meridian, takes 12 hours to come from thence to London bridge, where it arrives by the time that a new tide is railed in the ocean. And therefore, when the moon has north declination, and we Ihould expedl the tide at London to be greatell when the moon is above the horizon, we find it is leail 5 and the contra¬ ry when Hie has fouth declination. At feveral places it is high wrater three hours before the moon comes to the meridian ; but that tide which the moon pulhes as it were before her, is only the tide oppolite to that which wfas raifed by her when Ihe was nine hours pall the oppolite meridian. There are no tides in lakes, becaufe they are gene¬ rally fo imall, that when the moon is vertical fire at- trafts every part of them alike, and therefore by ren¬ dering all the water equally light, no part of it can be raifed higher than another. The Mediterranean and Baltic feas have very fmall elevations, becaufe the in¬ lets by which they communicate with the ocean are fo narrow, that they cannot, in fo fhort a time, receive 'or difeharge enough to raife or link their furfaces fen- libly. For a more complete difeuffron of this important fubjedl, we refer the reader to the article Tide. Sect. IX. Of the Precejfon of the Equinoxes, and the Nutation of the Earth's six is. It now remains to confider the preceffion of the equi- nodlial points, with its equations, arifing from the nuta¬ tion of the earth’s axis as a phylical phenomenon, and to endeavour to account for it upon thofe mechanical principles which have fo happily explained all the other phenomena of the celellial motions. This did not efcape the penetrating eye of Sir Ifaac Newton ; and he quickly found it be a confequence, and the molt beautiful proof, of the univerfal gravitation of all matter to all matter •, and there is no part of his immortal work where his fagacity and fertility of re- fource Ihine more confpicuoully than in this inveltiga- tion. It mult be acknowledged, however, that New¬ ton’s inveftigation is only a Ihrewd guefs, founded on affumptions, of which it would be extremely difficult to demonllrate either the truth or falfity, and which requir¬ ed the genius of a Newton to pick out in fuch a com¬ plication of abltrufe circumitances. The fubjeht has occupied the attention of the firll mathematicians of Europe fince his time ; and is Hill conndered as the molt curious and difficult of all mechanical problems. 1 he molt elaborate and accurate differtations on the preceffion of the equinoxes are thofe of Sylvabella and Walmefly, in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, publilhed about the year 17 54 j that of Thomas Simplon, publilh- fid in his Mifcellaneous Tracts j that of Father Frifius, 2 N O M Y. Part IV in the Memoirs of the Berlin Academy, and afterwards, Theory ot' with great improvements, in his Cofmographia'; that of Univerfal Euler in the Memoirs of Berlin j that of D’Aleixibert in a feparate differtation; and that of De la Grange on the Libration of the Moon, which obtained the prize in the Academy of Paris in 1769. We think the differta¬ tion of Father Frifius the molt perfpicuous of them all, being conduced in the method of geometrical analyfisj whereas molt of the others proceed in the fiuxionary and fymbolic method, wdiich is frequently deficient in diltindt notions of the quantities under confideration, and therefore does not give us the fame perfpicuous convidtion of the truth of the relults. In a work like ours, it is impoffible to do jultice to the problem, with¬ out entering into a detail which would be thought ex¬ tremely difproportioned to the fubjedt by the genera¬ lity of our readers. Yet thofe who have the neceffary preparation of mathematical knowledge, and wiffi to un¬ derhand the fubjedt fully, will find enough here to give them a very diltindt notion of it; and in the article Ro¬ tation, they will find the fundamental theorems, which will enable them to carry on the inveltigation. We Ih.all firlt give a fhort Iketch of Newton’s inveftigation, which is of the molt palpable and popular kind, and is highly „ valuable, not only for its ingenuity, but alfo becaule it will give our unlearned readers diftindt and fatisfadlory conceptions of the chief circumftances of the whole phe¬ nomena. ^ 4oS Let S (fig. 154.) be the fun, E the earth, and M the Sketch of moon, moving in the orbit NMCDtf, which cuts the Newton’s plane of the ecliptic in the line of the nodes N», and has one half raifed above it, as reprefented in the figure,tl0n ° 1" the other half being hid below the ecliptic. Sup- pofe this orbit folded down ; it will coincide with the ecliptic in the circle Nmcdn. Let EX reprefent the axis of this orbit, perpendicular to its plane, and there¬ fore inclined to the ecliptic. Since the moon gravitates to the fun in the diredtion MS, which is all above the ecliptic, it is plain that this gravitation has a tendency to draw the moon towards the ecliptic. Suppofe this force to be fuch that it would draw the moon down from M to i in the time that Ihe would have moved from M to /, in the tangent to her orbit. By the com¬ bination of thefe motions, the moon wdll defert her or¬ bit, and deferibe the line Mr, which makes the diagonal of the parallelogram; and if no farther adjion of the fun be fuppofed, Ihe will deferibe another orbit M^/z', lying between the orbit MCD« and the ecliptic, and Ihe will come to the ecliptic, and pafs through it in a point n’, nearer to M than n is, which was the former place of her defeending node. By this change of orbit, the line EX will no longer be perpendicular to it; but there will be another line E.r, which will now be perpendicular to the new orbit. Alfo the moon, moving from M to r, does not move as if Ihe had come from the afeending node N, but from a point N lying beyond it; and the line of the nodes of the orbit in this new pofition is N' Alfo the angle MNV« is lefs than the angle MNw. Thus the nodes fliift their places in a direfition op- pofite to that of her motion, or move to the wTeftwrard; the axis of the orbit changes its pofition, and the orbit itfelf changes its inclination to the ecliptic. Thefe momentary changes are different in different parts of the orbit, according to the pofition of the line of the nodes. tion. Pan iv. Astro Theory Of nodes. Sometimes the inclination of the orbit is in- Lraviu ^reaf^’ and fometin\es the nodes move to the eaftward. iiitt, m general, the inclination increafes from the time r —11 lat t ie noc^es are in the line of fyzigee, till they get in¬ to quadrature, after which it diminifhes till the nodes aie again in fyzigee. The nodes advance only while laey are in tlie octants after the quadratures, and while the moon paffes from quadrature to the node, and they recede in all other fituations. Therefore the recefs ex¬ ceeds the advance in every revolution of the moon round tne eaith, and, on the whole, they recede. What has been faid of one moon, would be true of each of a continued ring of moons furrounding the earth, and they would thus compofe a flexible ring, which would never be flat, but waved, according to the difference (both in kind and degree) of the diilurbing forces afling on its different parts. But fuppofe thefe moons to cohere, and to form a rigid and flat ring, no¬ thing would remain in this ring but the excefs of the con¬ trary tendencies of its different parts. Its axis would be perpendicular to its plane, and its pofition in any moment will be the mean pofition of all the axes of the orbits of each part of the flexible ring ; therefore the nodes of this rigid ring will continually recede, except when the plane of the ring paffes through the fun, that is, wffen tne nodes are in fyzigee j and (fays Newton) the mo- tion o. thefe nodes will be the fame with the mean mo¬ tion of the nodes of the orbit of one moon. The in¬ clination of this ring to the ecliptic will be equal to tae mean inclination of the moon’s orbit during any one revolution which has the fame fituation of the nodes It will therefore be leaf! of all when the nodes are hi quadrature, and will increafe till they are in fyziVee and then dimjmfh till they are again in quadrature^ ’ Suppofe this ring to contradf in dimenfions, the dif turbing forces will diminifh in the fame proportion and in this proportion will all their effedts diminifh Sup pofe its motion of revolution to accelerate, or the time of a revolution to diminifh j the linear effefts of the dif- turbmg forces being as the fquares of the times of their action, and their angular eftedfs as the times, thofe er rors muft diminifh alfo on this account 5 and w-e can compute what thofe errors will be for any diameter of the ring, and for any period of its revolution. We can tell, therefore, what would be the motion of the nodes the change of inclination, and deviation of the axis of a ring which would touch the furface of the eaith ’ and revolved m 24 hours ; nay, vee can tell what thefe mo tions would be, fliould this ring adhere to the earth! J hey muft be much lefs than if the ring were detached • for the difturbing forces of the ring muft drag alone wit., !t the whole globe of the earth. The quantity of motion which the difturbing forces would have pro¬ duced m the ring alone, will now (fays Newton) be produced in the whole mafs ; and therefore the velocity Tr R Vn-,TUn m S 38 the quantit? of matter is great- • But fti11 a.11 thts can be computed. 8 is ncH fT6 ^ lfUCh 3 °n the earth : for tlle ear^ is not a fphere, but an elliptical fpheroid. Sir Ifaac oft!'f rTP le^forceei5rated ^nd candid commentator, ID a- min at ion nie; “crnouilii, fay (in his Differtation on the Tides t^ie ^orni which fhared the prize of the French Academy with r':d d?c;n~ M-Lsurmand Euler), that Newton faw through a veUearThl what others could hardlv ^ e" wha, others could hardly difeover wilh'amicrorcope “Smed i the meridian fun. His determination 2 30. in the light °f —- —.c. uerermination ot the form and dimenfions of the earth, which is the nn’ foundation of the whole procefs, is not offered as any¬ thing better than a probable guefs, in re difficillima ; and by M‘LaurinnCC dem°uftrated with geometrical rigour His next principle, that the motion of the nodes of e ngid ring is equal to the mean motion of the nodes ot the moon, .has been moft critically difeuffed bv the hrft mathematicians, as a thing which could neither be proved nor refuted. Frifius has at leaft fhown it to be a mntake, and that the motion of the nodes of the ring- is double the mean motion of the nodes of a fingle moon ■ and that Newton’s own principles ffiould have produced a preceffion of 1feconds annually, which removes the difficulty formerly mentioned. His third affimption, that the quantity of motion of the ring muft be fliared with the included fphere w-as acquiefced m by all his commentators, till D' Alem ’ bert and Eule^ in 1749, ffiowed that it was not the quantity of motion round an axis of rotation 'which re mained the fame but the quantity of momentum or ro¬ tatory effort d he quantity of motion is the produff Irom tY/r-C’e ' that is. ^ «s diftance from the axis 3 while its momentum, or power of Pro to u”? ri?tatl0n1’ .,s -/he fquare of that diftance, and i, bv th f 7 tah1.ng ^he fum of each particle multiplied by the fquare of its diftance from the axis. Since the fiartlr 144 Theory of Univerfal Gravita¬ tion. 410 Examina¬ tion of the phenome¬ non of pre- ceffion on mechanical principles. ASTRONOMY. Part IV. earth differs fo little from a perfeft fphere, this makes no fenfible difterence in the refult. It will increafe iNew- ton’s ppeceffion about three-fourths of a fecond. We proceed now to the examination of this pheno¬ menon upon the fundamental principles of mechanics. Becaufe the mutual gravitation of the particles of matter in the folar fyilem is in the inverfe ratio of the fquares of the diltance, it follows, that the gravitations of the different parts of the earth to the fun or to the moon are unequal. The nearer particles gravitate more than thofe that are more remote. Let PQ^/>E (fig. 155.), be a meridional fedlion of the terreftrial fphere, and PO p y the feflion of the infcribed ■fphere. Let CS be a line in the plane of the ecliptic palling through the fun, fo that the angle ECS is the fun’s declination. Let NCM be a plane palling through the centre of the earth at right angles to the plane of the meridian PQ^/* E j NCM wfill therefore be the plane of illumination. In confequence of the unequal gravitation of the mat¬ ter of the earth to the fun, every particle, fuch as B, is afted on by a difturbing force parallel to CS, and pro¬ portional to BD, the diftance of the particle from the plane of illumination } and this force is to the gravi¬ tation of the central particle to the fun, as three times BD is to CS, the diltance of the earth from the fun. Let AB a be a plane palling through the particle.B, parallel to the plane EQof the equator. .This fedtron of the earth will be a circle, of which A <7 is a diameter, and Qj? will be the diameter of its fedtion with the in¬ fcribed fphere. T hefe will be two concentric circles, and the ring by which the fedtion of the fpheroid ex¬ ceeds the fedtion of the fphere will have AQ^for its breadth ; P/> is the axis of figure. Let EC be reprefented by the fymbol - a b p—b1 * c ~\~b OC or PC EO their difference, CL - - - - QL The periphery of a circle to radius I The dilturbing force at the diltance I from the plane NCM The fine of declination ECS The cofine of ECS d xd1 f It is evident, that with refpedt to the infcribed fphere, the dilturbing forces are completely compenfated, for .every particle has a correfponding particle in the ad¬ joining quadrant, which is afted on by an equal and oppofite force. But this is not the cafe with, the pro¬ tuberant matter which makes up the fpheroid. The fegments NS r n and MT t in are more adted on than the fegments NT tn and MS jot; and thus there is produced a tendency to a converfion of the whole earth, round an axis paffing through the centre C, perpendicular to the plane PQ^ E. We lhall diftin- guilh this motion from all others to which the fphe¬ roid may be fubjedf, by the name Libration. The axis of this libration is always perpendicular to that diameter of the equator over which the fun is, or to that meridian in which he is. Prob. I. To determine the momentum of libration correfponding to any pofition of the earth refpedting the fun, that is, to determine the accumulated energy Theory oi of the ditturbing forces on all the protuberant matter of the fpheroid. _ _ _ non. Let B and b be two particles in the ring formed by u——j the revolution of AQ^ and fo fituated that they are at equal diftances from the plane NM : but on oppofite fides of it. Draw BD, bd, perpendicular to NM, and FLG perpendicular to LI. Then, becaufe the momentum, or power of produ¬ cing rotation, is as the force and as the dirtance of its line of dire&ion from the axis of rotation, jointly, the combined momentum of the particles B and b, will be /.BD.DC—-/.£QL2. In like manner the fum of the number n-QL of CL3j will be = rrQL.CL3. Thefe fums, taken for the femicircle, are in-QL'QL3, and in-QL-CL1, orn-QL'iQL*. and n-QL^CL1: there¬ fore the momentum of the whole ring will be 2 ot •AQTlL.n'tiQL—4CL1) : for the momentum of the ring isthe combined momenta of a number of pairs, and this number is -Jn-QL. By the ellipfe we have OC : QL=EO : AQ^and AQ=rQL —QL ^; therefore the momentum of the ring is 2 ot nf ^-QL’n (^QI-2—y CL3), = m nf ^ QLn (TQL3—CL1) : but QL1:^1—therefore J . A S Part IV. T R O iheoryof T^-ri pr i_ 1/ Univerfal ^Q1J‘ ^ -X\ —\b' b1—3^* ,d tlierefore the momentum of the ring is m n f—wQ?1—r2) (b*—3rl\ rd (b*—^ISx14- a.r4 \ ^ d (—H =mnha (—)■ =»"'/r4n ( b*—4// x1-\-^xA). If we now fuppofe another paral¬ lel extremely near to A a, as reprelented by the dotted line, the diftance L / between them being x, we lhall have the fluxion of the momentum of the fpheroid m nf—IT (i4x—^b‘lxzx-\-2>x*x\ which the fluent is m This expreffes the mo¬ mentum of the zone EA a contained between the equator and the parallel of latitude A a. Now let x become — and wre fhall obtain the momentum of the hemifpheroid =;« «/—rn (£J—4^J + t^S)> and that of the fpheroid =zmnf-n (b*—±bs -\-±-bs)-=:~m nfd nb*. ' 15 • This formula does not exprefs any motion, but only a preffure tending to produce motion, and particularly tending to produce a libration by its aftion on the co¬ hering matter of the earth, which is affedted as a num¬ ber of levers. It is fimilar to the common mechanical formula w.d, where w means a weight, and d its di¬ ftance from the fulcrum of the lever. It is worthy of remark, that the momentum of this protuberant matter is juft j- of what it would be if it were all colledted at the point O of the equator : for the matter in the fpheroid is to that in the infcribed fphere as a* to and the contents of the infcribed fphere is -f nb3. Therefore c1 : a2—b2z=y nb3 ; 4 nb3 a2—b2 a2 , which is the quantity of protuberant mat-" ter. We may, without fenfible error, fuppofe — id; then the protuberant matter wall be If all this were placed at O, the momentum would be in db^OH-HC, =^771 nfdb*, becaufe OH*HC=r 7n n b2 now 4 is 5 times ~/r. Alfo, becaufe the fum of all the redlangles OITHC round the equator is half of as many fquares of OC, it follows that the momentum of the protuberant matter placed in a ring round the equator of the fphere, or fpheroid, is one half of what it would be if colledted in the point G or E j whence it follows that the momen¬ tum of the protuberant matter in its natural place is two-fifths of what it would be if it were difpofed in an equatorial ring. It was in this manner that Sir Ifaac Newton was enabled to compare the effedl of the fun’s adlion on the protuberant matter of the earth, with his tftedl on a rigid ring of moons. T he preceding in- veftigation of the momentum is nearly the farfie with his, and appears to us greatly preferable in point of perfpicuity to the fluxionary folutions given by later authors. I hefe indeed have the appearance of greater accuracy, becaufe they do not fuppofe all the protube¬ rant matter to be condenled on the furface of the in¬ fcribed fphere : nor were we under the neceffity of do¬ ing this j only it would have led to verv complicared Vol. III. Part L ' N O M Y. exprefiions had wre fuppofed the matter in each line AQ^colle&ed in its centre of ofcillation or gyration. We made a compenfation for the error introduced by this, which may amount to of the whole, and ihould not be neglected, by taking d as equal to ■b2 The confequence is, that J45 Theory of Univerfai Gravita¬ tion. "2 ^ in ft ead of " 2a a-\-b our formula is the fame with that of the later authors. Thus far Sir Ifaac Newton proceeded with mathe¬ matical rigour; but in the application he made two affumptions, or, as he calls them hypothefes, which have been found to be unwarranted. The firft w'as, that when the ring of protuberant matter is connefted with the infcribed fphere, and fubje&ed to the a£lion of the difturbing force, the fame quantity of motion is produced in the whole mafs as in the ring alone. The fecond was, that the motion of the nodes of a rigid ring of moons is the fame with the mean motion of the nodes of a folitary moon. But w-e are now able to de- monftrate, that it is not the quantity of motion, but of momentum, which remains the fame, and that the nodes of a rigid ring move tw ice as fall as thofe of a Angle particle. We proceed therefore to, 411 Prob. II. To determine the deviation of the axis, Effe which will be the tangent of the angle in A r, or of the change of pofition of the equator. But the axes of rotation are perpendicular to their equator ; and therefore the angle of deviation xu is equal to this angle r A tn. This appears from fig. c.: for n I" : Vp—Q'p : P^>,—OP : tan. POP 3 and it is evident that a r : m nf d t* mn f d~i t a as is requi¬ red by the compofition of rotations. In confequence of this change of pofition, the plane of the equator, no longer cuts the plane of the ecliptic in the line Isi n. The plane of the newT equator cuts the former equator in the line AO, and the part AN of the former equator lies between the ecliptic and the new equator AN', while the part A« of the former equator is above the new one A«'j therefore the new node N', from which the point A wras moving, is removed to the weftward, or farther from A 3 and the new node to which A is approaching, is alfo moved weftward,ornear- er to A3 and this happens in every pofition of A. The nodes therefore or equinoflial points, continually fliift to the weftward, or in a contrary direftion to the rotation of the earth 3 and the axis of rotation always deviates to the eaft fide of the meridian which pafles through the fun. This account of the motions is extremely difterent from what a perfon ftiould naturally expeft. If the earth were placed in the fummer folftice, with refpeft to us who inhabit its northern hemifphere, and had no rotation round its axis, the equator would begin to ap¬ proach the ecliptic, and the axis would become more upright 3 and this would go on with a motion conti¬ nually accelerating, till the equator coincided with the ecliptic. It would not flop here, but go as far on the other fide, till its motion were extinguiftied by the oppo- fing forces; and it would return to its former pofition, and again begin to approach the ecliptic, playing up and down like the arm of a balance. On this account this motion is very properly termed libration: but this very flow1 libration, compounded with the incomparably fwifter motion of diurnal rotation, produces a third mo¬ tion extremely different from both. At firft the north pole of the earth inclines forward toward the fun 3 after a long courfe of years it wall incline to the left hand, as viewed from the fun, and be much more inclined to the ecliptic, and the plane of the equator will pafs through the fun. The fouth pole will come into view, and the north pole will begin to decline from the fun 3 and this will go on (the inclination of the equator dimi- niftiing all the while) till, after a courfe of years, the north pole wall be turned quite away from the fun, and the inclination of the equator will be reftored to its original quantity. After this the phenomena will have another period fimilar to the former, but the axis wull now deviate to the right hand. And thus, although both the earth and fun ftiould not move from their places, the inhabitants of the earth would have a com¬ plete fucceflion of the feafons accomplifhed in a period of many centuries. This would be prettily illuftrated by an iron ring poifed very nicely on a ca^ like the card of Part IV. ASTRO Theory of of a mariner’s compafs, having its centre of gravity co- *Gravka' incIdinS with the Point °f ‘he cap, fo that it may whirl ' round in any pofition. As this is extremely difficult i to execute, the cap may be pierced a little deeper, which will caufe the ring to maintain a horizontal pofi¬ tion with a very fmall force. When the ring is whirl¬ ing very fteadily, and pretty brilkly, in the direftion of the hours of a watch-dial, hold a ftrong magnet above the middle of the nearer femicircle (above the 6 hour point) at the difiance of three or four inches. We (hall immediately obferve the ring rife from the 9 hour point, and fink at the 3 hour point, and gradually ac¬ quire a motion of preceffion and nutation, fuch as has been defcribed. If the earth be now put in motion round the fun, or the fun round the earth, motions of libration and de¬ viation wall Hill obtain, and the fucceffion of their dif¬ ferent phafes, if we may fo call them, will be perfe&ly analogous to the above ftatement. But the quantity of deviation, and change of inclination, will now be prodigioufly diminiffied, becaufe the rapid change of the fun’s pofition quickly diminifhes the difturbing for¬ ces, annihilates them by bringing the fun into the plane of the equator, and brings oppofite forces into a£Hon. . We fee in general that the deviation of the axis is always at right angles to the plane palling through the fun, and that the axis, inftead ©f being raifed from the ecliptic, or brought nearer to it, as the libration w^ould occafion, deviates fidewife; and the equator, inftead of being raifed or deprefled round its call and weft points, is twilled fidewnle round the north and fouth points $ or at leaft things have this appearance : but w^e mull now attend to this circumftance more minutely. The compofition of rotation Ihow's us that this change of the axis of diurnal rotation is by no means a tranflation of the former axis (which we may fuppofe to be the axis of figure) into a new pofition, in which it again becomes the axis of diurnal motion ; nor does the equator of figure, that is, the moll prominent fec- tion of the terreftrial fpheroid, change its pofition, and in this ,new pofition continue to be the equator of ro¬ tation. This was indeed fuppofed by Sir Ifaac New¬ ton j and this fuppofition naturally refulted from the train of reafoning wffiich he adopted. It w^as ftri&ly true of a fingle moon, or of the imaginary orbit attach¬ ed to it j and therefore Newton fuppofed that the whole earth did in this manner deviate from its former pofi¬ tion, ftill, however, turning round its axis of figure. In this he has been followed by Walmelly, Simpfon, and moll of his commentators. D’Alembert w^as the firft vffio entertained any fufpidon that this might not be certain; and both he and Euler at laft fhowed that the new axis of rotation was really a new line in the body of the earth, and that its axis and equator of figure did not remain the axis and equator of rotation. They af- certained the pofition of the real axis by means of a moll intricate analyfis, which obfeured the connexion of the different pofitions of the axis with each other, and gave us only a kind of momentary information. Father Frifius turned his thoughts to this problem, and fortunately difcoyeied the compofition of rotations as a general principle of mechanical philofophy. Few things of this kind have efcaped the penetrating eyes of Sir Ifaac Newton. Even this principle had been glanced at by nim. He affirms it in exprefs terms with refpedl to N O M Y. 147 a body that is perfectly fpherical (cor. 22. prop. 66. Theory cT B. I.) But it was referved for Frilius to demonftrate Univerfal it to be true of bodies of any figure, and thus to enrich mechanical fcience with a principle which gives fimple . and elegant folutions of the moft difficult problems. But here a very formidable objeftion naturally offers itfelf. If the axis of the diurnal motion of the heavens is not the axis of the earth’s fpheroidal figure, but an imaginary line in it, round which even the axis of figure muft revolve j and if this axis of diurnal rotation has fo greatly changed its pofition, that it now points at a ftar at leaft 12 degrees diftant from the pole obferved by Timochares, how comes it that the equator has the very fame fituation on the furface of the earth that it had in ancient times ? No fenfible change has been ob¬ ferved in the latitudes of places. The anfwer is very fimple and fatisfaftory : Suppofe that in 12 hours the axis of rotation has changed from the pofition PR (fig. 158.) to pr, fo that the north pole, inftead of being at P, which we may fuppofe to be a par¬ ticular mountain, is now at />. In this 12 hours the mountain P, by its rotation round p r has acquired the pofition At the end of the next 12 hours, the axis of rotation has got the pofition srg, and the axis of figure has got the pofition pand the mountain P is now at p. Thus, on the noon of the following day, the axis of figure PR is in the fituation which the real axis of rotation occupied at the intervening midnight. Thi^ goes on continually, and the axis of figure follows the pofition of the axis of rotation, and is never further re¬ moved from it than the deviation of 12 hours, which does not exceed ^oth part of one fecond, a quantity altogether imperceptible. Therefore the axis of figure will always fenfibly coincide with the axis of rotation, and no change can be produced in the latitudes of places on the furface of the earth. We have hitherto confidered this problem in the moft Applied- general manner; let us now apply the knowledge wetionofthis have gotten of the deviation of the axis or of the mo-reafoniri? mentary aftion of the difturbing force to the explan a-^^U^e°fn tion of the phenomena ; that is, let us fee what precef-" lion and what nutation will be accumulated after any given time of action. v For this purpofe we muft afeertain the precife devia¬ tion which, the difturbing forces are competent to pro¬ duce. This wre can do by comparing the momentum of libration with the gravitation of the earth to the fun, and this with the force which would retain a body on the equator while the earth turns round its axis.' The gravitation of the earth to the fun is in the pro¬ portion of the fun’s quantity of matter M direftly, and to the fquare of the diftance A inverfely, and may there¬ fore be expreffed by the fymbol The difturbing force at the diftance 1 from the place of illumination is to the gravitation of the earth’s centre to the fun as 3 to A, (A being meafured on the fame fcale which meafures the diftance from the plane of illumination). 1 herefore will be the difturbing force jf of our for¬ mula. . Let P he the centrifugal force of a particle at the diftance. I from the axis of rotation ; and let t and T be the times of rotation and of annual revolution, viz. ^ 3 fidereal 148 A S M Theory of Univerfai fidereal day and year. Then />. Gravita- /*' ' we derive Ai' But fince r T R O A-:~. Hence was the angu- N O M Y. Part IV* iin. B 2 1 ‘ fin. obi. eel. Various The equator EAC, by taking the pofition BAD, modes of recedes from the ecliptic in the coiure of the folftices application. CL, and CD is the change of obliquity or the nu¬ tation. For let'CL be the folflitial colure of BAD, and c l the folftitial colure of EAC. Then we have fin. B : fin. E fin. LD : fin. Ic ; and therefore the difference of the arches LD and / c will be the meafure of the difference of the angles B and E, But when tion. lar velocity of rotation, and confequently 1 x 'r the fpace deferibed, and —the velocity ; and fince the centrifugal force is as the fquare of the velocity divided by the radius, (this being the meafure of the generated velocity, w'hich is the proper meafure of any accele- Izxrz vz 2 r * rating force), we have/> — ;—>—-?-> and/* ~~— Cx/1 tz ? t1’ X Now the formula fm n d— exprelfed the fine i a of the angle. This being extremely fmall, the fine may be confidered as equal to the arc which meafures the angle. Now, fubftitute for it the value now found, viz. 3 ra A . . . —— v —, and we obtain the angle of deviation vo~'r fZ ^ 'J’Z 0 d , and this is the fimplefl form in which it can appear. But it is convenient, for other reafons, to exprefs it a little differently: d is nearly equal to - /A and this is the . 3 A az—bz therefore w = r X n~ 21 «a form in which we fhall now employ it. ■3 t* b* The fmall angle r~—nin~—-—is the angle in which the new equator cuts the former one. It is different at different times, as appears from the variable part ?7i 7;, the product of the fine and cofine of the fun’s declina¬ tion. It will be a maximum when the declination is in the folftice, for m n increafes all the wray to 450, and the declination never exceeds 234-. It increafes,therefore from the equinox to the folflice, and then diminifhes. Let-ESL (fig. 159.) be the ecliptic, EAC the equa¬ tor, BAD the new pofition which it acquires by the momentary adlion of the fun, cutting the former in the , -n . T. • 3 /* az—bz angle BAE ~ r ~r.m n——. & 2 P being the meafure of the angle E AB. But this not being ahvays made in a plane perpendicular to the ecliptic, the change of obliquity generally differs from the change in the pofition of the axis. Thus, when the fun is m the folifice, the momentary change of the pofition of the equator is the greateff poffible j but being made at right angles to the plane in which the obliquity of the ecliptic is computed, it makes no change what¬ ever in the obliquity, but the greateif poflible change in the precefiion. In order to find CD the change of obliquity, obferve that in the triangle CAD, R : fin. AC, or R : cof. AErzfin. A : fin. CD, r=A : CD (becaufe A and CD are exceedingly fmall). Therefore the change of ob¬ liquity (which is the thing commonly meant by nuta¬ tion) CD~Axcof. AE, —r\—kmn, cof. AE'— 2 P 2I* kx fin. declin. Xcof. declin. Xc°f- R* afeenf. But it is more convenient for the purpofes of aftro- nomical computation to make ufe of the fun’s longitude SE. Therefore make The fun’s longitude ES Sine of fun’s long. Cofine Sine obliq. eclipt. Cofine obliq. \/i-—xz — 23I = 25 X y p q In the fpherical triangle EAS, right-angled at A (becaufe'AS is the fun’s declination perpendicular to the equator), we have R : fin. ES=fin. E : fin. AS, and fin. AS=:/)V. Alfo R : cof. ASzzcof. AE : cof. ES, and cof. ES or y—cof. AS Xcof. AE. There¬ fore />yy —fin. AS cof. AS X cof. AE, —mn X cof. AE. 3 A Therefore the momentary nutation CD—rx Let S be the fun’s place in the ecliptic, and AS the fun’s declination, the meridian AS being perpendicular to the equator. Let -—r—be E The angle BAE is then rr r m n. In a 2 P the fpherical triangle BAE wre have fin. B : fin. AE= fin. A : fin. BE, or —A : BE, becaufe very fmall angles and arches are as their fines. Therefore BE, which is the momentary precefiion of the equino&ial . T A ^in' • 3 P . point E, is equal to A — = r X k tn n fin. R. afeenf. We muft recoiled!: that this angle is a certain frac¬ tion of the momentary diurnal rotation. It is more convenient to confider it as a fradlion of the fun’s an¬ nual motion, that fo we may diredlly compare his mo¬ tion on the ecliptic with the preceflion and nutation correfponding to his fituation in the heavens. This change is ealily made, by augmenting the fradlion in the ratio of the fun’s angular motion to the motion of T rotation, or multiplying the fradlion by — j therefore • O t the momentary nutation will be r~^kpxy. In this va¬ lue 7p is a conflant quantity, and the momentary nu¬ tation is proportional to .vy, or to the produdt of the fine and cofine of the fun’s longitude, or to the fine of twice the fun’s longitude } for xy is equal to half the fine of twice %. If therefore we multiply this fradlion by the fun’s momentary angular motion, which w7e may fuppofe with abundant accuracy, proportional to 2, we obtain the fiuxion of the nutation, the fluent of which will ex- Part IV. ' A S T R , Theory of prefs the whole nutation while the fun defcribes the Univerfal % 0f ecliptic, beginning at the vernal equi- tion. nox. Therefore, in place of y put and in place L" ’ x O N O M Y. 149 .the equinoxes while the fun moves from the vernal Theory of equinox along the arch z of the ecliptic. Gravita^ 3^7 'tioT' l, and we have the fluxion of the nuta- of 2; put V I —V tion for the moment when the fun’s longitude is z, and the fluent will be the whole nutation. The fluxion of which the refulting from this procefs is - x x. fluent is 4T 2T This is the whole change produ¬ ced on the obliquity of the ecliptic while the fun moves along the arch ss ecliptic, reckoned from the vernal equinox. When this arch is 90°, x is 1. and there¬ fore ^ — is the nutation produced while the fun moves 41 . from the equinox to the folftice. The momentary change of the axis and plane of the equator (which is the meafure of the changing force) 3 ^. 414 Tire real and mo¬ mentary change greateft at thefolftices, The momentary change of the obliquity of the eclip- and at the 7.tkp tic is ■ ,./ x X. is ^—^mn 2 I equinoxes nothing. 2T . ^ t h p The whole change of obliquity is W-x:* Hence we fee that the force and the real momentary change of pofition are greatefl: at the folftices, and di- minifh to nothing at the equinoxes. The momentary change of obliquity is greatefl; at the oftants, being proportional to v a? or to xy. The whole accumulated change of obliquity is greatefl; at the folftices, the obliquity itfelf being then fmalleft. We muft in like manner find the accumulated quan- ot precel- tjty 0f precefflon after a given time, that is, the fir.n in o 1 n T7 C r • ° arcn rsii, tor a nmte time. We have ER : CD—fin. EA : fin. CA (or cof. EA) —tan. EA : I, and EB : ER —i : fin. B. There¬ fore EB : CDzztan. EA : fin. B. But tan. EA— cof. Ex tan. ES, rr cof. E X -—If— ' coi. long. y/j -/>, and CD m EB : 4i5 Quantity fion in a given time CD = Therefore EB : fin. obliq. eclip. tan.long. 0 lue found in N° 4c, viz. q x V I X* If we now fubftitute for CD its va- 3( kp 2 T x x, we obtain EBzr X —~=~> ^ie °f the preceffion of the 2 1 4/1 —x% equinoxes occafioned by the adlion of the fun. The fluent of the variable part — x y, of vdiich v/1 —■xz the fluent is evidently a fegment of a circle whofe arch -x V1 is 2; and fine x, that is, — and the In this expreftion, which confifts of two parts, and y- ^—x 1 — x2^, the firft is incomparably greater than the fecond, which never exceeds 1", and is always compenfated in the fucceeding quadrant. The 2, 7thq ic 4*' and preceflion occafioned by the fun will be from this expreflion we fee that the preceflion increafes uniformly, or at leaft increafes at the fame rate with * h o . the fun’s longitude z, becaufe the quantity ■ ■ - is con- 4 1 ftant. In order to make ufe of thefe formulae, which are Mode of now reduced to very great fimplicity, it is necelfary toufing the determine the values of the two conftant quantities 'Xthp'ithci - -777-5 w^hich we ftiall call N and P, as factors of 4r 4I ’ the nutation and preceflion and T is 366%. k is —— 416 Now t is one fidereal day, —, which according to Sir Ifaac Newton is 2312—230 /> and q whole preceflion, while the fun defcribes the arch z, /J ^ f \ is TpXrfl 2—v v/i—v2 J. This is the preceflion of 231" 115 are the fine and cofine of 230 28', viz. 0,39822 and 0,91729. 1'hefe data give Nj=r and P rr —1— of 141030 01224 which the logarithms are 4.85069 and 5.21308, viz. the arithmetical complements of 5.14931 and 4.78692. t ' Let us, for an example of the ufe of this inveftiga- Example 0f tion, compute the preceflion of the equinoxes when the utility the fun has moved from the vernal equinox to the fum-oDhe in- mer folftice, fo that z is 90°, or 324000". veftigation- Log 3240oo/'=zz - - 5-5io55 Log p - - . 5.21308 Log 5",292 - - • - 0.72363 The preceflion therefore in a quarter of a year is 5,292 feconds ; and, fince it increafes uniformly, it is 21",168 annually. We muft now recolleft the affumptions on which a,-]'418 this computation proceeds. The earth is fuppofed totions on be homogeneous, and the ratio of its equatorial diame-which the ter to its polar axis is fuppofed to be that of 231 toc?mPuta- 230. If the earth be more or lefs protuberant at thetloI\pro~ equator, the preceflion will be greater or lefs in thera-CCC S’ tio of this protuberance. The meafures wfliich have been taken of the degrees of the meridian are very in- confiftent among thernfelves; and although a compari- fon of them all indicates a fmaller protuberancy, nearly -jLr inftead of fyT, their differences are too great to leave much confidence in this method. But if this figure be thought more probable, the preceflion will be reduced to about 17" annually. But even though the figure of the earth were accurately determined, we have no authority to fay that it is homogeneous. If it be denfer towards the centre, the momentum of the protu¬ berant matter will not be fo great as if it wrnre equally denfe with the inferior parts, and the preceflion will be diminiftied on this account. Did we knowTthe propor¬ tion of the matter in the moon to that in the fun, we could *50 A S T R Unlveri'af Cou^ ea^^7 determine tKe proportion of the whole ob- Gravita- ^rv®d annual preceffion of which is produced by tion. lhe ^un,s a&ion. But we have no unexceptionable data for determining this ; and we are rather obliged to in¬ fer it from the effedt which Ihe produces in difturbing the regularity of the preceflion, as will be confidered immediately. So far, therefore, as we have yet pro¬ ceeded in this inveftigation, the refult is very uncertain. We have only afcertained unqueftionably the law which is obferved in the folar preceflion. It is probable, however, that this preceflion is not very different from 20" annually ; for the phenomena of the tides (how the difturbing force of the fun to be very nearly A of the „difturbing force of the moon. Now 20" is 4- of co" the moon’s “ut ^et l15 now Proceed to confider the effect of the aftion on rnoon’s adtion on the protuberant matter of the earth ; the protu- and as vre are ignorant of her quantity of matter, and berant mat.confequently of her influence in fimilar circumftances earth/ e w‘t^1 t^ie ^un’ vve fuppofe that the difturbing force of the moon is to that of the fun as wz to 1. Then {cater is pa rib us) the preceflion will be to the folar pre- ceffion ar in the ratio of the force and of the time of its adlion jointly. Let t and T therefore reprefent a pe¬ riodical month and year, and the lunar preceflion will . mvt . oe = -Tp-. Ihis preceflion muft be reckoned on the plane of the lunar orbit, in the fame manner as the fo¬ lar preceflion is reckoned on the ecliptic. We muft alfo obferve, that -7^- reprefents the lunar preceflion only on the fuppofition that the earth’s equator is in¬ clined to the lunar orbit in an angle of 234 degrees. This is indeed the mean inclination ; but it is fometimes increafed to above 28°, and fometimes reduced to 180. Now in the value of the folar preceflion the cofine of the obliquity was employed. Therefore whatever is the angle E contained between the equator and the lu¬ nar orbit, the preceflion will be — ^ F Col. 234-0, and it muft be reckoned on the lunar orbit. Now let (fig. 160.) be the immoveable plane of the ecliptic, the long, of the node be - * Sine N'T1 - - - x Cofine N'T* - - - y Sine ‘T =r 234 . . . a Cofine 'Y1 - - . h Sine N~5.8.46 - - - c Cofine N - - - - d Circumference to radius i,=6,2 8 - e Force of the moon - - m Solar preceflion (fuppofedrr 144" by obferva- tion) - _ jj. Revolution of <1 / Revolution of0=3664 - - T Revolution ofN = i8 years 7 months - n In order to reduce the lunar preceflion to the eclip¬ tic, we muft recolledl that the equator will have the O N O M Y. Part IY. fame inclination at the end of every half revolution of Theory of tm fun or of the moon, that is, when they pafs through Univerfal the equator, becaufe the'fum of all the momentary Gra.vita- changes of its pofition begins again each revolution.. t'°n' 1 herefore if we negleft the motion of the node during V one month, which is only 14 degrees, and can produce but an mfenfible change, it is plain that the moon pro¬ duces, m one half revolution, that is, while fhe moves froni H to G, the greateft difference that fhe can in the pofition of the equator. The point D, therefore, half way from G to H, is that in which the moveable equator cuts the primitive equator, and DE and DF are each go°. But S being the folftitial point, S is alfo 90°. There¬ fore DS=qp E. Therefore, in the triangle DGE, we have fin. ED : fin. G = fin. EG : fin. D, = EG : D. Therefore D = EG x fin, G, = EG x fin. E nearly! Again, in the triangle A we have fin. A : fin. ^ D (or cof. pf> E) = fin. D : fin. T1 A, =D : A. There- vi 7r t Sin. E • Cof. E • Cof. fy1 E T Sin. cy> • Cof. ryi. ' This is the lunar preceflion produced in the courfe of one month, eftimated on the ecliptic, not conftant like the folar preceflion, but varying wflth the inclination or the angle E or F, which varies both by a change in the angle N, and alfo by a change in the pofition of N on the ecliptic. We muft find in like manner the nutation SR pro-Nutttion in duced in the fame time, reckoned on the colure of the the fame f'olftices RL. We have R: fin. DS=D: RS, andhme, RS=D • fin. DS, = D • fin. ^ E. But D = EG • fin.E Therefore RS = ED • fin. E • fin. v E, E T • Cof. cy* Xfin. E x fin.fy* E. In thisexpreflion we muft fubftitute the angle N, which may be confidered as conftant during the month, and the longitude E. Therefore T? s -^^g-in. N • Sm. or N- Cof. E. T Col. But we muft exterminate the angle E, becaufe it changes by the change of the'pofition of N. Now, in the tri¬ angle qpEN we have cof. E=cof.«Y>N‘fin. N'fin.«y> cof. N-cof. N=*. It is the expreflion of a certain number of feconds, becaufe tv, one of its faffors, is the folar preceflion in feconds 4and all the other factors are numbers, or fraffions of the radius 1 j even c is exprefled in terms of the radius r. The fluxion of the preceflion, or the monthly precef- fion, is to that of the nutation as the cotangent of is to the fine of . This alfo appears by°confidering‘ fig. 159. P/> meafures the angle A, or change of pofition of the equator 5 but the preceflion itfelf, reckoned on the ecliptic, is meafured by Po, and the nutation by />o; and the fluxion of the preceflion is equal to the fluxion of nutation x bllt ^ E = ~r; tw : This, muftiplied into for fine E ad-\- be V1—.y* fine c x the fluxion of the nutation, gives - a~ ^ j_ ^ d c—a bd.ty x for the monthly pre¬ ceflion. The fluent of this 7^JL^a dx b z ^ (b* dc x a b c* z— \ a b cx x\/~i—xx or it is equal 771 TV 71 ( t0 ^T7v ~}*c')ab*J\-{px — ax) d c z—4 a b cx fine 2 zj. J.et us now exprefs this in numbers: When the node of the node, obferve, that then z becomes — -, and the 2 fine of z and of zz vanifii, dx becomes 1—cx, and the pre¬ ceflion becomes^f-"(^-4c*),=—and the preceflion in 18 years is ttittti i—\cx. We fee, by comparing the nutation and preceflion db ^7 ^or n^ne years> that they aye as — to 1—4 c* nearly as 1 to 174* This gives 313" of preceflion, correfpond- ing to 18'', the oblerved nutation, which is about 35" of preceflion annually produced by the moon. And thus we fee that the inequality produced by the moon in the preceflion of the equinoxes, and, more particularly, the nutation occafioned by the variable ob¬ liquity of her orbit, enables us to judge of her fliare in the whole phenomenon ; and therefore informs us of her difturbing force, and therefore of her quantity of mat¬ ter. This phenomenon, and thofe of the tides, are the only fadfs which enable us to judge of this matter : and this is one of the circumflances which has caufed this problem to occupy fo much attention. Dr Bradley, by a nice comparifon of his obfervations with the ma¬ thematical theory, as it is called, furnilhed him by Mr Machin, found that the equation of preceflion comput¬ ed by that theory was too great, and that the theory would agree better with the obfervations, if an ellipfe were fubftituted for Mr Machin’S little circle. He thought that the fhorter axis of this ellipfe, lying in the colure of the foiflices, fliould not exceed 16". Nothing can more clearly fliow the aftonifhing accuracy of Bradley’s obfervations than this remark : for it refults from the theory, that the pole muft really deferibe an ellipfe, having its Ihorter axis in the folftitial colure, and the ratio of the axes muft be that of 18 to 16,8; for the mean preceflion during a half revolution of the . 424 Gives the difturbing force and matter of the moon. , • 771 TV 717 CX\ node is - - ^ \d ,—- j j and Therefore for the longi- tude *, it will be ; wI)en th!s is ta. ken from the true preceflion for that longitude, it leaves the equation of preceflion {bx dM dc' a b e\K J fine z — \abc fine 2 z j ; therefore when the node is in the folftice, and the equation greateft, we have it = m tvti c d , l4i ~abe~ /* We here negleft the fecond term as infignificant. This. 152 ASTRONOMY. Part IV. Theory of Univerfal Gravita¬ tion. 4Z5 Greateft equation of |>receffion. This greateli equation or precellion is to , the nutation of IS", as b*—a1 to 2 ab ; that is, as ra¬ dius to the tangent of twice the obliquity of the eclip¬ tic. This gives the greatelt equation of preceffion 16",8, not differing half a fecond from Bradley’s ob- fervations. Thus have tve attempted to give fome account of this curious and important phenomenon. It is curious, be- caufe it affedls the whole celeilial motions in a very in¬ tricate manner, and received no explanation from the more obvious application of mechanical principles, which fo happily accounted for all the other appearances. It is one of the moft illuftrious proofs of Sir Ifaac New¬ ton’s fcgacity and penetration, which catched at a very remote analogy between this phenomenon and the li- bration of the moon’s orbit. It is highly important to the progrefs of pradtical and ufeful ailronomy, becaufe it has enabled us to compute tables of fuch accuracy, that they can be ufed with confidence for determining the longitude of a fhip at fea. This alone fixes its im¬ portance : but it is flill more important to the philofo- pher, affording the moll inconteflable proof of the uni¬ verfal and mutual gravitation of all matter to all mat¬ ter. It left nothing in the folar fyflem unexplained from the theory of gravity but the acceleration of the moon’s mean motion •, and this has at laft been added to the lift of our acquifitions by M. de la Place. toties (tnimos veterum torfere Sophorum, Splice que fcholas frujlra rauco cet'tamine vex ant, Obvia confpicimus, nube pellente Matheji, Jam dubios nulla caligine preegravat error ^ueis fuperum penetrare domos, atque ardua cceh Scandere fubhftiis genii concejjit acumen. Nec fas eft proprius mortali attingere divos. Halley. Sect. X. Of the Libration of the Moon. The only phenomena which ftill remain to be ex¬ plained are the libration of the moon and the motion of the nodes of her equator. The moon in confe- quence of her rotation round her axis is a little flat¬ tened towards the poles ; but the attraction of the earth muft have lengthened the axis of the moon diredled to¬ wards that planet. If the moon -were homogeneous and fluid, fhe would aflume the form of an ellipfoid, whofe fhorter axis would pafs through her poles of ro¬ tation ; the longer axis would be diredled towards the earth, and in the plane of the moon’s equator j and the mean axis, fituated in the fame plane, would be per¬ pendicular to the two others. The excefs of the long¬ er over the fhorter would be quadruple the excefs of the mean axis over the fhorter, and would amount to about —^—, the fhorter axis being reprefented by 29711 0 unity. It is eafy to fee, that if the longer axis of the moon Theory of deviate a little from the direction of the radius vedtor, which joins together the centres of the earth and moon, J t;on> " the attradfion of the earth will tend to bring it towards y—.j that radius juft as gravity tends to biing a pendu¬ lum towards the vertical pofition. If the rotation of the fatellite had been at firft fufficiently rapid to over¬ come this tendency, the time of a rotation would not have been equal to that of a revolution round the earth, and their difference would have difeovered to us fuc- ceffively all the points of the moon’s furface. But the angular motions of rotation and revolution having been at firft but very little different, the force with which the longer axis feparated from the radius vec¬ tor was not fufficient to overcome the tendency toward the radius vedlor occafioned by the attradlion of the earth. This laft tendency, therefore, has rendered the two motions rigidly equal. And, as a pendulum dri¬ ven from the vertical diredlion by a very fmall force conftantly returns to it, making fmall ofcillations on each fide, in like manner the longer axis of the moon ought to ofcillate on each fide of the radius vedlor of her orbit. The libration of the moon then depends upon the fmall difference which originally fubfifted be¬ tween the angular motions of the moon’s rotation and revolution. Thus we fee, that the theory of gravitation explains the equality which fubfifts between the mean rotation and revolution of the moon. It is only neceffary to fuppofe, that the original difference between them was fmall. In that cafe the attraction of the earth would loon reduce them to a ftate of equality. The fingular coincidence of the nodes of the moon’s equator, with thofe of its orbit, is alfo owing to the attradlion of the earth. This was firft demonftrat- ed by La Grange. The planes of the equator and of the orbit of the moon, and the plane which paffes through its centre, parallel to the ecliptic, have al¬ ways nearly the fame interfedlion. The fecular move¬ ments of the ecliptic neither alter the coincidence of the nodes of thefe three planes, nor their mean incli¬ nation, which the attradlion of the earth keeps always the fame. We have now examined all the phenomena of the heavenly bodies, and have found that they are all ex¬ plicable on the theory of gravitation, and indeed ne¬ ceffary confequences of that theory, ft he exadl coin¬ cidence of all the phenomena muft be confidered as a complete demonftration of the truth of the theory •, and indeed places it beyond the reach of every pofiible ob- jedlion. With refpedl to the nature of this force call¬ ed gravitation, nothing whatever is known, nor is it likely that any thing ever will be known, ft'he dif- cuffion being evidently above the reach of the human faculties, all the different theories wftnch have been publifhed, explaining it by ethers, &x. have only ferved to fliow the weaknefs of human reafon, when it attempts to leave the plain path of experience, and indulge in fancy and conjedlure. APPENDIX. Appendix. ASTRONOMY, Of Calcula- ‘i^Eciip- APPENDIX. les, &c. In the preceding article we have endeavoured to give as full a view as poflible of aftronomy ; avoiding, at the fame time, the introduclicn of minute details upon thofe fubjedls which are not clfential, that the readers attention might not be drhlra&ed and diverted from objects of primary importance. But for the fake of thofe perfons who may with to indulge their tafte for praftical aftronomy, we have thought proper to fubjoin an appendix ; in winch we (hall give, in the firlt place, the rules for calculating eclipfes, and in the fecond, a defeription of the moft important aftro- nomical inftruments. I. Method of calculating Eclipfes. The method of conftrudting tables for the calcu¬ lation of eclipfes will be underftood from the follow¬ ing obfervations. The motions of the fun and moon are obferved to be continually accelerated from the apogee to the pe¬ rigee, and as gradually retarded from the perigee to the apogee ; being ilow^eft of all when the mean anomaly is nothing, and fwifteft of ail when it is fix figns. When the luminary is in its apogee or perigee, its place is the fame as it would be if its motion were equable in all parts of its orbit. The fuppofed equable motions are called mean; the unequable are juftly called the true. The mean place of the fun or moon is always for¬ warder than the true place, whilfic the luminary is mov¬ ing from its apogee to its perigee: and the true place is always forwarder than the mean, whilft the lu¬ minary is moving from its perigee to its apogee.' In the former cafe, the anomaly is always lefs than fix figns •, and in the latter cafe, more. It has been found, by a long feries of obfervations, that the fun goes through the ecliptic, from the vernal equinox to the fame equinox again, in 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 55 feconds j from the firft ftar of Aries to the fame ftar again, in 365 days 6 hours 9 minutes 24 feconds; and from his apogee to the fame again, in 365 d ys 6 hours 14 minutes o feconds.— The firft of thefe is called thefolaryear; the fecond the fdereal year; and the third the anomaliflicyear. So that the folar year is 20 minutes 29 feconds fhorter than the fidereal 5 and the fidereal year is four minutes 36 feconds fhorter than the anomaliftic. Hence it ap¬ pears, that the equinotftial point, or inter feet ion of the ecliptic and equator at the beginning of Aries, goes backward with refpect to the fixed ftars, and that the fun’s apogee goes forward. It is alfo obferved, that the moon goes through her orbit, from any given fixed ftar to the fame ftar again, in 27 days 7 hours 43 minutes 4 feconds at a mean rate 5 from her apogee to her apogee again, in 27 days 13 hours 18 minutes 43 feconds •, and from the fun to the fun again, in 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes 3TI5- feconds. This ihows that the moon’s apogee moves forward in the ecliptic, and that at a much quicker rate than the fun’s apogee does: fince the moon is 5 hours 55 mi¬ nutes 39 feconds longer in revolving from her apogee to her apogee-again, than from any ftar to the fame ftar again. The moon’s orbit croffes the ecliptic in twT0 oppo- Vol. III. Part I. fite points, which are called her nodes: and it is ob¬ ferved, that ihe revolves fooner from any node to the node again, than from any ftar to the ftar again, by 2 hours 38 minutes 27 feconds j which fliows that her nodes move backward, or contrary to the order of figns in the ecliptic. The time in which the moon revolves from the fun to the fun again (or from change to change) is called a lunation ; which, according to Dr Pound’s mean meafures, would always confift of 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes 3 feconds 2 thirds 58 fourths, if the mo¬ tions of the fun and moon wrere always equable. Hence 12 mean lunations contain 354 days 8 hours 48 mi¬ nutes'36 feconds 35 thirds 40 fourths, which is 10 days 2r hours 11 minutes 23 feconds 24 thirds 20 fourths lefs than the length of a common Julian year, confift- ing of 365 days 6 hours; and 13 mean lunations con¬ tain 383 days 21 hours 32 minutes 39 feconds 38 thirds 38 fourths, which exceeds the length of a com¬ mon Julian year, by 18 days 15 hours 32 minutes 39 feconds 38 thirds 38 fourths. The mean time of new moon being found for any given year and month, as fuppofe for March 1700 old ftyle, if this mean new moon falls later than the nth day of March, then 12 mean lunations added to the time of this mean new moon will give the time of the mean new moon in March 1701, after having thrown off 365 days. But when the mean new moon happens to be before the 1 ith of March, we muff add 13 mean lunations, in order to have the time of mean new moon in March the year following ; always taking care to fubtraift; 365 days in common years, and 366 days in leap years, from the fum of this addition. Thus, A. D. 1700, old ftyle, the time of mean new moon in March was the 8th day, at 16 hours ir minutes 25 feconds after the noon of that day (viz. at 11 minutes 25 feconds pall; four in the morning of the 9th day), according to common reckoning. To this we muft add 13 mean lunations, or 383 days 21 hours 32 minutes 39 feconds 38 thirds 38 fourths, and the fum will be 392 days 13 hours 44 minutes 4 feconds 38 thirds 38 fourths : from which fubtradi 365 days, becaufe the year 1701 is a common year, and there will remain 27 days 13 hours 44 minutes 4 feconds 38 thirds 38 fourths for the time of mean new moon in March, A. D. 1701. Carrying on this addition and fubtradlion till A. D. 1703, we find the time of mean new moon in March that year to be on the 6th day, at 7 hours 21 mi¬ nutes 17 feconds 49 thirds 46 fourths pall, noon; to which add 13 mean lunations, and the fum will be 390 days 4 hours 53 minutes 57 feconds 28 thirds 20 fourths; from which fubtracl 366 days, becaufe the year 1704 is a leap-year, and there will remain 24 days 4 hours 53 minutes 57 feconds 28 thirds 20 fourths, for the time of mean new moon in March A. D. 1704. In this manner wTas the firft of the following tables conftrudled to feconds, thirds, and fourths; and then wrote out to the neareft feconds. The reafon why we chofe to begin the year with March, was to avoid the inconvenience of adding a day to the tabular time in leap-years after February, or fubtradfting a day there- 4J from x53 Of Calcula¬ ting Eclip- fts, &c. 154 A S T R Of Calcula- from in January and February in thofe years ; to which tUf?s al! ta^^es this kind are fubjeft, which begin the year Y—■> lvith January, in calculating the times of new or*full moons. The mean anomalies of the fun and moon, and the fun’s mean motion from the afeending node of the moon’s orbit, are fet down in Table III. from i to 13 mean lunations. Thefe numbers, for 13 lunations, be¬ ing added to the radical anomalies of the fun and moon, and to the fun’s mean diftance from the afeend¬ ing node, at the time of mean new moon in March 1700 (Table I.), will give their mean anomalies, and the fun’s mean diftance from the node, at the time of mean new moon in March 1701, and being added fol¬ ia lunations to thofe for 1701, give them for the time of mean new moon in March 1702. And fo on as far as you pleafe to continue the table (which is here car¬ ried on to the year j8oo), always throwing off 12 figns when their fum exceeds 12, and fetting down the remainder as the proper quantity. If the number belonging to A. I). 1700 (in Table I.) be fubtrafted from thofe belonging to 1800, we lhall have their whole differences in too complete Julian years •, which accordingly we find to be 4 days 8 hours 10 minutes 52 feconds 15 thirds 40 fourths, with re- fpefl to the time of mean new moon. Thefe being ad¬ ded together 60 times (always taking care to throw off a whole lunation when the days exceed 29^) make up 60 centuries, or 6000 years, as in 'Table VI. which w-as carried on to feconds, thirds, and fourths j and then wrote out to the neareft feconds. In the fame manner were the refpedtive anomalies and the fun’s diftance from the node found, for thefe centurial years j and then (for want of room) wrote out only to the neareft minutes, which is fufficient in w-hole centuries. Ey means of thefe two tables, we may find the time of any mean new moon in March, together ivith the ano¬ malies of the fun and moon, and the fun’s diftance from the node at thefe times, within the limits of 6000 years either before or after any given year in the 18th cen¬ tury ; and the mean time of any new or full moon in any given month after March, by means of the third and fourth tables, within the fame limits, as fliown in the precepts for calculation. Thus it would be a very eafy matter to calculate the time of any newr or full moon, if the fun and moon moved equably in all parts of their orbits. But we have already ftiown, that their places are never the fame as they would be by equable motions, except when they are in apogee or perigee ; which is, when their mean anomalies are either nothing or fix figns : and that their mean places are always forwarder than their true places, whilft the anomaly is lefs than fix figns ; and their two places are forwarder than the mean, whilft the anomaly is more. Hence it is evident, that whilft the fun’s anomaly is lefs than fix figns, the moon will overtake him, or be ©ppofite to him, fooner than fhe could if his motion w’ere equable ; and later whilft his anomaly is more than fix figns. The greateft difference that can pof- iibly happen ‘between the mean and true time of new or full moon, on account of the inequality of the fun’s motion, is 3 hours 48 minutes 28 feconds : and that is, when the fun’s anomaly is either 3 figns 1 degree, or 8 figns 29 degrees) fooner in the firft cafe, and later in the lalh—-In all other figns and degrees of O N O MY. Appendix. anomaly, the difference is gradually lefs, and vanifhes Of Cakuk- when the anomaly is either nothing or fix figns. ting Eclip- I he fun is in his apogee on the 30th of June, and in , les> &:c- . his perigee on the 30th of December, in the prefent ^ V age : fo that he is nearer the earth in our winter than in our fummer.—The proportional difference of di¬ ftance, deduced from the difference of the fun’s appa¬ rent diameter at thefe times, is as 983 to 1017. The moon’s orbit is dilated in winter, and contradf- ed in fummer) therefore the lunations are longer in winter than in fummer. The greateft difference is found to be 22 minutes 29 feconds ) the lunations in- creafing gradually in length whilft the fun is moving from his apogee to his perigee, and decreafing in length whilft he is moving from his perigee to his apogee. On this account, the moon will be later every time in co¬ ming to her conjunction with the fun, or being in op- pofition to him, from December till June, and fooner from June till December, than if her orbit had conti¬ nued of the fame fize all the year round. As both thefe differences depend on the fun’s ano¬ maly, they may be fitly put together into one table, and called T/je annual or firjl equation of the mean to the true fyzigy, (See Table VII.) This equational dif¬ ference is to be iubtrafted from the time of the mean fyzigy when the fun’s anomaly is lefs than fix figns, and added wThen the anomaly is more.—At the greateft it is 4 hours xo minutes 57 feconds, viz. 3 hours 48 minutes 28 feconds, on account of the fun’s unequal motion, and 22 minutes 29 feconds, on account of the dilatation of the moon’s orbit. 1 his compound equation would be fufficient for re¬ ducing the mean time of new or full moon to the true time thereof, if the moon’s vorbit were of a circular form, and her motion quite equable in it. But the moon’s orbit is more elliptical than the fun’s, and her motion in it is fo much the more unequal. The diffe¬ rence is fo great, that flie is fometimes in conjunction wuth the fun, or in oppofition to him, fooner by 9 hours 47 minutes 54 feconds, than ffie would be if her mo¬ tion were equable ) and at other times as much later. The former happens when her mean anomaly is 9 figns 4 degrees, and the latter when it is 2 figns 26 de¬ grees. See Table IX. At different diftances of the fun from the moon’s apogee, the figure of the moon’s orbit becomes diffe¬ rent. It is longeft of all, or moft eccentric, when the fun is in the fame fign and degree either with the moon’s apogee or perigee ) ffiorteft of all, or leaft eccentric, when the fun’s diftance from the moon’s apogee is ei¬ ther three figns or nine figns) and at a mean ftate when the diftance is either 1 fign 15 degrees, 4 figns 15 degrees, 7 figns 15. degrees, or 10 figns 15 degrees. When the moon’s orbit is at its greateft eccentricity, her apogeal diftance from the earth’s centre is to her perigeal diftance therefrom, as 1067 is to 933 ) when leaft eccentric, as 1043 is to 937 5 and when at the mean ftate, as 1055 1:0 945* But the fun’s diftance from the moon’s apogee is equal to the quantity of the moon’s mean anomaly at the time of new moon, and by the addition of 6 figns it becomes equal in quantity to the moon’s mean ano¬ maly at the time of full moon. Therefore, a table may be conftruCled fo as to anfwer to all the various inequalities depending on the different eccentricities of the moon’s orbit, in the fyzigies, and called fhe fe- , SQTtfi t I Appendix. A S T R Of Calcula-coru/ equation t>f the mean to the true fyxigy. (See Ta- -f^P-ble IX.): and the moon’s anomaly, when equated by i, ■ Table VIII. may be made the proper argument for taking out this fecond equation of time ; which muft be added to the former equated time, when the moon’s anomaly is lefs than fix figns, and fubtrafted w7hen the anomaly is more. There are feveral other inequalities in the moon’s motion, which fometimes bring on the true fyzigy a little fooner, and at other times keep it back a little later, than it would otherwife be; but they are fo fmall, that they may be all omitted except two; the former of which (fee Table X.) depends on the difference be¬ tween $he anomalies of the fun and moon in the fyzi- gies, and the latter (fee Table XL) depends on the fun’s diftance from the moon’s nodes at thefe times. The greateft difference arifing from the former is 4 minutes 58 feconds; and from the latter, 1 minute 34 feconds. The tables here inferred being calculated by Mr Fergufon according to the methods already given, he gives the following directions for their ufe. 355 To calculate the true Time of New or Full Moon. for the ufc Precept I. If the required time be within the li¬ ef thofe mits of the 18th century, wuite out the mean time of tables. new moon in March, for the propofed year, from Table I. in the old ftyle, or from Table II. in the new; to¬ gether with the mean anomalies of the fun and moon, and the fun’s mean diftance from the moon’s afeending node. If you want the time of full moon in March, and the half lunation at the foot of Table III. with its anomalies, &c. to the former numbers, if the new moon falls before the 15th of March ; but if it falls af¬ ter, fubtraCt the half lunation, with the anomalies, &c. belonging to it, from the former numbers, and write down the refpeftive firms or remainders. II. In thefe additions or fubtraClions, obferve, that 60 feconds make a minute, 60 minutes make a degree, 30 degrees make a fign, and 1 2 figns make a circle. When you exceed 12 figns in addition, rejeCl 12, and fet down the remainder. When the number of figns to be fubtraCled is greater than the number you fub- traft from, add x 2 figns to the leffer number, and then you will have a remainder to fet down. In the tables figns are marked thus s, degrees thus °, minutes thus ', and feconds thus III. When the required new or full moon is in any given month after March, write out as many lunations with their anomalies, and the fun’s diftance from the node from Table III. as the given month is after March, letting them in order below the number taken out for March. IV. Add all thefe together, and they will give the mean time of the required new or full moon, with the mean anomalies and fun’s mean diftance from the afeending node, which are the arguments for finding the proper equations. V. With the number of days added together, enter Table IV. under the given month; and againft that number you have the day of mean new or full moon in the left-hand column, which fet before the hours, minutes, and feconds, already foun-d. But (as it will fometimes happen) if the faid num¬ ber of days fall Ihort of any in the column under the given month, add one lunation and its anomalies, &c* (from Table III.) to the forefaid ftuns, and then you O N 0 M Y. 155 will have a new fum of days wherewith to enter Of Calcula- Table IV. under the given month, where you are fure tll1£ Ec'l1P' to find it the fecond time, if the firft falls ftiort. ( e s’ ^'c‘ VI. With the figns and degrees of the fun’s ano¬ maly, enter Table VII. and therewith take out the annual or firft equation for reducing the mean fyzigy to the true ; taking care to make proportions in the table for the odd minutes and feconds of anomaly, as the table gives the equation only to whole degrees. Obferve, in this and every other cafe of finding equa¬ tions, that if the figns are at the head of the table, their degrees are at the left hand, and are reckoned downwards; but if the figns are at the foot of the table, their degrees are at the right hand, and are counted upward ; the equation being in the body of the table, under or over the figns, in a collateral line wuth the degrees. The titles Nldd or SubtraB at the head or foot of the tables where the figns are found, (how whe¬ ther the equation is to be added to the mean time of new or full moon, or to be fubtrafted from it. In this table, the equation is to be lubtra&ed, if the figns of the fun’s anomaly are found at the head of the table; but it is to be added, if the figns are at the foot. VII. With the figns and degrees of the fun’s mean anomaly, enter T^ible VIII. and take out the equation of the moon’s mean anomaly ; fubtraft this equation from her mean anomaly, if the figns of the fun’s anoma¬ ly be at the head of the table, but add it if they are at the foot; the refult will be the moon’s equated ano¬ maly, with which enter Table IX. and take out the fecond equation for reducing the mean to the true time of new or full moon ; adding this equation, if the figns of the moon’s anomaly are at the head of the table, but fubtrafting it if they are at the foot; and the re¬ fult wall give you the mean time of the required new or full moon twice equated, which will be fufficiently near for common almanacs.'—But when you want to calculate an eclipfe, the following equations muft be ufed : thus, VIII. Subtrad! the moon’s equated anomaly from the fun’s mean anomaly, and with the remainder in figns and degrees enter Table X. and take out the third equation, applying it to the former equated time, as the titles Add or Subtraff do direft. IX. With the fun’s mean diftance from the afeend¬ ing node enter Table XI. and take out the equation anfwering to that argument, adding it to, or fubtraft- ing it from, the former equated time, as the titles di- redl, and the refult will give the time of new or full moon, agreeing with w7ell regulated clocks or wratches very near the truth. But to make it agree with the folar, or apparent time, you muft apply the equation of natural days, taken from an equation-table, as it is leap-year, or the firft, fecond, or third after. This, however, unlefs in very nice calculations, needs not be regarded, as the difference between true and apparent time is never very confiderable. The method of calculating the time of any new or full moon without the limits of the 18th century will be fhown further on. And a few examples compared with the precepts will make the whole work plain. N. B. The tables begin the day at noon, and reckon forward from thence to the noon following.—Thus, March the 31ft, at 22 h. 30 m. 25 fee. of tabular time is April 1 ft (in common reckoning) at 30 m. 25 fee. after 10 o’clock in the morning. U 2 EXAMPLE JS5 Of Calcula¬ ting Eclip- fes, &c. ASTRONOMY. EXAMPLE I. Required the true time of idew Moon in April 1764, Neve Style P Appendix Of Calcula¬ ting Eclip- fes, 8tc. V—v——f By the Precepts. March I/64, Add 1 Lunation, Mean New Moon, Firft Equation, Time once equated, Second equation, Time twice equated, Third Equation, Time thrice equated, Fourth Equation, True New Moon, Equation of days, Apparent time, New Moon. 31 H. M. 2 29 8 55 12 44 3 21 39 4 10 39 40 1 50 3 24 I9 49 22 25 4- 4 3° 37 22 30 + 7 18 22 30 — 3 25 48 22 26 37 Sun’s Anomaly. 8 2 20 O o 29 6 19 9 1 26 19 n 10 59 18 9 20 27 1 Arg. 3d equation. Moon’s Anomaly. Sun from Node. IO 13 35 21 o 25 49 C II 9 24 21 + 1 34 57 u 10 59 18 Arg. 2d equation. 11 4 54 48 I O 40 14 0 dS 35 2 Sun from Node, and Arg. 4th e- quation. So the true time is 22 h. 30 min. 25 fee. after the noon of the 31 ft March; that is, April ift, at 30 min. 25 fee. after ten in the morning. But the apparent time is 26 min. 37 fee. after ten in the morning. Qu. E X A The true time of the M P L E II. Full Moon in May 1762, New Style? By the Precepts. March 1762, Add 2 lunations, New Moon, May, Subt. 4 Lunation, Full Moon, May, Firft Equation, Time once equated, Second Equation, Time twice equated, Third Equation, Time thrice equated, Fourth Equation, The Full Moon, New Moon. D. H. M. S. 24 15 18 24 59 1 28 6 22 16 46 30 14 18 22 2 7 22 24 28 + 3 16 36 8 1 41 4 - 9 47 53 7 *5 53 11 — 2 36 7 15 5° 35 4- 15 7 15 5° 5° Sun’s Anomaly. Moon’s Anomaly. 8 23 48 16 I 28 12 39 10 22 O 55 o 14 33 10 10 7 27 45 9 3 57 18 1 3 30 _ 27 Arg. 3d equation. 1 23 59 11 I 21 38 I 3 15 37 I2 6 12 54 30 9 2 42 42 + 1 14 36 9 3 57 .18 Arg. 2d equation. Sun from Node, IO 18 49 14 2 I 20 28 o 20 9 42 O 15 20 7 0 4 49 35 Sun from Node, and Arg. 4th e- quation. Anf. May 7th at 15I1. 5cmin. jofec. paft noon, vi%. May 8th at 3 h. 50 min. 50 fee. in the morning. To calculate the time of New and Full Moon in a given year and month of any particular century between the Chriftian era and the century. Precept I. Find a year of the fame number in the 18th century with that of the year in the century pro- pofed, and take out the mean time of new moon in March, old ftyle, for that year, with the mean ano¬ malies and fun’s mean diftance from the node at that time, as already taught. II. Take as many complete centuries of years from Table VI. as, when fubtra&ed from the abovefaid year in the 18th century, will anfwer to the given year ; and take out the firft mean new moon and its anoma¬ lies, &c. belonging to the faid centuries, artd fet them below thofe taken out for March in the 18th century. III. Subtract the numbers belonging to thefe centu¬ ries from thofe of the 18th century, and the remainders will be the meantime and anomalies, &.c. of new moon in March, in the given year of the century propofed.— Then, work in all refpe&s for the true time of new or full moon, as fhown in the above precepts and examples. IV. If the days annexed to thefe centuries exceed the number of days from the beginning of March taken out in the 18th century, add a lunation and its anomalies, &. from "Fable III. to the time and anomalies of new' moon in March, and then proceed in all refpedts as above. This circumftance hapnens in Example V. EXAMPLE App endix. Of Calcula¬ ting Eclip- fes, See. ASTRONOMY. EXAMPLE III. "Required the true time of Full Moon in April, Old Style, A. D. 30? From 1730 fubtracl 1700 (or 17 centuries) and there remains 30. *57 Of Calcula¬ ting Eclip- fes. See. By the Precepts. New Moon March 1730, Add 4 Lunation, Full Moon, 1700 years fubtr. Full D March A. D. 30. Add 1 Lunation, Full Moon, April, Firft Equation, Time once equated, Second Equation, Time twice equated, Third Equation, Time thrice equated, Fourth Equation, True Full Moon, April, D. H. M S. 7 12 34 t4 l8 22 j6 2 22 6 56 I4 I? 36 I o 42 7 13 l9 29 12 44 36 623 + 3 28 39 4 6 5 31 + 2 57 43 48 6 8 29 — 2 31 54 Sun’s Anomaly. 8 18 4 31 o 14 33 10 9 2 37 41 1X 28 46 o 9 3 51 41 o 29 6 19 10 2 58 o 5 10 58 40 4 2* 59 .20 Arg. 3d equation. Moon’s Anomaly. I Sun from Node. s. n 9 ° 32 ^ 6 12 54 30 3 *3 26 47 10 29 36 o 4 I3 5° 47 o 25 49 o 5 + 9 39 47 1 *8 53 5 10 58 40 Arg. 2d equation. I 23 17 16 O 15 20 7 2 8 37 23 4 29 23 o 9 !4 23 o 40 14 10 9 54 37 Sun from Node, and Arg. fourth equation. 6 8 26 — 1 37 33 8 25 Hence it appears, that the true time of Full Moon in April, A. D. 30, old rtyle, was on the 6th day, at 25 m. 4 f. pad; eight in the evening. To Calculate the true time of New or Full Moon 'in any fubtraft the time and anomalies belonging to it from given year and month before the Chriftian era. Precept I. Find a year in the 18th century, which being added to the given number of years before Chrift diminifhed by one, fliall make a number of complete centuries. II. Find this number of centuries in Table VI. and EXAM thofe of the mean new moon in March, the above found year of the t8th century 5 and the remainder w ill de¬ note the time and anomalies, &c. of mean new moon in March, the given year before Chrift.—Then, for the true time thereof in any month of that year, proceed as above taught. P L E IV. Required the true time of New Moon in May, 0 let Style, the year before Chrijl 585? The years 584 added to 1716, make 2300, or 23 centuries. By the Precepts. March 1716, 2300 years fubtraft, March before Chrift 585, Add 3 Lunations, May before Chrift 585, Firft Equation, 'Time once equated, Second Equation, Time twice equated, Third Equation, Time thrice equated, Fourth Equation, True newr moon, New Moon. D H. M. S. 1 7 5 33 57 29 53 o 88 11 l4 35 x 2 36 9 28 47 1 45 37 + 46 15 28 4 + 28 2 + 28 30 Sun’s Anomaly. Moon’s Anomaly. 22 *9 5° 47 39 o 3 27 39 58 o *5 22 41 37 17 6 14 41 20 Arg. 3d equation. J4 59 28 17 15 27 5 15 42 3 46 5 *9 41 .17 Arg. 2d equation. Sun from Node. 27 25 J7 27 5° o 5 42 0 3 5° 47 Sun from Node, and Arg. fourth equation. So the true time wras May 28th, at 2 minutes 30 fe- conds paft four in the afternoon. Thefe Tables are calculated for the meridian of Lon- degree that the meridian of the given place is weftwmrd don j but they will ferve for any other place, by fub- of London, or adding four minutes for every degree trading four minutes from the tabular time, for every that the meridian of the given place is eaftward: as in EXAMPLE ASTRONOMY a a' OfCalcula- W iV1 I* Appendix, EXAMPLE V. ’ OfCalcula. l_v__ Reared dt true Ume of Full Moon a, AlxonMa in Egyf, in September, Old Style, the yenr before Chrijl 2o. / "S-feT The years 200 added to 1800, make 2000 or 20 cyphers. New Moon. By the Precepts. March 1800, Add 1 Lunation, From the fum, Subtract 2000 years, N. M. bef. Chr. 201, Add | J Lunations, l half Lunations, Full moon, September, Firft Equation, Time once equated, Second Equation, I itue twice equated, Third Equation, Time thrice equated, Fourth Equation, True time at London, Add for Alexandria, True time there, E. H. M. S. 29 o 12 22 44 42 27 *3 18 20 *9 Sun’s Anomaly. 23 29 r9 6 55 i9 22 8 26 50 o Moon’s Anomaly. ') Sun from Node. i s IO O 7 25 52 49 36 n o 1 1 58 40 24 H 3 15 41 42 36 o 4 27 38 45 38 o H I77 H 18 4 18 57 24 22 22 *7 3 43 52 21 6 13 8 5i 25 *5 4 22 5 26 11 58 22 5 25 22 25 1 22 7 26 28 *3 24 H 36 37 33 H 56 10 ro 5 6 l7 4 12 59 54 54 36 3 , 30! 6 4 !5 53 1 20 38 24 7 3 10 22 4 47 J9 20 | 10 55 — 5 18 27 25 Arg. 3d equation. 48 9 It 26 15 28 14 | Sun from Node, and Argument i° 4 19 _ 55 i fourth equation. Arg. 2d equation. ( Thus it appears, that the true time of Full Moon, at Alexandria, in September, old llyle, the year be¬ fore Chrift 201, was the 22d day, at 26 minutes 28 leconds after feven in the evening. / E X A M P L E VI. Required the true time of Full Moon at Babylonia OBober, Old Style, the 4008 year before the frjl year of Chrift^ or 4007 before the year of his birth ? The years 4007 added to 1793, make 5800, or 58 centuries. By the Precepts March 1793, Subtraft 5800 years, N. M. bef. Chr. 4007, Add 17 Lunations, A£Id 1 half Lunations, Full moon, Oftober, Firft Equation, Time once equated, Second Equation, Time twice equated, Third Equation, Time thrice equated, Fourth Equation, Full moon at London, Add for Babylon, True time there. New Moon. D. H. M. S 30 15 9 12 !3 38 55 7 206 14 20 17 18 35 8 22 48 21 2 22 8 6 13 11 26 22 + 52 29 45 21 22 16 22 4 6 10 22 16 17 56 5i 22 16 2 17 25 4i 22 18 42 46 Sun’s Anomaly. I Moon’s Anomaly. 9 10 10 21 16 35 10 6 o 18 23 H 41 44 33 26 58 26 27 36 26 4 o 31 10 Arg. gd equation. 7 37 24 43 58 o 12 o I 2 54 43 54 58 3 30 Sun from Node. 6 J3 18 1 26 o 23 4 J5 17 26 4i S8 20 7 26 32 — 5 31 5 1 26 27 26 Arg. 2d equation. 5 *3 19 II Sun from Node, and Argument fourth equation. So that, qn the meridian of London, the true time was October 23d, at 17 minutes 5 feconds pad four m the morning ; but at Babylon, the true time was O&ober 23d, at 42 minutes 46 feconds pad fix in the morning.—This, is fuppofed by fome to have been the year of the creation. cT EXAMPLE. Appendix. A S T R Of Calcula-To calculate the true time of New or Full Moon in any 1 fe! &c.P’ given year and montb after tbe 1 %tb ^ntury. t.■■ i i./ Precept I. Find a year of the fame number in the 18th century with that of the year propofed, and take out the mean time and anomalies, &c. of new moon in March, old ftyle, for that year, in Table I. II. Fake fo many years from Table VI. as when added to the above-mentioned year in the 18th century 0 N o M Y. j59 will anfwer to the given year in which the new or full Of Calcula- inoon is required ; and take out the firft new moon, twS EcIiP' with its anomalies for thefe complete centuries. , ^es’ ^cc’ III. Add all thefe together, and then work in all refpedls as above Ihown, only remember to fubtraft a lunation and its anomalies, when the abovefaid addition carries the new moon beyond the 3ill of March j as in the following example. EXAMPLE VII. Required the true time of New Moon in July, Old Style, A. D. 2180 ? Four centuries (or 400 years) added to A. D. 1780, make 2180. By the Trecepts. March 1780, Add 400 years, From the Sum Subtraft 1 Lunation New Moon March 2180. Add 4 Lunations, New Moon July 2180, Firft Equation, Time once equated, Second Equation, Time twice equated, Third Equation, Time thrice equated, Fourth Equation, True time, July, New Moon. D. H. M. S. Sun’s Anomaly.s Moon’s Anomaly 23 23 1 34 17 8 43 29 41 7 45 13 29 12 44 3 19 1 10 118 2 56 12 7 21 57 22 - 1 3 39 7 20 53 43 + 9 24 8 8 ^ 17 51 + 3 56 8 6 2i 47 ■j* 1 8 8 6 22 55 9 4 18 13 o 13 24 9 17 42 13 o 29 6 19 8 18 35 54 3 26 25 17 o 15 1 II 3 9 38 37 10 5 22 34 Arg. 3d equation. I 21 7 47 IO I 28 O 11 22 35 47 o 25 49 o 10 26 46 47 3 13 16 2 210 2 49 — 24 12 9 38 37 Arg. 2d equation. Sun from Node. 10 18 21 6 17 49 6 10 o 40 14 5 29 47 2 40 56 8 8 10 43 Sun from Node and Argument fourth equation. True time, July 8th, at 22 minutes 55 feconds paft fix in the evening. In keeping by the old ftyle, we are always fure to be right, by adding or fubtrafting whole hundreds of years to or from any given year in the 18th century. But in the new ftyle we may be very apt to make mif- takcs, on account of the leap year’s not coming in re¬ gularly every fourth year : and therefore, when we go without the limits of the 18th century, we had beft keep to the old ftyle, and at the end of the calculation reduce the time to the new. Thus, in the 2 2d cen¬ tury there will be fourteen days difference between the ftyles ; and therefore the true time of new moon in this laft example being reduced to the new ftyle will be the 22d of July, at 22 minutes 55 feconds paft fix m the evening. 'To calculate the true place of the Sun for any given mo¬ ment of time. , Precept L In Table XII. find the next leffer year m number to that in which the fun’s place is fought, and wiite out his mean longitude and anomaly an- fwering thereto : to which add his mean motion and anomaly for the complete refidue of years, months days, hours, minutes, and feconds, down to the given time, and this will be the fun’s mean place and ano¬ maly at that time, in the old ftyle, provided the faid in any year after the Chriftian era. See the JirJt jot lowing example. II. Enter I able XIII. rvith the fun’s mean anoma¬ ly, and making proportions for the odd minutes and ieconds thereof, take out the equation of the fun’s cen¬ tre : which, being applied to his mean place as the title yldd or 3uhtraEl direfts, will give his true place or longitude from the vernal equinox, at the time for which it was required. III. To calculate the fun’s place for any time in a given year before the Chriftian era, take out his mean longitude and anomaly for the firft year thereof, and from thefe numbers fubtrafl the mean motions and anomalies for the complete hundreds or thoufands next above the given year ; and to the remainders, add thofe for the refidue of years, months, &c. and then work in' all refpe&s as above. See the fecond example following, EXAMPLE i6o Ot Calcula¬ ting Eclip- fes, &c. ASTRONOM Y. EXAMPLE I. Appendix. Required the Sun's true place, March 'loth, Old Style, 1764, at 22 hours 30 minutes 25 feconds pajl Noon ? In common reckoning, March l\Jl, at 10 hours 30 minutes in the Forenoon. To the radical year after Chrifl. Add complete years Biffextile Days Hours Minutes Seconds Sun’s mean place at the given time Equation of the Sun’s centre, add Sun’s true place at the fame time 1701 i 1 March 20 22 3° 25 Sun’s Longitude. 9 o 11 1 20 o 29 28 43 27 17 9 50 12 o 11 20 41 55 54 13 1 14 1 o 10 14 36 1 55 36 Sun’s Anomaly. 6 13 1 11 29 26 11 29 1 28 o o o o 20 41 55 54 13 1 14 1 H 9 9 1 27 23 Mean Anomaly. 12 10 12 or cf 12 10 12 Of Calcula¬ ting Eclip- fes, &c. E X A M P L E II. Required the Sun's true place, October 13d, Old Style, at 16 hours 57 minutes pajl Noon, in the 4008/0 year before the year of Chrijl 1 ; which was the 4007//J before the year of his birth, atid the year of the 'Julian period 706. By the Precepts. From the radical numbers after Chrifl; Subtraft thofe for 5000 complete years Remains for a new radix To which add, to bring it to <[ the given time complete years Sun’s mean place at the given time Equation of the fun’s centre fubtradt Sun’s true place at the fame time i 900 80 12 Oftober Days 23 Hours 16 Minutes 57 Sun’s Longitude. 9 7 53 1 7 46 40 8 29 22 6 48 36 5 4 40 30 o 16 26 54 12 39 26 2 20 Sun’s Anomaly. 6 28 48 o 10 13 25 o 8 11 11 11 8 *5 23 21 37 29 !5 29 53 29 4 22 40 o o o o o I 2 39 26 2 20 5 28 33 58 Sun’s Anomaly. So that in the meridian of London, the fun was then lufl; entering the lign set Libra, and confequently was upon the point of the autumnal equinox. If to the above time of the autumnal equinox at London, we add 2 h. 25 m. 41 fee. for the longitude of Babylon, we {hall have for the time of the fame equinox, at that place, Oflober 23d,. at 19 h. 22 m. 41 fee. ; which, in the common way of reckoning, is Odlober 24th, at 22 m. 41 fee. pafl: feven in the morn- ing. And it appears by Example VI. that in the fame year the true time of full meon at Babylon was Octo¬ ber 23d, at 42 m. 46 fee. after lix in the morning j fo ihat the autumnal equinox was on the day next after 2 the day of full moon.—The dominical letter for that year was G, and confequently the 24th of October was on a Wednefday. To find the Sun's difiance from the Moon's afeending node, at the time of any given new or full moon : and confequently, to know whether there is an eclipfe at that time or not. The fun’s diltance from the moon’s afeending node is the argument for finding the moon’s fourth equation in the fyzigies ; and therefore it is taken into all the foregoing examples in finding the times thereof. Thus, at the time of mean new moon in April 1764, the fun’s me a# Appendix. ASTRO Ofcalcula- mean diftance from tlie afeending node is o* 5° 35' 2". ting Eclip- gee Example I. fes, &cc. The defcending node is oppofite to the afeending u—y—J^ne^ and they are juft {jx fignsdiftant from each other. When the fun is within 17 degrees of either of the nodes at the time of new moon, he will be eclipfed at that time) and when he is within 12 degrees of either of the nodes at the time of full moon, the moon will be then eclipfed. Thus we find, that there will be an eclipfe of the fun at the time of new moon in April 1764' But the true time of that new moon comes out by the equations to be $0 minutes 46 feconds later than the mean time thereof, by comparing thefe times in the above example : and therefore we mull: add the fun’s motion from the node during that interval to the above mean diftance o* 50 3 2", which motion is found in Table XII. for CO minutes 46 feconds, to be 2' 12". And to this we mull apply the equation of the fun’s mean diftance from the node in Table XV. found by the fun’s anomaly, which, at the mean time of new moon in Example I. is 9s i° 26' 19"; and then we (hall have the fun’s true diftance from the node, at the true time of new moon, as follows : Sun from Node. } At the mean time of new moon in April 1764 Sun’s motion from the! 50 minutes node for J 46 feconds Sun’s mean diftance from node at true new moon Equation of mean diftance from node, add Sun’s true diftance from the afeend¬ ing node 5 35 10 2 7 42 14 Which being far within the above limit of 17 degrees, Ihows that the fun muft then be eclipfed. And now we fhall fhow how to project this, or any other eclipfe, either of the fun or moon. To projeB an Eclipfe of the Sun. In order to this, we muft find the 10 following ele¬ ments by means of the tables. « 1. The true time of conjunflion of the fun and moon •, and at that time. 2. The femidiameter of the earth’s difk, as feen from the moon, which is equal to the moon’s horizontal parallax. 3. The fun’s diftance from the folftitial colure to which he is then neareft. 4. The fun’s declination. 5. The angle of the moon’s vifible path with the ecliptic. 6. The moon’s latitude. 7. The moon’s true horary motion from the fun. G. The fun’s femidiameter. 9. The moon’s. 10. The femidiameter of the penumbra. We lhall now proceed to find thefe elements for the fun’s eclipfe in April 1764. To find the true time of new moon. This, by Ex¬ ample I. is found to be on the firft day of the faid month, at 30 minutes 25 feconds after ten in the morn- ing. 2. To find the moon's horizontal parallax, or femidia- meter of the earth's difk, as feen from the moon. Enter Table XVII. with the figns and degrees of the moon’s Vox- III. Part I. N O M Y; 161 anomaly (making proportions, becaufe the anomaly is Of caleula- in the table only to every 6th degree), and thereby tn^E^P- take out the moon’s horizontal parallax ; which for the 1 .'V-V.,),' .. above time, anfwering to the anomaly IIs 90 24' 21", is54'43"- 3. To find the fun's difiance from the nearefi folfiice, viz. the beginning of Cancer, which is 3s or go0 from the beginning of Aries. It appears by Example I. (where the fun’s place is calculated to the above time of new moon), that the fun’s longitude from the begin¬ ning of Aries is then os 12° 10' 12": that is, the fun’s place at that time is Aries, 12° io' 12". Therefore from Subtradl; the fun’s longitude or place o 12 o 10 o I 2 48 Remains the fun’s diftance from") _ the folftice se J 2 1 / 49 Or 770 49' 48"; each fign containing 30 degrees. 4. To find the fun's declination. Enter Table XIV. with the figns and degrees of the fun’s true place, viz. o* 12°, and making proportions for the 10' 12", take out the fun’s declination anfwering to his true place, and it will be found to be 40 49' north. 5. To find the moon's latitude. This depends on her diftance from her afeending node, which is the fame as the fun’s diftance from it at the time of new moon j and is thereby found in Table XVI. But we have already found that the fun’s equated diftance from the afeending node, at the time of new moon in April 1764, is os 70 42' 14". See above. Therefore, enter Table XVI. with o figns at the top, and 7 and 8 degrees at the left hand, and take out 36' and 39", the latitude for 70 5 and 4I7 51", the lati¬ tude for 8° : and by making proportions between thefe latitudes for the 42' 14", by which the moon’s diftance from the node exceeds 7 degrees, her true latitude will be found to be 40' 18" north afeending. 6. To find the moon's true horary motion from the fun. With the moon’s anomaly, viz. 11s 90 24' 2i//, Table XVII. and take out the moon’s horary motion ; which, by making proportions in that Table, will be found to be 30' zz". Then, with the fun’s anomaly, 9*" i° 26' 19", take out his horary motion 2' zS" from the fame table } and fubtrafling the latter from the for¬ mer, there will remain 27' 54" for the moon’s true ho¬ rary motion from the fun. 7. To find the angle of the moon's vUible path with the ecliptic. This, in the projeftion of eclipfes, may be always rated at’ 30 35', without any fenfible error. 8. 9. To find the femidiameters of the fun and moon. Thefe are found in the fame table, and by the fame ar¬ guments, as their horary motions. In the prefent cafe, the fun’s anomaly gives his femidiameter 16' 6", and the moon’s anomaly gives her femidiameter 14' 57"* 10. To find the femidiameter of the penumbra. Add the moon’s femidiameter to the fun’s, and their fum will be the femidiameter of the penumbra, viz. 31' 3". Now colleft thefe elements, that they may be found the more readily when they are wanted in the conftruc- tion of this eclipfe. X j True 162 Of calcula¬ ting Eclip- les, &c. I. True time of new moon in April, 1764 2. Semidiameter of the earth’s dilk 3. Sun’s diftance from the neareft folft. 4. Sun’s declination, north 5. Moon’s latitude, north afcending 6. Moon’s horary motion from the fun 7. Angle of the moon’s vifible path! with the ecliptic f 8. Sun’s lemidiameter 9. Moon’s femidiameter o. Semidiameter of the penumbra A s T R 10 30 25 o o 77 4 o o 54 49 49 40 *7 35 16 H 31 53 48 o 18 54 o 6 57 3 To project an Eclipfe of the Sun geometrically. •Fig> j-g ai . ^ak.e a of any convenient length, as AC, and divide it into as many equal parts as the earth’s femi- difk contains minutes of a degree 5 which, at the time of the eclipfe in April 1764, is 54' 53" Then, with the .whole length of the fcale as a radius, defcribe the femichcle AMB upon the centre C; which femicircle fhaii reprefent the northern half of the earth’s enlight¬ ened dilk, as feen from the fun. Upon the centre C raife the ftraight line CH, per¬ pendicular to the diameter ACB j fo ACB {hall be a part of the ecliptic, and CH its axis. Being provided with a good fedfor, open it to the radius CA in the line of chords j and taking from thence the chord of 23-5- degrees in your compaffes, let it off both ways from H, to g and to h, in the peri¬ phery of the femidifk ; and draw the ftraight line gVh, in which the north pole of the diik will be alwTavs found. J When the fun is in Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Can¬ cer, Teo, and \ irgo, the north pole of the earth is en¬ lightened by the fun : but whilff the fun is in the other lix figns, the fouth pole is enlightened, and the north pole is in the dark. And when the fun is in Capricorn, Aquarius, Pifces, Aries, Taurus, and Gemini, the northern half of the earth’s axis C XII P lies to the right hand of the axis of the ecliptic, as feen from the fun ; and to the left hand, whilft the fun is in the other fix figns. Open the feclor till the radius (or diftance of the two 9° s) the fines be equal to the length of V hf and take the/me of the fun’s diftance from the fol- itice (77 49' 4^ ) as nearly as you can guefs, in your compaffes, from the line of the fines, and fet off that diftance from V to Pin the line gVh, becaufe the earth’s axis lies to the right hand of the axis of the ecliptic in this cafe, the fun being in Aries; and draw’ the ilraight line C XII P for the earth’s axis, ot which P is the north pole. If the earth’s axis had lain to the left hand from the axis of the ecliptic, the diftance VP would have been fet oft' from V to¬ wards g. To draw' the parallel of latitude of any given place, as fuppofe London, or the path of that place on the earth’s enlightened difk as feen from the fun, from fun- rile till funfet, take the following method. Subtraa the latitude of London, 510’ from 90°, and the remainder 38°! will be the colatitude, which take in your compaffes from the line of chords, making O N O M Y. Appendix* CA or CB the radius, and fet it from h (where the Of calcula- earth’s axis meets the periphery of the dilk) to VI and tinS EcliP- VI, and draw the occult or dotted line VI K VI. Then, from the points w’here this line meets the earth’s dilk, fet off the chord of the fun’s declination 40 49/ to I) and I, and to E and G, and conned! thefe points by the tw'o occult lines F XII G and DLE. Bifedt LX XII in K, and through the point K draw the black line VI K VI. Then making CB the radius of a line of fines on the fedlor, take the colati¬ tude of London 3S°-i- from the fines in your compaffes, and fet it both vrays from K to VI and VI. Thefe* hours will be juft in the edge of the dilk at the equi¬ noxes, but at no other time in the whole year. \\ ith the extent K VI taken into your compaffes, fet one foot in K (in the black line below the occult one) as a centre, and with the other foot defcribe the femicircle VI 7 8 9 10, &c. and divide it into 12 equal parts. Then from thefe points of divifion draw the occult lines yp, 80, 9//, &c. parallel to the earth’s axis C XII P. With the fmall extent K XII as a radius, defcribe the quadrantal arc XII/, and divide it into fix equal parts, as XII, a, ab, be, cd, de, and ef; and through the divifion points a, b, c. d, e, draw the occult lines VII * V, VIII tfTV, IX c III, X b II, and XI, u I, all parallel to VI K VI, and meeting the former occult lines 7/> 80, &c. in the points VII VIII IX X XI, v IV III II and I : which points (hall mark the fe- veral fituations of London on the earth’s dilk, at thefe hours refpe&ively, as feen from the fun ; and the ellip¬ tic curve VI VII VII, &c. being drawn through thefe points, lhall reprefent the parallel of latitude, or path of London on the dilk, as feen from the fun, from its riling to its fetting. N. B. If the fun’s declination had been fouth, the diurnal path of London v'ould have been on the upper fide of the line \ I K \ I, and would have touched the line DLE in L. It is requifite to divide the horary fpaces into quarters (as fome are in the figure), and, if poftible, into minutes alfo. Make CB the radius of a line of chords on the fee- * tor, and take therefrom the chor'd of 50 3 the angle of the moon’s vifible path with the ecliptic, fet it off from H to M on the left hand of CH, the axis of the ecliptic, becaufe the moon’s latitude is north afcending. Then draw CM for the axis of the moon’s orbit, and bifeft the angle MCH by the right line Cs. If the moon’s latitude had been north defeending, the axis of her orbit would have been on the right hand from the axis of the 'ecliptic. N. B. The axis of the moon’s orbit lies the fame way when her latitude is fouth afcending as w'hen it is north afcending ; and the fame way when fouth defeending as when north defeending. Take the moon’s latitude 40' 18" from the fcale CA in your compaffes, and fet it from i to .r in the bifecting line C55, making ix parallel to Cy: and through .v, at right angles to the axis of the moon’s orbit CM, drawn the ftraight line N wxy S for the path of the pe¬ numbra’s centre over the earth’s dilk.—The point w, in the axis of the moon’s orbit, is that where the pe¬ numbra’s centre approaches neareft to the centre of the earth’s dilk, and confequently in the middle of the ge¬ neral eclipfes : the point x is that where the conjunction 2 of astronomy. Appendix. Of calcula- of the fun and moon falls, according to equal pme by ting Eclip- tables j and the point y is the ecliptical conjun&ion . fc~Si &cc' . of the fun and moon. Take the moon’s true horary motion from the fun, 27' $4", in your compaffes, from the fcale CA (every diviikm of which is a minute of a degree), and with that extent make marks along the path of the penum¬ bra’s centre ; and divide each fpace from marR to mark into 60 equal parts or horary minutes, by dots } and fet the hours to every 60th minute in fuch a manner, that the dot fignifying the inftant of new moon by the tables may fall into the point .r, half way between the axis of the moon’s orbit and the axis ol the eclip¬ tic ; and then the reft of the dots will ftrow the points of the earth’s dilk, where the penumbra’s centre is at the inftants denoted by them, in its tranlit over the earth. Apply one fide of a fquare to the line of the penum¬ bra’s path, and move the fquare backwards and for¬ wards until the other fide of it cuts the fame hour and minute (as at m and ni) both in the path of London and in the path of the penumbra’s centre ; and the particular minute or inftant which the fquare cuts at the fame time on both paths {hall be the inftant of the vifible coujunftion of the fun and moon, or greateft obfeuration of the iun, at the place for which the con- ftruftion is made, namely London, in the prefent ex¬ ample ■, and this inftant is at 37! minutes pall ten o’clock in the morning } which is 1 7 minutes five fe- conds later than the tabular time of true conjun&ion. Take the fun’s femidiameter, 16' 6", in your com¬ paffes, from the fcale CA, and fetting one foot on the path of London, at w, namely at 474 minutes paft ten, with the other foot deferibe the circle UY, which {hall reprefent the fun’s dilk as feen from London at the • greateft obfeuration Then take .the moon’s femidia¬ meter, 14' 57", in your compailes from the fame fcale, and fetting one foot in the path of the penumbra’s centre at m, in the 47 f minutes after ten, with the other foot deferibe the circle TY for the moon’s dilk, as fieen from London, at the time when the eclipfe is at the greateft, and the portion of the fun’s dilk which is hid or cut off by the moon’s will (how the quantity of the eclipfe at that time 5 which quantity may be mea- fured on a line equal to the fun’s diameter, and divided into 1 2 equal parts for digits. Laftly,take the femidiameter of the penumbra, 3 l'3", from the fcale CA in your compaffes ; and fetting one foot in the line of the penumbra’s centre path, on the left hand from the axis of the ecliptic, direeft the other foot toward the path of London; and carry that extent backwards and fonvards till both the points of the com¬ paffes fall into the lame inftants in both the paths : and thefe inftants will denote the time w'hen the eclipfe be¬ gins at London.—Then do the like on the right hand of the axis of the ecliptic j and "where the points of the compaffes fall into the fame inftants in both the paths, they will (how’ at what time the eclipfe ends at London. Thefe trials give 20 minutes after nine in the morning for the beginning of the eclipfe at London, at the points N and O ; 47^ minutes after ten, at the points m and rt, for the time of greateft obfeuration j and 18 minutes after twelve, at R and S, for the time when the eclipfe ends 3 according to mean or equal time. From thefe times we muft fubtradl the equation of natural days, viz. 3 minutes 48 feconds, in leap jear April 1. and we ftiall have the apparent times j namely, 9 hours 16 minutes 12 feconds for the begin- 0[ca^j'^ ning of the eclipfe, 10 hours 43 minutes 42 feconds for t!"eg^ ^P‘ the time of greateft obfeuratym, and 12 hours 14 minutes ■ 12 feconds for the time when the eclipfe ends. But the beft wray is to apply this equation to the true equal time of new moon, before the projection be begun 3 as is done in Example I. For the motion or pofition of places on the earth’s di{k anfwer to apparent or folar time. In this conftruCtion it is fuppofed, that the angle under wdiich the moon’s di£k is feen, during the whole time of the eclipfe, continues invariably the lame 3 and that the moon’s motion is uniform and reCtilineal du¬ ring that time. But thefe fuppofitions do not exaftly agree wuth the truth ; and therefore, fuppofing the elements given by the tables to be accurate, yet the times and phafes of the eclipfe, deduced from its con- ftruftion will not anfwer exaftly to what paffeth in the heavens 3 but may be at leaft tvro or three minutes wrong, though done with the greateft care. More¬ over, the paths of all places of confiderable latitudes are nearer the centre of the earth’s dHk as feen from the fun than thofe conftruftions make them 3 becaufe the dilk is projeCled as if the earth were a perfeCl fphere, although it is known to be a fpheroid. Confequently, the moon’s ftiadow will go farther northward in all places of northern latitude, and farther fouthward in all places of Southern latitude, than it is ftiowm to do in thefe projeClions According to Meyer’s Tables, this eclipfe was about a quarter of an hour fooner than, either thefe tables, or Mr Flamftead’s, or Dr Halley’s, make it 3 and was not annular at London. But M. de la Caille’s make it almoft central. The projeEiion of lunar eclipfcs. When the moon is within 1 2 degrees of either of her nodes at the time when ihe is full, the will be eclipfed, otherwife not. We find by Example II. that at the time of mean full moon in May 1762, the fun’s diftance from the afeending node was only 40 49' 35"3 and themoon being then oppofite to the fun, muft have been juft as near her defeending node, and was therefore eclipfed. The elements for conftruCling an eclipfe of the moon are eight in number, as follows : 1. The true time of full moon 3 and at that time, 2. The moon’s horizontal parallax. 3. The fun’s fe¬ midiameter. 4. The moon’s. 5. The femidiameter of the earth’s ftiadow at the moon. 6. The moon’s lati¬ tude. 7. The angle of the moon’s vifible path with the ecliptic. 8. The moon’s true horary motion from the fun. Therefore, 1. -T0 find the true time of new or full moon. Work as already taught in the precepts.—Thus we have the true time of full moon in May 1762 (fee Example II. page 562) on the 8th day, at 50 minutes 50 feconds paft three o’clock in the morning. 2. To find the moon's horizontal parallax. Enter Table XVII. with the moon’s mean anomaly (at the above full) 9s 2° 42' 42", and thereby take out her horizontal parallax 3 which, by making the requxfite proportions, will be found to be 57' 23". 2, 4. To find the femidiameters of the fun and moon. Enter Table XVII. with their refpeClive anomalies, the fun’s being 10s 70 27'45" (by the above example) and the moon’s 9s 2° 42' 42" 3 and thereby take out their refpeftive femidiameters j the fun’s 15' 56", and the moon’s 15' 38/'. X 2 5. To * ifi4 ASTRO Of cakula- *I'o find the femidiametcr of the earth's Jhadow at t‘ffs ^ moon. Add the fun’s horizontal parallax, which is .always 10', to the moon’s which in the prefent cafe is 37' 23"> the will be 57' 33", from which fubtraft the fun’s femidiameter 15'' 56", and there will remain 41' 37" for the femidiameter of that part of the earth’s fhadow which the moon then palfes through. 6. To find the moon's latitude. Find the fun’s true diftance from the afcending node (as already taught at the true time of full moon $ and this diftance increafed by fix figns will be the moon’s true diftance irom the fame node ; and confequently the argument for finding her true latitude. I hus, in Example II. the fun’s mean diftance from the aicending node w^as of 40° 49' 35", at the time of mean full moon 5 but it appears by the example, that the true time thereof w?as fix hours 33 minutes 38 fe- conds fooner than the mean time $ and therefore we murt fubtraft the fun’s motion from the node (found in Table XII.) during this interval from the above mean diftance of 4° 49* order to have his mean diftance from it at the true time of full moon. Then to this apply the equation of his mean diftance from the node, found in I able XV. by his mean anomaly iof 70 27' 45" : and laftly add fix figns : fo ftiall the moon’s true diftance from the afcending node be found as followrs: s 0 ' " Sun from node at mean full moon {6 hours 33 minutes 38 feconds Sum, fubtradl from the uppermoft line Remains his mean diftance at true full moon Equation of his mean diftance, add Sun’s true diftance from the node To which add. And the fum will be o 4 4 49 .35 XS 35 1 z6 2 *7 3 3* 32 I 33 o 6 10 32 6 6 10 32 Which is the moon’s true diftance from her afcending node at the true time of her being full; and confequently the argument for finding her true latitude at that time. ■—Therefore, with this argument enter Table XVI. making proportions between the latitudes belonging to the 6th and 7th degree of the argument at the left hand (the figns being at top) for the to' 32", and it will give 32' 21" for the moon’s true latitude, which appears by the table to be fouth defcendmg. 7. To find the angle of the moon's vifible path with the ecliptic. This may be ftated at 50 35', without any er¬ ror of confequence in the projection of the eclipfe. 8. To find the moon's true horary motion from the fan. With their relpeCtive anomalies take out their horary motions from Table XVII. and the fun’s horary mo¬ tion fubtraCted from the moon’s, leaves remaining the moon’s true horary motion from the fun : in the pre¬ fent cafe 30' 32". Now colleCt thefe elements together for ufe. D. H. i/I. S. 1. True time of full moon in May, 1762 8 3 5° 50 O I 7T Moon’s horizontal parallax Sun’s femidiameter Moon’s femidiameter Semidiameter of the earth’s fhadow at the moon Moon’s true latitude, fouth deft ending Angle of her vifible path with the ecliptic Her true horary motion from the fun w ^ Thefe elements being found for the conftruCtion of the moon’s eclipfe in May 1762, proceed as follows; 0 57 23 O 13 36 0 ^ 38 0 4[ 37 o 32 21 5 35 o 30 52 in O M Y. Appendix. Make a fcale of any convenient length, as WXOfcalcula- (fig. 159. r?.), and divide it into 60 equal parts, each party’s ftanding for a minute of a degree. fes, Sec. Draw the right line ACE (fig. 160. a.) for part of the ’ ecliptic, and CD perpendicular thereto for the fouth- ern part of its axis 5 the moon having fouth latitude. Add the femidiameters of the moon and earth’s Iha- dow together, which in this eclipfe will make 57' 15" j and take this from the fcale in your compaffes, and let¬ ting one foot in the point C as a centre, with the other foot deferibe the femicircle ADB ; in one point of which the moon’s centre will be at the beginning of the eclipfe, and in another at the end thereof. Take the femidiameter of the earth’s fhadow, 41' 37", in your compafles from the fcale, and letting one foot in the centre C, with the other foot deferibe the femicircle KLM for the fouthern half of the earth’s fliadow, becaufe the moon’s latitude is fouth in this eclipfe. Make CD equal to the radius of a line of chords on the feCtor, and fet off the angle of the moon’s vifible path with the ecliptic, 50 35', from D to E, and draw the right line CFE for the fouthern half of the axis of the moon’s orbit lying to the right hand from the axis of the ecliptic CD, becaufe the moon’s latitude is fouth defeending.—Itwmuld have been the fame way (on the other fide of the ecliptic) if her latitude had been north defeending, but contrary in both cafes if her latitude had been either north afcending or fouth afcending. BiledI the angle DCE by the right line Cg, in which line the true equal time of oppolition of the fun and moon falls as given by the table. Take the moon’s latitude, 32' 21", from the fcale with your compaffes, and fet it from C to G in the. line CG g; and through the point G, at right angles to CFE, draw the right line PHGFN for the path of the moon’s centre. Then F ftiall be the point in the earth’s ffiadow, where the moon’s centre is at the middle of the eclipfe 5 G, the point where her centre is at the tabular time of her being full ; and H, the point where her centre is at the inff ant of her eclipti- cal oppofition. Take the moon’s horary motion from the fun, 30' 5 2", in your compaffes from the fcale ; and with that extent make marks along the line of the moon’s path. PC/N : then divide each fpace from mark to mark in¬ to 60 equal parts, or horary minutes, and fet the hours to the proper dots in luch a manner, that the dot fig- nifying the inftant of lull moon (viz. 50 minutes 30 feconds after 111 in the. morning) may be in the point G, where the line of the moon’s path cuts the line that Bifcdls the angle DCE. Take the moon’s femidiameter, 15' 38/', in your compaffes from the fcale, and with that extent, as a radius, upon the points N, F, and P, as centres, de¬ feribe the circle Q_for the moon at the beginning of the eclipfe, when Ihe touches the earth’s lhadow at V j the circle R for the moon at the middle of the eclipfe j and the circle S for the moon at the end of the eclipfe, juft leaving the earth’s lhadow at W. The point N denotes the inftant when the eclipfe began, namely, at 15 minutes 10 ieconds after II in the morning j the point F the middle of the ecliple at 47 minutes 44 leconds paft III j and the point P the end of the eclipfe, at 18 minutes after V.—At the greateft obfeuration the moon was 10 digits eclipfed. TABLE L ASTRONOMICAL TABLES for calculating ECLIPSES. 165 TABLE I. The mean time of New Moon in March, Old Style ; with the mean Anomalies of the Sun and Moon, and the Sun's mean diflance from the Moon's afcending Node, from A. D. 1700 to A. D. 1800 inclujive. > U 1700 1701 1702 1703 1704 1705 1706 1707 1708 1709 1710 1711 1712 1713 17x4 1715 17x6 1717 1718 1719 X720 1721 1722 1723 1724 1725 1726 1727' 1728 MeanNewMoon in March. Sun’s Mean Anomaly. D. H. M. S. s 0 ' " 25 8 8 16 1 x 27 13 44 5 16 22 32 41 6 7 21 18 24 4 53 57 *3 *3 42 34 2 22 31 11 21 20 3 50 IO 4 52 2/ 29 2 25 7 l8 II 13 43 7 20 2 20 25 !7 34 59 368 15 2 23 4 11 12 1 23 8 44 52 11 *7 33 38 29 8 1 222 23 54 45 9 8 43 22 27 6 16 1 388 16 15 4 5 23 53 24 21 25 54 13 6 14 31 148 2 15 3 21 12 35 47 10 21 24 28 18 57 238 19 58 48 20 59 27 36 CJ 16 52 43 5 H 54 9 8 8 8 9 8 24 3° 47 8 13 46 39 9 2 8 50 8 21 24 43 9 9 46 54 8 29 2 47 8 18 18 39 9 6 40 51 25 56 43 15 12 35 9 3' 34 47 22 50 39 58 12 o 6 32 28 44 l9 44 37 9 8 6 49 27 22 41 16 38 33 9 5 ° 45 24 16 37 78 3 9 1729 1730 1731 1732 *733 *734 1735 1736 1737 1738 1739 1740 1741 1742 18 3 45 40 7 12 34 16 26 10 6 56 H 18 55 33 4 23 12 o l9 3 44 1 16 49 10 5 18 54 2 16 26 42 25 8 13 32 29 9 1 54 47 21 10 34 9 52 46 8 28 48 39 8 18 4 31 9 6 26 42 8 25 42 34 Moon’s mean Anrmaly. 22 30 37 28 7 42 7 55 47 17 43 52 8 23 20 57 7 3 9 5 12 57 4 18 34 13 2 28 22 18 2 3 59 24 o 13 47 30 10 23 35 36 9 29 12 42 8 9 o 47 6 18 48 52 5 24 25 57 4 4 !4 2142 1 l9 39 I3 11 29 27 18 11 5 4 24 9 H 52 29 7 24 4° 34 7 o 17 40 5 10 5 45 3 J9 53 5° 2 25 30 56 1 5 19 1 o 10 56 7 98 14 58 26 3 20 38 22 36 30 II 52 22 o 14 34 9 1 15 18 8 19 30 26 27 22 47 58 16 7 36 348 5 16 25 11 24 13 57 52 I743iI3 22 46 278 1744! 2 7 35 1745 21 5 7 44 174610 13 56 20 1747,29 11 29 o 1748 17 20 17 1749 7561 1750 26 2 38 53 1751 |i5 11 2 7 I752j 3 20 16 6 7 52 38 27 8 30 16 24 22 4 46 34 48 9 8 24 2 27 13 18 20 1 4° 32 20 56 24 10 20 44 12 9 o 32 17 8 6 9 23 6 15 57 28 Sun’s mean Dift from the Node. 6 14 31 7 7 23 14 8 8 1 16 55 8 9 19 42 9 18 2 43 9 26 5 1048 11 12 51 11 20 54 o 29 37 6 1 7 39 54 1 15 42 41 2 H 25 43 3 2 28 30 3 10 31 !7 4 19 14 18 4 27 17 5 5 5 19 52 6 14 2 54 6 22 5 41 8 o 48 45 8 8 51 29 8 16 54 16 9 25 37 18 3 4° 10 10 11 42 52 11 20 25 54 11 28 28 41 1 7 11 42 1 15 14 29 1 23 17 16 3 2 o 17 3 ^ 3 4 4 25 45 33 4 * 22 39 2 11 10 44 o 20 58 49 11 26 35 55 10 6 24 912 1 7 21 49 11 6 1 37 16 5 7 14 22 3 17 2 27 1 26 50 32 1 2 27 38 11 12 15 43 3 18 5 51 4 26 48 53 5 4 51 40 5 12 54 27 6 21 37 29 6 29 40 16 8 8 23 18 8 1.6 26 5 8 24 28 52 Jo 3 JJ 54 9 9 18 3610 17 52 49 368 3 8 29 8 28 34 28 17 50 20 6 12 32 25 28 24 14 44 16 27 40 54 7 28 59 13 6 5 22 54 10 2 42 15 10 1 14 41 10 19 17 28 11 28 o 30 o 6 3 17 1 14 46 19 1 22 49 5 2 o 51 52 3 9 34 53 3 J7 37 40 3 25 40 27 jMeanNewMdonj Sun’s mean • in March. Anomaly. Moon’s mean Sun’s mean Dift. Anomaly. | from the Node. D. H. M. S.is 0 175322 1754112. J755I J 175619 J757 1758 J759 1760 176 176..' 17 48 45:9 2 37 22]8 11 25 59,8 8 58 3819 17 47 1518 3 6 28 22 22 20 11 38 12 o o 24 19 16 16 1763 1764 1765 1766 1767 1768 1769 1870I15 1771 1772 J773 1774 1775 1776 J777 1778 1779 1780 1781 1782 J783 1784 1785 1786 1787 1788 1789 1790 1791 1792 J793 J794 J795 1796 J5 J9 54|9 o 8 31 ~ 8 57 8 6 29 47 15 18 24 3071 20 21 39 40 10 6 28 17 7 S8 28 26 ?4 20 16 10 12 4 32 24 23 48 16 b 13 9 J 20 42 4 26 20 J3 29 4 o 569 9 4 20 18 6 25 12 49 33 21 38 10 19 10 40 3 59 2 12 48 68 22 10 20 43 11 19 91 J 3 57 55 20 1 3° 35 8 10 19 12 98 7 6 6 23 23 7 51 16 16 40 1 29 1 7 50 21 28 8 48 448 '3 16 38 578 14 11 37 23 01 28 20 32 53 21 30 18 7 H Jo 25 11 42. 14 20 31 4 5 J9 23 2 52 68 469 23 8 598 399 11 11 41 158 21 53 59 3° 9 J3 55 9 Jo 16 JJ 28 20 17 17 36 5 58 21 25 r4 J3 J4 30 2 52 17 22 8 11 24 29 46 13 19 2 9 7 24 17 26 40 9 15 56 1 4 t8 13 8 23 34 5 38 12 49 58 1 12 10 2028 3 8 50 15 2867 2 8 19 21 o 18 7 26 Jo 27 55 31 3 32 37 13 20 4 10 18 57 48 28 45 54 8 34 14 11 23 59 11 o 3 47 J6 11 9 24 21 9 19*12 26 8 24 49 32 4 37 3 14 25 42 20 2 48 29 5° 53 9 S8 58 01516 10 25 4 9 4 52 J4 8 10 29 20 6 20 17 25 25 54 31 5 42 36 J5 30 41 21 7 47 o 55 52 Jo 10 43 57 916 21 7 26 9 7 1 46 14 5 JJ 34 J91 17 21 59 3 21,22 24 5 44 11 2 26 59 30 25 o 3i 6 47 35 14 J5 55 11 16 35 40 238 71022 12 46 32 19 18 9 2 51 27 o 23 48 179716 9 12 24 798 5 18 1 1 J79924 15 33 41 i8ooji3 o 22 J7 8 29 32 3 8 18 47 55 9 7 10 7 26 25 59 8 J5 41 51 9 4 4 3 8 23 19 55 9 2 o 52 8 7 37 58 6 17 26 4 4 27 14 9 4 2 5J J4 2 12 39 19 o 22 27 25 11 28 431 Jo 7 52 36 4 23 28 12 26 15 20 29 2 29 12 3 7 14 50 15 57 52 24 o 39 2 326 10 46 2.7 10 18 49 14 10 26 52 1 O 5 35 2 o 13 37 49 1 22 20 51 2 o 23 38 2 8 26 25 3 17 9 27 3 25 12 14 4 3 15 11 58 20 o 50 28 3 37 6 46 38 14 49 25 8 23 32 26 9 1 35 13 9 9 S8 10 18 21 10 26 23 48 4 J3 21 26 35 9 36 12 23 1 29 55 25 2 7 58 12 16 o 59 24 44 2 46 48 Jo 49 35 J9 32 37 27 35 24 6 18 26 14 21 13 22 24 o 1 7 1 9 9 9 48 9 J7 J2 35 10 25 55 37 11 3 58 24 166 ASTRONOMIC JL TAB IMS S /or calculating ECLIPSES. TABLE II. Mean New Moon, io'c. in March, New Style, from A. D. 17$2 to A. D. 1800. *752 1753 Mean New Moon in March. D. H. M. S. Sun’s mean Anomaly. 14 20 16 6j8 14 44 16 454 42,8 408 i754:23 2 37 22|8 22 22 20 1755I12 n 25 59:8 11 38 12 17563° 8 58 38^9 o o 24 Moon’s mean Anomaly. 1757 1758 1759 1760 1761 1762 r763 1764 1765 1766 767 1768 1769 1770 1771 1772 *773 1774 1775 1776 1777 1778 1779 1780 1781 19 17 47 15)8 19 16 16 9 2 35 518 8 32 8 28 o 8 31 8 26 54 20 16 857 88161012 5 17 45 448 5 26 4 24 15 14 o 6 10 15 18 7 8 55 >4 8 268 17 8 53 8 29 12 49 17 21 38 6 26 3 59 12 48 33 8 98 46 8 26 8 28 20 17 17 36 9 652 1 25 H 13 8 14 30 5 3 21 36 398 22 19 91 12 3 51 1 124631 19 10 19 12 19 8 55 8 48 8 19 7 16 40 28 1 29 10 17 7 5° 21 48 40 8 8 1782 1783 1784 1785 1786 1787 1788 1789 1790 1791 16 38 57 1 27 33 23 o 7 48 5° c 21 3° 18 6 25 !5 4 14 10 22 58 42 20 31 238 27 5 19 598 14 8 35 23 48 16 8 .13 4 8 2 20 o 20 42 13 9 58 5 3 45 57 22 8 9 11 24 1 ° 39 53 8 19 2 5 8 17 57 26 40 9 15 56 1 5 11 53 23 34 5 38 8 12 49 58 8 2 5 50 20 28 8 9 43 55 8 28 6 7 6 8 17 21 59 37 51 3 2 42 15 1 12 30 20 o 18 7 26 10 27 55 31 10 3 32 37 Sun’s mean Dift. from the Node. 3 25 4° 27 4 3 43 H 5 12 26 15 5 20 29 6 29 123 8 13 20 42 6 23 8 47 5 28 45 54 4 8 34 o 2 18 22 5 1 23 59 11 o 3 47 16 io 13 35 21 9 19 12 i6 7 29 o 31 7 4 37 37 5 H 25 42 3 24 *3 47 2 29 50 53 1 9 38 58 11 19 27 1025 4 4 52 H 4° 20 17 5 0 5 3° 4 5 42 36 2 15 30 41 o 25 18 46 o o 55 52 10 10 43 57 8 20 32 9 26 9 6 5 57 13 5 11 34 '9 1792 22 11 41 15 1793 11 20 29 51 179430 18 2 32 1795120 2 51 8 17961 8 11 39 44 1797 27 9 12 24 1798 16 18 1 1 1799; 6 2 49 37 1800 25 022 178 14 15 3 31 21 11 53 59 9 5J 29 32 l8. 47 26 25 59 15 41 51 4 57 43 23 19 55 22 24 10 29 21 1 6 47 55 16 35 40 26 23 45 7 7 8 24 9 9 7 H 5 15 17 38 ° 39 3 26 6 13 10 18 49 14 10 26 52 1 11 4 54 48 0 13 37 49 o 21 40 37 2 o 23 38 2 8 26 25 2 16 29 13 3 25 12 14 4 3 i5 1 4 11 17 48 5 20 o 50 5 28 3 37 6 6 6 24 7 H 49 25 7 22 52 12 9 2 35 A3 9 9 38 o 9 i7 4° 47 10 26 23 48 11 4 26 35 11 12 29 22 o 21 12 23 o 29 15 10 2 7 58 12 2 052 11 48 57 17 26 4 27 14 9 7 2 H 2 16 o 59 2 24 3 46 4 2 46 48 4 1° 49 35 4 18 52 22 5 27 35 24 6 53811 7 J4 21 A3 7 22 24 o 8 o 26 47 2 12 39 19 9 9 9 48 O 22 27 25 9 17 12 35 II 2 15 30 9 25 15 22 IO 7 52 3641 3 58 24 TABLE 11A Mean Anomalies, and Sun's mean Dijlance from the Node, for 13 mean Lunations. Mean Lunations. N! D. H. M. 3. I : 29 12 44 3 2; 39 128 6 3 88 14 12 9 4'ii8 2 56 12 5447 15 4° *5 6'i77 4 24 x8 7 206 17 8 21 8j2j6 5 52 24 9'265 18 36 27 10 295 7 20 30 324 20 4 33 .354 8 48 36 383 21 32 40 14 18 22 2 Sun’s mean Anomaly. o 29 6 19 1 28 i2 39 2 27 18 58 3 26 25 17 4 25 31 37 5 24 37 56 6 23 44 15 7 22 5° 35 8 21 56 54 9 21 3 14 10 20 9 33 11 19 15 55 o 18 22 12 Moon’s mean Anomaly. o 25 49 O 1 21 38 I 2 17 27 I 3 !3 l6 2 4 9 5 2 4 54 0 43 26 32 22 21 18 10 9 J3 59 5 10 9 48 5 11 5 37 6 o 14 33 10 6 12 54 30 o 15 20 7 Sun’s mean Dili irom the Node. o 40 14 1 20 28 2 O 42 2 40 56 3 21 IO 4 1 24 4 41 38 5 21 52 626 6 42 20 11 7 22 34 08 2 47 1 8 43 1 TABLE IV. The Days of the Tear, recloned from the be¬ ginning of March. 35 65 36 66 21 52 82 22'53 83 „ 23i54!84 I24 24I55'85 25 56 86 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 .25 26 27 28 29^29 60 90 30 30 6191 31 311 I92 113 114 115 116 117 26:57 87 118 27 58 88 28 A9'89 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 A31 132 A33 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 H3 144 145 146 147 148 119 149 121 122 150 '51 *52 153 > 154 155 156 J57 158 J59 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 J75 176 177 178 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 *93 194 x95 196 J97 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 C 216 217 2 18 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 2 54 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 235 266 179 210 l8o 21 I 181212 182 213 183 I 214 184 I 236 237 238 2 39 240 241 242 2 43 244 2 45 267 268 269 270 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 29-0 3°7 308 3-9 310 31! 312 3*3 3*4 3*5 316 3*7 318 3*9 320 321 291 292 293 2 94 295 271 272 273 274 275 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 322 323 3 24 325 326 327 328 329 33° 331 332 333 3°3i334 3°4'335 3°5|336 3°61337 338 339 34° 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 35° 35* 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 S 'i R ONO MICA L TABLES for calculating ECLIPSES. i 57 TABLE V. Mean Lunations from i to 100000. Lunat. 9 io 20 3° 4° 5° 6o 70 So Days. Decimal Parts. Days. H. M. S. Th. Fo. 9° loo 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 xooo 2000 3000' 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 2000.0 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000. SOOOO 90000 IOOOOO 29-53059°85io8o 59.061181702160 88.59177255324° 118.1223634043 20 i47-6529542554oi 177.183545106481 2o6-7I41359^756i 236.244726808641 265.775317659722 295-3°59o85io8o 590.6118x702160 885-9i77255324° 1181.22363404320 1476.52954255401 1771.83545106481 2067.14135957561 2362.44726808641 2657-753I7659722 2953-°59o85io8o 5906.1181702160 8859.1772553240 11812.2363404320 14765.2954255401 I77i8.3545io648i 2o67i.4i3595756i 23624.4726808641 26577.5317659722 2953c-59o85io8o 59061.i8i7C2i-6o 88591.772553240 118122.363404320 147652.954255401 177183.545106481 206714.135957561 236244.726808641 265775.317659722 295305.9o85io8o 592611.81702160 885917.72553240 1181223.63404320 1476529.54255401 1771835.45106481 2067141.35957561 2362447.26808641 2657753-17659722 2953059^0851080 29 59 88 118 12 44 1 28 14 12 2 56 147 177 206 236 265 295 590 885 1181 1476 1771 2067 2362 2657 2 95 3 5906 8859 11812 14765 17718 20671 23624 26577 29530 59061 88591 118122 147652 *77183 206714 236244 265775 295305 590611 885917 1181223 1476529 1771835 2067141 2362447 2657753 2953059 15 4 r7 5 18 36 7 20 14 41 22 1 5 22 12 42 20 3 3 23 xo 44 18 4 1 25 2 50 4 i5 5 4° 7 5 8 30 9 55 11 20 3 2 58 6 5 57 9 8 55 12 11 53 15 14 52 18 17 50 21 20 48 24 23 47 27 26 45 30 29 43 o 59 26 31 29 10 1 58 53 32 28 36 25819 33 28 2 3 57 46 34 27 29 4 57 12 9 54 24 14 51 36 19 48 48 24 46 o 29 43 12 34 4° 24 12 45 14 10 4 21 18 32 8 43 22 54 L3 4 3 i5 17 26 7 37 21 48 19 36 17 24 »5 *3 13 i 10 49 8 37 6 25 4 H 2 2 39 37 36 44 34 48 49 S2 o 39 4 ° 2836 o 18 8 o 7 4° 57 12 46 44 36 16 25 48 15 20 3° 40 46 o 1 20 16 40 32 o 47 20 2 40 18 o 33 20 o I ABLE VI. The fir/} mean New Moon, with the mean Anomalies of the Sun one} Moon, anrl the Sun's mean Dfiance from the Afcending Node, next after complete Centuries of Julian TTears. T ’ xJ'or- Luna- a £ tlui :S. Firft New Moon D. H. M. S. Sun’s mean •Vnomaly. M.’s mean Anomaly. 12.37 j IOO 4 81052 24741 200 j 8 l6 21 44 3711 i 30043 o 32 37 O 3 21 O 642 o 10 3 4948:40017 8 43 29 o 13 24 16 50 6185 500 21 16 54 211 p 16 46 7422 600 26 1 5 14 o 20 86:8 7001 o 20 32 3 11 24 2210 21 45 9895 800 5 4 42 55 i! 27 43! 777 8 15 22 5 o 44 i 16 6 10 1 28 Sun from Node. 4 19 27 9 8 55 12822 6 17 49 2 12 11 16 3 26 44 7 15 31 o 4 .8 Luna¬ tions. 11132 12369 1 3606 14843 16080 7316 *8553 19790 21027 22264 23501 24738 25974 27211 28448 29685 30922 32159 33396 34632 D. H. M. S. 900 1000 1100 1200 :30c 26 Firft New Mocn. Sun’s mean Anomaly. 9 12 53 47 13 21 4 40 18 5 15 32 22 13 26 24 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 35869 37106 383433 39580320020 18 51 40 408 r 7 42054 43290 4452 45764 47001 48238 49475 5071 51948 73*85 54422 55659 56896 4600 58133 4700 2500 2600 2700 2800 2900 50C0 100 21 37 16 j j 7 ^ 6 1 14 58 10 9 25 50 14 17 36 42 T9 * 47 35 23 9 58 27 27 18 9 19 014 ° 4 25 o 7 46 on 7 o 14 28 11 18 43 1122 4 11 25 25 M.’s mean Anomaly. Sun from Node. 32229 0751 8 23 13 5 8 35 11 28 46 o 2 o 5 29 o 8 50 2 13 36 6 21 47 1 11 5 57 53 15 H 8 45 19 22 19 38 24 6 30 30 28 14 41 22 3 10 8 11 7 18 19 12 2 29 56 16 10 40 48 33oo 34oo 3500 3600 3700 3800 39°o 4000 1 4100 4200 4300 4400 25 3 2 33 29 11 13 25 4 6 40 14 8 14 51 6 12 23 1 59 17 7 12 51 21 15 23 43 25 23 34 35 11 x3 5 11 16 26 ii i9 47 11 23 8 ix 26 29 11 29 50 ° 3 11 11 7 26 11 104 11 14 11 17 30 20 51 1 23 57 9 r3 3° 5 28 52 2 H *4 10 29 36 7 14 58 4020 o 15 4 8 515 4 20 37 1 5 59 921 21 4 24 25 9 13 53 2 3 20 6 22 47 11 12 15 3 1 2 7 20 29 o 9 56 4 29 23 9 18 51 2 818 6 27 45 10 16 22 360 7 25 2 ° 14 54 6 6 43 5 4 22 2 22 4| 9 23 49 7 26 11 6 26 59 21316 6 2 11 11 24 12 11 27 33 11 1 48 11 5 9 3 12 21 11 27 43 8135 4 28 27 1 *3 49 9 29 11 5 *8 44 246 4500 301334700 593694800 60606 61843 62080 5 643*7 490 5000 100 5200 O 19 I 25 5 3 12 17 9 11 23 9 *3 *9 34 1 ,8 3 44 54 72 II 55 46 6 38 26 20 11 8 20 11 U 51 11 15 12 11 18 33 10 22 48 10 26 9 10 29 31 11 252 T 3 j- 10 19 28 7 4 5o 3 20 12 o 5 34 10 21 30 3 10 58 8 o 25 o 19 52 5 9 20 9 28 47 * *7 34 6 7 1 10 26 29 3 *5 56 8 5 23 o 24 50 7 25 4 10 29 o 25 51 9 11 13 4 *3 37 9 3 1 22 32 6 11 59 1 *5 33 27 5 23 44 20 10 7 55 12 14 16 6 4 19 o 16 56 5 26 35 2 11 57 11 12 55 10 27 19! 8 10 21 1017 9616 52 11 29 11 127 3 20 54 65554 5300 66791I5400 6802815500 69265 5600 70502 5700 7i739i58oo 7297615900 74212.0000 3 8 27 49 27 16 38 41 2 12 < 3c 6 20 16 22 11 427 15 15 12 38 7 19 20 48 59 10 20 31 10 23 52 1027 13 11 o 34 3 55 7 16 10 11 31 10 14 52 3 2 14 11 17 ?6l 8 2 58 4 18 20 18 21 10 24 56 24 4 59 5210 28 17 1 3 42 9 19 4 5 8 37 1 23 59 10 921 6 24 43 3 10 5 11 25 27 [ 1 6 25 2 25 52 7 H 39 4 6 4 23 34 9 *3 * 2 2 28 6 21 56 i58 ASTRONOMICAL TABLES for calculating ECLIPSES. TABLE VII. The annual, or fir ft Equation of the mean to the true Si%ygy. Argument. Sun’s mean Anomaly. Subtraft. O Signs H. M. S o o i Sign H. M. 2 Signs 3 Signs H. M. S.! H. M. S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 io 3 12! 3 35 ° 4 IO 53 4 18 8 35 12 51 17 8 21 24 o 25 39 o 28 55 o 34 11 o 38 26 o 42 39 46 52 51 4 55 59 3 1 7 45 1 11 53 1 16 o 1 20 6 1 24 10 21 1 22 1 23: I 24; I 2511 28 32 36 10 40 44 6 55i 3 37 10 4 10 57 10 36, 3 39 18 4 10 55 14 i5 3 31 23 4 10 49 17 5* 3 4? 26!4 i° 39 21 27 3 45 244 10 24 2 25 9 2 28 29 2 31 57 2 35 22 2 38 44 42 3 45 18 48 30 51 40 54 48 57 53 o 54 3 5i 6 45 9 36 26! 1 47 54 2 7! 1 28 1 29 1 30 2 51 46 55 37 59 26 o 12 d 11 Signs 12 15 17 20 23 3 47 19; 4 3 49 7,4 3 5° 5° 3 52 29 3 54 4 3 55 35 3 57 2 3 58 27 3 59 49 3 1 7 4 39 10 37 59 2 18 3 23 4 22 5 18 6 10 6 58 7 41 8 21 8 57 9 29 7 16 6 29 5 37 4 41 3 40 4 2 35 4 1 26 4 012 3 58 52 3 57 27 55 54 52 3 5r 9 3 49 26 36 3 25 28 20 26 32 45 35 0 10 Signs 9 55 10 16 10 33 :o 45 10 53 9 Signs 3 47 3 45 3 43 3 4i 3 39 38 44 4 Signs EL M. S. 3 39 3° 3 37 19 3 35 6 3 32 50 3 3° 3° 3 28 5 25 35 23 o 20 20 17 35 3 14 49 5 Signs H. M. S. 7 45 2 3 55 201 1 56 5 1 52 6 1 48 4 1 41 1 1 39 56 1 35 49 1 31 4i 1 27 31 59 6 10 io{ 1 7 1 2 57 o 2 53 49 2 50 36 2 47 18 2 43 "57 40 37 33 3° 26 33 6 35 2 26 2 2 45i 2 40; 2 3°i 2 22 19 i5 11 7 23 19 19 5 14 49 10 32 6 15 1 5614 57 36 i3 53 i512 48 52 44 28 o 40 29 ° 35 36 o 31 10 o 26 44 022 17 8 Signs 7 Signs o 17 50 o 13 23 o 8 56 o 4 29 000 6 £ Signs oy Add TABLE VIII. Equation of the Moon's mean Anomaly. Argument. Sun’s mean Anomaly. Subtract. Signs Sign o 46 45 2 Sipms I 21 32 i 37'jO 48 10 3 i3i° 49 34 4 52i° 5° 53 6 28:0 52 19 8 6 © J3 40 1 22 21 1 23 10 3 Signs 4 Signs 5 Signs I 35 I; I 23 4! 0 48 19 23 57 24 4i 25 24 35 2, 1 22 14 o 46 51 35 ij 1 21 24!° 45 23 2C O I 20 32 O 43 54 34 57! I 19 38 o 42 24 34 50'1 18 42 o 40 53 o Signs 6 o 7 0 8 o 9 0 10 o 9 42 11 20 12 56 14 33 16 10 11 o 12 o 17 19 14 O 22 15 o 24 16, o 25 17J o 27 180 28 19I o 30 20: o 31 21: o 33 29 22 o 35 2 23' TABLE IX. The fecond Equation of the mean to the true Si-zygy o 36 32 o 38 1 o 39 29 40 59 42 26 43 54 45 i9 46 45 1 Sign 2 Signs 3 Signs 55 1 26 6i 1 34 43 34 33 34 22 56 21: 1 26 48; 1 57 38.127281 58 56' 1 28 6 o 13 1 28 43 1 29 1 2 43 1 3 56 1 5 8i 1 6 i8i 1 29 17 29 51 30 22 30 50 31 i9 7 27! 1 8 36’ 1 9 42| 1 10 49, 1 11 54j 1 31 45 32 12 32 34 32 57 33 i7 12 58 H 1 15 1 16 o 16 59 17 18 11 Signs 57 52 19 47 20 40 21 32 33 36 33 52 34 6 34 18 34 3° 34 4° 34 48 34 54 34 58 35 1 10 Signs 9 Signs 4 Signs 1 17 45 1 16 48 i 15 47 34 9 1 14 44 1 33 53 1 13 4i 1 33 37 1 33 20 1 33 0 1 32 38 1 32 14 3i 5C 31 23 3° 55 30 25 29 54 1 29 20 1 28 45 1 28 9 I 27 3° 1 26 50 26 27 25 5 1 24 39 23 52 23 4 8 Signs 1 I2 37 1 11 33 1 10 26 1 9 17 1 8 8 6 58 5 46 4 32 3 19 2 1 1 ° 45 o 59 26 o 58 7 o 56 45 ° 55 23 o 54 1 o 52 37 051 12 o 49 45 o 48 19 7 Signs 5 Signs o 39 21 0.37 49 o 36 15 o 34 40 o 33 5 031 31 o 29 54 o 28 18 o 26 40 0 25 3 23 23 2i 45 20 7 18 28 16 48 10 15 13 28 11 48 10 7 8 20 o 6 44 0 5 3 0321 o 1 40 000 6 Signs Add Argument. Moon’s equated Anomaly. Add o Signs Sign H. M. S. H. M.S. O O; 5 I 2 48 21 10 58 5 21 56:5 32 54 5 39 5i 52 5 56 3° 57 43 54 5°! 5 48 37 57 17 1 5 48|6 1 16 46, 6 1 27 44! 6 1 38 40’ 6 1 49 33; 6 5 5i H 19 22 41 3° 57 39 4 2 Signs H. M. S, 8 47 8 8 51 45 8 56 10 9 ° 25 9 4 31 9 8 25 3 Signs 4 Signs H. M. S. H. M. S 9 46 44 9 45 3 9 45 12 9 44 11 9 42 59 9 4i 36 8 8 59 3 57 23 5i 33 45 46 39 46 5 Signs H. M. S, 4 34 33 o 23': 6 11 106 21 54I7 32 34:7 43 917 47 ° 54 46 2 24 9 52 i? 9 9 12 9 9 4° 3 9 15 43, 9 S8 19 9 19 5:9 36 24 9 22 i49 34 18 9 25 12! 9 32 1 7 33 36 7 27 22 7 21 2 7 14 3° 7 7 5° 3° 29 28 27 7 26 5i 2325 26 i? 25 8 47 3 42 32;24 3 33 38,23 3 24 42I22 3 15 44:21 3 6 45 20 9 27 5419 29 33)7 1 2: 2 57 43'i9 9 3° 32! 9 2<5 54|6 54 8,2 48 39:18, 9 32 58; 9 24 4i6 47 9 2 39 34|i7 9 35 14 9 21 3! 6 40 6 2 30 2816 9 37 1219 17 51! 6 32 56 2 21 194 ASTRONOMICAL TABLE S for calculating ECL IP SE S, ifr) TABLE IX. Concluded, o Signs H. M. S 3*7 53 4 3 14 24 24 42 3 34 5*7 51 249 44 53 3 45 3 55 4 5 4 »5 4 25 4 4 4 5 5 35 44 4 54 11 3 33 12 48 11 Signs Sign H. !\I. S 48 24 31 38 44 51 2 Signs H. M. S 8 47 89 46 44 9 39 9 40 51 9 42 21 9 43 42 89 63 57 3 9 8 15 21 45;9 45 5- 569 46 38 579 47 9 47 36 9 47 49 2 8 28 8 26 S2 8 37 8 42 8 47 S'gns 9 47 34 9 47 46 9 47 33 9 47 1 89 46 44 .9 . Signs .3 Signs FL M. S 14 28 9 10 5 9 7 9 3 1 8 59 13 8 8 8 48 8 54 5° 8 50 24 45 4*5 8 41 8 36 6 5 31 0 25 44 20 18 T4 33 8 59 8 Signs 4 Signs H. M. S 8 8 59 6 25 40 18 18 10 49 3 16 55 38 47 40 S2 24 16 7 56° 59 42 51 15 43 2 34 33 .7 Signs .5 Signs H. M. S 4 34 33 2x2 8 2 2 53 [ 53 36 1 44 16 1 34 54 25 31 16 7 6 41 57 13 47 44 38 13 28 41 8 34 > 19 ’ 9 1 o 6 Signs e 12 h 13 12 11 10 TABLE X. The third equation of the mean to the true Sy%ygy. Argument. Sun’s Anomaly— Moon’s Anomaly. TAB. XL The fourth equation of the mean to the true Syzygy. Argument. Sun’s mean diftance from the Node. TABLE XII. "The Suns mean Longitude, Motion, and Anomaly, Old Style. Sun’s mean Longitude. 201 301 401 501 IOOI IIOI 1201 1301 1401 IJOI l6oi 1701 l8oi 9 10 53 23 9 10 54 *5 39 15 *6 16 11 16 57 17 42 18 27 19 !3 19 58 20 43 21 29 Sun’s mean Motion. 10 11 11 12 13 14 15 16 1/ 18 29 45 29 31 29 17 o 1 29 47 29 33 29 18 ° 3 29 49 29 34 29 20 ° 5 29 5i 29 36 29 22 o 7. 29 52 29 38 40 20 o 49 29 9 49 38 18 58 38 26 7 47 25 15 55 35 Sun’s mean Anomaly. 28 48 26 57: 26 1 25 5 24 9 19 32 18 36 17 40; 16 44 15 49 14 53 J3 57 13 1 Su i’s m an Ynomaly. 29 45 29 29 29 14 29 58 29 42 29 27 29 11 29 55 29 40 29 24 29 9 29 53 29 37 29 22 29 7 29 50 29 35 29 20 3 19 20 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 70c 800 900 1000 2000 3000 4000! 5000 6000 Ian. Feb. Mar Apr. May June July Aug. Sept oa. Nov. Dec. Sun’s mean Motion. 29 24 o 9 o 18 o 27 o 36 O 45 1 30 16 1 46 32 17 2 48 33 6 40 12 2 3 3 4 5 6 6 7 X5 22 o 46 15 20 Sun’s mean Anomaly. 11 11 11 29 29 29 29 29 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 II II 2 IO 22 II IO O IO Sun’s mean Motion. o 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 o o ° 33 18 28 9 28 42 30 28 16 40 28 49 CO 28 24 8 28 57 26 29 30 44 29 4 54 29 38 12 29 12 22 13 4 Sun’s mean -Ynomaly. 28 28 42 28 17 28 50 28 24 28 57 29 30 29 4 *9 37 10 29 11 Sun’s mean Motion and Anomaly. Suti’s mean Motion and •Anomaly. Sun’s mean dift from the Node. 90 100 o 59 8 I I 58 57 56 55 54 53 53 8 52 9 5i 10 50 o Vox.. III. Part I 12 13 14 ij 160 17 180 190 20 21 22 23 240 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 " H w M uds Sun’s mean Motion and Anomaly, 11 49 401110 12 48 13 47 14 47 15 46 16 45 17 44 18 43 19 42 20 41 21 41 22 4O 23 39 24 38 25 37 26 36 27 35 28 35 29 34 ° 33 30 40 % 7p 80 9° 100 28J0 56,0 241'o 51,0 ,I2'0 57 5 I4jo 13 J5|o 22 30 38 47 55 12 20 28 2 45 37 53 2 10 18 160 r7|0 18:0 190 20 o 21 o 22 0 23|0 o 25, 26 7 28 29 301 12 190 14 4 7 jo 17 150 19 43p 22 11J0 24 38,0 27 6,0 29 34jo 32 -20 34 300 36 58,0 39 260 4i 53p 44 210 46 490 49 170 51 45 54 36,31 1 12132 1 48:33ji 39:34 59 35 35,36 ii37 20 47:38.x 23 2.3391 25 58*401 28 34141 1 31 10:42(1 45 43 I 2I,44|i 56 40 59 1 36 4 32 4 6 9 11 28 5 7:4511 33,'46 8j47 44*48 20,49 5i 56502 54 5'i!5i / 852 43153 1954 55'53 3ii56 7i57 43'58 19*59 13 55 * *7 45602 16 18 21 23 26 28 3* 33 36 38 4i 43 45 48 50 53 55 58 o 3 5 8 10 *3 *5 *7 20 22 25 27 Sun’s mean did. from the Node 23 5* 19 57 *5 42 to 38 1 6 34 2 57 25 53 21 49 *7 44 12 40 8 36 4 32 59 ?7 55 23 5* 20 30 23 6 25 42 28 18 30 54 33 29 36 38 40 1 41 16 1 43 52 1 46 28 1 49 1 5* 39 1 54 15 1 55 5* * 59 27 2 3 In Leap years, after February, add one day, and (Hie day’s motion. 170 ASTRONOMICAL TABLES for calculating ECLIPSES. I ABLE XIII. Equation of the Sun's centre, or the dif¬ ference between his mean and true place. Argument. Sun’s mean Anomaly. Subtract 1 2 3 4 i 6 7 80 90 too 11 12 r3 o Signs 1 Sign 56 47 Si4 i4_ 15 l5 15 16 5 16 33 53 12 31 IS 9 28 46 4 22 Sigr 2 1:24 3I|23 41122 50!2 1 I 59,20 22 22 2 2 22 22 849 1648 2447 31I16 38 Signs s. A., n 1816 41 16 4 17 2747 50 17 000 o 5 15, 0 10 30128 O 15 45I27 o 20 59 26 3942 57,22 14;22 3°43 4623 46 14' 15 51 13A6 5612 24 1 6 10 I’ABLE XVII. The Moon's horizontal Parallax, with the Semidiameters and true Horary Motions of the Sun and Moon, to every fxth degree of their mean Anoma¬ lies, the quantities for the intermediate degrees being eafily proportioned by fght. 0 CO c 3 S 3 i-C 3- > o -4 0 54 2 9 6j54 31 1254 34 1854 40 2454 47 13 18 18 18 18 3< 57 20 42 19 22 3 l8i2 3 33 23 4S;23 323 14 18 2 1 23 2640 2740 28 10 11 449 25jI9 47 19 11 8 30 Signs !9 20 17 31 45 58 11 Signs 2 5 2 7 28 29 29 Signs i8j 1 1911 26 13 31 26 36 39 4i 51 47 a 52 13 57 23!19 2 31L8 7 384 7 ;l 12 44 16 17 49! o' 22 52 14 27 53 r3 52 52, 1 2 37 49!11 ! o|54 655 12;55 18l55 24 55 56 6 17 29 4 0 55 656 1256 18 56 24 57 56 12 29 48 8 5 Sitrn*. North Def end. II Signs. South Afcend. 57 657 1258 1858 24 c8 30 52 12 31 49 15 ^o 15 50 *5 5° f5 51 >5 51 52 53 54 55 5 6 16 16 16 16 16 059 659 12 18 24 This Table fhows the Moon’s Lati¬ tude a little beyond the ut- molt Limits of Eclipfes. 59 59 60 6 2 1 35 48 o 60 60 60 60 24 60 11 '2 I 3° S8 45 ! si O r* o- p C/i 14 54 H 55 H H 5 14 58 563 59 1 4 58 59 1 2 4 6 8 10 11 15 1316 SKS c o c o o 3 ^ 3° 30 o 30 19 30 26 30 831 3* 34 44 55 9 23 40 5 6 2632 r 4Ij33 46,33 S* 34 5834 34 i 6 16 16 16 16 14 !5 17 *9 20 16 16 16 16 16 60 4116 2316 29 9 H J9 24 2836 16 16 16 16 2316 31 32 37 S8 39 25 47 1 1 34 58 O C 3 c 2 23 2 23 2 23 2 23 2 23 24 24 24 24 25 2 5 26 27 27 28 35 35 36 36 22 45 o 20 40 o 10 19 28 36 37 40 29 29 29 30 0 Co C 3 £ 3 S x I 2 O 24 18 I 2 6 24 18 I 2 6 10 o 24 18 I 2 6 30 31 31 32 32 24 18 1 2 6 S2 33 33 33 33 33 24 18 12 6 24 18 Appendix. ASTRONOM Y. Defcription ot A ^jII, Deferifttion of AJlronomical Inflrumcnts ferving to illufrate the Motions of the Heavenly Bodies. 357 The machine reprefented by fig. 161. is the Grand I he orrery. Orrery, firlt made in this kingdom by Mr Rowley for King George I. The frame of it, which contains the wheel-work, &c. and regulates the whole machine, is made of ebony, and about four feet in diameter ; the outfide thereof is adorned with 12 pilafters. Between thefe the 12 figns of the zodiac are neatly painted with gilded frames. Above the frame is a broad ring iup- ported with 12 pillars. This ring reprefents the plane of the ecliptic ) upon which are two circles of degrees, and between thefe the names and characters of the 1 2 figns. Near the outfide is a circle of months and days, exattly correfponding to the fun’s place at noon each day throughout the year. Above the ecliptic Hand fome of the principal circles of the fphere, agreeable to their refpeftive fituations in the heavens : viz. N° 10. are the two colures, divided into degrees and half degrees ; N° 11. is one-half the equinodlial circle, making an angle of 23 ^ degrees. 'I he tropic of Can¬ cer and the anflic circle are each fixed parallel at their proper diftance from the equinodlial. On the north¬ ern half of the ecliptic is a brafs femicircle, moveable upon two points fixed in T and £±. This femicircle ferves as a moveable horizon to be put to any degree of latitude upon the north part of the meridian, and the whole machine may be fet to any latitude without difturbing any of the internal motions, by two ftrong hinges (N° 13.) fixed to the bottom-frame upon which the inllrument moves, and a ftrong brafs arch, having holes at every degree, through which a ftrong pin is put at every elevation. This arch and the two hinges fupport the whole machine when it is lifted up accord¬ ing to any latitude ; and the arch at other times lies conveniently under the bottom-frame. When the ma¬ chine is to be fet to any latitude (which is eafily done by two men, each taking hold of two handles convenient¬ ly fixed for the purpoie), fet the moveable horizon to the fame degree upon the meridian, and hence you may form an idea of the refpedlive altitude or depref- fion of the planets both primary and fecondary. The Jim (N° 1.) ftands in the middle of the whole fyftem upon a wire, making an angle with the ecliptic of about 82 degrees. Next the fun is fmall ball (2.), re- - prefenting Mercury. Next to Mercury is Venus (3.), reprefented by a larger ball. The earth is reprefent¬ ed (N° 4.) by an ivory ball, having fome circles and & map fketched upon it. The wire which fupports the earth makes an angle with the ecliptic of 66|- degrees, the inclination of the earth’s axis to the ecliptic. Near the bottom of the earth’s axis is a dial-plate (N° 9.), having an index pointing to the hours of the day as the earth turns round its axis. Round the earth is a ring fupported by two fmall pillars, reprefenting the orbit of the moon ; and the divifions upon it anfwer to the moon’s latitude. The motion of this ring reprefents the motion of the moon’s orbit according to that of the nodes. Within this ring is the moon (Na 5.), having a black cap or cafe, by which its motion reprefents the phafes of the moon according to her age. Without the -orbits of the earth and moon is Mars (N° 6.) The next in order to Mars is Jupiter and his four moons (N° 7.) Each of thefe moons is fupported by a wire Deft fixed in a focket which turns about the pillar fupport- ot . ing Jupiter. Thefe fatellites may be turned by the ^ hand to any pofition, and yet wrhen the machine is put into motion, they wdll all move in their proper times. The outermoft of all is Saturn, his five moons, and his ring (N° 8.) Thefe moons are fupported and con¬ trived fimilar to thofe of Jupiter. The machine is put into motion by turning a fmall winch (N0 14.) ; and the whole fyftem is alfo moved by this winch, and by pulling out and pufhing in a fmall cylindrical pin aboa-'e the handle. When it is puftied in, all the planets, both primary and fecondary, wall move according to their refpeftive periods by turning the handle. When it is drawn out, the motions of the fatellites of Jupiter and Saturn will be flopped while all the reft move without interruption. There is alfo a brafs lamp, ha¬ ving tw'o convex glaftes to be put in room of the fun j and alfo a fmaller earth and moon, made fomewhat in proportion to their diftance from each other, which may be put on at pleafure. The lamp turns round at the fame time with the earth, and the glaftes of it call a ftrong light upon her j and when the fmaller earth and moon are placed on, it will be eafy to fhowr when either of them wall be eclipfed. When this machine is intended to be ufed, the planets mull be duly placed by means of an ephemeris hereafter deferibed 5 and you may place a fmall black patch or bit of wafer upon the middle of the fun. Right againft the firft degree of 'T, you may alfo place patches upon Venus, Mars, and Jupiter, right againft fome noted point in the ecliptic. Put in the handle, and pufti in the pin which is above it. One turn of this handle anfwers to a re¬ volution of the ball which reprelents the earth about its axis 5 and confequently to 24 hours of time, as fhown by the hour index (9.), which is marked and placed at the foot of the wire on which the ball of the earth is fixed. Again, when the index has moved the fpace of ten hours, Jupiter makes one revolution round its axis, and fo of the reft. By thefe means the revo¬ lutions of the planets, and their motions round their own axes, will be reprefented to the eye. By obferv- ing the motions of the fpots upon the furface of the fun and of the planets in the heavens, their diurnal rotation was firft difeovered, after the fame manner as wre in this machine obferve the motions of their reprefentatives by that of the marks placed upon them. The Orrery (fig. 162.) is a machine contrived by the late ingenious Mr James Fergufon. It fhorvs the motions of the fun, Mercury, Venus, earth, and moon j and occafionally the fuperior planets, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, may be put on. Jupiter’s four fatellites are moved round him in their proper times by a fmall winch j and Saturn has his five fatellites, and his ring which keeps its parallelifm round the fun ^ and by a lamp put in the fun’s place, the ring fturws all its va¬ rious phafes already deferibed. In the centre, N° 1. reprefents the fun, fupported by its axis, inclining almoft 8 degrees from the axis of the ecliptic, and turning round in 25^ days on its axis, of which the north pole inclines toward the eighth de¬ gree of Pifces in the great ecliptic (N° 11.), where¬ on the months and days are engraven over the figns and degrees in wdrich the fun appears, as feen from the earth, on the different days of the year. Y 2 The 172 * ASTRO Defcnpticn rJfhe nearelt planet (N° 2.) to the fun is Mercury, 'micaTln'"g°es round him in 87 days, 23 hours, or 87 itmments. diurnal rotations of the earth 5 but has no motion round —- its axis in the machine, becaufe the time of its diurnal motion in the heavens is not known to us. The next planet in order is Venus (N° 3.), which performs her annual courfe in 224 days 17 hours, and turns round her axis in 24 days 8 hours, or in 24^- diurnal rotations of the earth. Her axis inclines 75 degrees from the axis of the ecliptic, and her north pole inclines towards the 20th degree of Aquarius, according to the obfervations of Bianchini. She (hows all the phenomena defcribed in Part II. Next, without the orbit of Venus, is the earth (N° 4.), which turns round its axis, to any fixed point at a great diftance, in 23 hours 56 minutes 4 feconds of mean folar time*, but from the fun to the fun again, in 24 hours of the fame time. N° 6. is a fidereal dial- plate under the earth, and N° 7. a folar dial-plate on the cover of the machine. The index of the former Ihows fidereal, and of the latter, folar time ; and hence the former index gains one entire revolution on the lat¬ ter every year, as 365 folar or natural days contain 366 fidereal days, or apparent revolutions of the liars. In the time that the earth makes 365^ diurnal rota¬ tions on its axis, it goes once round the fun in the plane of the ecliptic j and always keeps oppofite to a moving index (N° 10.) which Ihows the fun’s daily change of place, and alfo the days of the months. The earth is half covered with a black cap, for di¬ viding the apparently enlightened half next the fun from the other half, which, when turned away from him, is in the dark. The edge of the cap reprefents the circle bounding light and darknefs, and Ihows' at what time the fun rifes and fets to all places throughout the year. The earth’s axis inclines 23^ degrees from the axis of the ecliptic ; the north pole inclines to¬ wards the beginning of Cancer, and keeps its parallel- ifm throughout its annual courfe ; fo that in fummer the northern parts of the earth incline towards the fun, and in winter from him : by which means, the differ¬ ent lengths of days and nights, and the caufe of the va¬ rious feafons, are demonllrated to fight. There is a broad horizon, to the upper fide of wdiich is fixed a meridian femicircle in the north and fouth points, graduated on both fides from the horizon to 90° in the zenith or vertical point. The edge of the horizon is graduated from the eaft and weft to the fouth and north points, and within thefe divifions are the points of the compafs. From the lower fide of this thin horizontal plate Hand out four fmall wires, to which is fixed a tw’ilight circle 18 degrees from the graduated fide of the horizon all round. This horizon may be put upon the earth (w'hen the cap is taken away), and rectified to the latitude of any place j and then by a fmall wire called the folar ray, which may be put on fo as to proceed direftly from the fun’s cen¬ tre towards the earth’s, but to come no farther than almoft to touch the horizon. The beginning of twi¬ light, time of funrifing, with his amplitude, meridian altitude, time of fetting, amplitude then, and end of twilight, are fliown for every day of the year, at that place to which the horizon is redtified. The moon (N° $-) goes round the earth, from be- N O M Y, Appendix, tween it and any fixed point at a great diftance, in 27 Defcription days 7 hours 43 minutes, or through all the figns and0* Aftrcno. degrees of her orbit, which is called her periodical re- ^n- volution ; but ihe goes round from the fun to the fun rumei)ts. again, or from change to change, in 29 days 1 2 hours ' V~W 3 5 minutes, which is her fynodical revolution ; and in that time file exhibits all the phafes already defcribed. When the above-mentioned horizon is reftified to the latitude of any given place, the times of the moon’s riling and fetting, together rt-ith her amplitude, are fhown to that place as well as the fun’s ; and all the various phenomena of the harveft-moon are made ob¬ vious to fight. The moon’s orbit (N° 9.) is inclined to the ecliptic (N° 11.) one half being above, and the other below it. The nodes, or points at o and o, lie in the plane of the ecliptic, as before defcribed, and Ihift back-ward through all its fines and degrees in 18-f- years. The de¬ grees of the moon’s latitude to the higheft at NL (north latitude) and loweft at SL (fouth latitude), are engraven both ways from her nodes at o and o, and as the moon rifes and falls in her orbit according to its inclination, her latitude and diftance from her nodes are fhown for every day, having firft redlified her orbit fo as to fet the nodes to their proper places in the ecliptic *, and then as they come about at differ¬ ent and almoft oppofite times of the year, and then point tow’ards the fun, all the eclipfes may be Ihown for hundreds of years (without any new reflification) by turning the machinery backward for time paft, or forward for time to come. At 17 degrees diftance from each node, on both fides, is engraved a fmall fun ; and at 12 degrees diftance, a fmall moon, which fhow the limits of folar and lunar eclipfes *, and when, at any change, the moon falls between either of thefe funs and the node, the fun will be eclipfed on the day pointed to by the annual index (N° 10.) } and as the moon has then north or fouth latitude, one may eafily judge whether that eclipfe wull be vifible in the north¬ ern or fouthern hemifphere : efpecially as the earth’s axis inclines toward the fun or from him at that time. And when at any full the moon falls between either of the little moons and node, ftie will be eclipfed, and the annual index Ihows the day of that eclipfe. There is a circle of 294 equal parts (N° 8.) on the cover of the machine, on which an index ftiows the days of the moon’s age. There are two femicircles (fig. 163.) fixed to an el¬ liptical ring, which being put like a cap upon the earth, and the forked part F upon the moon, lhowTs the tides as the earth turns round within them, and they are led round it by the moon. W hen the differ¬ ent places come to the femicircle A^EZ^B, they have tides of flood j and when then come to the femi¬ circle CED, they have tides of ebb ; the index on the hour-circle (fig. 162.) fhowing the times of thefe phe¬ nomena. There is a jointed wire, of which one end being put into a hole in the upright ftem that holds the earth’s cap, and the wire laid into a fmall forked piece which may be occafionally put upon Venus or Mercury, fhows the direft and retrograde motions of thefe two planets, with their ftationary times and places as feen from the earth. The Appendix. ASTRONOMY. 17J Deicription The whole machinery is turned by a winch or handle of Ailrono- 12.) ; and is fo eafily moved, that a clock might ftruments turn ^ w‘t^out an7 danger of flopping. . ^ i To give a plate of the wheel-work of this machine would anfwer no purpofe, beeaufe many of the wheels lie fo behind others as to hide them from fight in any view whatever. The PLANEtARI um (fig. 164.) is an inftrument contrived by Mr William Jones of Holborn, London, mathematical inftrument maker, who has paid confi- derable attention to thofe fort of machines, in order to reduce them to their greateft degree of fimplicity and perfection. It reprefents in a general manner, by va¬ rious parts of its machinery, all the motions and phe¬ nomena of the planetary fyftem. This machine con- fifts of, the Sun (in the centre), with the planets, Mercury, Venus, the Earth and Moon, Mars, Jupiter and his four moons, Saturn and his five moons ; and to it is occafionally applied an extra long arm for the Georgian planet and his two moons. To the earth and moon is applied a frame CD, containing only four ■wheels and two pinions, which ferve to preferve the earth’s axis in its proper parallelifm in its motion round the fun, and to give the moon her due revolution about the earth at the fame time, Thefe wheels are con¬ nected with the wheel-work in the round box below, and the whole is fet in motion by the winch H. The arm M that carries round the moon, points out on the plate C her age and phafes for any fituation in her or¬ bit, and which accordingly are engraved thereon. In the fame manner the arm points out her place in the ecliptic B, in figns and degrees, called her geocentric place ; that is, as feen from the earth. The moon’s orbit is reprefented by the flat rim A; the two joints of which, andvupon which it turns, denoting her nodes. This orbit is made to incline to any defired angle. The earth of this inftrument is ufually made of a three inch or i-t- globe, papered, &c. for the pur¬ pofe ; and by means of the terminating wire that goes over it, points out the changes of the feafons, and the different lengths of days and nights more confpicuoufly. This machine is alfo made to reprefent the Ptolemaic Syftem, or Inch as is vulgarly received } which places the earth in the centre, and the planets and fun revol¬ ving about it. (It is done by an auxiliary fmall fun and an earth, w'hich change their places in the inftru¬ ment.) At the fame time, it affords a moft manifeft confutation of it : for it is plainly obferved in this conftruiftion, (1.) That the planets Mercury and Ve¬ nus, being both within the orbit of the fun, cannot at any time be feen to go behind it ; whereas in nature we obferve them as often to go behind as before the fun in the heavens. (2.) It (hows, that as the planets move in circular orbits about the central earth, they ought at all times to be of the fame apparent magni¬ tudes ; whereas, on the contrary, we obferve their ap¬ parent magnitude in the heavens to be very variable, and fo far different, that, for inftance, Mars will fome- times appear as big as Jupiter nearly, and at other times you will fcarcely know him from a fixed ftar. (fl.) It lhows that any of the planets might be feen at all diftances from the fun in the heavens •, or, in other words, that when the fun is fetting, Mercury or Ve- rius may be feen not only in the fouth but even in ihe eaft j which circumftances were never yet obferved. (4.) You fee by this planetarium that the motions ofDefcriPtl0n the planets ftiould always be regular and uniformly the c^'c^0I^0_“ fame ; whereas, on the contrary, we oblerve them al- gruments. ways to move with a variable velocity, lometimes fall- y—w er, then flower, and fometimes not at all, as will be prefently ihown. (5.) By the machine you fee the planets move all the fame way, viz. from weft to eaft continually : but in the heavens we fee them move fometimes direct from w’eft to eaft, fometimes retro¬ grade from eaft to weft, and at other times to be fta- tionary. All which phenomena plainly prove this fy¬ ftem to be a falfe and abfurd hypothefis. The truth of the Copernican or Solar Syftem of the world is hereby moft clearly reprefented. For taking the earth from the centre, and placing thereon the ufual large brafs ball for the fun, and reftoring the earth to its proper fituation among the planets, then every thing will be right and agree exaftly with cele- ftial obfervations. For turning the winch H, (1.) You will fee the planets Mercury and Venus go both before and behind the fun, or have two conjundions. (2.) You will obferve Mercury never to be more than a certain angular diftancej 2i°, and Venus 470, from the fun. (3.) That the planets,, especially Mars, will be fometimes much nearer to the earth than at others, and therefore mutt appear larger at one time than at another. (4.) You will fee that the planets cannot appear at the earth to move with an uniform velocity 5 for when neareft they appear to move fafter, and flow¬ er when moft remote. (5.) You will obferve the pla¬ nets will appear at the earth to move femetimes di- redly from weft to eaft, and then to become retro¬ grade from eaft to weft, and between both to be fta- tionary or without any apparent motion at all. W hich particulars all correfpond exadly with obfervations, and fully prove the truth of this excellent fyftem. Fig. 165. reprefents an apparatus to (how thefe latter particulars more evidently. An hollow wire, with a flit at top, is placed over the arm of the planet Mer¬ cury or Venus at E. The arm DG reprefents a ray of light coming from the planet at D to the earth, and is put over the centre wdiich carries the earth at F. The planets being then put in motion, the planet D, as feen in the heavens from the earth at F, will under¬ go the feveral changes of pofition as above deferibed. The wire prop that is over Mercury at E, may be placed over the other fuperior planets, Mars, &c. and the fame phenomena be exhibited. By this machine you at once fee all the planets in motion about the fun, with the fame refpedive veloci¬ ties and periods of revolution which they have in the heavens 5 the wheel-wrork being calculated to a mi¬ nute of time, from the lateft difeoveries. You will fee here a demonftration of the earth’s motion about the fun, as well as thofe of the reft of the planets : for if the earth w’ere to be at reft in the heavens, then the time between any two conjundions of the fame kind, or oppofitions, wmuld be the fame wuth the periodical time of the planets, viz. §8 days in Mercury, 225 in Venus, &c. \ whereas you here obferve this time, inftead of being 225 days, is no lefs than 583 days in Venus, occafioned by the earth’s moving in the mean time about the fun the fame way with the planet. And this fpace of 583 days always paffes between two like conjunctions of Venus in the heavens. mical In- -Uruments. .174 ASTRO Oefcription heavens. Hence the moft important point of aftrono- ^int'^[0rn°" In^ fatisfaftoril7 demonilrated. The diurnal rotation of the earth about its axis, and a demonilration of the caufe of the different feafons of the year, and the different lengths of days and nights, are here anfwered completely : for as the earth is pla¬ ced on an axis inclining to that of the ecliptic in an angle of 23^ degrees, and is fet in motion by the -v,-heel-work, there will be evidently feen the different inclination of the fun’s rays on the earth, the different quantity thereof which falls on a given fpace, the dif¬ ferent quantity of the atmofphere they pals through, sand the different continuance of the fun above the ho- xizon at the fame place in different times of the year; which particulars conllitute the difference betwixt heat •and cold in the fummer and winter feafons. As the globe of the earth is moveable about its in¬ clined axis, fo by having the horizon of London drawn upon the furface of it, and by means of the termina¬ ting wire going over it, by which is denoted, that on that fide of the wire next the fun is the enlightened half of the earth, and the oppofite fide the darkened half, you will here fee very naturally reprefented the caufe of the different lengths of day and night, by ob- ferving the unequal portions of the circle tvhich the iiland of Great Britain, or the city of London, or any other place, defcribes in the light and dark hemifpheres nt different times of the year, by turning the earth on its axis with the hand. But in fome of the better or- ■xeries on this principle, the earth revolves about its ■axis by wheel-work. As to the eclipfes of the fun and moon, the true caufes of them are here very clearly feen : for by pla¬ cing the lamp (fig. 166.) upon the centre, in room of the brafs ball denoting the fun, and turning the winch until the moon'comes into a right line between the centres of the lamp (or fun) and earth, the ihadow of the moon will fall upon the earth, and all who live on that part over which the ffiadow paffes will fee the fun eclipfed more or lefs On the other fide, the moon pafles (in the aforefaid cafe) through the fha- dow of the earth, and is by that means eclipfed. And the orbit A (fig. 164.) is fo moveable on the two joints called nodes, that any perfon may eafily repre- fent the due pofition of the nodes and intermediate fpaces of the moon’s orbit 5 and thence fhow when there w-ill or will not be an eclipfe of either luminary, and what the quantity of each will be. While the moon is continuing to move round the earth, the lamp on the centre will fo illumine the moon, that you will eafily fee all her phafes, as newq dichotomized, gibbous, full, waning, &c. juft as they appear in the heavens. You will moreover obferve ,all the fame phafes of the earth as they appear at the ^noon. N O M Y. Appendix. 1 he fatellites of Jupiter and Saturn are moveableDdcription onl} by the hand j yet may all their phenomena be ea-0^A^rono“ fily reprefented, excepting the true relative motions and didances. I hus, it that gilt globe which before re¬ prefented the fun be made now to denote Jupiter, and four of the primary planets only be retained, then will the Jovian fyftem be reprefented ; and, by candle light only, you will fee (the machine being in motion) the immeriions and emerfions of the fatellites into and out of Jupiter’s ffiadow. Yow will fee plainly the manner in which they tranfit his body, and their oc- cultations behind it. You will obferve the various ways in which one or more of thefe moons may at times difappear. And if the machine be fet by a white wall, &c. then by the projection of their tha- dows will be teen the reafons why thofe moons always appear on each fide of Jupiter in a right line, why thofe which are moft remote may appear neareft, and e contrariu. And the lame may be done for Saturn’s five moons and his ring. The method of Rectifying the Orrery, and the proper Manner of placing the Planets in their true Situa¬ tions. Having dwelled thus much on the defeription of orreries, it may be ufeful to young readers, to point out the method by which the orrery fhould be firft reCHfied, previous to the exhibition or ufing of it : and the following is extracted from Mr William Jones’s defeription of his new Portable Orrery. “ The me¬ thod of Ihowing the places, and relative afpeCts of the planets on any day of the year in the planetarium, muff; be done by the aftiftance of an ephetneris or alma¬ nack, which among other almanacks is publilhed an¬ nually by the Stationers Company. “ The ephemeris contains a diary or daily account of the planets places in the heavens, m figns, degrees, and minutes, both as they appear to the eye fuppofed to be at the fun, and at the earth, throughout the year. 'The firft of thefe pofitious is called the helio¬ centric place, and the latter, the geocentric place. The heliocentric place is that made ufe of in orreries j the geocentric place, that in globes. As an example for finding their places, and letting them right in the or¬ rery, we will fuppofe the ephemeris (by White, which for this purpofe is confidered the beft) at hand, where¬ in at the bottom of the left-hand page for every month is the heliocentric longitudes (or places) of all the pla¬ nets to every fix days of the month ; which is near enough for common ufe : A copy of one of thefe ta¬ bles for March 1784 is here inferted for the informa¬ tion of the tyro. Day increaf. 11 35 59 23 47 Helioc. long. T? 16 56 16 *7 17 *7 56 7 17 28 Helioc. long. ^ X I 43 if 47 W Helioc. long. $ I 25 30 4 23 7 if 10 6 12 55 Helioc. long.© II T1£ 17 23 29 5 ^ 37 37 36 33 3° Helioc. long. 2 35 7 3 s 8 8 vy 38 Helioc. long. $ tig 58 23 f 9 33 15 vs 49 “ Now astronomy. Appendix. Defeription “ Now as an example, we will fuppofe, that in order ot Aftrono- t0 {•et t]ie planets of the orrery, we want their heliocen* ftruments tr*c P^aces ^or t^le 2I^: this month. Looking into , the table, we take the 19th day, which is the neareft to the day wanted: then, accordingly, we find the place of Saturn ( T? ), is in 170 17', or 17 degrees (rejecting the minutes, being in this cafe ufelefs) ; of Capricor- nus (vj), of Jupiter (If.), in 1S0 of Aquarius (,^), Mars ( ? ) in io° of Cancer (05), the earth (©) in 290 of Virgo (115.), Venus ( ^ ) in 290 of Sagittarius, ( / ), Mercury ( ^ ) in 28 degrees of the fame fign 5 and in the fame manner for any other day therein ipecified. Upon even this circumftance depends a very pleafing aftronomical praxis, by which the young tyro may at any time be able to entertain himfelt in a mod rational and agreeable manner, viz. he may in a minute or twro reprefent the true appearance of the planetary fy- ftem jull as it really is in the heavens, and for any day he pleafes, by affigning to each planet its proper place in its orbit; as in the following manner : For the 10th of March, as before, the place of Saturn is in 170 of Capricornus (>?))> now Lying hold of the arm of Saturn in the orrery, you place it over or againil the 170 of Capricorn on the ecliptic circle, conflantly placed on or furrounding the inftrument ; thus doing the fame for the other planets, they will have the pro¬ per heliocentric places for that day. “ Nowr in this fituation of the planets, we obferve, that if a perfon wras placed on the earth, he would fee Venus and Jupiter in the fame line and place of the ecliptic, confequently in the heavens they would ap¬ pear together or in conjunction 5 Mercury a little to the left or eaflward of them, and nearer to the fun ; Saturn to the right, or weitward, farther from the fun ; Mars direftly oppofite to Saturn ; fo that when Saturn appears in the wreft, Mars appears in the caft and v/ce verfa. Several other curious and entertaining particulars, as depending on the above, may be eafily reprefented and fliown by the learner 3 particularly the foregoing w7hen the winch is turned, and all the planets let into their refpeCHve motions.” We cannot clofe this detail on orreries more agree¬ ably than by the following account of an inftrument of that fort invented by Mr James Fergufon, to which he gives the name of a Mechanical Paradox, and which is aftuated by means of w'hat many, as he ob- ferves, even good mechanics, would be ready to pro¬ nounce impofiible, viz. That the teeth of one wheel taking equally deep into the teeth of three others, ftiould affect them in fuch a manner, that in turning it any way round its axis, it ihould turn one of them the fame way, another the contrary way, and the third no way at all. The folution of the paradox is given under the arti¬ cle Mechanics \ after which our author proceeds to give the following account of its ufes. “ This ma¬ chine is fo much of an orrery, as is fufficient to (how the different lengths of days and nights, the viciflitudes of the feafons, the retrograde motion of the nodes of the moon’s orbit, the direCt motion of the apogeal point of her orbit, and the months in which the fun and moon muft be eclipfed. “ On the great immoveable plate A (fee fig. 167.') are the months and days of the year, and the figns and degress of the zodiac fo placed, that when the annual / a index h is brought to any given day of the year, it will Defcription point to the degree of the fign in which the fun is on0^^0^0* that day. The index is fixed to the moveable frame ftrumenl;. BC, and is carried round the immoveable plate with c—-v— it, by means of the knob n. The carrying this frame and index round the immoveable plate, anfwers to the earth’s annual motion round the fun, and to the fun’s apparent motion round the ecliptic in a year. “ The central wheel D (being fixed on the axis a, which is fixed in the centre of the immoveable plate) turns the thick wheel E round its own axis by the motion of the frame ; and the teeth of the wheel E take into the teeth of the three wheels F, G, H, whofe - axis turn with one another, like the axis of the hour, minute, and fecond hands of a clock or watch, where the feconds are fhown from the centre of the dial-plate., “ On the upper ends of thefe axes, are the round plates I, K, L j the plate I being on the axis of the w heel F, K on the axis of G, and L on the axis of H. So that whichever way thefe wheels are affedfted, their refpedlive plates, and what they fupport, muft be af¬ fected in the fame manner 5 each wdieel and plate be- ing independent of the others. “ The two upright wires M and N are fixed into the plate I 5 and they fupport the fmall ecliptic OP, on which, in the machine, the figns and degrees of the ecliptic are marked. This plate alfo fupports the fmall terreftrial globe e, on its inclining axis f, which is fixed into the plate near the foot of the wire N. This axis inclines 33 J degrees from a right line, fuppofed to be perpendicular to the furface of the plate I, and alfo to the plane of the fmall ecliptic OP, which is parallel to that plate. “ On the earth e is the crefcent g, which goes more than half way round the earth,, and Hands perpendi¬ cular to the plane of the fmall ecliptic OP, directly facing the fun Z : Its ufe is to divide the enlightened- half of the earth next the fun from the other half which is then in the dark.y fo that it repr/efents the boundary of light and darknefs, and therefore ought to go quite round the earth ; but cannot in a machine, becaufe in fome pofitions the earth’s axis would fall upon it. The earth may be freely turned round on its axis by hand, within the crefcent, which is fupported by the crooked wire w, fixed to it, and into the upper plate of the moveable frame BC. “ In the plate K are fixed the two upright wires and R : they fupport the moon’s inclined orbits ST in its nodes, which are the two oppolite points of the moon’s orbit wdiere it interfedts the ecliptic OP. The afeending node is marked Si, to which the defeendingy node is oppofite below e, but hid from view by the globe e. The half T O M Y. ‘ ' ,79 between the horizon and the zenith, as well to the Defcription northward as fouthward. HI. A Defcriptjon of the principal Agronomical Injiru- ments by which AJlronomers make the mojl accurate Obfervations. By praftical aftronomy is implied the knowledge of obferving the celeftial bodies with refpeft to their po- fition and time of the year, and of deducing from thofe obfervations certain conclufions ufeful in calculating the time when any propofed pofition of thefe bodies mall happen. For this purpofe, it is neceflary to have a room or place conveniently fituated, fuitably contrived, and fur- mlhed with proper aftronomical inftruments. It Ihould have an uninterrupted view from the zenith down to (or even below) the horizon, at leaft towards its car- dmal points ; and for this purpofe, that part of the roof which lies in the direction of the meridian, in par¬ ticular, fliould have moveable covers, which may eafily be moved and put on again ; by which means an in- 11 rument may be dire&ed to any point of the heavens of Aftrono- This place, called an Obfervatory, Ihould contain ^n,caI In~ fome, if not all, of the following inftruments : nt»nie.nf I. A Pendulum Clock, for Ihowing equal time. Phis fliould Ihow time in hours, minutes, and feconds ; and with wdiich the obferver, by hearing the beats of the pendulum, may count them by his ear, while his eye is employed on the motion of the celeftial objeft he is obferving. Juft before the object arrives at the polition defcribed, the obferver ftiould look on the clock and remark the time, fuppofe it 9 hours 1.5 mi¬ nutes 25 feconds; then faying, 25, 26, 27, 28,' &c. refponfive to the beat of the pendulum, till he fees through the inftrument the obje£t arrived at the pofi¬ tion expeited ; w^hich fuppofe to happen when he fays 38, he then writes down 9h. 15 min. 38 fee. for the time of obfervation, annexing the year and the day of the month. If two perfons are concerned in making the obfervation, one may read the time audibly while the other obferves through the inftrument, the obferver repeating the laft fecond read when the defired pofition happens. II. An Achromatic Refracting Telescope, or a reflecting one, of two feet at leaft in length] for obferving particular phenomena. Thefe inftruments are particularly defcribed under Optics. . HE A Micrometer, for meafuring fmall angular diftances. SccMicrometer. -Astronomical Quadrants, both mural and Operants, portable, ior obferving meridian and other altitudes of the celeftial bodies. I. The mural quadrant is in the form of a quarter of a circle, contained under two radii at rifht angles to one another, and an arch equal to one fourth part of the circumference of the circle. It is the moft ufeful and valuable of all the aftronomical inftruments ; and as it is fometiraes fixed to the fide of a ftone or brick wall, and the plane of k erefted exadly in the plane of the meridian, it in this cafe receives the name of mural quadrant or arch. Tycho-Brahe was the firft perfon who contrived this mural arch, viz. who firft applied it to a W'all ; and Mr Flamftead, the firft in England who, with indefa¬ tigable pains, fixed one up in the royal obfervatory at Greenwich. } Thefe inftruments have ufually been made from five to eight feet radius, and executed by thofe late cele- v brated anfts Siffon, Graham, Bird, and other eminent mathematical inftrument makers in London. The conftru&ion of them being generally the fame in all the fizes, we lhall here deferibe one made by the late Joh. Siflbn, under the direftion of the late M Graham Fig 172. reprefents the inftrument as all reay fixed to the wall. It is of copper, and of about five feet radius. The frame is formed of flat bars, and ftrengthened by edge bars affixed underneath perpen- dicularly to them. The radii HB, HA, being divid¬ ed each into four equal parts, ferve to find out the points D and E, by which the quadrant is freely fuf. pended on its props or iron fupports that are faftened lecurely m the wTall. Gne of the fupports E is reprefented feparately in e on one fide of the quadrant. It is moveable by means of a long flender rod EF or ef, which goes into a hol- ^ * low / iSo ASTRO Defcnption low fcrew in order to reftore tlie xnftmment to its fitu- °mical In°' at^on when it is difcovered to be a little deranged, ftrumems. maY be known by the very fine perpendicular *>—v——^ thread HA, which ought always to coincide with the fame point A of the limb, and carefully examined to be fo by a fmall magnifying telefcope at everv obfervation. In order to prevent the unfteadinefs of fo great a machine, there Ihould be placed behind the limb four copper ears with double cocks I, K, I, K. There are others along the radii H A and H B. Each of thefe cocks contains two fcrews, into which are fattened the ears that are fixed behind the qua¬ drant. Over the wall or ttone which fupports the inftrument, and at the fame height as the centre, is placed horizon¬ tally the axis PO, which is perpendicular to the plane of the inftrument, and which would pafs through the centre if it was continued. This axis turns on two pivots P. On this axis is fixed at right angles ano¬ ther branch ON, loaded at its extremity with a weight N capable of equipoiling with its weight that of the telefcope LM ; whilft the axis, by its extremity neareft the quadrant, carries the wooden frame PRM, which is fattened to the telefcope in M. The counterpoife takes off from the obferver the weight of the telefcope when he raifes it, and hinders him from either forcing or ftraining the inftrument. The lower extremity (V) of the telefcope is fur- nithed with two fmall wheels, which takes the limb of the quadrant on its two fides. The telefcope hardly bears any more upon the limb than the fmall friftion of thefe two wheels ; which renders its motion fo ex¬ tremely eafy and pleafant, that by giving it wdth the hand only a fmall motion, the telefcope will run of it- felf over a great part of the limb, balanced by the coun¬ terpoife N When the telefcope is to be flopped at a certain po- fition, the copper hand T is to be made ufe of, which embraces the limb and fprings at the bottom. It is fixed by fetting a fcrew, which fattens it to the limb. Then, in turning the regulating fcrew, the telefcope will be advanced 5 which is continued until the liar or other objedl whofe altitude is obferving be on the horizontal fine thread in the telefcope. Then on the plate X fupporting the telefcope, and carrying a ver¬ nier or nonius, wall be feen the number of degrees and minutes, and even quarters of minutes, that the angu¬ lar height of the objeft obferved is equal to. The re¬ mainder is eafily ettimated within two or three fe- conds nearly. There are feveral methods of fubdividing the divi- fions of a mural quadrant, which are uiually from five to ten minutes each j but that which is moft common¬ ly adopted is by the vernier or nonius, the contrivance of Peter Vernier a Frenchman. This vernier confifts of a piece of copper or brafs, CDAB (fig. 173.}, which is a fmall portion of X (fig. 172.) reprefented feparately. The length CD is divided into 20 equal parts, and placed contiguoufiy on a portion of the di- vinon of the limb of the quadrant containing 2; divi- fions, and thereby dividing this length into 20 equal parts. Thus the firft divifion of the vernier piece mark- .e(v 15, beginning at the point D, is a little matter back¬ ward, or to the left of the firft divifion of the limb equal to 15. The fecond divifion of the vernier is to the left ftrument- N O M Y, Appendix, of the fecond divifion of the limb double of the firft Defcnption difference, or 30" 5 and fo on unto the 20th and laft of Aitiono- divifion on the left of the vernier piece j where the 20 ,;n'ca^ *n* differences being accumulated each of the 20th ^ part of the divifion of the limb, this laft divifion will be found to agree exadlly with the 21ft divifion on the limb of the quadrant. The index putt; be puttied the 20th part of a divi¬ fion, or 15", to the right j for to make the lecond di¬ vifion on the vernier coincide with one of the divifionr ol the limb, in like manner is moving twro 20ths, or 30", we mutt; look at the fecond divifion of the index, and there will be a concidence with a divifion of the limb. Thus may be conceived that the beginning D of the vernier, which is always the line of reckoning, has advanced two divifions, or 30", to the right, when the fecond divifion, marked 30 on the vernier, is feen to correfpond exadlly with one of the lines of the qua¬ drant. „ By means of this vernier may be readily diftin- guittied the exaftitude of 13" of the limb of a qua¬ drant five feet radius, and limply divided into 5'. By an eftimation by the eye, afterwards, the accuracy of two or three feconds may be eafily judged. On the fide of the quadrant is placed the plate of copper which carries the telefcope. This plate carries' two verniers. The outer line CD divides five minutes into 20 parts, or 15" each. The interior line AB anfw^ers to the parts of another divifion not having 90°, but 96 parts of the quadrant. It is ufually adopted by Englilh aftronomers on account of the facility of its fubdivi- lions. Each of the 96 portions of the quadrant is equivalent to 56' 15" of the ufual divifions. It is di¬ vided on the limb into 16 parts, and the arch of the vernier AB contains 25 of thefe divifions ; and being divided itfelf into 24, immediately gives parts, the va¬ lue of each of wdiich is 8" From this mode a table of redu&ion may eafily be conftnnfted, which will ferve to find the value of this fecond mode of di¬ viding in degrees, minutes, and feconds, reckoning in the ufual manner, and to have even the advantage of two different modes ; which makes an excellent verifi¬ cation of the divifions on the limb of the quadrant and obferved heights by the vernier. 2. The Portable Agronomical Quadrant, is that inftru¬ ment of all others which aftronomers make the greateft ufe of, and have the moft efteem for. They are gene¬ rally made from 12 to 23 inches. Fig. 174. is a re- prefentation of the improved modern one as made by the late Mr Siffon and by the prefent mathematical inftrument makers. This is capable of being carried to any part of the world, and put up for obfervation in an eafy and accurate manner. It is made of brafs,' and ftrongly framed together by croffed perpendicular bars. The arch AC, and telefcope EF, are divided and conftnnfted in a fimilar manner to the mural qua¬ drant, but generally without the divifion of 96 parts. The counterpoife to the telefcope T is reprefented at P, and alfo another counterpoife to the quadrant itfelf at P. The quadrant is fixed to a long axis, which goes into the pillar KR. Upon this axis is fixed an index, wdiich points to and fubdivides by a vernier the divifions of the azimuth circle K. This azimuth circle is extremely ufeful for taking the azimuth of a cele- ftial body at the fame time its altitude is obferved. The Appendix. Defcrij Mon The upper end of the axis is firmly connected with the of Aftrono- a(jju(ling frame GH 5 and the pillar is fupported on the mical In- croffe([ feet at the bottom of the pillar KR with the , adjulting icrews a, b, c, d. When this inftrument is fet up for ufe or obferva- tion, it is neceffary that two adjuflments be very accu¬ rately made : One, that the plane or furface of the in- ilrument be truly perpendicular to the horizon , the other, that the line fuppofed to be drawn from the centre to the firft line of the limb, be truly on a level or parallel with the horizon. The firft of thefe par¬ ticulars is done by means of the thread and plum¬ met ; the thread of which is ufually of very fine filver wire, and it is placed oppofite to a mark made upon the end of the limb of the inltrument. The four Screws at the foot, a, b, c, z/, are to be turned until a perfect coincidence is obferved of the thread upon the mark, wThich is accurately obferved by means of a fmall telefcope T, that fits to the limb. The other adjuft- ment is effected by means of the fpirit level L, which applies on the frame GPI, and the fmall fcrewrs turned as before until the bubble of air in the level fettles in the middle of the tube. The dotted tube EB is a kind of prover to the inftrument : for by obferving at wdiat mark the centre of it appears againft, or by put¬ ting up a mark againft it, it wdll at any time difeover if the inftrument has been difplaced. The ferew S at the index, is the regulating or adjufting ferew, to move the telefcope and index, during the obfervation, with 362 the utmoft nicety. Equatorial V. Astronomical o/-Equatorial Sector. This ie 01‘ is an inftrument for finding the difference in right a- feenfion and declination between two objects, the di- ftance of which is too great to be obferved by the mi¬ crometer. It was the invention of the late ingenious Mr George Graham, F. R. S. and is conftrmfted from the following particulars. Let AB (fig. 175.) repre- fent an arch of a circle containing 10 or 12 degrees %vell divided, having a ftrong plate CD for its radius, fixed to the middle of the arch at D : let this radius be applied to the fide of an axis HFI, and be move- able about a joint fixed to it at F, fo that the plane of the fedfor may be always parallel to the axis HI j which being parallel to the axis of the earth, the plane of the lector will always be parallel to the plane of icme hour-circle. Let a telefcope CE be moveable about the centre C of the arch AB, from one end of it to the other, by turning a ferew at G 5 and let the line of fight be parallel to the plane of the fedlor. Now% by turning the whole inftrument about the axis HI, till the plane of it be fucceffively diredted, firft to one of the ftars and then to another, it is eafy to move the fedfor about the joint F, into fuch a pofition, that the arch AB, when fixed, ftiall take in both the ftars in their paflage, by the plane of it, provided the dif¬ ference of their declinations does not exceed the arch AB, Then, having fixed the plane of the fedlor a little to the weftw-ard of both the ftars, move the tele¬ fcope CE by the ferew G ; and obferve by a clock the time of each tranfit over the crofs hairs, and alfo the ' degrees and minutes upon the arch AB, cut by the in¬ dex at each tranfit; then in the dift’erence of the arch¬ es, the difference of the declinations, and by the dif¬ ference of the times, wre have the difference of the right afeenfions of the ftars. The dimenfions of this inftrument are thefe : The Defcription length of the telefcope, or the radius of the feclor, is 0f -Aftron°- 2!: feet; the breadth of the radius, near the end C, r110311”" is inch; and at the end D twro inches. Tfip ■ mmen s.^ breadth of the limb AB is 1^ inch ; and its length fix inches, containing ten degrees divided into quarters, and numbered from either end to the other. The tele¬ fcope carries a nonius or fubdividing plate, whofe length, being equal to fixteen quarters of a degree, is divided into fifteen equal parts ; which, in effedl, di¬ vides the limb into minutes, and, by eftimation, into fmaller parts. The length of the fquare axis HIF is eighteen inches, and of the part HI twelve inches ; and its thicknefs is about a quarter of an inch : the diameters of the circles are each five inches : the thick¬ nefs of the plates, and the other meafures, may be ta¬ ken at the diredfion of a workman. This inftrument may be rediified, for making obfer- vations, in this manner : By placing the interfeflion of the jerofs hairs at the fame diftar.ee from the plane of the fedtor, as the centre of the objedl-glafs, the plane deferibed by the line of fight, during the circular mo¬ tion of the telefcope upon the limb, wdll be fufficiently true, or free from conical curvity ; which may be exa¬ mined by fufpending a long plumb-line at a convenientr diftance from the inftrument ; and by fixing the plane of the fedlor in a vertical pofition, and then by obferv¬ ing, while the telefcope is moved by the ferew along the limb, whether the crofs hairs appear to move alonp the plumb-line. The axis hfo may be elevated nearly parallel to the axis of the earth, by means of a fmall common qua¬ drant ; and its error may be corredfed, by making the line of fight follow the circular motion of any of the circumpolar ftars, while the whole inftrument is moved about its axis hfo, the telefcope being fixed to the limb ; for this purpofe, let the telefcope d / be diredf- . ed to the ftar a, when it paffes over the higheft point of its diurnal circle, and let the divifion cut by the nonius be then noted; then, after twelve hours, when the ftar comes to the lowed point of its circle, having turned the inftrument half round its axis, to bring the telefcope into the pofition m n ; if the crofs hairs cover the fame ftar fuppofed at b, the elevation of the axis hfo is exadtly right ; but if it be neceffary to move the telefcope into the pofition u v, in order to point to this ftar at c, the arch m u, which meafures the angle mfu or bfc, will be known ; and then the axis h fo mull be depreffed half the quantity of this given angle if the ftar paffed below b, or mull be railed fo much higher if'above it ; and then the trial muft be repeat¬ ed till the true elevation of the axis be obtained. By making the like obfervations upon the fame ftar on each fide the pole, in the fix-o’clock hour-circle, the error of the axis, toward the call or weft, may alio be found and corredled, till the crofs hairs follow the ftar quite round the pole ; for fuppofing a 0p b c to be an arch of the meridian (or in the fecond pradlice of the fix-o’clock hour-circle), make the angle afp equal to half the angle afe, and the line fp will point to the pole; and the angle ofp, which is the error of the axis, will be equal to half the angle bfc, or 7nftt, found by the obfervation; becaufe the difference of the two angles afb, afe, is double the difference of their halves afo and afp, Unlefs the ftar be very ASTRONOMY. 182 ASTRO PctcnpiKHi very near the pole, allowance muft be made for refrac- 01 Aftrono- tions> mical In- r ftmments. ^ * ran sit and Equal Altitude Inftruments. *“ ^J r • Tranjit Injlrument is ufed for obferving ob- Tr-nfi3 -1'e<^S 38 tliey P31'8 OVCr the meridian< Il: confifts^of a Aruments!' tele^‘ope fixed at right angles to a horizontal axis; which axis mull; be fo fupported that what is called the line of collimation, or line of fight of the telefcope, may move in the plane of the meridian. This inftru- ment was firft made by the celebrated Mr Romer in the year i689» and has fince received great improve¬ ments. It is made of various fizes, and of large dimen- fions in our great obfervatories ; but the following is one of a fize fufficiently large and accurate for all the ufeful purpofes. The axis AB (fig. 176), to which the middle of the telefcope is fixed, is about 2^ feet long, tapering gradually toward its ends, which terminate in cylin¬ ders well turned and fmoothed. The telefcope CD, which is about four feet and i-J inch diameter, is connected with the axis by means of a ftrong cube or die G, and in which the two cones MQ^ forming the axis, are fixed. This cube or flock G ferves as the principal part of the whole machine, it not only keeps together the two cones, but holds the two fockets KH, of 15 inches length, for the two tele- fcopic tubes. Each of thefe fockets has a fquare bafe, and is fixed to the cube by four fcrews. Thefe fockets are cut down in the fides about eight inches, to admit more eafily the tube, of the telefcope ; but when the tube is inferted, it is kept in firm by fcrewing up the tightening fcrews at the end of the fockets at K and H. Thefe two fockets are very ufeful in keeping the telefcope in its greateft poflible degree of fteadinefs. They alfo afford a better opportunity of balancing the telefcope and reftifying its vertical thread, than by any other means. In order to direft the telefcope to the given height that a ftar would be obferved at, there is fixed a femi- circle AN on one of the fupporters, of about 8^ inches diameter, and divided into degrees. The index is fixed on the axis, at the end of which is a vernier, which fubdivides the degrees into 12 parts, or five mi¬ nutes. This index is moveable on the axis, and may be clofely applied to the divifions by means of a tight¬ ening ferew. Two upright ports of wood or ftone YY, firmly fixed at a proper diftance, are to fuftain the fupport¬ ers of this inftrument. Thefe fupporters are two thick brafs plates RR, having well fmoothed angular notches in their upper ends, to receive the cylindrical arms of the axis. Each of thefe notched plates is contrived to be moveable by a ferew, which Aides them upon the furfaces of two other plates immoveably fix¬ ed upon the two upright pillars; one plate moving in a horizontal, and the other in a vertical direflion ; or, which is more fimple, thefe two modes are fome- times applied only on one fide, as at V and P, the ho¬ rizontal motion by the ferew P, and the vertical by the ferew V. Thefe two motions ferve to adjuft the telefcope to the planes of the horizon and meridian : to the plane of the horizon by the fpirit-level EF, hung by DC on the axis MQ^in a parallel diredlion ! and to the plane of the meridian in the following man¬ ner : N O M Y, Appendix. Oblerve by the clock when a circumpolar ftar feen Defcription through this inftrument tranfits both above and below of Aftrono- the pole ; and if the times of deferibing the eaftern and ™fal In- weftern parts of its circuit are equal, the telefcope is then m the plane of the meridian : otherwife the ferew “ P muft be gently turned that it may move the tele¬ fcope fo much that the time of the ftar’s revolution be bifeded by both the upper and lower tranfits, taking care at the fame time that the axis remains perfe&ly horizontal. When the telefcope is thus adjufted, a mark muft be fet at a confiderable diftance (the great¬ er the better) in the horizontal diredion of the mter- fedion of the crofs wires, and in a place where it can be illuminated in the night-time by a lanthsrn hanging near it; which mark being on a fixed objed, will ferve at all times afterwards to examine the’ pofition of the telefcope by, the axis of the inftrument being firft ad¬ jufted by means of the level. . To adjujl the Clock by the Sun's Tranjit over the Me¬ ridian. Note the times by the clock when the prece¬ ding and following edges of the lun’s limb touch the crols wires. I he difference between the middle time and 12 hours, Ihows how much the mean, or time by the clock, is farter or flower than the apparent or fo- lar time for that day : to which the equation of time being applied, will ftiow the time of mean noon for that day, by which the clock may be adjufted. 2. The Equal /bltitude Injlruttient, is an inftrument that is ufed to obferve a celeftial objed when it has the fame altitude on both the eaft and w'eft fides of the meridian, or in the morning and afternoon. It principally confifts of a telefcope about 30 inches long fixed to a fextantal or femicircular divided arch ; the centre of which is fixed to a long vertical axis: but the. particulars of this inftrument the reader will fee’ ex¬ plained in Optics. 3. Compound Tranjit Injlrument. Some inftruments have been contrived to anfwer both kinds of obferva- tions, viz. either a tranfit or equal altitudes. Fig. 178. reprefents fuch an inftrument, made firft of all for Mi¬ le Monnier, the French aftronomer, by the late Mr Sifion, under the diredion of Mr Opaham, mounted and fixed up ready for obfervation. AB is a telefcope, which may be 3, 4, 5, or 6 feet long, whofe cylindrical tube fits exadly into another hollow cylinder a b, perpendicular to the axis: thefe feveral pieces are of the beft hammered plate brafs. The cylindrical extremity of this axis MN are of fo- lid bell-metal, and wrought exquifitely true, and ex- a&ly the fame fize, iu a lathe; and it is on the per- fedion to wrtiich the cylinders or trunnions are turned that the juftnefs of the inftrument depends. In the common focus of the objed-glafs and eye-glafs is pla¬ ced a reticle (fig. 177.), confifting of three horizontal and parallel fine-ftretched filver wires, fixed by pins or fcrews to a brafs circle, the middle one parting through its centre, with a fourth vertical wire likewife parting through the centre, exa&ly perpendicular to the for¬ mer three. The horizontal axis MN (fig. 178.) is placed on a ftrong brafs frame, into the middle of which a fteel cy¬ linder GH is fixed perpendicularly, being turned truly round, and terminating in a conical point at its lower extremity; w-here it is let into a fmall hole drilled in the middle of the dove-tail Aider ; w-hich Aider is fupported / Appendix. A S T R Defcription fupported by a hollow tube fixed to the fupporting of Aftrono-pjgce JK, confiding of two ftrong plates of brafs, ftruinents. iolne^ together at right angles, to which are fixed two « r ■ iron cramps L, L, by which it is fattened to the done wall of a fouth window. The upper part G of the deel fpindle is embraced by a collar def, being in contaft with the blunt extre¬ mity of three fcrews, whofe particular ufe will be ex¬ plained by and by. O is another cylindrical collar clofely embracing thei deel fpindle at about a third part of its length from the top 5 by the means of a Imall lerew it may be loofened or pinched clofe as occafion requires, hrom the bottom of this collar proceeds an arm or lever afted upon by the two fcrews g h, where¬ by the whole indrument, excepting the fupporting piece, may be moved laterally, fo that the telefcope may be made to point at a didant mark fixed in the vertical of the meridian, z £ is a graduated femicircle of thin brafs fcrewed to the telefcope, whereby it may be elevated fo as to point to a known celedial objed in the day time. ///z is a fpirit-level parallel to the axis' of rotation on the telefcope, on which two trun¬ nions hang by two hooks at M and N. Along the upper fide of the glafs tube of the level Hides a pointer to be fet to the end of the air-bubble } and when the pofition of the axis of rotation is fo adjuded by the fcrews that the air-bubble keeps to the pointer for a whole revolution of the indrument, the fpindle GH is certainly perpendicular to the horizon, and then the line of collimation of the telefcope defcribes a circle of equal altitude in the heavens. When the level is fufpended on the axis, raife or deprefs the tube of the level by twiding the neb of the fcrew ?i till you bring either end of the air-bubble to red at any point to¬ wards the middle of the tube, to which Hide the in¬ dex } then lift off the level, and, turning the ends of it contrary ways, hang it again on the trunnions; and if the air-bubble reds exabdly again, the index as be¬ fore, the axis of rotation is truly horizontal : If not, deprefs that end of the axis which lies on the fame fide of the pointer as the bubble does, by turning the neb of the lerew at N, till the bubble returns about half¬ way towards the pointer ; then having moved the pointer to the place where it now reds, invert the ends ot the level again, and repeat the fame practice till the bubble reds exaftly at the pointer in both pofitions of the level. If, after the telefcope is turned upfide down, that is, after the trunnions are inverted end for end, you perceive that the fame point of a remote fixed objedl is covered by the vertical wire in the focus of the telefcope, that was covered by it before the in- verfion, it is certain that the line of fight or collima- tiem is perpendicular to the tranfverfe axis; but if the laid vertical wire covers any other point, the brafs circle that carries the hairs mud be moved by a ferew- key introduced through the perforation in the fide of the tube at X, till it appears to bifedf the line joining thefe two points as near gs you can judge ; then, by reverting the axis to its former pofition, you will find whether the wires be exadly adjuded. n/b. The ball 0 is a counterpoife to the centre of gravity of the femi- ciicle 1 k, without which the telefcope would not red in an oblique elevation wnthout being fixed bv a fcrew or fome other contrivance. ftruments. O N O M Y. 183 The feveral beforementioned verifications being ac- Defcription complidred, if the telefcope be elevated to any angle of Adrona- with the horizon, and there dopped, all fixed dars rnKai In- which pafs over the three horizontal wires of the reticle on the eadern fide of the meridian in afeending, will have preciiely the fame altitudes when in defeend- ing they again crofs the fame refpeddive wires on the w-ed fide, and the middle between the times of each refpedfive equal altitude will be the exaft moment of the liar’s culminating or pading the meridian. By the help of a good pendulum-clock, the hour of their true meridional tranfits will be known, and confequently the difference of right afeenfion of different dars. Now, fince it will be fufficient to obferve a liar which has north declination two or three hours before and after its paffing the meridian, in order to deduce the times of its arrival at that circle; it follows, that having once found the difference of right afeenfion of two dars about 60 degrees afunder, and you again obferve the fird of thefe dand at the fame altitude both in the ead and wed fide, you infer with certainty the moment by the clock at which the fecond dar will be on the meridian that fame night, and by this means the tranfit indrument may be fixed in the true plane of the meridian till the next day 5 when, by depreffing it to fome didant land ob- jefts, a mark may be difeovered w'hereby it may ever after be re&ified very readily, fo as to take the tranfits of any of the heavenly bodies to great exa&nefs, whe¬ ther by night or day. When fuch a mark is thus found, the telefcope be¬ ing directed carefully to it, mud be fixed in that po¬ fition by pinching fad the end of the arm or lever be¬ tween the two oppofite fcrews g b ; and if at any fu¬ ture time, whether from the effedt of heat or cold on the wrall to which the indrument is fixed, or by any fettling of the wall itfelf, the mark appears no longer well bifedted by the vertical wire, the telefcope may eafily be made to bifedt it again, by giving a Imall motion to the pinching fcrews. The tranfit indrument is now confidered as one of the mod effential particulars of the apparatus of an adronomical obfervatory. Befides the above, may be mentioned, The Equatorial or Portable Observatory ; Portable an indrument defigned to anfwer a numoer of uleful obrerva~ purpofes in pradHcal adronomy, independent of anyt0Iy' particular obfervatory. It may be made ufe of in any deady room or place, and performs mod of. the ufeful problems in the fcience. The following is a defcription of one lately invented by Mr Ramfden, from whom it has received the name of the Univerfol Equatorial. The principal parts of this indrument (bg. 179.) are, 1. The azimuth or horizontal circle A, which re- prefents the horizon of the place, and moves on a long axis B, called the vertical axis. 2. The equatorial or hour circle C, reprefenting the equator, placed at right angles to the polar axis D, or the axis of the earth, upon which it moves. 3. The femicircle of declination E,^ on which the telefcope is placed, and moving on the* axis of declination, or the axis of motion of the line of collimation F. Ihefe circles are meafured and divided as in the following table ; t Meafurey 184 Defcription of Aftrono- mical In- ftruments. ASTRONOMY. Meafures of the feveral circles and divifions on them. Azimuth or hori¬ zontal circle Equatorial or hour circle Vertical femicircle 1 for declination > or latitude. J Radius. In dec. 5 1 5 1 5 5 Limb divided to { IJ' 1' in time 15' Nonius of 30 gives feconds. 3° 30 2 } 3° Divided on limb into part-- of inc. 45th 45th 4 2d Divided by Nonius into parts of inc. 1350th I350t^ 1260th Appendix, Defcription of Aftrono- mieal In- ftruments. -4. The telefcope, which is an achromatic refraflor with a triple objedl-glafs, whofe focal diftance is 17 inches, and aperture 2.45 inches, and furnifhed with lix different eye-tubes •, fo that its magnifying powers extend from 44 to 168. The telefcope in this equa¬ torial may be brought parallel to the polar axis, as in the figure, fo as to point to the pole flar in any part of its diurnal revolution j and thus it has been obfer- ved near noon, when the fun has fhone very bright. 5. The apparatus for eorre&ing the error in altitude occafioned by refradlion, which is applied to the eye- end of the telefcope, and confifls of a Hide G moving m a groove or dove-tail, and carrying the feveraTeye- > tubes of the telefcope, on which Hide there is an in¬ dex correfponding to five fmall divifions engraved on the dove-tail; a very fmall circle, called the refraftion circle H, moveable by a finger-fcrew at the extremity of the eye-end of the telefcope j which circle is di¬ vided into half minutes, one entire revolution of it be¬ ing equal to 3' iB", and by its motion raifes the centre of the crofs hairs on a circle of altitude ; and likewife a quadrant I of 14 inch radius, with divifions on each fide, one exprefling the degree of altitude of the objefl: viewed, and the other expreffing the minutes and fe¬ conds of error occafioned by refradlion, correfponding to that degree of altitude : to this quadrant is joined a fmall round level K, which is adjlifted partly by the pinion that turns the whole of this apparatus, and partly by the index of the quadrant; for which pur- pofe the refra£lion circle is fet to the fame minute, &.c. which the index points to on the limb of the quadrant; and if the minute, &c. given by the quadrant exceed the 3' 18" contained in one entire revolution of the re- fradtion circle, this muft be fet to the excefs above one or more of its entire revolutions •, then the centre of the crofs hairs will appear to be raifed on a circle of altitude to the additional height which the error of re- fradfion will occafion at that altitude. This inilrument ftands on three feet L diftant from each other 14.4 inches ; and when all the parts are horizontal is about 29 inches high : the weight of the equatorial and apparatus is only 59 lb. avoirdupoife, which are contained in a mahogany cafe weighing The principal adjuftment in this inftrument is that ol making the line of collimation to'defcribe a portion ot an hour-circle in the heavens; in order to which, the azimuth circle muft be truly level, the line of col¬ limation or fome correfponding line reprefented by the fmall brafs rod M parallel to it, muft be perpendi¬ cular to the axis of its ownr proper motion j and this laft axis muft be perpendicular to the polar aids ^ on the brafs rod M there is occafionally placed a hanging level N, the ufe of which will appear in the following ad- juftments : The azimuth circle may be made level by turning the inftrument till one of the levels is parallel to an imaginary line joining two of the feet fcrews ; then ad- juft that level with thefe two-feet fcrews; turn the circle half round, i.e. 180° ; and if the bubble be not then right, corredt half the error by the fcrew-belonging to the level, and the other half error by the two-foot fcrews ; repeat this till the bubble comes right; then turn the circle 90° from the two former pofitions, and fet the bubble right, if it be wrong, by the foot fcrew at the end of the level; when this is done, adjuft the other level by its own fcrew, and the azimuth circle wfill be truly level. The hanging level muft then be fixed to the brafs rod by two hooks of equal length, and made truly parallel to it : for this purpofe make the polar axis perpendicular or nearly perpendicular to the horizon ; then adjuft the level by the pinion of the declination-femicircle ; reverfe the level, and if it be wrong, corredt half the error by a fmall fteel fcrew that lies under one end of the level, and the other half-error by the pinion of the declination-femicircle ; repeat this till the bubble be right in both pofitions. In order to make the brafs rod on w-hich the level is fufpended at right angles to the axis of motion of the telefcope or line of collimation, make the polar axis horizontal, or nearly fo : fet the declination-femicircle to o°, turn the hour-circle till the bubble comes right; then turn the declination-circle to 90° ; adjuft the bub¬ ble by raifing or deprefling the polar axis (firft by hand till it be nearly right, afterwards tighten with an ivory key the focket which runs on the arch with the polar axis, and then apply the fame ivory key to the adjufting fcrew at the end of the faid arch till the bubble comes quite right) ; then turn the declination- circle to the oppofite 90° ; if the level be not then right, corredl half the error by the aforefaid adjufting fcrew at the end of the arch, and the other half error by the two fcrews which raife or deprefs the end of the brafs rod. The polar axis remaining nearly hori¬ zontal as before, and the declination-femicircle at o°, adjuft the bubble by the hour-circle ; then turn the declination-femicircle to 90°, and adjuft the bubble by raifing or deprefling the polar axis ; then turn the hour-circle J 2 hours ; and if the bubble be wrong, correft half the error by the polar axis, and the other half error by tbe two pair of capftan fcrews at the feet of the two fiipports on one fide .of the axis of mo¬ tion Plate LIX. e f t ,r >• / H G-f )Y) C / pj • . // frr/\icti^i/cr€ feat;. * / a AS TK () NO MY. so .jJ5 c ' //-><■// . //(,/. *■ ////''*u'n. /t,//, j, . /, i :v ,\ T // ( ' 7. A S Tl< OX O MY. rti> -.x V rn F l ute LX a AS T HON OM Y. Plate J, XIV. OJ/'r/v. (5 CD''/h e S^'A foon.( e ® -1/^ Alt'/yy/r • Venus. C Affir.r. c —c tytti c t / ’t/te//ffe fft/ree f/te rfr.r/ftttce ef //te J’iruntft. _ . (~7v. 68. J 'Wi r tfr//irter h * »J/z/e/Z/Au. —c— /j/.rAf7/ee ef' t/te fourt/i SaAeZ/etejAvr/t tAe A/artZ. • ZaAuni ZC //(.i i faZe/ZtAxj. -c- -A (zrAZe. -Afoon. O-. * VJzsAerzzce ofAZieAfocrigborn /Ae Krrrt/t. » Z'/y. J6. ' A a, (/ SerZ/avA. % , /u/s/Av. 3 . t/ZAr// .'V/yn.// . \ * A S T J \ O O M y Plate !,X\r. . \/(/K * * * * * * V •* 6 * *: *8 * r \ * * V if-0 K f'/'r^fc,). sk .r//>/•// . t'/yt/K /ryt//>/r >/'_ Piute J.XVI. Astko.vomv. ft a/?r /ru/fr/vr/he&. arte ■ .ryj J x v f, A S T R ON OMY. Flate R XVIII X s T K o x O MX. Plate iLXXXI. , /. A, //; 'S<>ufiS(>r /•'O A S T K O X () M V O •rvttytit'i'Jr-tr/. r* | w $ 1 0 ASTBO N Cm Y. Plate L XXII >C///t‘rt. //rr/\ >\'ttfydvr s v ASTIVONOM V. Hale LXXIll. F 13 /- . ) t , r//-'//.'S’/VH. //»/'!./fitfr/i'r/ent ' , //rl/?r/ry/^f /t>r /(YY/’ Plate P, XXIX A S TBOXOMT. Plate r;xxx As TK o X O M V. 1%. 161. The CTrAXD OKKKRY bvTvowJcn'. /. /. / -: V" * <" X- '/fitAi/rt/, ////>/ \ Appendix, ASTRO Defeription tion of the telefcope ; and thus this axis will be at right angles to the polar axis. The next adjudment ihunients. to ma^e t^ie ceittre of crofs hairs remain on the fame u-— 1 object, while you turn the eye-tube quite round by the pinion of the refraction apparatus : for this adjullment, let the index on the Hide to the firft divifion on the t^)ve-tail •, and fet the divifion marked 18'7 on the re- iraclion circle to its index ; then look through the te¬ lefcope, and with the pinion turn the eve-tube quite round ; and if the centre of the hairs does not remain on the fame ipot during that revolution, it muft be correfted by the four fmall ferews, two and two at a time (which you will find upon unferewing the nearell end of the eye-tube that contains'the firft eye-glafs) ; repeat this correction till the centre of the hairs re¬ mains on the fpot you tire looking at during an entire revolution. In order to make the line of collimation parallel to the brafs rod on which the level hangs, fet the polar axis horizontal, and the declination-circle to 90°, adjuft the level by the polar axis ; look through the telefcope on home diftant horizontal objeCt, covered by the centre of the crofs hairs ; then invert the tele¬ fcope, which is done by turning the hour-circle half round ; and if the centre of the crofs hairs does not cover the fame object as before, correCt half the error by the uppermoft and lowermoft of the four fmall ferews at the eye-end of the large tube of the tele¬ fcope ; this correction will give a fecond objeCl now covered by the centre of the hairs, which muft: be adopted inftead of the firft object : then invert the te¬ lefcope as before } and if the fecond obiedt be not co¬ vered by the centre of the hairs, correct half the error by the fame two ferews which were ufed before : this cqrredtion will give a third objedt, now covered by the centre of the hairs, which muft be adopted inftead of the fecond objedt } repeat this operation till no error remains 5 then fet the hour-circle exadlly to j 2 hours (the declination-circle remaining at 90° as before) ; alnd if the centre of the crofs hairs does not cover the laft objedl fixed on, fet it to that objedt by the two re¬ maining fmall ferews at th? eye-end of the large tube, and then the line of collimation will be parallel to the brafs rod. For redlifying the nonius of the declina¬ tion and equatorial circles, lower the telefcope as many degrees, minutes, and feconds, below o° or on the declination-femicircle as are equal to the complement of the latitude j then elevate the polar axis till the bub- N O M Y. 185 ble be horizontal, and thus the equatorial circle will Deftnptie'1 be elevated to the colatitude of the place j fet this cir- of cle to 6 hours j adjuft the level by the pinion of the ™r!^en"‘ declination-circle j then turn the equatorial circle ex- w™— adtly 1 2 hours from the laft pofition ; and if the level be not right, corredt one-half of the error by the equa¬ torial circle, and the other half by the declination- circle y then turn the equatorial circle back again ex¬ adlly 12 hours from the laft pofition 5 and if the level be Hill wrong, repeat the corredtion as before till it be right, when turned to either pofition ; that being done, fet the nonius of the equatorial circle exadlly to 6 hours, and the nonius of the declination-circle ex¬ adlly to o°. The principal ufes of this equatorial are, 1. To find your meridian by one obfervation only : for this purpofe, elevate the equatorial circle to the colatitude of the place, and fet the declination-fe¬ micircle to the fun’s declination for the day and hour of the day required j then move the azimuth and hour circles both at the fame time, either in the fame or contrary diredlion, till you bring the centre of the crofs hairs in the telefcope exadlly to cover the centre of the fun ; when that is done, the index of the hour- circle will give the apparent or folar time at the in- llant of obfervation j and thus the time is gained, though the fun be at a diftance from the meridian j then ttirn the hour-circle till the index points precifely at 12 o’clock, and lower the telefcope to the horizon, in order to obferve fome point there in the centre of your glafs, and that point is your meridian mark found by one obfervation only , the beft time for this opera¬ tion is three hours before or three hours after I 2 at noon. 2. To point the telefcope on a ftar, though not on the meridian, in full daylight. Having elevated the equatorial circle to the co-latitude of the place, and fet the declination-femicircle to the ftar’s declination, move the index of the hour-circle till it fliall point to the precife time at which the ftar is then diftant from the meridian, found in tables of the right afeenfion of the liars, and the ftar will then appear in the glafs. Befides thefe ufes peculiar to this inftrument, it is alfo applicable to all the purpofes to which the principal aftronomical inftruments, viz. a tranfit, a quadrant, and an equal altitude inftrument, are applied. INDEX. j4bERRATI0N of the fixed ftars, N° 265 Academy, Royal, of fciences founded, 30 Adam fuppofed to have underftood aftronomy, I Alphonfo of Caftile patronifes aftrono- mers, by whom the tables are conitrufted, Americans knowledge of aftronomy, Anomalyy mean, Antediluviansy their knowledge of a- ftronomy, Vol. Ill, Part I. 18 5 51 293 ib. '1 Apogee of the moon’s orbit, N° 81 of the planets, ApJideSy moon’s, Arabians cultivate aftronomy in the dark ages, Archimedes determines the relative diftances of the pla¬ nets, 13 Afcenjioriy right, 250 AttraBiony laws of, a61 among the ftars, 230 Axis of the world, 3} AJlrological divifion of the heavens, 371 Atmofpherey why not feen about the moon, B Bailly inveftigates the Indian aftrono¬ my, _ Bayer, John, forms a celeftial atlas, improves the nomenclature of the ftars, Benares, obfervatory, 399 4 26 ib. 3 A a Bianchini, i86 A Bianchini, obfervations of Venus, N° 146 BiffextUe, or Leap year, 63 Bodies, falling, velocity calculated, 352 weight increafes towards the poles, 276 Bodin''s opinion of comet's, 301 Bradley, Dr, fucceeds Dr Halley, 34 difcovers the aberration of light, ib. nutation of the earth’s axis, ib. Briggs, Henry, improves logarithms, 28 Brydone obferves the prodigious velo¬ city of a comet, 319 conj edfures about comets with¬ out tails, 322 C Cctfar, Julius, reforms the year, 63 Caille, de la, conftru&s folar tables 36 Calendar, Gregorian, 64 CaJJini appointed to the obfervatory at at Paris, 30 J" obfervations of Venus, 141, 144, *49 Ceres, planet, elements not precifely known, 183 Chaldeans cultivated aftronomy early, 6 Chinefe, their knowledge of aftronomy, 2 give names to the zodiac, 3 Clouds, folar, two regions, 7 7 {iWeV hypothefis of comets, 323 Cometarium, 358 Comets, account of, 183 atmofpheres and phafes, 184 appearance of one in 1618, 1680, 1744, 1759, 186, 191 tails, < 187 obfervations on, by Hevelius and Hooke, 188 fuppofed by the ancients to be planets, 298 Ariftotle’s opinion of, 299 one fpecies only exifts, 300 opinion of Kepler and Bodin, 301 Bernouilli’s opinion of, 302 true doftrine revived by Ty¬ cho Brahe, 303 motion determined by New¬ ton, 304 return of one predifted by Dr Halley, 305 periodical times of different ones determined, 306 why fometimes invifible in perihelion, 307 more feen in hemifphere to¬ wards the fun, 308 differences in eccentricities of orbits, 309 opinions of their fubftance, 3x0 diftances and diameters of fome computed, 311 occafion eclipfes, 312 conjeftures concerning their tails, £ 313 S T R O N O M Comets, conjectures by Appian and Tycho Brahe, N° 313 by Defcartes, 314 by others, afcrib- ed to electrici¬ ty, _ ib. by Dr Plamilton, 315 velocity obferved by Bry¬ done, 319 in 1680 fubjeCted to great heat, 3 20 conjectures of their nature by Hevelius, 321 about thofe with¬ out tails, 322 Cole’s hypothefis, 323 periodical times, 324 Halley calculates their re¬ turn, _ 325 return at unequal intervals, why, 3 26 at what diftance vifible, 372 move in eccentric ellipfes, 373 motion, how to calculate, 374 are affeCted by the planets, 375 confequence of meeting a planet, 376 Cancellations, names of, 199 Copernicus reftores the fyftem of Py¬ thagoras, 2 2—2 8 2 his diffidence and fear of giving offence, retard the publication of his fyftem, ib. D Day, aftronomical, 55 fidereal, 56 varies in length, 57 mean aftronomical, 58 Declination, rules for finding, 249 Denjities of planets calculated,. 356 Dollond improves the telefcope, 31 Dunn, Mr, his account of the folar fpots, 69 E Earth, true figure, difcovered, 34 figure fpherical, 269 dimenfions afcertained, 270 different meafurements, 271 anomalies in the figure, ac¬ counted for by Mr Play¬ fair, 272 latitude and longitude found, 273 motion round the fun, proved from its figure, 275 from celeftial ap¬ pearances, 277 objeCHons to, anfwer- ed, 278 demonftrated from the aberration of light, 286 diurnal motion and changes of feafons illuftrated, 290 effeCts of motion on the ap¬ pearances ®f the planets, 292 Y. Index. Earth and mcon move about a com¬ mon centre, N° 353 protuberant matter, effeCts of, libratory momentum, 411 applied to nuta¬ tion and pre- ceffion, 412 various modes of application, 413 real and momentary change greateft at the folltices, 414 moon’s aCtion, 419 Eclipfes, method of calculating, 353 tables for calculating, p. 169, 170. lunar, 99 folar, 103 duration of, 11 o Ecliptic, 43 obliquity of, ib. Egyptians early cultivators of aftrono- my, 6 Elements of the planets, tables of, 297 Equation of the centre explained, 51 of time computed, 60 Equator, 3 7 Equinoctial line, 255 points, ib. Equinoxes, preceffion of, difcovered by Hipparchus, 257 importance of the difco- very, _ 259 fmall irregularities, difco¬ vered by Dr Bradley, 261 F Falling bodies, velocity of, calculat¬ ed, > 352 Elamjlead, Mr, appointed aftronomer royal, 30 makes a catalogue of the ftars, 33 Fontana improves telefcopes, 31 Forces, moving, caufe of motion, 332 compofition of, 333 refolution, 334 accelerating, 336 central, 338 centripetal, effeCl of, 340 centrifugal compared with gravitation, 342 French philofophers cultivate aftrono¬ my* 35 G Galaxy, or milky-rvay, 211 feems to furround the hea¬ vens, 222 Globe, celeftial, 359 Golden number, 61 Gravitation, general law of, 355 Grecian aftronomy improved by Thales, 9 by Anaximander, ib. Greeks, unknown when aftronomy was firft cultivated among them, 8 Greenwich Index. A Greenwich obfervatory built, N° 3q H Ilal/ey, Dr, appointed aftronomer . r°yal> 33 difcovers the acceleration of the moon, Tecommends the method of finding the longitude now followed, ib. account of new ftars, 200 predicts the return of a co- met, ^05 calculates their return, 325 Hamilton's, Dr, opinion of comets, 3 j5 infufficient, 317 Heavens, divifion of, 197 method of gauging, by Her- fchel, 2 24 interior conftruflion, 229 Herfchel, Dr, improves telefcopes, 36 difcovers a planet, ib, fix fatellites, ib, obfervations on the fun, 70 adopts new terms to ex- prefs the appearances, 71 opinion of the conftru&ion of the univerfe, 217 of the via la&ea, 218 method of gauging the hea¬ vens, 225 hypothefis of celeflial ap¬ pearances 223 method of finding the pa¬ rallax of fixed liars, 268 Herfchel, planet difcovered by the a- ftronomer, 36 its fatellites, 183 fix in number, 330 Hevelius, a zealous altronomer, 30 compiles his Selenographia, ib. his obfervatory and inftru- ments burnt, ib. conje&ures of the nature of comets, 321 Ilicetas taught the diurnal motion of the earth, 11 Hipparchus difcovers the eccentricity of the planetary orbits, 14 makes a catalogue of the fixed ftars, 15 difcovers the preceflion of the equinoxes, 257 charged with plagiarifm, 260 Hoote, Dr, improves telefcopes, 30 Horizon explained, 37 Horrox, a young aftronomer of great talents, 29 predi&ed and obferved the tranfit of Venus for the fir ft time, ib. formed a theory of the moon, ib. I Indians, their knowledge of aftrono- • m7» 4 s T R o N o M Indians, authenticity of their aftrono- my, N° 370 Injlruments, aftronomical, firft impro¬ ved in England, 31 defcription of, p. 171—184. Jofephus mentions the grand year known to Seth, 1 Jupiter's belts firft difcovered, 166 fpots in them, 167 account of one, 168 no difference of feafons, 169 moons, four in number, 170 diftance and periodic times, 171 eclipfes, 172 appear fometimes as dark fpots, 173 vary in light and mag¬ nitude, 174 fhadowrs fometimes vi- fible on Jupiter’s difk, 173 three eclipfed every revolution, 176 eclipfes, when vifible, 177 orbits and diftances, 327 irregularities in their motions, 328 K Kepler difcovers the famous law’s in aftronomy, 26 law explained, 49 opinion of comets, 301 difcovers the caufe of the tides, 400 X* Latitudes of heavenly bodies, 252 how found, 253 Libration of the moon, 133 theory, 134 Line, meridian, method of drawing, 40 Logarithms invented by Baron Napier, 26 improved by Urfinus and . Briggs> . 28 Longitude of the heavenly bodies, 251 of places on the earth, me¬ thod of finding, 274 Long, Dr, his account of the folar fpots, 66 Louville's obfervations on the moon’s ring, 126 Lowe's, Mr, method of finding the longitude, 274 Lunation, or month, 61 M Mackay, Mr, method of finding the longitude, 274 Mars, fpots firft feen, 133 bright about the poles, 136 Dr Herfchel’s account of, 157 appear and difappear, 138 w’hite about the poles, 162 pofition of the poles, J39 feafons, j 60 refembles the earth, i6x Y- 187 Mars, his form fpheroidical, N° 163 difference of diameters, 164 atmofphere, Majlelyne, Dr, improves the lunar method of finding the longitude, 36 Mercury's apparent motions, 133 diameter, 136 nature, 137 Meridian explained, 37 line, method of drawing, 40 Milky-way,. 2 j ± Moon's motion in her orbit, 79 orbit elliptical, 80 .eccentricity, g * evedHon, variation, g^ annual equation, 83 revolution of her nodes, 86 parallax, method of determin- . ing, 87 diftance, gg phafes, (jo is opaque, 9* mode of meafuring the year, 93 the earth appears a moon to it, 92 longitude found, 94 nonagefimal degree, 98 eclipfes, . period, 100 why vifible w’hen eclipfed, 101 eclipfes obferved with difficul- , tyj _ 102 number in a year, 104 total and annular, 106 extent of lhadow and penum¬ bra, 107 fize, 1x, Kght, 11 2 fpots, , T 3 names of, ib, inequalities of furface, 114 method of meafuring moun¬ tains, x x 3 mountains, height of, overrat- e<^» 116 volcanoes, 1 j 9 fubftance, conjedlures of, 120 atmofphere, exiftence of, dif- puted, 121 ring obferved in eclipfes, 123 lightning, l2’1 height of atmofphere account¬ ed for, x 28 has no fenfible atmofphere, 131 libration, x 3 3 theory, 134 tendency the fame as gravita- tion, . 330 motion explained, 331 inequalities, 377 neareft the earth when leaft attradled, 379 •rbit, caufe of dilatation, 380 A a 2 Moon's i88 ASTRONOMY. Index. Moon's orbit changed by the action of the fun, N° 381 nodes, 382 motion explained, 384 inclination, 383 motion, irregularities from be¬ ing elliptical, • 385 orbit, inequality in the eccen- tricity, 391 inequalities computed, 392 mean diftance, fecular equation, 39^3 has no atmofphere, why, 399 Motion, definition of, 331 Motions, of the, 51 N Nadir, 3 7 Napier, Baron, invents logarithms, 26 Nebula, our fidereal iylfem, one, 236 extent, 239 how to be delineated, 241 Nebulce in the milky-way, 219 arranged in ftrata, 220 affume various fitapes, 221 how formed, ‘ 231 vacancies, how occafioned, 232 decay and recompofition, 242 univerfe compofed of, 243 iize and diitance, 244 time of forming, 245 planetary, 247 Newton, Sir Ifaac, his difcoveries, 31 determines the motions of the comets, 304 his opinion of comets de¬ fended, 316 obfervations on the precef- fion of equinoxes, 407 iketch of his inveftigation, 40S determination of the form and dimenfions of the earth, 409 examination of phenomena of preceihon on mechani¬ cal principles, 410 Node, afcending, 86 Nodules on lire luminous clouds of the fun, 75 Number, golden, 61 Nutation, lunar, 421 compared with preceffion, 423 o Obfervatory, portable, 364 Openings formed by the fun’s lumi¬ nous clouds being remov¬ ed, 72 Ofcillation of the planetary fyftem, 369 P Valias, planet, elements not precifely known, 183 Perigee of the moon’s orbit, 81 of the planets, 293 .Phoenicians taught allronomy by the Egyptians, 7 apply it to navigation, ib Philolaus afferts the annual motion of the earth round the fun, 11 Planets, N° 3 7 apogee and perigee, 293 difference of apparent diame¬ ters, 294 appearances of fuperior, ex¬ plained, 295 orbits and laws of their mo¬ tions, ib. heliocentric circles, 296* nodes, 297 tables of elements, ib. revolve round the fun, 343 in confequence of a force in the fun, 344 the fame tendency in all, 346 and fame in their fatellites, 347 reatf on the fun, 354 denfities calculated, 356 maffes, table of, 357 gravity at their furfaces, 359 fecular and periodical inequa¬ lities, 360 motion of the aphelion 361 motions, method of correfl- ing, ^ . 363 Jupiter and Saturn influence each others motions, 362 defledlion of, towards each other, Pendulum regulated by gravitation, 337 PreceJJion of equinoxes, 257—259 obfervation by Newton and others, 407 Newton’s inveftigation, 408 lunar, 420 greateff equation, 425 Ptoler?iy, his iyftem erroneous, 16 Ptolemy Philadelphus encourages the fciences in E- gypt, 12 Purback improves aftronomy, 19 Pythagoras improves aftronomy, 11 corredi notions of the folar fyftem, ib. of the moon’s light, ib. - of the milky-wav, ib. CL Quadrants, 3 61 Quadratures of the moon, 90 R Revolution of a body round a centre explained, 339 Regiomontanus conftruifts aftronomical apparatus, 20 calculates lunations and eclipfes, ib. writes a theory of pla¬ nets and comets, ib. Ridges of the fun’s luminous clouds, 74 Rcemer difeovers the progreffive mo¬ tion of light, 33 Rothman, an aftronomer, 23 Ring of Saturn, 395 difeovery concerning, by Dr Herfchel, 396 Ringoi Saturn probably confiftent, N° 397 origin, 393 S Satellites, tend to the fun, 347 to their primaries, 349 irregularities in Jupiter’s, 394 Saturn, telefcopic appearance of, 178 ring difeovered by Huygens, 179 luppofed to revolve round its axis, 180 diameter, ib. fatellites, 181 two difeovered by Herfchel, 182 number, 329 Seafons explained, 44 changes illuftrated, 290 different, explained, 291 Sedlor, equatorial, 362 Selenographia compiled by Plevelius, 40 Shallo%vs of the fun’s luminous clouds, 93 Shepherds, Afiatic, obferve the hea¬ vens, 255 Signs of the zodiac, ij2 Society, Royal, founded in London, 80 Stars, fixed, occultations by the moon, 130 Style, old, 64 new, ib. Sun, annual motion, 39 altitude, 41 motion, method of afeertaining, 42 not uniform 45 diameter varies, 46 diftance varies, 47 motion varies, 48 orbit, elliptical, 50 varies, _ 53 diftance determined, ^4 fpots, firft difeovered, 65 Long, Dr, bis account of them, 66 move from w'eft to eaft, 67 obferved by difterent aftro- nomers, 68 Dunn, Mr, his account of them, 69 appearances of the luminous clouds, 72—76 two regions of clouds, 77 theory of phenomena, 78 eclipfes, 103 beginning and ending, 108 account of one by Dr Halley, 124 his place in the univerfe, 224 centre attrafts all bodies, 348 moves round the common cen¬ tre of gravity, 3^4 Syzigies of the moon, 90 Stars, fixed, number increafed by te- lefcopes, 192 difference in magnitude, 193- telefcopic, 194 unformed, 195 divifion in conftellations, and ufes, 196 Stars, fixed, > Index. A Stars, fixed, new, Dr Halley’s account Of, N° 200 changes among, 201 accounts of variable ftars, 202—208 method of difcovering variations, 210 conjeftures of their na¬ ture, 212 comparative brightnefs with the fun, 214 method of afcertaining the fituation, 248 vary in right afcenfion and declination, 254 diftance, immeafurable, 266 appear large to the eye, 267 parallax, method of afcer- taining, 268 Syjlem, Pythagorean, _ 279 fupprelTed by the Ptolemaic, 280 Ptolemaic, infufficient, 281 Pythagorean, revived, 282 Tychonic, 283 T Tables, Alphonfine, conftru&ed, 18 diredtions for ufing, 356 Telefcopes invented, 27 improved by Hooke, 30 by Fontana, 3 I by Huygens, ib. Gregory, ib. Sir Ilaac New¬ ton, ib. Holland, ib. cautions in ufing, n8 Iheory, mathematical, of the poles of the equator, 262—264 Time, divilions of, 55—57 equation of, computed, 60 Tides, caufe difcovercd by Kepler, 400 S T R O N O M Tides, why high at full moon, N° 401 influence of the fun, 402 not higheft when the moon is in the meridian, 403 turn on the axis of the moon’s orbit, 4°4 irregularities accounted for, 405 Trajetloriiun lunare, 360 Tranjit inftruments, _ 363 Tycho Brahe obferves the connexion of Saturn and Jupiter, 24 makes a more accurate quadrant, ib. fuperintends the building of Uraniburg, his ob- fervatory, 25 revives the true dodlrine of comets, 301 U XJlug Beg cultivates allronomy, 17 Uraniburg, built by Tycho Brahe, and furnifhed with inftruments, 25 Urjinus, Benjamin, calculates large tables of loga¬ rithms,. 28 Velocity, motion, 3 3 5 Venus, appai'ent motions, v 138 revolution round her axis, 139 doubts of the time, 147 fpots firft difeovered, 140 feem to move from fouth to north, and why, 142 appearances at different times,- 143 obfervations by Caflini, 141 by Bianchini, 146 fatellites difeovered by Caflini, 149 and by Mr Short, 150 Mr Mon¬ taigne, J52 difficult to be feen, 152 y. 189 Venus, atmofphere of, obferved by Mr Hirft, N° 153 Volcanoes in the moon, 119 W cultivates aftronomy, and con- ftrudls inftruments, 20 Weight of bodies increafes towards the poles, 276 Werner, John, early attachment to aftronomy, 21 obferves the motion of a comet, ib, propoles a method of finding the longi¬ tude at fea, zb, difeovers the preceflion of the equinoxes, zb, conftrufts a planetari¬ um, ib. William IV. landgrave of Heffe Caf- fel, an aftx-onomer, 2 3 World, argument againft the eterisity, 36 Wright, Edward, makes obfervations on the fun’s alti¬ tude, 26 improves the theory of his motion, ib. computes tables of his declination, ib. 59 zb. 62 reformed by Julius Caefar, 63 leap, zb. lunar, , 93 z Zenith, . 3 7 Zodiac, Chinefe names of the figns, 3 figns of, 5 2 divifion of 198' Tear, tropical, lidereal, Roman, AST Aftrope_ ASTROPE wells, near Banbury in Oxfordlhire, 1 Wells are recommended as excellent in many diforders. I he II water is a brifk, fpirituous, pleaiant-tafted chalybeate, AHrue. is alio gently purgative. It fliould be drank from three to five quarts in the forenoon. ASTROSCOPE, a kind of aftronomical inftru- ment, compofed of two cones, on whofe furface the conftellations, with their liars, are delineated, by means whereof the liars may be eafily known. The aftro- fcope is the invention of William Schuckhard, former¬ ly profeffor of mathematics a,t Tubingen, who publiffi- ed a treatife exprefsly on it in 1698. ASTRUC, John, a celebrated phvfician, was born in the year 1684, at the little town of Savoy, in the province of Languedoc. His father, who was a Pro- teftant clergyman, bellowed particular pains upon the AST carlieft part of his education. After which he went to Aftmc. the umverfity of iVIontpclier, where he was created "v mailer of arts in the year I'jco. He then began the ftudy of medicine j and, in two years, obtained the degree of bachelor, having upon that occalion written a differtation on the caufe of fermentation, which he defended in a very fpxrited manner. On the 25th of January 17^3 was created dodlor oi phylic j aitei which, before arriving at extenfive pradlice he applied to the ftudy of medical authors, both ancient and mo¬ dern, with uncommon afllduity. 1 he good effects Oi. this ftudy foou appeared 5 for, in the year 1710, he publilhed a treatife concerning mufcular motion, from wffiich he acquired very high reputation. In the year 1717, he was appointed to teach medicine at Mont¬ pelier 5 which he did with fuch perfpicuity and elo¬ quence. Afturia. AST [ r __ quence, that it was univerfally faid he had been born to be a profeflbr. His fame foon rofe to fuch a height, that the king affigned him an annual falary ; and he was, at the fame time, appointed to fuperintend the mineral, waters in the province of Languedoc. But as Montpelier did not afford fufficient fcope for his afpinng genius, he went to Paris with a great ftock of manufcnpts, which he intended to publifh, after fub- je£hng them to the examination of the learned. Soon after, however, he left it, having in the year 1729 ac¬ cepted the office of firft phyfician to the king of Po¬ land. In this capacity he remained only for a ffiort time, and he again returned to Paris. Upon the death of the celebrated Geoffrey, in the year 1731, he was appointed regius profeffor of medicine at Paris. The duties of this office he difeharged in fuch a manner as to anfwer even the moft fanguine expectations. He taught the practice of phyfic with fo great applaufe, as to draw from other univerfities to that of Paris a great concourfe of medical ftudents, foreigners as well as na¬ tives of France. At the fame time he was not more celebrated as a profeffor than a practitioner. And, even at an advanced age, he perfevered with unwea¬ ried affiduity in that intenfe ftudy which firft raifed his reputation. Hence it is that he has been enabled to Tranfmit to pofterity fo many valuable monuments of his medical erudition. He died, univerfally regretted on the 15th of May 1766, in the 8 2d year of his age. ASTURIA, an ancient kingdom of Spain, fub- dued by Auguftus emperor of Rome.—The inhabi¬ tants of this country, along with thofe of Cantabria, afferted their liberty long after the reft of Spain had received the Roman yoke. So great was their defire of liberty, that, after being clofely ffiut up by the Ro¬ man army, they endured the moft terrible calamities of ^amine, even to the devouring of one another, rather than fubmit to the enemy. .At length, however, the Aftunans were for furrendering: but the Cantabrians oppofed this meafure, maintaining that they ought all to die iword in hand like brave men. Upon this the two nations quarrelled, notwithftanding their defperate iituation ; and a battle enfuing, 10,000 of the Aftu- rians were driven to.the intrenchments of the Romans, venom they begged in the moft moving manner to re¬ ceive them on any terms they pleafed. But Tiberius the emperor’s fon-in-law refufing to admit them into the. camp, fome of thefe unhappy people put an end to their.hves by falling upon their own fwords 5 others lighting.great fires threw themfelves into them, while dome poifoned themfelves by drinking the juice of a ve¬ nomous herb. The campaign being put an end to by winter, the next year the Afturians fummoned all their ftrength and refolution againft the Romans ; but notwithftand- mg. their utmoft efforts of valour and defpair, they were entirely defeated in a moft bloody battle, which lafted two days, and for that time entirely fubdued. A few years afterwards they rebelled, in conjunction with •the Cantabrians j but were foon reduced by the Ro¬ mans, who maffacred moft of the young men that were capable of bearing arms. This did not prevent them from revolting anew in a ffiort time afterwards ; but without fuccefs, being obliged to fubmit to the Ro- 9° 1 A s Y man power, till the fubverficn of that empire by the Afturias Goths. 1 ] || Asturias, anciently the kingdom of Afturia, is , A1yjurT1, now a principality of modern Spain, bounded by Bif- V cay on the eaft, Galicia on the weft, Old Caftile and Leon on the louth, and the fea on the north. Its greateft length is about no miles, and its breadth 54. On the fouth it is feparated from Old Caftile and Leon by high mountains covered with woods. The province is tolerably fertile, but thinly inhabited. The inhabi¬ tants value themfelves much on being defeended from the ancient Goths. Even the poor peafants, who are fain to go to feek work in other provinces, call them¬ felves illuflnous Goths and Mountaineers, thinking it ignominious to marry even with great and rich fami¬ lies of another race. This pride is flattered by the refpeci paid them by the reft of the nation, and the privileges beftowed upon them by the government. The hereditary prince of Spain is ftyled prince of the AJiurias. d he moft remarkable places in this prin¬ cipality are Oviedo, Gyon, Santillana, and St An- dero. AST YAGES, fon of Cyaxares, the laft king of the Medes. He dreamed that from the womb of his daughter Mandane, married to Cambyfes king of Per- fla, there fprung a vine that fpread itfelf over all Afia. She being with child, he refolved to kill the infant a$ foon as born. Its name was Cyrus j and Harpagus, being fent to deftroy it, preferved it : which Aftyages after a long time hearing of, he caufed Harpagus to eat his own fon. Harpagus called in Cyrus, who de¬ throned his grandfather, and thereby ended the mo¬ narchy of the Medes. See Media and Persia. AS PYANAX, the only fon of Heftor and Andro¬ mache. After the taking of Troy, he was thrown from the top of a tower by Ulyffes’s orders. ASTYNOMI, in Grecian Antiquity, magiftrates in Athens, corresponding to the gediles of the Romans ; they were ten in number. See vEdile. ^ASYLUM, a fan&uary, or place of refuge, where criminals flielter themfelves from the hands of juftice. T he word is compounded of the primitive particle cc, and und in that of Sardica in 347 ; and two years after was reftored to his lee by order of the emperor Conftans; but alter the death of that prince, he was again banilhed by the emperor Conftantius, which obliged him to retire into the deferts. The Arians then eledfed one George in his room ; who being killed in a popular fedition un¬ der Julian in 360, St Athanafius returned to Alexan¬ dria, but was again banilhed under Julian, and reftored to his fee under Jovian. He addrefied to that emperor a letter, in which he propofed that the Nicene creed Ihould be the ftandard of the orthodox faith, and con¬ demned thole who denied the divinity of the Holy Ghoft. He was alfo baniftied by Valens in 367, and afterw-ards recalled. St Athanafius died on the 2d of May 1 703. His works principally contain a defence of the my- fteries of the Trinity, and of the incarnation and divi¬ nity of the Word and Holy Spirit. There are three editions of his works which are efteemed; that of Com- melin, printed in 1600; that of Peter Nannius, in 1627; and that of Father Montfaucon. As to the creed which bears his name, fee the preceding ar- tlcle' ATHANATI, A T H [ »93 ] A T H AthanaU ATHANATI, in Perfian antiquity, a body of ca- valry, confifting of 10,000 men, always complete. > They were called athanati (a word originally Greek, and fignifying immortal, becaufe, when one of them happened to die, another was immediately appointed to fucceed him. ATHANOR. Chemifts have diftinguilhed by this name a furnace fo conftrufted that it can always main¬ tain an equal heat, and>which fhall lad: a long time without addition of frelh fuel. 1 he body of the athanor has nothing in it parti¬ cular, and is conftru6ted like( ordinary furnaces. But at one of its fides, or its middle, there is an upright hollow tower, which communicates with the fireplace by one or more doping openings, and which has a lid to clofe its upper opening. This furnace is now rare¬ ly ufed. ATHAROTH, or Atroth, in Ancient Geography, the name of feveral towns. Two appear to have been in Samaria, in the tribe of Ephraim; and one four miles to the north of Sebade, or the city of Sa¬ maria ; the other in the confines of Benjamin and Ephraim, yet fo as to be in the didrift of Ephraim ra¬ ther than Benjamin (Jofhua). This the /Itroth-Adder mentioned by Jodma xvi. 5. from which to Upper Bethoron extends the greated breadth of the tribe of Ephraim. ATHEISM, the difbelief of a deity. See A- THEIST. A FHEIST, a perfon wdio does not believe the ex- idence of a Deity. Many people, both ancient and modern, have pretended to atheifm, or have been rec¬ koned atheids by the world ; but it is judly quedioned whether any man ferioudy adopted fuch a principle. Thefe pretenfions, therefore, mud be founded on pride or affeftation. Atheifm, as abfurd and unreafonable as it is, his had its martyrs. Lucilio Vanini, an Italian, native of Naples, publicly taught atheifm in France, about the beginning of the 17th century; and, being convifted of it at Thouloufe, was condemned to death. Being preded to make public acknowledgment of his crime, and to alk pardon of God, the king, and judice, he anfwered, he did not believe there was a God; that he never offended the king; and, as for judice, he wilhed it to the devil. He confeffed that he was one of twelve, who parted in company from Naples to Ipread their doftrine in all parts of Europe. His tongue was fird cut out, and then his body burnt, A- pril 9. 1619. Cicero reprefents it as a probable opinion, that they who apply themfelves to the dudy of philofophy believe there are no gods. This mud, doubtlefs, be meant of the academic philofophy, to which Cicero himfelf w-as attached, and which doubted of every thing. On the contrary, the Newtonian philofophers are continual¬ ly recurring to a Deity, whom they ahvays find at the end of their chain of natural caufes. Some foreigners have even charged them with making too much ufe of the notion of a God in philofophy, contrary to the rule of Horace : Nec Dens interjit, ni/i dignus vindice nodus. Among us, the philofophers have been the principal advocates for the exidence of a Deitv. Witnefs the Vol. III. Part I. writings of Sir Ifaac Newton, Boyle, Ray, Cheyne, Atheling Nieuwentyt, &c. To which may be added many . I! others, who, though of the clergy (as was alfo Ray), - yet have didinguilhed themfelves by their philofo- > y, * phical pieces in behalf of the exidence of a God ; e. gr. Derham, Bentley, Whidon, Samuel and John Clarke, Fenelon, &c. So true is that faying of Lord Bacon, that though a fmattering of philofophy mayr lead a man into atheifm, a deep draught will certainly bring him back again to the belief of a God and Pro¬ vidence. ATHELING, Adeling, Edling, Ethling, or Eth eling, among the Anglo-Saxons, was a title of honour, properly belonging to the heir-apparent, or prefumptive, to the crown. This honourable appella¬ tion was firlt conferred by King Edwrard the Confeffor on Edgar, to whom he was great uncle, W'hen, being without any iffue of his own, he intended to make him his heir. ATHP1LSTAN, a Saxon king of England, natu¬ ral fon of Edward the elder, and grandfon of the great Alfred. He fucceeded to the crowm in 921;, and reigned r 6 years. There was a remarkable law paffed by this prince, which diows his jud fentiments of the advantages of commerce, as tvell as the early attention to it in this country : it declared, that any merchant who made three voyages on his own account beyond the Britifh channel or narrow7 feas, Ihould be entitled to the privilege of a thane or gentleman. ATHEN^EA, in Antiquity, a fead celebrated by the ancient Greeks in honour of Minerva, who was called Athene. ATHENE UM, in Antiquity, a public place where¬ in the profeffors of the liberal arts held their affem- blies, the rhetoricians declaimed, and the poets re- hearfed their performances. Thefe places, of which there were a great number at Athens, were built in the manner of amphitheatres, encompaffed with feats, called cunei. The three mod celebrated Athenaea w7ere thofe at Athens, at Rome, and at Lyons, the fecond of which w7as built by the emperor Adrian. ATHENiEUS, a phyfician, born in Cilicia, co¬ temporary with Pliny, and founder of the pneumatic feft. He taught that the fire, air, water, and earth, are not the true elements, but that their qualities are, viz. heat, cold, moidure, and drynefs ; and to thefe he added a fifth element, which he called fpirit, whence his feft had its name. Athenjv.us, a Greek grammarian, born at Nau- cratis in Egypt in the 3d century, one of the mod learned men of his time. Of all his works v7e have none extant but his Deipnofophi, i. e. the fophids at table. There is an infinity of fafts and quotations in this work which render it very agreeable to admirers of antiquity. There w7as alfo a mathematician of this name, who wrote a treatife on mechanics, which is inferted in the works of the ancient mathematicians, printed at Paris in 1693, in folio, in Greek and Latin. ATHENAGOR AS, an Athenian philofopher, flou- rilhed about the middle of the 2d century, and was remarkable for his zeal for Chridianity, and his great learning, as appears from the apology w7hich he ad- dreffed to the emperors Marcus Aurelius Antoninus and Lucius Commodus. B b ATHENODORUS, Athenodo- rus II Athens. By whom founded. ctemark- ■fole build fogs. A T H [i ATHENODOP^-US, a famous ftolc pliilofopher, born at Tarfus, went to the court of Auguftus, and was made by him tutor to Tiberius. Augustus had a great efteem for him, and found him by experience a man of virtue and probity. He ufed to fpeak very freely to the emperor. He, before he left the court to return home, warned the emperor not to give him- felf up to anger, but, whenever he fliould be in a paf- fion, to rehearfe the 24 letters of the alphabet before he refolved to fay or do any thing. He did not live to fee his bad fuccefs in the education of Tiberius. ATHENOPOL1S, a town of the Maffilienfes, an ancient nation of Gaul. It is conjeftured by Harduin to be the lame with Telo Martins, now “7 onion; by others to be the fame with Antipohs or Antibes. ATHENREE, a town of Ireland in the county of Galway, and province of Connaught. W. Long. 8. 5. N. Lat. 53. 14. It is governed by a portrieve, and hath a barrack for three companies of foot. It hath been a place of conliderable ftrength } but, like the numerous churches and caftles which furround it, has felt the refiitlefs force of time. Some of the walls and towers, however, are Hill remaining, as monuments of its former grandeur. ATHENS, a celebrated city of Greece, and capi¬ tal of the ancient kingdom of Attica, fituated in E. Long. 24. N. Lat. 38. 5. See Attica. In early times, that which was afterwards called the citadel was the whole city ; and went under the name of Cecropia, from its founder Cecrops, whom the Athenians in after times affirmed to have been the firft builder of cities, and called this therefore by way of eminence Polls, i. e. the city. In the reign of Eiich- thonius it loft the name of Cecropia, and acquired that of Athens, on what account is not certain •, the jnoft probable is, that it was fo named in refpedl to the goddefs IVIinerva, whom the Greeks call Athene, v.ffio was alfo efteemed its protedlreis. This old city was leated on the top ol a rock in the midft of a large and pleafant plain, which, as the number ol inhabi¬ tants increafed, became full of buildings, which indu¬ ced the dlftinttion of Aero and Catapolis, i. e. of the upper and lower city. The extent of the citadel was 60 ftadia •, it was furrounded by olive trees, and forti¬ fied, as feme fay, with a ftrong pallifade ; in lucceed- incr times it was encompaffed with a ftrong wall, in which there were nine gates, one very large one, and the reft fmall. The iniide of the citadel was adorned with innumerable edifices. The moft remarkable of which were, 1. The magnificent temple ol IVIinerva, ftyled parthenion, becaule that goddefs was a virgin. The Perlians deftroyed it 5 but it was rebuilt with ftill greater fplendour by the famous Pericles, all of the fineft marble, with fuch fkill and ftrength, that, in fpite of tlic rage of time and barbarous nations^ it remains perhaps the firft antiquity in the world, and Hands a witnefs to the truth of what ancient writers have recorded of the prodigious magnificence of Athens in her flourifhing ftate. 2. The temple of Neptune and of IVIinerva 5 for it was divided into two parts : one facred to the god, in which was the fait fountain find to have fprung upon the ftroke of his trident ; the other to the goddefs prote&refs of Athens, wherein was the facred olive which Ihe produced, and her image wffiich fell down from heaven in the reign of Erichthonius. Athens. 94 ] A T H At the back of Minerva’s temple wTas the public trea- fury, which wras burnt to the ground through the kna- —y——'' very of the treafurers, who, having miiapplied the re¬ venues of the ftatc, took this ftiort method of making up accounts. The lower city comprehended all the buildings fur¬ rounding the citadel, the fort Munychia, and the ha¬ vens Phalerum and Piraeus, the latter of which was joined to the city by walls five miles in length ; that on the north was built by Pericles, but that on the fouth by Tliemiftocles •, but by degrees the turrets which were at firft eredled on thofe walls were turned into dwelling-houfes for the accommodation of the Athenians, whofe large city was now become too fmall for them. The city, or rather the lower city, had 1 3 great gates, with the names of which it is not necei- fary to trouble the reader. Among the principal edi¬ fices which adorned it, we may reckon, 1. The temple of Thefeus, erefted by Conon, near its centre. Ad¬ jacent thereto, the young people performed their exer- cifes. It was alfo a fan&uary for diftreffed perfons, flaves or free. 2. ft he Olympian temple erefled in ho¬ nour of Jupiter, the honour of Athens, and of all Greece. The foundation of it was laid by Pififtratus : it was carried on but flowly in fucceedmg times, 700 years elapfing before it was finiftred, which happened under the reign of Adrian, who was particularly kind to Athens : this was the firft building in which the Athenians beheld pillars. 3. The pantheon, dedica,- ted to all the gods > a moft noble ftru&ure, fupported by x20 marble pillars, and having over its great gate two horfes carved by Praxiteles : it is yet remaining, as we ihall have occafion to fliow hereafter when wTe come to fpeak of the prefent ftate of this famous city. In feveral parts of it were Jlaoi or porticoes, wherein people walked in rainy weather, and from whence a fed! of philofophers were denominated JIoics, becaule their mafter Zeno taught in thofe porticoes. . There w'ere at Athens two places called bAvi/wci/Jj^eraniicu's. from Ceramus the fon of Bacchus and Ariadne one^ within the city, containing a multitude of buildings of all forts ; the other in the fuburbs, in which was the academy and other edifices. The gymnafia of Athens were many } but the moft remarkable w ere the L\ - ceum, Academia, and Cynofarges. I lie Lyceum flood on the banks of the lliffus j fome fay it w!as built by Pififtratus, others by Pericles, others by. Lycurgus. Here Ariftotle taught philofophy, inftrufting fuch as came to hear him as they walked, whence his difciples are generally thought to derive the name of pet ipate- tics. The ceramicus without the city was the diftance of fix ftadia from its walls. The academy made part thereof ; as to the name of which there is fome difpute. Some affirm that it w'as fo called from Academus, an ancient hero, who, when Helen was ftolen by I heieus, difeovered the place where ftie lay hid to Caftor and Pollux : for wffiich reafon the Lacedemonians, when they invaded Attica, always fpared this place. Di- crearchus writes, that Caftor and Pollux had two Ar¬ cadians in their army, the one named Echedemus, the other Marothus ; from the former of thele he fays this place took its name, and that the borough of Mara¬ thon wras fo called .from the other. It was a marfhy unwholefome place, till Cimon was at great pains to have it drained ; and then it became extremely plea- A T H [ i Athens, fant and delightful, being adorned with fliady walks, —v '*' * where Plato read his leftures, and from thence his fcholars were ftyled academics. The Cynofarges was 4 a place in the fuburbs not far from the Lyceum : it Cynofarges. was famous on many accounts ; but particularly for a noble gymnafium erefted there, appointed for the fpe- cial ufe of fuch as were Athenians only by one fide. In after times Themiftocles derived to himfelf ill will, by carrying many of the nobility to exercife with him here, becaufe, being but of the half blood, he could ex¬ ercife nowhere elfe but in this gymnafium. Antifthenes inftituted a fedl of philofophers, who from the name of ^ this diftrift, as many think, were ftyled Cynics. Havens. The havens of Athens were three. Firft the Pirse- us, which was diftant about 35 or 40 ftadia from the city, till joined thereto by the long wralls beforemen- tioned, after which it became the principal harbour of the city. It had three docks ; Cantharos, Aphrodi- fium, and Zea; the firft was fo called from an ancient hero, the fecond from the goddefs Venus who had there two temples, and the third from bread-corn. There were in this port five porticoes, which joining together formed one great one called from thence Macra Stoa, or the grand portico. There were likewife two great markets or fora : one near the long portico, the other near the city. The fecond port was Munichia, a pro¬ montory not far diftant from Pyraeus ; a place very ftrong by nature, and afterwards rendered far ftronger by art. It was of this that Epimenides faid, if the Athenians forefaw what mifchief it would one day pro¬ duce to them, they would eat it away with their teeth. The third .was Phalerum, diftant from the city, accor¬ ding to Thucydides 35 ftadia, but according to Pau- fanias only 20. This was the moft ancient harbour of 6 Athens, as Pyrseus was the moft: capacious. Prefent Of this city, as it Hands at prefent, we have the fol- ftate. lowing account by Dr Chandler. “ It is now called Athini; and is not iqconfiderable, either in extent or the number of inhabitants. It enjoys a fine tempera¬ ture, and a ferene fky. The air is clear and whole- fome, though not fo delicately foft as in Ionia. The town ftands beneath the acropolis or citadel; not en- compaffing the rock as formerly, but fpreading into the plain, chiefly on the weft and north-weft. Cor- fairs infefting it, the avenues were fecured, and in 1676 the gates were regularly (hut after funfet. It is now open again : but feveral of the gateways i-emain, and a guard of Turks patrols at midnight. Some mafles of brick-work, Handing feparate, without the town, be¬ longed perhaps to the ancient wall, of which other traces alfo appear. The houfes are moftly mean and ftraggling ; many with large courts or areas before them. In the lanes, the high walls on each fide, which are commonly white-waihed, reflect ftrongly the heat of the fun. The ftreets are very irregular 5 and an¬ ciently were neither uniform nor handfome. They have w'ater conveyed in channels from Mount Hymet- tus, and in the bazar or market-place is a large foun¬ tain. The Turks have feveral mofques and public baths. The Greeks have convents for men and wo¬ men ; with many churches, in which fervice is regu¬ larly performed ; and befides thefe, they have nume¬ rous oratories or chapels, fome in ruins or confifting of bare wallsj frequented only on the anniverfaries of the faints to whom they are dedicated. A portrait of the 95 ] , A T 11 owmer on a board is placed in them on that occa''on, Athens, and removed when the folemnity of the day is over. v-— “ The city of Cecrops is now a fortrefs with a thick 7 irregular wall, {landing on the brink of precipices, and Citadel, or enclofing a large area about twice as long as broad. Clt> oi Ce- Some portions of the ancient wall may be difcovered'1 " ' on the outfide, particularly at the twro extreme angles j and in many places it is patched with pieces of co¬ lumns, and with marbles taken from the ruins. A confiderable fum had been recently expended on the fide next Hymettus, which was finiihed before we ar¬ rived. The fcaffolding had been removed to the end toward Pentele j but money was wanting, and the wrorkmen were withdrawn. The garrifon confifts of a few Turks ivho refide there with their families, and are called by the Greeks Cajiriani, or the foldiers of the caftle. The rock is lofty, abrupt, and inacceflible, ex¬ cept the front, which is toward the Piraeus ; and on that quarter is a mountainous ridge, within cannon- ftiot. It is deftitute of water fit for drinking ; and iupplies are daily carried up in earthen jars, on horfes and afles, from one of the conduits of the town. “ The acropolis furniflied a very ample field to the ancient virtuofi. It was filled with monuments of A- thenian glory, and exhibited an amazing difplay of beauty, of opulence, and of art j each contending as it were for the fuperiority. It appeared as one entire offering to the Deity, furpafling in excellence and afto- nifhing in richnefs. Heliodorus, named Periegetes, the guide, had employed on it 15 books. The curio- fities of various kinds, with the piftures, ftatues, and pieces of fculpture, were fo many and fo remarkable, as to fupply Polemo Periegetes with matter for four volumes •, and Strabo affirms, that as many would be required in treating of other portions of Athens and of Attica. In particular, the number of ftatues was prodigious. Tiberius Nero, who was fond of images, plundered the acropolis as well as Delphi and Olym¬ pia 5 yet Athens, and each of thefe places, had not fewer than 3000 remaining in the time of Pliny. Even Paufanias feems here to be diftreffed by the mul¬ tiplicity of his fubjecl. But this banquet, as it were, of the fenfes has long been withdrawn 5 and is now be¬ come like the tale of a vifion. The fpeftator views 'with concern the marble ruins intermixed with mean flat-roofed cottages, and extant amid rubbilh ; the fad memorials of a nobler people j which, however, as vi- fible from the fea, fhould have introduced modern Athens to more early notice. They w ho reported it was only a fmall village, muft, it has been furmifed, have beheld the acropolis through the wrong end of their telefcopes. “ The acropolis has now, as formerly, only one entrance, which fronts the Piraeus. The afcent is by traverfes and rude fortifications furnifhed with cannon, but without carriages, and negledled. By the fecond gate is the ftation of the guard, who fits crofs-legged under cover, much at his eafe, fmoking his pipe, or drinking coffee, with his companions about him in like attitudes. Over this gateway is an infcription in large charadters on a Hone turned upfide down, and black from the fires made below. It records a prefent of a pair of gates. g “ Going farther up, you come to the ruins of thePropyl£a. propylea, an edifice which graced the entrance into the B b .2 citadel A T H Athens, citadel. This was one of the ftru&ures ol Pericles, ^ v who began itw’hen Euthymenes was archon, 435 years ' before Chrift. It was completed in five years, at the expence of 2012 talents. It was of marble, of the Doric order, and had five doors to afford an eafy paf- fage to the multitudes which reforted on bufmefs or devotion to the acropolis. While this fabric was building, the architeft Mne- ficles, whole activity equalled his {kill, was hurt by a fall, and the phyficians defpaired of his life : but Mi¬ nerva, who was propitious to the undertaking, appear¬ ed, it was faid, to Pericles, and prefcribed a remedy, by which he was fpeedily and eafily cured. It was a plant or herb growing round about the acropolis, and ^ called afterwards parlhenium. Temple of “ The right wing of the propylea was a temple of Vidtory. Victory. They related that iEgeus had flood there, viewing the fea, and anxious for the return of his Ion Thefeus, who was gone to Crete with the tributary children to be delivered to the Minotaur. The veflel which carried them had black fails luiting the occafion of its voyage j and it was agreed, that, if 1 hefeus overcame the enemy, their colour ftrould be changed to white. The neglect of this fignal was fatal to ./Egeus, who, on feeing the fails unaltered, threw himfelf down headlong from the rock, and perilhed. The idol was named Viciovy without wings / it was faid, becaufe the news of the fuccefs of Thefeus did not arrive but with the conqueror. It had a pomegranate in the right hand, and a helmet in the left. As the ftatue was without pinions, it was hoped the goddefs would re¬ main for ever on the fpot. “ On the left wing of the propylea, and fronting the temple of Vi&ory, was a building decorated with paint¬ ings by Polygnotus, of which an account is given by Paufaruas. This edifice, as well as the temple, was of the Doric order, the columns fluted, and without bales. Both contributed alike to the uniformity and grandeur of the defign ; and the whole fabric, when finiflied, was deemed equally magnificent and orna¬ mental. The interval between Pericles and Paufanias conlifts of feveral centuries. The propylea remained entire in the time of this topographer 5 and, as will be fkown, continued nearly fo to a much later period. It had then a roof of white marble, which was unfur- paffed either in the fize of the ftones or in the beauty of their arrangement } and before each wing was an equeftrian ftatue. “ The propylea have ceafed to be the entrance of the acropolis. The paflage which was between the columns in the centre, is walled up aimoft to their capitals, and above is a battery of cannon. 1 he way now winds before the front of the ancient ftrufture ; and turning to the left hand among rubbifti and mean walls, you come to the back part, and to the five door-ways. The foil without is rifen higher than the top of the two fmafter. There, under the vault and cannon, lies a heap of large ftones, the ruin of the roof. “ The temple of Vi&ory, Handing on an abrupt rock, has its back and one fide encumbered with the modern ramparts. The columns in the front being wafted up, you enter it by a breach in the fide, within the propylea. It was ufed by the Turks as a maga¬ zine for powder, until about the year 1656, when a A T H fudden explofion, occafioned by lightning, carried away Athena, the roof, with a houfe eretled on it, belonging to the yr-™..' officer who commanded in the acropolis, whofe family, 10 except a girl, perffhed. The women of the aga con- tinned to inhabit this quarter, but it is now ahan-an expi0_ doned and in ruins. fion. “ The cell of the temple of Vidlory, which is of white marble, very thick, and ftrongly cemented, fuf- ' . ficiently witneffes the great violence it has undergone j the ftones in many places being disjointed, as it were, and forced from their original pofition. Two of thefe making an acute angle, the exterior edges touching, without the crevice; and the light abroad being much ftronger than in the room, which has a modern roof and is dark 5 the portion in contaft becoming pellucid, had illumined the vacant fpace with a dim colour re- fembling that of amber. We were defired to examine this extraordinary appearance, which the Greeks re¬ garded as a Handing miracle, and which the Turks, wTho could not confute them, beheld with equal afto- nifhment. We found in the gape fome coals, which had been brought on a bit of earthen ware for the purpofe of burning incenfe, as we fuppofed, and alfo a piece of w'ax-taper, which probably had been light¬ ed in honour of the faint and author of the wonder*, but our Swifs unfortunately carrying his own candle too far in, the fmoke blackened the marble, and de- ftroyed the phenomenon. “ The building oppofite to the temple has ferved as a foundation for a fquare lofty tower of ordinary ma* fonry. The columns of the front are wafted up, and the entrance is by a low iron gate in the fide. It is now ufed as a place of confinement for delinquents : but in 1676 wras a powder-magazine. In the waft of a ram¬ part near it are fome fragments of exquifite fculpture, reprefenting the Athenians fighting with the Amazons. Thefe belong to the frieze, which was then Handing. In the fecond century, when Paufanias lived, much of the painting was impaired by age, but fome remained, and the fubje&s w*ere chiefly taken from the Trojan ftory. The traces are fince vanifhed. “ The pediment of the temple of Viflory, with that of the oppofite wing, is defcribed as remaining in 1676 ; but on each building a fquare tower had been erefted. One of the fteps in the front of the propylea was entire, with the four columns, their entablature, and the pediment. The portico, to which the five door¬ ways belonged, confifted of a large Iquare room, roof¬ ed with flabs of marble, which were laid on two great marble beams, and fuftained by four beautiful columns. Thefe were Ionic, the proportions of this order beft fuiting that purpofe, as taller than the Doric *, the reafon it was likewife preferred in the pronaos of the temple of Viftory. The roof of the propylea, after Handing above 2000 years, was probably deftroyed, with aft the pediments, by the Venetians in 1687, when they battered the caftle in front, firing red-hot bullets, and took it, but were compelled to refign it again to the Turks in the following year. The exte¬ rior wafts, and, in particular, a fide of the temple of Viiftory, retain many marks of their hoftilities. 1X “ The chief ornament of the acropolis was the par-Temple of thenon or great temple of Minerva, a moft fuperb and Minerva, magnificent fabric. The Perfians had burned the edi- ficeC wftuch before occupied the fite, and was called hecatompedoni 196 ] A T H [ 197 ] A T H Athens, hecatompedon, from its being 100 feet fquare. The —"Y~—' zeal of Pericles and of all the Athenians was exerted in providing a far more ample and glorious relidence for their favourite goddefs. The architects were Cal¬ licrates and Idtinus ; and a treatife on the building was written by the latter and Carpion. It was of white marble, of the Doric order, the columns fluted and without bafes, the number in front eight j and adorned with admirable fculpture. The ftory of the birth of Minerva was carved in the front pediment j and in the back, her conteft with Neptune for the country. The beafts of burden, which had conveyed up the materials, were regarded as facred, and recom- penfed with paftures; and one, which had voluntarily headed the train, was maintained during life, without I2 labour, at the public expence. Her ftatue. “ The ftatue of Minerva, made for this temple by Phidias, was of ivory, 26 cubits or 39 feet high. It ■was decked with pure gold to the amount of 44 ta¬ lents, fo difpofed by the advice of Pericles as to be taken oft' and weighed if required. The goddefs was reprefented Handing, with her veftment reaching to her feet. Her helmet had a fphinx for the creft, and on the ftdes were griffins. The head of Medufa was on her breaftplate. In one hand Are held her fpear, and in the other fupported an image of Yi&ory about four cubits high. The battle of the Centaurs and Lapithm was carved on her fandals *, and on her ftiield, wdiich lay at her feet, the war of the gods and giants, and the battle of the Athenians and Amazons. By her fpear was a ferpent, in allufion to the ftory of E- richthonius •, and on the pedeftal, the birth of Pando¬ ra. The Sphinx, the Viftory, and Serpent, were ac- /Counted eminently wonderful. This image was placed in the temple in the firft year of the 87th Olympiad, in wThich the Peloponnefian war began. The' gold was ftripped off by the tyrant Lychares, when Demetrius Poliorcetes compelled him to fly. The fame plunderer plucked down the golden ftiields in the acropolis, and carried away the golden ViClories, with the precious veffels and ornaments provided for the Panathengean feftival. “ The parthenon remained entire for many ages af¬ ter it was deprived of the goddefs. The Chriftians converted it into a church, and the Mahometans into a mofque. It is mentioned in the letters of Crufius, and mifcalled the pantheon and the temple of the un¬ known God. The Venetians under Koningfmark, when they befteged the acropolis in 1687, threw a bomb, which demoliftied the roof, and, fetting fire to fome powder, did much damage to the fabric. The floor, which is indented, ftill witneffes the place of its fall. This was the fad forerunner of farther deftruc- tion •, the Turks breaking the ftones, and applying them to the building of a new mofque, -which Hands wdthin the ruin, or to the repairing their houfes and the walls of the fortrefs. The vaft pile of ponderous materials, which lay ready, is greatly diminifhed ; and the whole ftru&ure will gradually be confumed and difappear. Temple “ fhe temple of Minerva in 1676 was, as Wheeler converted and Spon affert, the fineft mofque in the world, with- into a out comparifon. The Greeks had adapted the fabric mofque. to their ceremonial, by conftru&ing at one end a femi- circular recefs for the holy tables, with a window j for before it was enlightened only by the door, obfcurity Athens, being preferred under the heathen ritual, except on feftivals, when it yielded to fplendid illuminations : the reafon, it has been furmifed, why temples are com¬ monly found Ample and unadorned on the infides. In the wall beneath the window were inferted two pieces of the ftone called phengites, a fpecies of marble dif- covered in Cappadocia in the time of Nero ; and fo tranfparent that he erefted with it a temple to For¬ tune, which wras luminous within when the door was Ihut. Thefe pieces were perforated, and the light which entered was tinged wfith a reddiftr or yellowifh hue. The pisfture of the Panagia or Virgin Mary, in mofaic, on the ceiling of the recefs, remained ; with two jafper columns belonging to the fcrpen, which had feparated that part from the nave $ and within, a ca¬ nopy fupported by four pillars of porphyry, with Co¬ rinthian capitals of white marble, under which the table had been placed 5 and behind it, beneath the window, a marble chair for the archbifhop ; and alfo a pulpit Handing on four fmall pillars in the noddle aile. The Turks had white-wafhed the walls, to obli¬ terate the portraits of faints, and idle other paintings, with which the Greeks decorate their places of wor- fhip ; and had eredted a pulpit on the right hand for' their iman or reader. The roof was difpofed in fquare compartments ; the ftones maflive ; and fome had fal¬ len in. It had been fuftained in the pronaos by fix co¬ lumns but the place of one was then fupplied by a large pile of rude mafonry, the Turks Hot having been able to fill up the gap more worthily. The roof of the naos was fupported by colonnades ranging with the door, on each fide ; and confifting of 22 pillars be ¬ low, and of 23 above. The odd one was oyer the en¬ trance, which by that difpofition was left wide and un~ embarraffed. In the portico were fufpended a few lamps, to be ufed in the mofque at the feafons when the muflelmans affemble before day-break, or to be lighted up round the minaret, as is the cuftom during their Ramazan or Lent. ^ “ It is not eafy to conceive a more ftriking objedl Magnifi- than the parthenion, though now a mere ruin. The co-centnhn' lumns within the naos have all been removed: but on the floor may be feen the circles which diredfed the workmen in placing them ) and at the farther end is a groove acrofs it, as for one of the partitions of the cell. The recefs eredled by the Chriftians is demolifti¬ ed *, and from the ruhbifh of the ceiling the Turkifli boys colledt bits of the mofaic, of different colours, wdiich compofed the pidlure. We wrere told at Smyr¬ na, that this fubftance had taken a polifti, and been fet in buckles. This cell is about half demoliftied j and in the columns which furrounded it is a large gap near the middle. On the w7alls are fome traces of the paintings. Before the portico is a refervoir funk in the rock, to fupply the Turks with water for the purifications cuftomary on entering their mofques. In it, on the left hand, is the rubbifh of the pile eredled to fupply the place of a column j and on the right, a ftaircafe, which leads out on the architrave, and has a marble or two with infcriptions, but w7orn fo as not to be legible. It belonged to the minaret, which has been deftroyed. j_ “ The travellers, to whom we are indebted for an Sculptures, account of the mofque, have likewife given a defcrip- tion A T H Athens. I tion of tlie fculpture then remaining in the front. In the middle of the pediment was feen a bearded Jupiter, with a majeftic countenance, Handing, and naked ; the right arm broken. The thunderbolt, it has been fup- pofed, was placed in that hand, and the eagle between his feet. On his right was a figure, it is conje&ured, of Viftory, clothed to the mid-leg 3 the head and arms gone. This was leading on the horfes of a car, in which Minerva fat, young and unarmed; her head- drefs, inftead of a helmet, refembling that of a Ve¬ nus. The generous ardour and lively fpirit vifible in this pair of celeftial Heeds, was fuch as befpoke the hand of a mailer, bold and delicate, of a Phidias or Praxiteles. Behind Minerva was a female figure, with¬ out a head, fitting with an infant in her lap ; and in this angle of the pediment was the emperor Hadrian with his arm round Sabina, both reclining, and feem- ing to regard Minerva with pleafure. On the left fide of Jupiter were five or fix other trunks to complete the aflembly of deities, into which he received her. Thefe figures were all wonderfully carved, and appeared as big as life. Hadrian and his confort, it is likely, were complimented by the Athenians with places among the marble gods in the pediment, as benefaftors. Both of them may be confidered as intruders on the original company ; and poflibly their heads were pla¬ ced on trunks, which before had other owners. They Hill pofiefs their corner, and are eafy to be recognifed though not unimpaired. The refi of the Hatues arc defaced, removed, or fallen. Morofini was ambitious to enrich Venice with the fpoils of Athens; and by an attempt to take down the principal group, haflened their ruin. In the other pediment is a head or tivo of fea-horfes finely executed, with fome mutilated figures ; and on the architrave beneath them are marks of the fixtures of votive offerings, perhaps of the golden fiiields, or of fefloons fufpended on folemn occafions, when the temple was dreffed out to receive the votaries of the goddefs. £redlh£iim. “ Neptune and Minerva, once rival deities, were joint and amicable tenants of the Ere&heum, in which wras an altar of Oblivion. The building was double, a partition wall dividing it into two temples, which fronted different ways. One was the temple of Nep¬ tune Ere&heus, the other of Minerva Polias. The latter was entered by a fquare portico connefted with a marble Ikreen, which fronts towards the propylea. The door of the cell was on the left hand : and at the farther end of the paffage was a door leading down in- to the Pandrofeum, -which was contiguous. Temple of “ Before the temple of Neptune Ere&heus was an Neptune E-altar of Jupiter the fupreme, on which no living thing rectheus. was facrificed, but they offered cakes without wine. Within it was the altar of Neptune and Ere&heus ; and two, belonging to Vulcan and a hero named Eli¬ tes, who had tranfmitted the prieflhood to his poffe- rity, which were called Butadce. On the walls were paintings of this illufirious family, from which the prieflefs of Minerva Polias was alfo taken. It was af- ferted that Neptune had ordained the well of fait wa¬ ter, and the figure of a trident in the rock, to be me¬ morials of his contending for the country. The for¬ mer, Paufanias remarks, was no great wonder, for other wells of a fimilar nature were found inland ; but [ 198 ] A T H 16 this when the fouth wind blei^, afforded the found of Athens. waves. 1 v——^ “ The temple of Minerva Polias was dedicated by 18 all Attica, and poffeffed the moff ancient flatue cf Mineiva the goddefs. The demi or towns had other deities, 1J°lias' but their zeal for her fuffered no diminution. The image, which they placed in the acropolis, then the city, was in after ages not only reputed confummately holy, but believed to have fallen down from heaven in the reign of Erichthonius. It was guarded by a large ferpent, which was regularly ferved with offerings of honeyed cakes for his food. This divine reptile was of great fagacity, and attained to an extraordinary age. He wifely withdrew from the temple when in danger from the Medes; and, it is faid, wras living in the fe- cond century. Before this flatue wras an owl; and a golden lamp. This continued burning day and night. It was contrived by a curious artifl, named Callimachus, and did not require to be repleniflied with oil oftener than once a year. A brazen palm-tree, reaching to the roof, received its fmoke. Ariflion had let the holy flame expire wdiile Sylla befieged him, and was abhorred for his impiety. The original olive-tree, faid to have been produced by Minerva, was kept in this temple. When the Medes fet fire to the acropo¬ lis, it was confumed; but, they afferted, on the follow¬ ing day, w’as found to have fliot up again as much as a cubit. It grew low and crooked, but was efleemed very holy. The prieflefs of Minerva w7as not allowed to eat of the new cheefe of Attica ; and, among her perquifites, was a meafure of wdieat, and one of barley, for every birth and burial. This temple w7as again burned when Callias was archon, 24 years after the death of Pericles. Near it wTas the tomb of Cecrops, and wdthin it Eredlheus wras buried. “ The ruin of the Eredlheum is of white marble ; the architettural ornaments of very exquifite wmrkman- fliip, and uncommonly curious. The columns of the front of the temple of Neptune are Handing wuth the architrave; and alfo the Ikreen and portico of Minerva Polias, and with a portion of the cell retaining traces of the partitiomwall. The order is Ionic. An edifice revered by ancient Attica, as holy in the highefl de¬ gree, wras in 1676 the dwelling of a Turkifli family, and is now7 deferted and neglefted ; but many ponde¬ rous Hones and much rubbiih mufl be removed before the well and trident wmuld appear. The former, at leafl, might probably be difeovered. The portico is ufed as a powder-magazine ; but we obtained permifi- fion to dig and examine the outfide. The door-way of the veflibule is walled up, and the foil rifen nearly to the top of the door-way of the prandofeum. By the portico is a battery commanding the town, from W'hich afeends an amufing hum. The ’l urks fire from it, to give notice of the commencement of Ramazan or of their Lent, and of Bairam or the holy-days, and on other public occafions. ‘‘ The prandofeum is a fmall, but very particular building, of which no fatisfadlory idea can be commu¬ nicated by defeription. The entablature is fupported by women called Caryatides. Their flory is thus re¬ lated. The Greeks, vidlorious in the Perfian wrar, jointly deflroyed Carya, a city of the Peloponnefus, which had favoured the' common enemy. They cut off 1 Athens. I^>. Of Jupiter Olympius. 20 Detached piecesof an¬ tique fculp- Sure, &c. A T H [ i off the males, and carried into captivity the women, whom they compelled to retain their former drefs and ornaments, though in a Hate of fervitude. The ar¬ chitects of thole times, to perpetuate the memory of their punifhment, reprefented them, as in this inflance, each with a burden on her head, one hand uplifted to it and the other hanging down by her lide. The images were in number fix, all looking toward the par- thenon. The four in front, with that next to the propylea, remain, but mutilated, and their faces be- fmeared with paint. The foil is rifen almoft to the top of the bafement on which they are placed. This temple was open or latticed between the ftatues 5 and in it alfo was a Hunted olive-tree, with an altar of Ju¬ piter Herceus Handing under it. The propylea are nearly in a line with the fpace dividing it from the Par¬ thenon ; which difpofition, befides its other effedls, oc- cafioned the front and flank of the latter edifice to be feen at once by thofe who approached it from the en¬ trance of the acropolis. “ The ruin of the temple of Jupiter Olympius con- fifls of prodigious columns, tall and beautiful, of the Corinthian order, fluted; fome Angle, fome fupporting the architraves •, with a few maflive marbles beneath : the remnant of a vaH heap, which only many ages could have confumed and reduced into fo fcanty a compafs. The columns are of very extraordinary dimenfions, be¬ ing about fix feet in diameter, and near 60 in height. The number without the cell was 116 or 1 20. Seven¬ teen were Handing in 1676: but a few years before we arrived, one wras overturned with much difficulty, and applied to the building a new roofque in the bazar or market-place. This violence was avenged by the bafliawT of Negropont, who made it a pretext for ex¬ torting from the vaiwode or governor 15 purfes ; the pillar being, he alledged, the property of their maHer the Grand Signior. It was an angular column, and of confequence in determining the dimenfions of the fabric. We regretted that the fall of this mighty xnafs had not been pofiponed until we came, as it wmuld have afforded an opportunity of infpecling and mea- furing fome members which we found far too lofty to be attempted. On a piece of the architrave, fupport- ed by a couple of columns, are two parallel walls, of modern mafonry, arched about the middle, and again near the top. You are told it has been the habitation of a hermit, doubtlefs of a flylite ; but for whatever building it has been part, and for whatever purpofe defigned, it muH have been ere£fed thus high in air,’ while the immenfe ruin of this huge flruiffure vras yet fcarcely diminiffied, and the heap inclined fo as to ren¬ der it acceffible. It was remarked that two Hones of a Hep in the front had coalefced at the extremity, fo that no juncture could be perceived ; and the like was difcovered alfo in a Hep of the parthenon. In both inHances it may be attributed to a concretory fluid, which pervades the marble in the quarry. Some por¬ tion remaining in the pieces, when taken green as it were, and placed in mutual contaft, it exuded and united them by a procefs fimilar to that in a bone of an animal when broken and properly fet. “ Befides the more fiable antiquities, many detach¬ ed pieces are found in the town, by the fountains, in the fireets, the walls, the houfes, and churches. A- mong thefe are fragments of fculnture ; a marble chair 99 ] A T H or two, which probably belonged to the gymnafia or theatres : a fun-dial at the catholicon or cathedral, in- fcribed with the name of the maker ; and, atHhe ar- v chiepifcopal houfe clofe by, a very curious veffel of marble, ufed as a cillern to receive water, but once ferving, it is likely, as public flandard or meafure. Many columns occur: with fome maimed Hatues ; and pedeflals, feveral with infcriptions, and almoH buried in earth. A cuftom has prevailed, as at Chios, of fixing in the wall, over the gateways and doors of the houfes, carved Hones, mcfl of which exhibit the tune- ral fupper. In the courts of the houfes lie many round flylae, or pillars, once placed on the graves of the Athenians; and a great number are Hill to be feen applied to the fame ufe in the Turkiffi burying grounds before the acropolis. Thefe generally have eoncife infcriptions containing the name of the perfon, and of the town and tribe to which the deceafed belonged. Demetrius the Phalerian, who endeavoured to reflraiu fepulchral luxury, enadled, that no perfon ffiould have more than one, and that the height ffiould not exceed three cubits. Another fpecies, which refembles our' modern head Hones, is fometimes adorned with fculp- ture, and has an epitaph in verfe. We faw a few mu¬ tilated Hermse.- Thefe wrere buHs on long quadran¬ gular bafes, the heads frequently of brafs, invented by the Athenians. At firll they were made to reprefent only Hermes or Mercury, and defigned as guardians of the fepulchres in which they were lodged ; but af¬ terwards the houfes, Hreets, and porticoes of Athens were adorned with them, and rendered venerable by a multitude of portraits of illuftrious men and women, of heroes, and of gods : and, it is related, Hippar¬ chus, fon of Pififlratus, eredfed them in the demi or borough towns, and by the road fide, infcribed with moral apophthegms in elegiac verfe; thus making them vehicles of inflrudlion.” ATHERINA. See Ichthyology Index. ATHEROMA, in Surgery, a tumor without pain or difcoloration of the Ikin, containing, in a membra¬ nous bag, matter refembling pap, intermixed with hard and flony particles. Thefe tumors are ufually cured by incifion. ATHERTON, or Atherston, a town of War- wickffiire in England, fituated on the river Stour, in W. Long. 1. 30. N. Lat. 52. 40. It is a confiderable town, and had formerly a monaflery ; but now is belt knowm by its fair, which is the greatefi in England for cheefe. ATHESIS, in Ancient Geography, a river of the Cifalpine Gaul, which, riling in the Rhetian Alps, in Mount Brenna, in the county of Tirol, runs fouth- wards and waffies Tridentum and Verona, which lait it divides; and after palling this, bends its courfe eafi- wards, in a parallel direction with the Po, and falls in¬ to the Adriatic between Folia Claudia and Philiflina ; it feparated the Euganei, an ancient people from the Veneti. The people dwelling on it are called Athejtni (Pliny). Its modern name is the Adige. ATHLETAk, in Antiquity, perfons of ftrength and agility, difciplined to perform in the public games. The word is originally Greek, : formed from certamen, “ combat ;” whence alfo nAXov, the prize or reward adjudged the viftor.—Under athletic were comprehended wrefilers. boxei's, runners, leapers, throwers Athens II Athletae. A T H [ 200 ] A T H Athletic throwers of the difk, and thofe praftifed in other ex- j ercifes exhibited in the Olympic, Pythian, and other folemn fports 5 for the conquerors wherein there were eltablilhed prizes. ATHLETIC habit, denotes a flrong hale con- fhitution of body. Anciently it lignified a full flelhy corpulent ftate, fuch as the athletae endeavoured to arrive at. The athletic habit is efteemed the highell pitch of health: yet it is dangerous, and the next door to difeafe ; fince, when the body is no longer capable of being improved, the next alteration mult be for the worfe. The chief objeft of the athletic diet, was to obtain a firm, bulky, weighty body $ by force of which, more than art and agility, they frequently overpower¬ ed their antagonill : hence they fed altogether on dry, folid, and vifeous meats. In the earlier days, their chief food was dry figs and cheefe, which w7as called arida fagwatio, |/)»^ r^a'pYt, and Atwtis <5 Oribafius, or, as others fay, Pythagoras, firlt brought this into difufe, and fubflituted flelh in lieu thereof. They had a peculiar bread called : They exercifed, ate, ffnd drank, without ceafing: they were not allowed to leavg off eating when fatiated \ but were obliged to cram on till they could hold no more; by which means they at length acquired a degree of voracity which to us feems incredible, and a ftrength proportional. Witnefs what Paufanias relates of the four celebrated athletae, Polydamus the Theffalian, Milo the Crotoni- an, Theagenes the Thafian, and Euthymus the Locrian : The fecond is faid to have carried a bull on his back a confiderable way, then to have knocked him down with a blow of his fill, and laftly, as fome add, devour¬ ed him at a meal. ATHLONE, a town of Weftmeath in Ireland, lying in W. Long. 8. O. N. Lat. 53. 20. It is fitua- ted on both fides of the Shannon, and both parts are united by a ftrong, high-raifed, and well-built bridge, in the middle of which Hands a monument, with fome figures cut in marble, together with Queen Elizabeth’s arms, and fome inferiptions declaring the time and the founders of the building. The caftle was founded by King John on fome land belonging to St Peter’s abbey, for which he granted a compenfation. It is built on a high-raifed round hill, refembling one of the Danifh raths or forts. Here were formerly two convents or monafteries. Athlone was formerly ftrongly fortified, and confidered as of very great importance. In the year 1691, a part of the Englilh army under General Ginckle, in the very face of the Iriflr who were ftrongly intrenched on the oppofite fliore, fording the river, formed, and took poffeffion of the town, not lofing more than 50 men in the attack; which is efteemed as bold and fuccefsful an enterprife as any re¬ corded in hiftory. There are generally two troops of horfe and four companies of foot quartered at Athlone. This town gives the title earl to the family of Ginckle, as a reward for the noble fervices performed by the general. ATHOL, the moft northern diftridl of Perthfhire in Scotland, extending in length 43 miles, and in breadth 30. It is bordered on the north by Badenoch, on the weft by Lochaber, on the eaft and fouth-eaft by Mar and Gowrie, on the fouth by Stratherne and Perth Proper, and on the fouth-weft by Braidalbane. The country is very rough and mountainous, and I contains part of the ancient Caledonian foreft ; but Athos. thefe mountains are interfperfed with fruitful valleys. *■——%— Here are feveral villages, but no towms of any con- fideration. The moft noted place is Blair-Caftle, feated on the river Tilt, near its influx into the Gurry, a pleafant limpid ftream that falls in the Tay. This caftle belongs to the duke of Athol, who derives his title from this diftrict, and lives here with great magnificence. In the fame neighbourhood we fee the pafs of Gillicranky, rendered memorable by the bat¬ tle fought here in the beginning of King William’s reign, between that monarch’s general M‘Kay, and the Highlanders adhering to King James. See Gil¬ licranky. ATHOS, a celebrated mountain of Chalcidia in Macedonia, fituated in E. Long. 26. 20. N. Lat. 40. ic. The ancients entertained extravagant notions concern¬ ing its height. Mela affirmed it to be fo high as to reach above the clouds; and Martianus Capellinus, that it was fix miles high. It was a received opinion that the fummit of Mount Athos -was above the middle region of the air, and that it never rained there ; be- cauie the affies left on the altars ere&cd near its fummit were always found as they were left, dry and unfeat- tered. But if on many accounts it was famous among the ancients, it is no lefs fo among the moderns. The Greeks, ftruck with its Angular lituation and the vene¬ rable appearance of its towering afeent, erected fo many churches, monafteries, hermitages, &c. upon it, that it became in a manner inhabited by devotees, and from thence received the name of the Holy Mountain; which name it ftill retains, though many of thofe confecrated works are now decayed. According to the accounts of modern travellers, this mountain advances into the Archipelago, being joined to the continent by an ifth- mus about half a league in breadth. It is about 30 miles in circumference, and two in perpendicular height. It may be travelled over in about three days, and may be feen 90 miles off. There is a fine pro- fpedf from the top ; but, like all other high moun¬ tains, the cold on its fummit is exceffive. It abounds with many different kinds of plants and trees, parti¬ cularly the pine and fir. In the valleys grow's a plant called elegia, whofe branches ferve to make pens for writing. In ftiort, this mountain is faid to be adorned with variety of herbage and evergreens, a multitude of fprings and ftreams, and woods growing near the fhore, fo as to be one of the moft agreeable places in the world. It is now inhabited by Caloyers, a fort of Greek monks, of the order of St Bafil, wrho never marry, though others of that church do. They abftain from fleffi, and fare very hardly, their ordinary meal being olives pickled when they are ripe. They are about 6000 in all, and inhabit feveral parts of the mountain, on which are 24 large old monafteries, furrounded with high w-alls for a defence againft banditti. They are fo refpedted, that the Turks themfelves will often fend them alms. Thefe monks are not idle like others; but labour with the axe, fpade, and fickle, dreffing them¬ felves like hermits. Formerly they had fine Greek manuferipts; but are now become fo illiterate, that they can fcarce read or write. Through this mountain, or rather through the ifth- mus behind it, Xerxes king of Perfia is faid to have cut Atkins. A T K [201 Athwart cut a paffage for his fleet when about to invade Greece. In this work he fpent three whole years, and employ- ed in it all the forces on board the fleet. He is alfo faid, before the work was begun, to have written the following infolent and ridiculous letter to the moun¬ tain : “ Athos, thou proud and afpiring mountain, that liftefl: up thy head to the very Ikies, I advife thee not to be fo audacious as to put rocks and ftones that cannot be cut in the way of my workmen. If thou makeft that oppofition, I will cut thee entirely down, and throw thee headlong into the fea.” The directors of this enterprife are faid to have been Bubaris the fon of Megabyzus, and Artacheus, the fon of Arbeus, both Perfians ; but as no traces of fuch a great work remain, the truth of the whole relation has juftly been called in queftion. ATHWART, in Navigation, is fynonymous with acrofs the line of the courfe. Athwart the Fore-foot, is a phrafe that denotes the flight of a cannon ball from one (hip acrofs the courfe of another, to intercept the latter, and oblige her to fliorten fail, that the former may come near enough to examine her. ATHivART-Haufe, exprefles the fituation of a (hip, when flie is driven by wind or tide, or any other acci¬ dent, acrofs the fore part of another. Athwart-Ships, reaching acrofs (hips from one fide to the other. ATHY, a town of Ireland, in the county of Kil¬ dare, not far from the borders of Queen’s county. W. Long. 7. o. N. Lat. 53. o. It is fituated on the river Barrow 5 is governed by a fovereign, two bailiffs, and a recorder j and is, alternately with Naas, the af- fizes town. ATI BAR, the name by which the inhabitants of the kingdom of Gago in Africa call gold dull j from which word, Europeans, and efpecially the French, have compofed the word tibir, which alfo fignifies gold dull among thofe who trade in that commodity. ATIGNY, an ancient town of Champagne in France, where feveral of the kings of France had their refidence. It is feated on the river Arfne, in E. Long. 4. 47. N. Lat. 49. 30. ATKINS, Sir Robert, lord chief baron of the exchequer, was born in 1621, and educated at the uni- verfity of Oxford, from whence he removed to the inns of court, and became eminent in the law. He was made knight of the Bath, with many other perfons of the firfl; diftinflion, at the coronation of King Charles IL. In 1672, he was appointed one of the judges of common pleas ; in which honourable ftation he con¬ tinued till 1679, when, forefeeing the troubles that foon after enfued, he thought fit to refign, and retire into the country. In 1689, he was made by King William lord chief baron of the exchequer j and about the fame time executed the office of fpeaker to the houfe of lords, which had been previoufly refufed by the marquis of Halifax. He diflinguilhed himfelf by an unfliaken zeal for the laws and liberties of his coun¬ try. He wrote feveral pieces, which have been col¬ lected into one volume 8vo, under the title of Parlia¬ mentary and Political Tracis. The authors of the Biographia Britannica remark, that whoever inclines to be thoroughly informed of the true conftitution of his country, of the grounds and reafons of the revo- Yol. lil. Parti. ] A T L lution, and of the danger of fuffering prerogative to Atkins joftle law, cannot read a better or plainer book than He died in 1709, thofe trafts of Sir Robert Atkins, aged 88. Atkins, Sir Robert, fon of the preceding, was born in 1646, and was eminent for all the virtues that could adorn an Engliffi gentleman. He wrote The Ancient and Prefent State of Gloucefterffiire, in one large vo¬ lume in folio j and died Oftober 29. 1711. ATKYNS, Ric hard, was defcended from a good family, and was born at Tuffleigh in Gloucefterffiire in the year 1615. He was educated at Oxford, from whence he removed to Lincoln’s Inn, and afterwards diftinguiftied himfelf by his loyalty to King Charles I. for whom he railed a troop of horfe at his own ex¬ pence. At the Reftoration he was made one of the deputy lieutenants of Gloucefterffiire, and difiinguiffi- ed himfelf by his attachment to the government. But at length being committed prifoner to the Mar- ffialfea in Southwark for debt, he died there on the 14th of September 1677. He wrote feveral pieces, particularly A Treatife on the Original and Growth of Printing. ATLANTIC ocean, that bounded by Europe and Africa on the eaft, and by America on the weft. ATLANTICA. See Atlantis. ATLANTIDES, in AJironomy, a denomination given to the Pleiades, or feven ftars, fometimes alfo called Vergillite. They are thus called, as being fuppo- fed by the poets to have been the daughters either of Atlas or his brother Hefperus, who were tranflated in¬ to heaven. ATLANTIS, Atalantis, or Atlantica, an ifland mentioned by Plato and fome others of the an¬ cients, concerning the real exiftence of which many difputes have been raifed. Homer, Horace, and the other poets, make two Atlanticas, calling them He- fperides and Elyftan Fields, making them the habita¬ tions of the bleffed. The moft diftimft account of this ifland we have in Plato’s Timseus, of which Mr Cham¬ bers gives the following abridgement. “ The Atlantis was a large illand in the weftern ocean, fituated before or oppofite to the ftraits of Gades. Out of this ifland there w^as an eafy paffage into fome others, which lay near a large continent exceeding in bignefs all Europe and Afia. Neptune fettled in this ifland (from wdrofe fon Atlas its name was derived), and divided it among his ten fons. To the youngeft fell the extremity of the ifland, called Gadir, which in the language of the country fignifies fertile, or abundant in fieep. The de- fcendants of Neptune reigned here from father to fon for a great number of generations in the order of pri¬ mogeniture, during the fpace of 9000 years. They al¬ fo poffeffed feveral other iflands; and, palling into Eu¬ rope and Africa, fubdued all Libya as far as Egypt, and all Europe to Afia Minor. At length the ifland funk under w^ater 5 and for a long time afterwards the fea thereabouts was full of rocks and (helves.” Many of the moderns alfo are of opinion, that the exiftence of the Atlantis is not to be looked upon as entirely fabulous. Some take it to have been Ameri¬ ca ; and from thence, as well as from a paffage in Se¬ neca’s Medea, and fome other obfcure hints, they imagine that the new world was not unknown to the ancients. But allowing this to be the cafe, the above- C c mentioned Atlantides A T L [ 202 j AT M Atlantis mentioned continent, which was faid to lie beyond At- A jj s lantis, would feem rather to have been the continent of . ‘ [ . America than Atlantis itfelf. The learned Rudbeck, profelibr in the univerfity of Upfal, in a work entitled At la ntk a Jive Manheim, endeavours to prove that Swe¬ den and Norway are the Atlantis of the ancients; but this its frtuntion will by no means allow us to believe. By Kircher it is fuppofed to have been an illand extend¬ ing from the Canaries quite to the Azores j that it was really fwallowed up by the ocean, as Plato afferts *, and that thefe fmall iilands are the fhattered remains of it which were left Handing. Atlantis, New, is the name of a fiflitious phi- lofophical commonwealth, of which a defeription has been given by Lord Bacon.—The NewT Atlantis is fuppofed to be an illand in the South lea, to which the author was driven in a voyage from Peru to Japan. The compolition is an ingenious fable, formed after the manner of the Utopia of Sir Thomas More, or Campanella’s City of the Sun. Its chief defign is to exhibit a model or defeription of a college, inftituted for the interpretation of nature and the produ&ion of great and marvellous works, for the benefit of men, under the name of Solomon’'s lloufe, or “ the college of the fix days work.” This much, at lead, is finilhed 5 and with great beauty and magnificence. The author propofed alio a frame of laws, or of the bed date or mould of a commonwealth. But this part is not exe¬ cuted. ATLAS, king of Mauritania, a great adronomer, contemporary with Mofes. From his taking obferva- tions of the dars from a mountain, the poets feigned him to have been turned into a mountain, and to fu- ' Itain the heavens on his fiioulders. Being an excellent adronomer, and the firlt who taught the doflrine of the fphere, they tell us that his daughters were turned into liars : feven of them forming the Pleiades, and other feven the Hyades. Atlas, a chain of mountains in Africa, lying be¬ tween the 20th and 25th degree of north latitude, and fuppofed almod to divide the continent from ead to wed. They are faid to have derived their name from Atlas king of Mauritania, who was a great adronomer. They are greatly celebrated by the an¬ cients on account of their height, inforrtuch that the above-mentioned king, who is faid to have been tranf- formed into a mountain, was feigned to bear up the heavens on his dioulders. We are allured, however, by F)r Shaw, that the part of this chain of mountains which fell under his obfervation could not dand in com¬ petition either with the Alps or Apennines. He tells us, that if we conceive a number of hills, ufually of the perpendicular height of 400, 500, or 600 yards, with an eafy afeent, and feveral groves of fruit or fored trees, riling up in a fuccedion of ranges above one ano¬ ther ; and that if to this profpebt we add nowT and then a rocky precipice, and on the fummit of each imagine a miferable mud-v,’ailed village j we diall then have a juft idea of the mountains of Atlas. * HiJ}- of According to M. Chenier *, this mountain is forrn- Morvtco, ed by an endlefs chain of lofty eminences, divided into 1. 13. different countries, inhabited by a multitude oi tribes, whofe ferocity permits no ftranger to approach. “ I have not been able (continues he) to obtain a fufficient knowledge of thefe mountains to deferibe them accu¬ rately : What Leo Africanus has faid of them is very Atlas vague j and his account is the lei's to be regarded at II I prefent, as it is now about three centuries fince he Atmo* wrote, and the face of the country has been in that. *' ‘j ' . time totally changed. Nothing perhaps w’ould be more interefting to the curiodty of the philofopher, or con¬ duce more to the improvement of our knowdedge in na¬ tural hiftory, than a journey over Mount Atlas. The climate, though extremely cold in winter, is very heal¬ thy and pleafant 5 the valleys are u’ell cultivated, abound in fruits, and are diverfified by forefts and plentiful fprings, the dreams of which uniting at a little didance, form great rivers, and lofe themfelves in the ocean. According to the reports of the Moors, there are many quarries of marble, granite, and other valuable done, in thefe mountains : It is probable there arfc alfo mines, but the inhabitants have no idea of thefe riches ; they confider their liberty, wdiich their dtua- tion enables them to defend, as the mod inedimable of all treafures.” Atlas, \n Milters of Literature, denotes a book of univerfal geography, containing maps of all the known parts of the world. Atlas, in Commerce, a filk-fatin, manufaddured in the Tail Indies. There are fome plain, feme driped, and fome flowered, the dowers of which are either gold or only filk. • There are atlaffes of all colours, but mod of them falfe, efpecially the red and the crim- fon. The m&nufafture of them is admirable •, the gold and filk being worked together after fuch a manner as no workman in Europe can imitate j yet they are very far from having that fine glofs and ludre which the French know how to give to their filk duffs. In the Chinefe manufaftures of this fort, they gild paper on one fide with leaf-gold j then cut it in long flips, and weave it into their filks •, which makes them, with very little cod, look very rich and fine. The fame long flips are twided or turned about filk threads, fo artifi¬ cially, as to look finer than gold thread, though it be of no greater value. ATMOSPHERE, a word generally ufed to fignify the whole maf’s of fluid, confiding of air, aqueous and other vapours, eleftric duid, &c. furrounding the earth to a confiderable height. The compofition of that part of our atmofphere At im¬ properly called air, was till lately very much unknown.fphere com- In former times it was fuppofed to be a dmple, homo-'P0^0^t'v® geneous, and elementary fluid. The experiments of Dr Prieflley difeovered, that the pured kind of air, * which he called dephlogijlicated, was in reality a com¬ pound, and might be artificially produced in various ways. His firit conjedlures concerning its component parts were, that it confided of earth, nitrous acid, and phlogidon. Subfequent experiments rendered thefe conje&ures dubious ; and at lad it was fuppofed that dephlogidicated air is a pure elementary fubtiance, the vivifying principle to animals, and the acidifying prin¬ ciple throughout all nature. 'Phis dephlogidicated air, however, is but a fmall part of the ccmpofition of our atmofphere. According to the molt accurate computations, the air we uiually breathe is compofed of only one-fourth of this dephlogidicated air, or per¬ haps lefs j the other three or four parts confiding of what Dr Priedley calls phlogiflicated, and M. I. a voi¬ der mephitic air. This by itfclf is abfolutely noxious, and Atmo- fphere. Phlogifti- cated air poifonous to animals, and deplilo- gifticated air to •vegetables. .3 A great quantity of cledlric fluid con¬ tained in the atmo- fphere. 4 Calcula¬ tions of the height of the atmo- fphere. A T M [ 2 and exceedingly poifonous to animals: though It feems only to he negatively fo ; for when mixed in a certain proportion with dephlogiilicated air, it may be breath¬ ed with fafety, which could not be if it contained any ingredient abfolutely unfriendly to the human confti- tution. The other part, viz. the pure dephlogifticated air, feems to Hand much in the fame relation to plants that phlogillicated air does to animals; that is, it would prove poifonous and deliroy them if they were to depend upon it entirely for their fubfiltence 5 but as they derive their nourilhment partly from the air and partly from the foil, it thence happens, that the plants which are fet to grow in dephlogiilicated air do not die inftantly, as animals do in the phlogillicated kind, but remain for fome time weak and fickly. The other component parts of cur atmofphere are fo various, and of fuch heterogeneous natures, that they do not admit of any kind of definition or analyfis, one only excepted, namely, the eleBric fluid. This we know pervades the whole, but appears to be much more copious in the upper than in the lower atmofpherical regions. See Electricity. To meafure the ab- folute quantity of this fluid, either in the atmolphere or any other fubflance, is impoflible. All that we can know on this fubjedf is, that the eledlric fluid pervades the atmofphere ; that it appears to be more abundant in the fuperior than the inferior regions ; that it feems to be the immediate bond of connexion between the atmofphere and the water which is fulpended in it ; and that by its various operations, the phenomena of hail, rain, fnow, lightning, and various other kinds of meteors, are occafioned. Various attempts have been made to afcertain the height to which the atmofphere is extended all round the earth. Thefe commenced foon after it was difco- vered, by means of the Torricellian tube, that air is a gravitating fubftance. Thus it alfo became known, that a column of air, whole bafe is a fquare inch, and the height that of the whole atmofphere, weighs 15 pounds : and that the weight of air is to that of mer¬ cury, as 1 to 10,800: whence it follows, that if the weight of the atmofphere be fufficient to raife a co¬ lumn of mercury to the height of 30 inches, the height of the aerial column mult be 10,800 times as much, and confequently a little more than five miles high. It was not, however, at any time fuppofed, that this calculation could be juft •, for as the air is an elaftic fluid, the upper parts mufl expand to an immenfe bulk, and thus render the calculation above related exceed¬ ingly erroneous. By experiments made in difterent countries, it has been found, that the fpaees which any portion of air takes up, are reciprocally proportional to the weights with which it is compreffed. Allowances were therefore to be made in calculating the height of the atmofphere. If we fuppofe the height of the whole divided into inriumerable equal parts, the denflty of each of which is as its quantity ■, and the weight of the whole incumbent atmofphere being alfo as its quan¬ tity ; it is evident, that the weight of the incumbent air is everywhere as the quantity contained in the fub- jacent part •, which makes a difference between the weights of each two contiguous parts of air. By a theorem in geometry, where the differences of magni¬ tudes are geometrically proportional to the magnitudes themfelves, thefe magnitudes are in continual arithme- 03 ] A f M tical proportion ; therefore, if, according to the fuppo- Atfndi fition, the altitude of the air, by the addition of new, fPhere- , parts into which it is divided, do continually increafe in v arithmetical proportion, its denfity will be diminilhed, or (which is the fame thing, its gravity decreafed) in continual geometrical proportion. It is now eafy, from fuch a feries, by making two or three barometrical obfervations, and determining the denfity of the atmofphere at two or three different ffations, to determine its abfolute height, or its rarity, at any afiignable height. Calculations accordingly were made upon this plan j but it having been found that the barometrical obfervations by no means corre- iponded with the denfity which, by other experiments, the air ought to have had, it was fufpedled that the upper parts of the atmofpherical regions were not fub- jecft to the fame laws with the lower ones. Philofo-Height: 0f phers therefore had recourfe to another method for de-it determi- termining the altitude ol the atmofphere, viz. by a cal-fed from culation of the height from w'hich the light of the jdj' fun is refrafted, fo as to become vifible to us before heg^iof twi- himfelf is feen in the heavens. By this method it was light, determined, that at the height of 45 miles the atmo¬ fphere had no power of refradlion 5 and conlequently beyond that diltance was cither a mere vacuum or the next thing to it, and not to be regarded. This theory foon became very generally received, and the height of the atmofphere was fpoken of as fa¬ miliarly as the height of a mountain, and reckoned to be as well afcertained, if not more fo, than the heights of mofl: mountains are. Very great objections, how- ^ ever, which have never yet been removed, ariie from objection the appearances of fome meteors, like large globes of from the fire, not unfrequently to be feen at vaft heights above appearance the earth (fee Meteor). A very remarkable one ofotmeteor3' this kind was obferved by Dr Halley in the month of March 1719, whofe altitude he computed to have been between 69 and 73J Englifli miles j its diameter 2800 yards, or upwards of a mile and a half j and its velocity about 350 miles in a minute. Others, appa¬ rently of the fame kind, but whofe altitude and velo¬ city were ftill greater, have been obferved •, particularly that very remarkable one, Augufl 18th, 1783, whofe diflance from the earth could not be lefs than 90 miles, and its diameter not lefs than the former 5 at the fame time that its velocity was certainly not lefs than icoo miles in a minute. Fire-balls, in appearance fimilar to thefe, though vaftly inferior in fize, have been fome- times obferved at the furface of the earth. Of this kind Dr Prieftley mentions one feen on board the Montague, 4th November 1749, which appeared as big as a large imllflone, and broke with a violent ex- plofion. From analogical reafoning, it feems very probable, that the meteors which appear at fuch great heights in the air are not effentially different from thofe which, like the fire-ball juft mentioned, are met with on the furface of the earth. The perplexing circumftances with regard to the former are, that at the great heights above mentioned, the atmofphere ought not to have any denfity fufficient to fupport flame, or to pro¬ pagate found } yet thefe meteors are commonly fuc- ceeded by one or more explofions, nay are fometimes faid to be accompanied with a hilling noife> as they pafs over our heads. The meteor of 1719 was not C c 2 only Ateo- fphere. ATM t 2=4 ] only very bright, infomuch that for a fhort fpace it contained turned night into day, but was attended with an ex- plofion heard over all the iiland of Britain, occafioning a violent concuffion in the atmofphere, and feeming to ihake the earth itfelf. That of 1783 alfo, though much higher than the former, was fucceeded by ex- plofions 5 and, according to the teflimony of feveral people, a hiding noife was heard as it paffed. Dr Dailey acknowledged that he was unable to reconcile thefe circumftances with the received theory of the height of the atmoiphere ; as, in the regions in which this meteor moved, the air ought to have been 300,000 times more rare than what we breathe, and the next thing to a perfect vacuum. In the meteor of 1783, the difficulty is ftill greater, as it appears to have been 20 miles farther up in the air. Dr Halley offers a conjecture, indeed, that the vail magnitude of fuch bodies might compenfate for the thinnefs of the medium in which they moved. Whether or not this was the cafe cannot indeed be afcertained, as we have fo few data to go upon 5 but the greatelt difficulty is to account for the brightnefs of the light. Appearances of this kind are indeed with great probability attributed to eleClricity, but the dif- iiculty is not thus removed. Though the eleftrical hre pervades with great eafe the vacuum of a common air-pump, yet it does not in that cafe appear in bright well defined fparks, as in the open air, but rather in long ftreams refembling the aurora borealis. From fiome late experiments, indeed, Mr Morgan concludes, that the eleftrical fluid cannot penetrate a perfeft va- * See Eht- cuum *. If this is the cafe, it fhows that the regions dex/*ln" we. *P.eak of are not a Pei'feCl vacuum as can be artificially made ; but whether it is or not, the ex¬ treme brightnefs of the light ffiows that a fluid was prefent in thofe regions, capable of confining and con- denfing the eleClric matter as much as the air does at the furface of the ground \ for the brightnefs of thefe meteors, confidering their diftance, cannot be fuppo- fed inferior to that of the brighteft flaflies of light- 7 ninS*. Denfity of This being the cafe, it appears reafonable to conclude, the air does that what is called the denjlty of the air does not alto- v!1 alZ!IS Sether keeP Pace with its gravity. The latter indeed muff in a great meafure be affeCted by the vapours, but above all by the quantity of the bafis of fixed or dephlogifticated air contained in it : for Mr Kirwan has difcovered that the bafis of fixed air, when depri¬ ved of its elaftic principle, is not greatly inferior to gold in fpecific gravity j and we cannot fuppofe that of dephlogifticated air to be much lefs. It is poffible, therefore, that pure air, could it be deprived of all the water it contains, might have very little gravity j and as there is great reafon to believe that the bafis of dephlogifticated air is only one of the conftituent parts of water we fee an evident reafon why the air ought to become lighter, and likewife lefs fit for refpi- ration, the higher up we go, though there is a poffibi- lity that its denfity, or power of fupporting flame, may continue unaltered. There are not yet, howTever, a fufficient number of fa&s to enable us to determine this queftion ; though fuch as have been difcovered feem rather to favour the above conjeClure. Dr Boerhaave was of opinion that the gravity of the air depended entirely on the water it ATM and, by the means of alkaline falts, he was enabled to extraCl as much water from a quantity of air as was very nearly equivalent to its weight. By the 1 calcination of metals we may extraft as much of the bafis of dephlogifticated air from a quantity of atmo- fpherical air as is equivalent to the weight of air loft. Were it poffible, therefore, to extraft the whole of this, as well as all other vapours, and to preferve only the elaftic principle, it is highly probable .that its gra¬ vity would entirely ceafe. It has been found by thofe who have afcended with aeroftatic machines, or to the tops of high mountains, that the dephlogirticated air is found to be contained in fmaller quantities in the at¬ moiphere of thofe elevated regions than on the lower grounds. It is alfo found, that in fuch fituations the much drier, and parts with water with much Atmo¬ fphere. keep pace with its gravity. more difficulty, than on the ordinary furface. Salt of tartar, for inftance, which at the foot of a mountain will very loon run into a liquid, remains for a long time expofed to the air on the top of it, without fliow- ing the leaft tendency to deliquefce. Neverthelefs, it hath never been obferved that fires did not burn as in- tenfely on the tops of the higheft mountains as on the plains. The matter 1 indeed was put to the trial in the great eruption of Vefuvius in 1779, where, though the lava fpouted up to the height of three miles above the level of the fea, the uppermoft parts all the while were to appearance as much inflamed as the loweft. g The high degree of eleftricity, always exifting in Qravjty 0f the upper regions of the atmofphere, muft of neceflity the upper have a very confiderable influence on the gravity of any regions of heterogeneous particles floating in it. When we con- ^ atmo- fider the effects of the electric fluid upon light bodies at the furface of the earth, it will readily be admitted, niflied by that in thofe regions where this fluid is very abundant, electricity, the gravity of the atmofphere may be much diminilhed wfithout affecting its denfity. We know that it is the nature of any eledlrified iubftance to attra£l light bodies j and that, by proper management, they may even be fufpended in the air, without either moving up or dowm for a confiderable time. If this is the cafe with light terreftrial bodies, it cannot be thought very im¬ probable that the aerial particles themfelves, i. e. thofe which we call the bafis of dephlogifticated air, and of aqueous or other vapour diffufed among them, fhould be thus affefled in the regions where electricity is fo abundant. From this caufe, therefore, alfo the gra¬ vity of the atmofphere may be affeCted without any al¬ teration at all being made in its denfity \ and hence may arife anomalies in the barometer hitherto not ta¬ ken notice of. ^ It appears, therefore, that the abfolute height of the Abfolute atmofphere is not yet determined. The beginning height of and ending of twilight indeed (how, that the height ^ atm°- at wffiich the atmofphere begins to refraft the fun’s light is about 44 or 45 Engliffi miles. But this may necg not improbably be only the height to which the aque¬ ous vapours are carried : for it cannot be thought any unreafonable fuppofition, that light is refraCled only by means of the aqueous vapour contained in the at¬ mofphere ; and that where this ceafes, it is ftill capable of fupporting the ele&ric fire at leaft, as bright and ftrong as at the furface. That it does extend much higher, is evident from the meteors already mentioned: for all thefe are undoubtedly carried along with the atmofplxere > Atmo- fphere. ATM [ 205 ] atmolphere j otherwife that of 17B3, which was feen phureous fleam atmo¬ sphere. for about a minute, muft have been left xooo miles to the weltward, by the earth flying out below it in its 10 annual courfe round the fun. Of the pref- It has already been mentioned, that the preffure of fare of the the atmofphere, when in its mean ftate, is equivalent to a weight of 1 5 pounds on every fquare inch. Hence Dr Cotes computed, that the preffure of the whole am¬ bient fluid upon the earth’s furface is equivalent to that of a globe of lead 60 miles in diameter. Hence alfo it appears, that the preffure upon a human body mull be very confiderable j for as every fquare inch of fur- face luftains a preffure of 15 pounds, every fquare foot, as containing 144 inches, muft fuftain a preffure of 216^ j and if we fuppofe a man’s body to contain 15 fquare feet of furface, which is pretty near the truth, he muft fuftain a weight of 32,400 pounds, or 16 tun, for his ordinary load. By this enormous preflure we ftiould undoubtedly be crufhed in a moment, were not all parts of our bodies filled either with air or fome other elaftic fluid, the fpring of which is juft fufficient to counterbalance the weight of the atmolphere. But whatever this fluid may be, we are fure that it is juft able to counteraft the atmolpherical gravity and no more *, for if any confiderable preflure be fuperadded to that of the air, as by going into deep water, or the like, it is always feverely felt, let it be ever fo equa¬ ble. If the preffure of the atmofphere is taken off from any part of the human body, the hand, for in- ftance, when put in an open receiver from whence the air is afterwards extrafted, the weight of the atmo¬ fphere then difcovers itfelf, and we imagine the hand ftrongly fucked down into the glafs. See Pneuma¬ tics. In countries at fome diftance from the equator, the of the ptef- Prefl’ure the atmofphere varies confiderably, and thus fure, and produces confiderable changes on many terreftrial bo¬ lts effefts. dies. On the human body the quantity of preffure fometimes varies near a whole tun ; and when it is thus fo much diminifhed, moft people find fomething of a liftlefsnefs and inadlivity about them. It is furprifing, however, that the fpring of the internal fluid, already mentioned, which adls as a counterpoife to the atmo- fpherical gravity, fliould in all cafes feem to keep pace with it when the preffure is naturally diminiftied, and even when it is artificially augmented, though not when the preffure is artificially diminiihed. Thus in that kind of weather when the preffure of the air is leaft, we never perceive our veins to fwell, or are fen- fible of any inward expanfion in our bodies. On the I2 contrary, the circulation is languid, and we feem ra- OFdifficuI- ther to be oppreffed by a weight. Even in going up ty of refpi- to the tops of mountains, where the preflure of the at- ration on mofphere is diminiftied more than three times what it mountains u^ua^y ’s on the plain, no fuch appearances are ob- ferved. Some travellers indeed have affirmed, that on the tops of very high mountains, the air is fo light as to occafion a great difficulty of refpiration, and even violent retching and vomiting of blood. It does not appear, however, that thefe affertions are well found¬ ed. Mr Brydone found no Inconvenience of this kind on the top of Mount /Etna ; nor is any fuch thing men¬ tioned by Mr Houel, who alfo afcended this moun¬ tain. Sir William Hamilton indeed fays, that he did feel a difficulty of refpiration, independent of any ful- Atmo- fphere. it Variation ATM But, on the top of a volcano, the refpiration may be affedled by fo many different caufes, that it is perhaps impoffible to afiign the true one. The ' French mathematicians, when on the top of a very high peak of the Andes, did not make any complaint of this kind, though they lived there for fome time. On the contrary, they found the wind fo extremely violent, that they were fcarce able to withftand its force ; which feems an argument for at leaft equal den- Jity of the atmofphere in the fuperior as in the inferior regions. Dr Heberden, who afcended to the top of Teneriffe, a higher mountain than /Etna, makes no mention of any difficulty of refpiration. M. Sauffure, M. Sauf- however, in his journey to the top of Mount Blanc, the fare’s fymp- higheft of the Alps, felt very great uneafinels in this ^oms ^ way. His refpiration was not only extremely diffi- ^ °nt cult, but his pulfe became quick, and he was feized Blanc ac- with all the fymptoms of a fever. His ftrength was counted alfo exhaufted to fuch a degree, that he feemed to re- f°r. quire four times as long a fpace to perform fome ex¬ periments on the top of the mountain as he would have done at the foot of it. It muft be obferved, how¬ ever, that thefe fymptoms did not begin to appear till he had afcended two miles and a half perpendicular- above the level of the fea. The mountain is only about a quarter of a mile higher j and in this ftrort fpace he was reduced to the fituation juft mentioned. But it is improbable that fo fmall a difference, even at the end of his journey, ftrould have produced fuch violent ef¬ fects, had not fome other caufe concurred. A caufe of this kind he himfelf mentions, viz. that the atmo¬ lphere at the top of the mountain was fo much im¬ pregnated with fixed air, that lime-water, expofed to it, quickly became covered with a pellicle occafion- ed by the abforption of that fluid. Now it is known, that fixed air is extremely pernicious to animals, and would bring on fymptoms fimilar to thofe above men¬ tioned. There is no reafon, therefore^ to have re- courfe to the rarity of the atmofphere for folving a phenomenon which may more naturally be accounted for otherwife. When the preffure of the atmofphere is augmented,- by defcending, in the diving-bell, to confiderable depths in the fea, it does not appear that any inconvenience follows from its increafe. Thofe w-ho fit in the diving- bell are not fenlible of any preflure as long as they re¬ main in the air, though they feel it very fenfibly in go¬ ing into the water : yet it is certain, that the preffure in both cafes is the fame : for the whole preffure of the atmofphere, as well as of the water, is fuftained by the air in the diving-bell, and confequently communicated to thofe wTho fit in it. But though artificial compreffion of the air, as w'ell as natural rarefaction, can thus be borne, it is otherwife with artificial rarefaction. Animals in an air-pump fliow uneafinefs from the very firlt, and cannot live for any time in an atmofphere rarefied artificially even as much as it appeared to be from the barometer on the top of Mount Blanc. ^ It is not eafy to affign the true reafon of the varia-Variation: tions of gravity in the atmofphere. Certain it is, how-0^16 at- ever, that they take place only in a very final 1 degree within the tropics ; and feem there to depend on the accounted^ heat of the fun, as the barometer conftantly finks near for. half an inch every day, and rifes again to its former ftation ATM T 2°6 ] A T M the atmo- -fphere. jfttino- ftation in tlie night time. In the temperate zones the 'lji"'re‘ barometer ranges from 28 to near 31 inches, by its va- " rious altitudes (bowing the changes that are about to take place in the weather. If we could know, there¬ fore, the latent caufes by which the weather is influen¬ ced, we fliould likewife certainly know thofe by which the gravity of the atmofphere is affected. In general they may be reduced to two, viz. an emiflion of latent heat from the vapour contained in the atmofphere, or of eleftric fluid from the lame, or from the earth. To one or both of thefe caufes, therefore, may we alcribe the variations of the gravity of the atmofphere •, and we fee that they both tend to produce the fame efieft with the folar heat in the tropical climates, viz. to rarefy the air, by mixing with it or fetting loofe a non- gravitating fluid, which did not aft in fuch large pro¬ portion in any particular place before. No doubt, the aftion of the latent heat and eleftric fluid is the lame in the torrid as in the temperate zones : but in the torrid zone the folar heat and exceffive eva¬ poration counteraft them ; fo that whatever quanti¬ ties may be difcharged by the exceflive deluges of rain, &c. which fall in thofe countries, they are in- ftantly abforbed by the abundant fluid, and are quick¬ ly ready to be difcharged again ; while, in the tem¬ perate zones, the air becomes fenfibly lighter, as -well as warmer, by them for fome time before they can be i _ abforbed again. Variation The variations of heat and cold to which the atmo- of the heat fphere is fubjeft, have been the fubjeft of much fpecu- and cold of lation. In general they feem to depend entirely upon the light of the fun retlefted into the atmofphere from the earth 5 and where this defleftion is deficient, even though the light fliould be prefent ever fo much, the moft violent degrees of cold are found to take place. Hence, on the tops of mountains, the cold is generally exceflive, though by reafon of the clearnefs of the at¬ mofphere the light of the fun falls upon them in greater quantity than it can do on an equal fpace on the plain. In long winding paffages alfo, fuch as the caverns of ./Etna and Vefuvius, where the air has rcom to circu¬ late freely, without any accefs of the fun, the cold is fcarce tolerable-, whence the ufe of thefe for cooling li¬ quors, preferving meat, &c. The coldnefs of the atmofphere on the tops of moun¬ tains has been afcribed by M. Lambert and De Luc, to the igneous fluid, or elementary fire, being more rare ions tor the in-thofe elevated fituations than on the plains. M. Lam- tors of tl e kert opini°n that it is rarefied above by the aftion mountains, the air, and that below it is condenfed by its own proper weight. He confiders fire as a fluid in motion, the parts of which are feparable, and which is rarefied when its velocity is accelerated. He does not decide with regard to the identity of fire and light, though he feems inclined to believe it. M. de Luc compares elementary fire to a continuous fluid, whole parts are condenfed by being mutually comprefled. He denies that fire and light are the fame and maintains that the latter is incapable, by itfelf, of fetting fire to bo¬ dies, though it does fo by putting in motion the igne¬ ous fluid they contain-, and that it afts with more force near the earth than at a diftance from its furface, by reafon of this fluid, which he calls a heavy and elajlic one, being more condenfed there than at a greater height. 16 Lambert and De Luc’s re a M., Sauffure, in treating of this fubjeft in his ac- Atmo- count of the Alps, does not confider fire as a fluid fo fi)here' free and detached as to be able either to afcend with ra- v-— pidity by its fpecific levity, or to condenfe itfelf fenfi-jvr. Sauf. bly by its proper w'eight. He fuppofes it to be united hire’s ac- tp bodies by lo Itrxft an affinity, that all its motions caur‘t> are determined, or at leafl: powerfully modified, by that affinity. As foon therefore as fire, difengaged by com- buflion or by any other caufe, endeavours to diffufc itfelf, all the bodies that come within the inhere of its aftivity endeavour to attraft it j and they abforb fuch quantities of it as are in the direft ratio of their affi¬ nities with it, or in the inverfe ratio of what is liecef- fary for their equilibrium with the lurrounding bodies. Now it does not appear that in this diflribution the fituation of places, with regard to the horizon, has any other influence than what they receive from the differ¬ ent currents produced by the dilatation of the air, and by the levity which that dilatation produces. T he afeent of flame, fmoke, &c. or of air heated in any way, perfuaded the ancients that fire is pofleffed of ab- folute levity, by which it had a tendency to mount up¬ wards. “ But thefe effefts (fays he) are owing either to the levity of the fluid which conflitutes flame, or to that of air dilated by heat : and not to the levity of the igneous fluid. I am, however, fufhciently convinced, that this fluid is incomparably lighter than air, though I do net believe that it poffeffes the power of afeending in our atmofphere by virtue of its levity alone. jg^ “ The celebrated Bouguer has demonffrated, by Mr Eou- principles the moft Ample, and molt univerfally adopt- ?utr’s rea~ ed, that it is not neceflary, in order to account for the iuiL for ^ diminution of heat on mountains, to nave recourie to t0p ol ^ hypothefes that are at beft doubtful. The following Andes, is his explanation of what was felt on the mountains of Peru. “ It was proper, in order to explain this fubjeft, to infift on the Ihort duration of the fun’s rays, which cannot ftrike tie different fides of mountains but for a few hours, and even this not always. A horizontal plain, when the fun is clear, is expofed at mid-day to the perpendicular and undiminifhed aftion of thefe rays, while they fall but obliquely on a plain not much inclined, or on the fides of a high pile of deep rocks. But let us conceive for a moment an infulated point, half the height of the atmofphere, at a diflance from all mountains, as w-ell as from the clouds which float in the air. The more a medium is tranfparent, the lefs heat it ought to receive by the immediate aftion of the fun. The free paffage wffiich a very tranfpa¬ rent body allows to the rays of light, fhows that its (mall particles are hardly touched by them. Indeed what impreflion could they make on it, when they pafs through almoft without obftru-ftion ? Light, when it confifts of parallel rays, does not by palling through a foot of free atmofpheric air, near the earth, loie an hundred thoufandth part of its force. From this we may judge how few rays are weakened, or can aft on this fluid, in their paffage through a ftratum of the dia¬ meter not of an inch or a line, but of a particle. Yet the fubtility and tranfparency are Hill greater at great heights, as was obvious on the Cordilleras, wffien wre looked at diflant objefts. Laftly, the groffer air is heated below by the contaft or neighbourhood of bo¬ dies of greater denfity than itfelf, which it furrounds, and ATM Atmo- fphere. [ *9 Burn ng- glaffes equally powerful on the tops of moun¬ tains as on- plains. and on which it refts; and the heat may be communi- j cated by little and little to a certain diftance. The inferior parts of the atmofphere by this means contraft daily a very confiderable degree of heat, and may re¬ ceive it in proportion to its denfity or bulk. But it is evident that the fame thing cannot happen at the di¬ ftance of a league and a halt or two leagues above the furface of the earth, although the light there may be fomething more aflive. The air and the wind there¬ fore muft at this height be extremely cold, and colder in proportion to the elevation. “ Betides, the heat neceffavy to life is not merely that which we receive every inftan! from the fun. The momentary degree of this heat correfponds to a very Imad part of that which all the bodies around us have imbibed, and by which ours is chiefly regulated. The acdion of the fun only ferves to maintain nearly in the lame ftate the fum of the total heat, by repairing through the day the lofs it fuftains through the night, and at all times. If the addition be greater than the lofs, the total heat will increafe, as it happens in fum- mer, and it will continue to accumulate in a certain degree \ but for the reafons already given, this accu- mulation cannot be very great on the top of a moun¬ tain, where the fummit, which riles high, is never of great buliv. 1 iie loweft ftate of the thermometer in every place is always in proportion to the heat acquir¬ ed by the foil •, and that being very fmall on the top of a mountain, the quantity added to it by the fun du¬ ring the day muft be comparatively greater •, and the accumulated heat will be more in a condition to re¬ ceive increafe in proportion to its diftance from the de¬ gree which it cannot pafs. “ Another particular obfervable on all the high places of the Cordilleras, and which depends on the i.tme caufe, is, that when we leave the lhade, and ex- pole ourfelves to the iunlhine, we feel a much greater difference than we do here in our fine days when the weather is temperate. livery thing contributes at Quito to make the fun exceedingly powerful : a fingle ilep from an expofed place to the fliade gives the fen- fation of cold : this would not be the cafe if the quan¬ tity of heat acquired by the foil were more confider¬ able. \\ e now alfo fee why the fame thermometer, put fiill into the (hade-and then in the fun, does not undergo the fame changes at all times and in all pla¬ ces. In tne morning, upon Pichincha, this inftrument is generally a few degrees below the freezing point, which may be reckoned the natural temperature of the place’, but when during the day we expofe it to the fun, it is eafy to imagine that the effect muft be great, and muen more than double in'whatever way it is mea- fured.,, This theory is adopted by M. Sauffure, who adds the following facd to prove that the adion of the fan’s re)>, confidered abftractedly and independent of any extrinfic fource or cold, is as great on mountains as on plains \ viz. that the power of burning lenfes and mir¬ rors is the fame at all heights. To afeertain this faff, our author procured a burning-glafs fo weak that at Geneva it would juft fet fire to tinder. This he car¬ ried, with fome of the fame tinder, to the top of the mountain Saleve (a height of 3000 feet) ; where it not only produced the fame efteft, but apparently with greater facility than on the plain. Being perfuaded 107 ] AT M then, that the principal fource of cold on the tops of Atmo- high mountains is their being perpetually furrounded Ghere- with an atmofphere which cannot be much heated ei- ther by the rays of the fun on account of its tranfpa- rency, or hy the refletfion of them from the earth by reafon of its diftance, he wiflied to know, whether the direct folar rays on the top of a high mountain had the fame power as on the plain, while the body on which they afted rvas placed in fuch a manner as to be unaf¬ fected by the furrounding air. For this purpofe he inftituted a fet of experiments, from which he drew the following conclufions, viz. that a difference of 77y toifes in height, diminifhes the heat which the rays of the fun are able to communicate to a body expofed to the external air, 140 of the thermometer; that it di- miniflies the heat of a body partially expofed, only 6° ; and that it augments by i° the heat of a third body completely defended from the air. Hence it appears that the atmofphere, though fo Atmo- effentially neceffary to the fupport of fire, is iomehowfd1016 eve— or other the greateft antagonift of heat, and moft ef-1fwhere fedlually counteracts the operation of the folar rays in producing it. This power it feems to exert at all di- the fun.1 fiances, at the furface as well as m the higher regions. From forae experiments made by M. Piflet it appears, that even in places expofed to the rays of the fun, the heat, at five feet dillance from the ground, is greater only by one-or two degrees than at 50 feet above thep, coj”r furface, though the ground was at that time 15 or 20° very near warmer than the air immediately in contadl with it. fiirface Inconfiderable as this difference is, however, it doesofthe not hold as we go higher up ; for if it did, the cold on the top of the mountain of Saleve, which is 3000 fome cli~ feet above the level of the lake of Geneva, would be ftarxe. 6b° greater than at the foot of it ; whereas in reality it is only io°. In the night-time the cafe is reverfed ; for the ftratum of air, at five feet from the ground, was found by M. Pidlet to be colder than at (fo. Befides this, different ftrata of the atmofphere are found to poffefs very different and variable degrees of cold, with¬ out any regard to their fttuation high up or low down. In the year 1780, Dr Wilfon of Glafg ow found a ve¬ ry remarkable cold exifting clofe to the furface of the ground ; fo that the thermometer, when laid on the iurface of the fnow, funk many degrees lower than one fufpended 24 feet above it. It has been likewife ob- ferved, that in clear weather, though the furface of the earth be then moft liable to be heated by the fun, yet after that is fet, and during the night, the air is colder! near the ground, and particularly in the val¬ leys. Experiments on this fubjett were made for a whole year by Mr James Sex, who has given an ac- Mr Sex’s count of them in the 78th volume of the Philofophicalexperi- Tranfa61ions. Pie fufpended thermometers (conifiuft-m?njs orL ed in fuch a manner as to fhow the true maximum and •h^ful’~ minimum of heat that might take place in the obferT"'- ver’s abfence) in a fhady northerly afpecl, and at dif¬ ferent heights in the open air. One of thefe was pla ced at the height of 9 feet, and the other at that of 2,20 from the ground ; and the obfervations were con¬ tinued, with only a few days omiffion, from July 1784 to July 1785. The greateft variations of heat were in the months of 0£lober and June ; in the former tie thermometers generally differed moft in the night, and in the latter moftly in the day. From the 25th to the a 2.8 tk. ATM [ 208 ] ATM Atmo- 28til of O&ober, the heat below, in the night-time, fphere. exceeded in a fmall degree the heat above *, at which v time there was frequent rain mingled with hail. From the nth to the 14th, and alfo on the 31ft, there was no variation at all; during which time likewife the weather w^as rainy 5 all the reft of the month proving clear, the air below was found colder than that above, fometimes by nine or ten degrees. In the month of June, the greateft variations took place from the nth to the 15th, and from the 25th to the 30th 5 and at both thefe times there appeared to be two currents of wund, the upper from the fouth-wTeft and the lower from the north eaft. Sometimes thefe wTere rendered vifible by clouds, in different ftrata, moving in differ¬ ent direftions 5 and fometimes by clouds moving in a contrary diredlion to a very fenftble current of air be¬ low. On cloudy nights the loweft thermometer fome¬ times fhowed the heat to be a degree or two greater than the upper one ; but in the daytime the heat be¬ low conftantly exceeded that above more than in the month of Odlober. To determine whether the nofturnal refrigeration was augmented by a nearer approach to the earth, two thermometers w7ere placed in the midft of an open meadow, on the bank of the river near Canterbury. One was placed on the ground, and the other only fix feet above it. The thermometer, at fix feet diftance from the ground, agreed nearly with the former at nine feet j but the no&urnal variations were found to correfpond entirely wdth the clearnefs or the cloudi- nefs of the fky : and though they did not always hap¬ pen in proportion to their refpe£tive altitudes, yet when the thermometers differed in any refpeft, that on the ground always indicated the greateft degree of cold. The difference betwixt thefe two thermometers, at the fmall diftance of fix feet from each other, being found no lefs than three degrees and a half, the num¬ ber of thermometers in the meadow was augmented to four. One w?as funk in the ground, another placed juft upon it, and the third fufpended at three feet above it. Three others were placed on a rifing ground where the land was level with the cathedral tower, and about a mile diftance from it. One of thefe was likewife funk in the ground, another placed juft upon it, and a third fufpended fix feet above it. With thefe ieven thermometers, and the two firft mentioned, which were placed in the city, he continued his ob- fervations for 20 days ; but as the weather happened to be cloudy during the whole of that fpace,. excepting for feven or eight days, no confiderable variation hap¬ pened excepting on thefe days. The refult of the ex¬ periments was, that the cold was generally greater in the valley than on the hill j but the variations between the thermometers on the ground and thofe fix feet above them, were often as great on the hill as in the valley. Thus it was perceived that a difference of tempera¬ ture took place at the diftance of only three feet from the ground j but the length of the thermometers hi¬ therto made ufe of rendered it impoffible to make any experiment at a fmaller diftance. Two new ones, therefore, were formed by bending down the large tube, the body or bulb of the thermometer, to a ho¬ rizontal pofition, while the ftem remained in a vertical I one j by which method the temperature might be ob- Atm&. ferved to the diftance of a fingle inch. Sometimes, in ^^iere’ clear weather, thefe two horizontal thermometers were placed in the open air, one within an inch of the ground, and the other nine inches above it. When the variation among the other thermometers was con¬ fiderable, a difference was likewife perceived between thefe j the lower one fometimes indicating more than two degrees lefs heat than the upper one, though pla¬ ced fo near each other. From thefe experiments Mr Sex concludes, that a His conclu- greater diminution of heat frequently takes place near fions from the earth in the night-time than at any altitude in the exPe- atmofphere within the limits of his inquiry, that is,nments' 220 feet from the ground; and at fuch times the greateft degrees of cold are always met with neareft the furface of the earth. This is a conftant and regular operation of nature under certain circumftances and difpofitions of the at¬ mofphere, and takes place at all feafons of the year ; and this difference never happens in any confiderable degree but when the air is ftill, and the Iky perfe&ly unclouded. The moifteft vapour, as dews and fogs, did not at all impede, but rather promote, the refrige¬ ration. In very fevere frofts, when the air frequently depofites a quantity of frozen vapour, it is commonly found greateft; but the excefs of heat which in the day-time was found at the loweft ftatiouin fummer, di- minilhed in winter almoft to nothing. It has been obferved, that a thermometer, included Mr Dar¬ in a receiver, always finks when the air begins to be win’s expc- rarefied. This has been thought to arife, not from ^1™dentisoon any degree of cold thus produced, but from the hidden ^ucedby expanfion of the bulb of the thermometer in confe-the rarefac- quence of the removal of the atmofpherical preffure : tion of air. But from fome late experiments related, Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixxviii. by Mr Darwin, it appears that the atmo¬ fphere always becomes warm by compreffion, and cold by dilatation from a compreffed ftate. Thefe experi¬ ments were, 1. The blaft from an air-gun was repeatedly thrown upon the bulb of a thermometer, and it uniformly funk it about two degrees. In making this experi¬ ment, the thermometer was firmly fixed againft a wall, and the air-gun, after being charged,, was left for an hour in its vicinity, that it might previoufiy lofe the heat it had acquired in the a£l of charging ; the air was then difcharged in a continued ftream on the bulb of the thermometer, with the effeft already men¬ tioned. 2. A thermometer was fixed in a wooden tube, and fo applied to the receiver of an air-gun, that, on dif- charging the air by means of a fcrew prefling on the valve of the receiver, a continued ftream of air, at the very time of its expanfion, paffed over the bulb of the thermometer. This experiment was four times repeat¬ ed, and the thermometer uniformly funk from five to feven degrees. During the time of condenfation there was a great difference in the heat, as perceived by the hand, at the two ends of the condenfing fyringe : that next the air-globe was almoft painful to the touch ; and the globe itfelf became hotter than could have been expefted from its contaft with the fyringe. “ Add to this (fays Mr Darwin), that in exploding an air- gun the ftream of air always becomes vifible, which is owing ATM Atmo- fphere. [ ] ATM of ',1' ^ pour , ' 7~ r~ ”— flii *ittu ueen previouiiy more condenied, or in greater quantity fo as not inftantly to acquire heat from the common at- mofphere in its vicinity, it would probably have fallen in fnovv. ^ 3* ^ thermometer was placed in the receiver of an air*pump, and the air being haftily exhaufted, it funk two. or three degrees 5 but after fome minutes regain¬ ed its former ftation. The experiment was repeated with a thermometer open at the top, fo that the bulb could not be affe&ed by any diminution of the exter¬ nal prelTure j but the refult was the fame. Both du¬ ring exhauftion and re-admiflion of the air into the re¬ ceiver, a fteam was regularly obferved to be condenfed on the fides of the glafs ; which, in both cafes, was in a few minutes reabforbed, and which appeared to be precipitated by being deprived of its heat by the ex¬ panded air. 4. A hole, about the fize of a crow-quill, was bo¬ red into a.large air-veffel placed at the commencement of the principal pipe of the water-works of Derby. I here are four pumps worked by a water-wheel, the water, of which is firft thrown into the lower part of this air-veffel, and rifes from thence to a refervoir about 35 or 4° f£et above the level; fo that the water in this veffel is conftantly in a Hate of compreffion. Two thermometers were previoufly fufpended on the leaden air-veffel, that they might affume the temperature of it, and as foon as the hole above-mentioned was opened had their bulbs applied to the ftream of air which if- fued out 5 the confequence of which was, that the mer¬ cury funk fome degrees in each. This finking of the mercury could not be afcribed to any evaporation of moifture from their furfaces, as it was feen both in ex- haulling and admitting the air into the exhaufted re¬ ceiver mentioned in the laft experiment, that the va¬ pour which it previouiiy contained was depofited du¬ ring its expanfion. 5- There is a curious phenomenon obferved in the fountain of Hiero, conftrufted on a very large fcale, in the Chemnifcenfian mines in Hungary. In this nut- chine the air, in a large veffel, is compreffed by a co¬ lumn of water 260 feet high : a ftop-cock is then opened : and as the air iffues with great vehemence, and in .confequence of its previous condenfation be¬ comes immediately much expanded, the moifture it contains is not only precipitated, as in the. exhaufted receiver above mentioned, but falls down in a ftiower of Inow, with icicles adhering to the nofe of the cock. See Phil. Tranf. vol. Hi. From this phenomenon, as well as the four experi- above related, Mr Darwin thinks “ there is ~ reafon to conclude, that in all circumftances tops of where air is mechanically expanded, it becomes capa- xnountams. ble of attrafting the fluid matter of heat from other bo¬ dies in contact with it. ‘‘ Now (continues he), as the vaft region of air which furrounds our globe is perpetually moving along its furface, climbing up the fides of mountains, and de- Icending into the valleys j as it paffes along, it muft be perpetually varying the degree of heat according to the elevation of the country it traverfes : for, in rifing to the fummits of mountains, it becomes expanded, Voi.. III. Part I. Atmo- fphere. 2S His conclu- (ions with , . ments regard to , cold on the g°od atmofphere taken away ; and when thus expanded, it attracts or abforbs heat from the mountairls in conti¬ guity with it; and, when it defcends into the valleys, and is comprefled into lefs compafs, it again gives out the heat it has acquired to the bodies it comes in con- taft with. The fame thing muft happen to the higher legions of the atmofphete, which are regions of per¬ petual froft, as has lately been difcovered by the aerial navigators. When large dirtri&s of air, from the lower parts of tue atmofphere, are raifed two or three miles high, they become fo much expanded by the great di¬ minution of the. preflure over them, and thence become fo cold, that hail or fnow is produced by the precipita¬ tion of the vapour : and as there is, in" thefe high re¬ gions of the atmofphere, nothing elfe for the expanded air to acquire heat from after it has parted witl/its va¬ pour, the fame degree of cold continues, till the air, on defcending to the earth, acquires its former ftate of condenlation and of warmth. “ I he Andes, almoft under the line, refts its bafe on burning lands ; about its middle height is a moft pleafant and temperate climate covering an extenfive plain, on which is built the city of Quito ; while its forehead is encircled with eternal fnow, perhaps coeval with the mountain. Yet, according to the accounts of Don Ulloa, thefe three dilcordant climates feldom en¬ croach much on each other’s territories. The hot winds below, if they afcend, become cooled by their expanfion ; and hence they cannot affeft the fnow up¬ on the fummit; and the'cold winds that fweep the fummit, become condenfed as they defcend, and of temperate warmth before they reach the fertile plains of Quito.” Notwithftanding all thefe explanations, however, fe- Difficulties veral very confiderable difficulties remain with regard remain to the heat and cold of the atmofphere. That warm "n !he air ftiould always afcend; and thus, when the fource 0fIubic the weather being fair and cold, but not frolfy. This fpot is rec¬ koned very healthy. November the 28th, the air of Rotterdam gave 103 ; the weather being rainy and cold. November the 29th, the air of Delft gave 103 5 the - weather being ftormy and rainy. November the 30th, the air of the Hague gave 104; the weather being cold, and the wind northerly. The firft of December the weather underwent a fudden change ; the wind becoming foutherly and ftormy, and the atmofphere becoming very hot. The day after, Fahrenheit’s thermometer flood at 54° ; and the com¬ mon air being repeatedly and accurately tried gave i t 6 ; and that preferved in a glafs phial from the pre¬ ceding day gave 117; and that gathered clofe to the lea gave 115. December the 4th, the air of Amfterdam gave 103; the weather being rainy, windy, and cold. The day - after, the weather continuing nearly the fame, the air gave 102. December the 10th, the air of Rotterdam gave 101 ; the weather being rainy. December the 1 2th, being in the middle of the water between Dort and the Moordyke, the air gave 109 ; the weather be¬ ing remarkably dark, rainy, and windy. December the 13th, the air of Breda in the morning gave 109 j the weather continuing as the day before. And in the afternoon, the air gave 1064; the weather having cleared up. December the 16th, the air of the lower part of the city of Antwerp gave 105, that of the higher part 104 •, the weather being rainy and tempe¬ rate. December the 17th, the air of Antwerp gave 107 5 the weather continuing nearly as in the preceding day. December the 19th, the air of Bruftels gave 109 ; the weather being rainy, windy, and rather warm. De¬ cember the 21 ft, the air of Bruflels gave 106 ", the weather being dry and cold. The next day the air and the weather continued the fame. December the 23d, the air of Mons gave 104; the weather being rainy and cold. December the 24th, the air near Bochain gave 1044 ; the weather being cloudy and cold. De¬ cember the 25th, the air of Peronne gave 1024 ; the weather being frofty. December the 26th, the air of Cuvilli gave 103 ; the weather frofty. December the 27th, the air of Senlis gave 1024; the weather frofty. December the 29th, the air of Paris gave 103 ; the weather frofty. 1780, January the 8th, the air of Paris gave 100 ; the weather frofty. January the 13th, the air of Paris gave 98 ; hard froft. Thus far with Dr Ingenhoufz’s obfervations. His hich apparatus was a very portable one, made by Mr Mar- mems>en~ t*n’ ’n rca^ty is the eudiometer-tube and mea- L fure as ufed by Mr Fontana before he made his laft im¬ provement. “ The whole of thia apparatus (fays Dr Ingenhoufz was packed up in a box about ten inches long, five broad and three and half high. The glafs- tube or great meafure, w^hich was 16 inches long, and 3® Apparatus with his' me made. i ] ATM divided into two feparate pieces, lay in a fmall compafs, Atmo and could be put together by brafs fcrews adapted to fPherC> the divided extremities. Inilead of a water trough/ v J fuch as is ufed commonly, I made ufe of a fmall round wooden tub,” &c. I he Abbe Fontana, who has made a great number ofFcmana’s very accurate experiments upon this lubjeft, gives his opinions opinion in the following words : “ I have not the leaft on tlie fub* heiitation in aflerting, that the experiments made toic<^" afeertain the falubrity of the atmofpherical air in vari¬ ous places in different countries and lituations, men¬ tioned by feveral authors, are not to be depended up¬ on ; beeaufe the method they ufed was far from being exaft (a),, the elements or ingredients fpr the experi¬ ment were unknown and uncertain, and the refults very different from one another. “ When all the errors are corrected, it will be found that the difference between the air of one country and that of another, at different times, is much lefs than what is commonly believed : and that the great diffe ¬ rences found by various obfervers are owing to the fal¬ lacious effebls of uncertain methods. This I advance from experience ; for I was in the fame error. I found very great differences between the refults of the expe¬ riments of this nature which ought to have been fimi- lar; which diverfities I attributed to myfelf, rather than to the method I then ufed. At Paris I examined the air of different places at the fame time, and efpe- cially of thofe fituations where it was moft probable to meet with infe&ed air, becaufe thofe places abounded with putrid fubftances and impure exhalations; but the differences I obferved were very fmall, and much lefs than what could have been fufpefted, for they hardly arrived at one fiftieth of the air in the tube. Having taken the air of the hill called Mount Valerian, at the height of about 500 feet above the level of Paris, and compared it with the air of Paris taken at the fame time, and treated alike, I found the former to be hard¬ ly one-thirtieth better than the latter. “ In London I have obferved almoft the fame. The air of Iflington and that of London fuffered an equal diminution by the mixture of nitrous air; yet the air of Iflington is efteemed to be much better. I have ex¬ amined the air of London taken at different heights (for inftance, in the ftreet, at the fecond floor, and at the top of the adjoining houfes), and have found it to be of the fame quality. Having taken the air at the iron gallery of St Paul’s cupola, at the height of 313 feet above the ground, and likewife the air of the ftone gallery, which is 202 feet below the other ; and having compared thefe two quantities of air with that of the fleet adjoining, I found that there was fcarce any fen- fible difference between them, although taken at fuch different heights. “ In this experiment a circumftance is to be confi- dered, which muft have contributed to render the above-mentioned differences more fenfible : that is, the agitation of the air of the cupola ; for there was felt a pretty brilk wind upon it, which I obferved to be ftronger and ftronger the higher I afeended; whereas £>2 in (a) It is plain that Dr Ingenhoufz’s method is not implied in this remark ; fince the Do&or’s experiments were made long after, and the method ufed by him was properly that of Mr Fontana. 2 .Atmo- iphere, Atock. A T O [ 2i in the flreet, and indeed in all-the flreets I pafled through, there v/as no fenfible wind to be felt. This j experiment -was made at four in the afternoon, the wea¬ ther being clear. The quicklilver in the barometer at that time was 28,6 inches high, and Fahrenheit’s thermometer flood at 540.” A few lines after, Mr Fontana proceeds thus : “ From this we clearly fee, how little the experiments hitherto publifhed about the differences of common air are to be depended upon. In general, I find that the air changes from one time to another ; fo that the dif¬ ferences between them are far greater than thofe of the airs of different countries or different heights. For inflance, I have found that the air of London in the months of September, Odlober, and November, 1778, when treated with the nitrous air, gave II, I, 1,90, and II, II, 2,25, which is a mean refult of many experi¬ ments which differed very little from each other. The 26th day of November laft, I found the air, for the firfl time, much better j for it gave II, I, 1,80, and II, II, 2,2©; but the 14th of February 1779, the air gave II, I, 1,69 and II, II, 2,21 j from whence it appears, that the air of this 14th of February w as better than it had been fix months before. There can be no doubt of the accuracy of the experiments, becaufe I compared the air taken at different times with that which I had firft ufed in the month of September, and which I had preferved in dry glafs-bottles accurately flopped.” This difference in the purity of the air at different times, Mr Fontana farther remarks, is much greater than the difference between the air of the different places obferved by him : notwithftanding this great change, as he obferved, and as he was informed by va¬ rious perfons, no particular change of health in the generality of people, or facility of breathing, was per¬ ceived. Mr Fontana laftly concludes with obferving, that “ Nature is not fo partial as we commonly believe. She has not only given us an air almoft equally good everywhere at every time, but has allowed us a cer¬ tain latitude, or a powTer of living and being in health in qualities of air which differ to a certain degree. By this I do not mean to deny the exiftence of certain kinds of noxious air in fome particular places ; but on¬ ly fay, that in general the air is good everywhere, and that the fmall differences are not to be feared Co much as fome people would make us believe. Nor do I mean to fpeak here of fome vapours and other bodies w:hich are accidentally joined to the common air in particular places, but do not change its nature and intrinfical property. This ftate of the air cannot be known by the teff of nitrous air ; and thofe vapours are to be confidered in the fame manner as we ftiould confider fo many particles of arfenic fwimming in the atmofphere. In this cafe it is the arfenic, and not the degenerated air, that would kill the animals who ventured to breathe it.” ATOCK, the capital of a province of the fame name in the dominions of the Great Mogul. It is feat- ed on a point of land where two large rivers meet, and is one of the beft fortreffes the Mogul has •, but for¬ merly nobody was permitted to enter it without a paff- port from the Mogul himielf. Eh Long. 72.18. N. Lat. 32. 2©. Atooi, 2 ] A T O Ai OM, in Phi/ofophy, a particle of matter, fo mi- Atom nute, as to admit of no divifion. Atoms are the //;/- nima natura1, and are conceived as the firft principles or 1 component parts of all phyfical magnitude. AIOMICAL philosophy, or the doftrine of atoms, a fyftem w'hich, from the hypothefis that atoms are endued with gravity and motion, accounted for the origin and formation of things. This philofophy was firft broached by Mofchus, lome time before the Tro¬ jan war ; but was much cultivated and improved by Epicurus j w hence it is denominated the Epicurean phi- /ofophy. See Epicurean. ATONEMENT. See Exp IATION. ATON V, in Medicine, a defect of tone or tenfion, or a laxity or debility of the folids of the body. ATOOI, one of the Sandwich iffands, fituated in W. Long. 160. 20. N. Lat. 21. 57. Towards the north-eaft and north-weft, the face of the country is ragged and broken 5 but to the fouthward it is more even. The hills rife from the fea-fide with a gentle acclivity, and at a little diftance back are covered with wood. Its produce is the fame w ith that of the other iflands of this duller •, but its inhabitants greatly ex¬ cel the people of all the neighbouring ifiands in the management of their plantations. In the low' grounds, contiguous to the bay wherein our navigators* anchor-* Cook's ed, thefe plantations were regularly divided by deep ^r°yage' ditches j the fences w'ere formed wdth a neatnefs ap¬ proaching to elegance j and the roads through them wrere finilhed in Inch a manner as would have refle&ed credit even on an European engineer. The ifland is about 300 miles in circumference. The road, or anchoring place, which cur veffels occupied, is on the fouth-weft fide of the ifland, about twfo leagues from the weft end, before a village named Wyrnoa. As far as was founded, the bank was free from rocks $ except to the eaftward of the vallage, where there pro- je£ls a Ihoal on which are fome rocks and breakers. This road is fomewhat expofedto the trade-wind j not¬ withftanding which defed, it is far from being a bad ftation, and greatlv fuperior to thofe which neceflity continually obliges (hips to ufe, in countries where the winds are not only more variable but more boifterous j as at Madeira, Teneriffe, the Azores, &.c. The land¬ ing too is not fo difficult as at moft of thofe places j and, unlefs in very bad weather, is always pra£!i- cable. The water in the neighbourhood is excellent, and may be conveyed with eafe to the boats. But no w!ood can be cut at any convenient diftance, unlefs the iflanders could be prevailed upon to part with the few etooa trees {cordia febejlina) that grow about their vil¬ lages, or a Ipecies called dooe dooe, wrhich grows farther up the country. The ground, from the wooded part' to the fea, is covered with an excellent kind of grafs, about twro feet in height, which fometimes grows in tufts, and appeared capable of being converted into abundant crops of fine hay. But on this extenfive fpace not even a fhrub grows naturally. Befides taro, the fw'eet potato, and other fimilar ve¬ getables ufed by our crews as refrefhments, among which were at leaft five or fix varieties of plantains, the ifland produces bread-fruit; which, however, feems to be fcarce. There arealfoa few cocoa palms 5 fome yams ; the kappe of the Friendly iflands, or Virginian arum j the etooa tree, and odoriferous gardenia, or cape A T O f 2[ Atooi. cape jarmine. Our people alfo met with feveral trees of the dooe dooe, that bear the oily nuts, which are ftuck upon a kind of ikewer and made ule of as candles. There is a fpecies of fida, or Indian mallow $ alfo the morinda citrifolia, which is here called none; a fpecies ot convolvulus \ the ava or intoxicating pepper, befides great quantities of gourds. Thefe laft grow to a very large fize, and are of a remarkable variety of lhapes, which are perhaps the effedt of art. The fcarlet birds, w7hich were brought for fale, were never met with alive \ but one fmall one w’as feen, about the fize of a canary bird, of a deep crimfon co¬ lour ; alio a large owl, tivo brown hawks or kites, and a wild duck. Other birds were mentioned by the na¬ tives •, among which were the otoo, or bluilh heron, and the torata, a fort of whimbrel. It is probable that the Ipecies of birds are numerous, if we may judge by the quantity of fine yellow, green, and fmall velvet¬ like blackilh feathers ufed upon the cloaks and other ornaments worn by thefe people. Filh, and other pro- dudfions of the fea, were, to appearance, not various. The only tame or doraeftic animals found here were hogs, dogs, and fowls, which were all of the fame kind that had been met wdth at the illands of the South Pacific. There were alfo fmall lizards, and fome rats. The inhabitants of Atooi are of the middle fize, and in general lloutly made. They are neither remarkable for a beautiful fhape nor for ftriking features. Their vifage, particularly that of the women, is fometimes round, but others have it long 5 nor can it juftly be faid, that they are diftinguifhed as a nation by any ge¬ neral call of countenance. Their complexion is near¬ ly of a nut-brown ; but fome individuals are of a dark¬ er hue. They are far from being ugly, and have, to all appearance, feiv natural deformities of any kind. Their Ikin is not very foft nor fhining ; but their eyes and teeth are, for the mofl part, pretty good. Their hair in general is flmight ; and though its natural co¬ lour is ufually black, they ftain it, as at the Friendly and other iflands. They are adlive, vigorous, and mo ft expert fwimmers ; leaving their canoes upon the moft frivolous occafton, diving under them, and fwimming to others, though at a confiderable diftance. Women with infants at the breaft, when the furf was fo high as to prevent their landing in the canoes, frequently leaped overboard, and fwam to the fhore, frequently endangering their little ones. They appeared to be of a frank, cheerful difpofition ; and are equally free from the fickle levity wdnch characterizes the inhabitants of Otaheite, and the fedate caft which is obfervable among many of thofe of Tongataboo. They feem to culti¬ vate a fociable intercourfe with each other ; and, ex¬ cept the propenfity to thieving, which is as it were in¬ nate in moft of the people in thofe feas, they appeared extremely friendly. It was pleafing to obferve with what affeCtion the women managed their infants, and with what alacrity the men contributed their afiiftance in fuch a tender office; thus diftinguifhing themfelves from thofe favages who confider a wife and child as things rather neceflary than defirable or worthy of their regard and efteem. From the numbers that w»ere feen aflembled at every village in coalting along, it was conjectured that the inhabitants of this ifland are pretty numerous. Including the ftraggling houfes, it was computed there might perhaps be, in the whole illand, 3 1 A T R fixty fuch villages as that near which our fhips anchor- Atra ed ; and allowing five perfons to each houfe, there ^trebatit would be in every village five hundred, or thirty thou- fand upon the ifland. This number is by no means exaggerated ; for there were fometimes three thoufand people at leaft colletted upon the beach, when it could not be fuppofed that above a tenth part of the natives were prefent. ATRA Bins, black bile, or melancholy. Ac¬ cording to the ancients it hath a twofold origin : I ft, From the groffer parts of the blood, and this they called the melancholy humour. 2d, From yellow’ bile being highly concofted. Dr Percival, in his Eflays Med. and Exp. fuggefts, that it is the gall rendered acrid by a ftagnation in the gall-bladder, and rendered vifcid by the abforption of its fluid parts. Eile in this ftate difcharged into the duodenum, occafions univerfal diftuvbance and diforder until it is evacuated : it oc¬ cafions violent vomiting, or purging, or both ; and pre¬ vious to this the pulfe is quick, the head aches, a deli¬ rium comes on, a hiccough, intenfe thirft, inw ard heat, and a fetid breath. Some defcribe this kind of bile as being acid, harih, corroding, and, when poured on the ground, bubbling up and raifing the earth after the manner of a ferment. Dr Percival fays, that by the ufe of the infuf. Jena limon warmed wfith the tincl. columb. he had checked the vomitings occafioned by this matter. Atra dies, in Antiquity, denotes a fatal day w’here- 'on the Romans received fome memorable defeat. The word literally imports a black day; a denomination taken from the colour; which is the emblem of death and mourning. Whence the Thracians had a cuftom of marking all their happy days with white ftones or calculi, and their unhappy days with black ones; which they caft, at the clofe of each day, into an urn. At the perfon’s death the ftones were taken out; and from a comparifon of the numbers of each complexion, a judgment w’as made of the felicity or infelicity of his courfe of life. The dies atrce or atri were after¬ wards denominated nefajli and poferi. Such in par¬ ticular was the day when the tribunes were defeated by the Gauls at the river Allia, and loft the city ; al¬ fo that w’hereon the battle of Cannae was fought; and feveral others marked in the Roman calendar, as atrca or unfortunate. ATRACTYLIS, distaff thistle. See Botany Index. ATRiETI, in Medicine, infants having no perfo¬ ration in the anus, or perfons imperforated in the va¬ gina or urethra. ATRAGENE. See Botany Index. ATRAPHAXIS. See Botany Index. ATREBATII, a people of Britain, feated next to the Bibroci, in part of Berkfhire and part of Ox- fordlhire. This was one of thofe Belgic colonies which had come out of Gaul into Britain, and there retained their ancient name. For the Atrebatii w’ere a tribe of the Belgas, who inhabited the country which is now called Artois. They aiaj mentioned by CaTar among the nations which ccmpofed the Belgic confe¬ deracy againft him : and the quota of troops which they engaged to furnifh on that occafion w’as 15,000. Comius of Arras W’as a king or chieftain among the Atrebatii in Gaul in Caefar’s time : and he feems to have A T R [ Atrcus Lave poflefled Tome authority, or at leaf!; fome influence, ^ over our Atrebatii in Britain j for be was fent by L ' . Caefar to perfuade them to fubmiflion. This circum- Ifance makes it probable that this colony ol the Atre¬ batii had not been fettled in Britain very long before that time. The Atrebatii were among thofe Britifli tribes which fubmitted to Ccefar j nor do we hear of any remarkable refillance they made againft the Ro¬ mans at their next invafion under Claudius. It is in¬ deed probable, that before the time of this fecond in¬ vafion they had been lubdued by fome of the neigh¬ bouring Hates, perhaps by the powerful nation of the Cattiveilauni, which may be the reafon they are fo little mentioned in hiftory. Calliva Atrebatum, mentioned in the feventh, twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth Itinera of Antoninus, and called by Ptolemy Calcua, feems to have been the capital of the Atrebatii; though our antiquaries differ in their fentiments about the fituation of this ancient city, fome of them placing -it at Wallingford, and others at Ilchefter. ATREUS, in Fabulous Hijlory, the fon of Pelops and Hippodamia, and the father of Agamemnon and Menelaus, is fuppofed to have been king of Mycenae and Argos about 1228 years before the Chriftian era. He drove his brother Thyeftes from court, for having a criminal commerce with jErope his wife ; but un- derftanding that he had had two children by her, he fent for him again, and made him eat them 5 at which horrid adlion, the fun, it is laid, withdrew his light. ATRI, a town of Italy, in the farther Abruzzo, in the kingdom of Naples, with the title of a duchy } it is the fee of a bifliop, and is feated on a craggy moun¬ tain, four miles from the Adriatic fea. E. Long. 13. 8. N. Lat. 42. 45. ATRIENSES, in Antiquity, a kind of fervants or officers in the great families at Rome, who had the care and infpe&ion of the atrise and the things lodged therein. Thefe are otherwife called atriarii, though fome make a dillinclion between atrienfes and atriarii; fuggefting that the latter were an inferior order of fer¬ vants, perhaps affiftants of the atrienfes, and employed in the more fervile offices of the atrium, as to attend at the door, fweep the area, &.c. The atrienfes are reprefented as fervants of authori¬ ty and command over the reft: they afted as procura¬ tors, or agents, of their mailer, in felling his goods, &c. To their care were committed the ftatues and images of the mafler’s anceflors, &c. which were pla¬ ced round the atrium; and which they carried in pro- ceffion at funerals, &cc. In the villas, or country-houfes, the atrienfes had the care of the other furniture and utenfils, particular¬ ly thofe of metal, which they wrere to keep bright from ruff. Other things they were to hang from time to time in the fun, to keep them dry, &c. They were clothed in a fliort white linen habit, to diltinguifh them, and prevent their loitering from home. ATRIP, in Nautical Language, is applied either to the anchor or fails. The anchor is atrip, when it is drawn out of the ground in a perpendicular direction, either by the cable or buoy-rope. The topfails are atrip, when they are hoifted up to the maft-bead, or to their utmoft extent. Atropa. 214 ] A T R ATRIPLEX, oracHj or arach. See EoTAXY Atfiple* Lad ex. A’lRIUM, in EccleJiaJIical Antiquity, denotes an, open place or court before a church, making part erf what was called the northex or antetemple. The atrium in the ancient churches was a large area or fquare plat of ground, furrounded with a portico or cloy iter, fituated between the porch or veftibule of the church and the body of the church. Some have miftakenly confounded the atrium with the porch or veftibule, from which it was diftind ; others with the narthex, of which it w7as onlyr a part. The atrium was the manfion of thoie who were not fuffered to enter farther into the church. More parti¬ cularly, it was the place where the firft clafs of penitents flood to beg the prayers of the faithful as they went into the church. Atrium is alio ufed in the canon-law1', for the ce- metry or churchyard. In this fenfe rve find a law prohibiting buildings to be raifed in atno ecclefice, ex¬ cept for the clergy : which the gloffary explains thus, id ejl in cemeterio, which includes the fpace of forty paces around a large church, or thirty round a little church or chapel. ATROPA, DEADLY NIGHTSHADE. See BOTANY Index. Buchanan gives an account of the deftrudion of the army of SwTeno the Dane, wffien he invaded Scot¬ land, by mixing a quantity of the belladonna berries with the drink w-hich the Scots were, according to a treaty of truce, to fupply them with. This fo into¬ xicated the Danes, that the Scots fell upon them in their fleep, and killed the greateft part of them, fa that there were fcarcely men enough left to carry off their king. There have alfo been many inftances in Britain of children being killed by eating berries of a fine black colour, and about the fize ot a fmall cherry, which are no other than thofe of belladon¬ na. When an accident of this kind is difeovered in time, a glafs of w7arm vinegar will prevent the bad effeds. Naturalifts tell ftrange ftories of this plant : but fetting afide its foporiferous virtue, the modern bota- nifts w’ill fcarce warrant any of them, nor even that hu¬ man figure ordinarily aferibed to its roots, efpecially fince the difeovery of the artifice of charletans in fa- fhioning it, to furprife the credulity of the people. Mofes informs us (Gen. xxx. 14.) that Reuben the fon of Leah, being in the field, happened to find mandrakes, which he brought heme to his mother. Rachel had a mind to them, and obtained them from Leah, upon condition that (he fhould content that Ja¬ cob ftiould be Leah’s bedfellow the night followung. The term omvi dudaim, here made ufe of by Mo¬ fes, is one of thofe words of which the Jews at this day do not underftand the true fignification. Some tranflate it violets, others lilies, or jeJJ'amlne. Junius calls it agreeable flowers ; Codurquus makes it truffle, or mujhroom; and Calmet will have it to be the citron. Thofe that would fupport the tranflation of mandrakes plead, that Rachel being barren, and having a great defire to conceive, coveted Leah’s mandrakes, it may be prefumed, with a view7 to its prolific virtues. The ancients have given to mandrakes the name of the A T T Atrophy ap/jlcr of love, and to Venus the name or Mandra^o- An ^ tti ritls’ anc^ t^e emPeror Julian, in his epiftle to Ca- Ult° ''i lixenes, fays, that he drinks the juice of mandrakes to excite amorous inclinations. ATROPHY, in Medicine, a difeafe, wherein the body or fome of its parts, does not receive the necef- fary nutriment, but waftes and decays incelTantly. See Medicine Index. ATROPOS, in Fabulous Hi/lory, the name of the third of the Parcse, or Fates, whole bufinefs it was to cut the thread of life. ATTACHMENT, in the Law of England, im¬ plies the taking or apprehending a perfon by virtue of a writ or precept. It is diltinguilhed from an ar- ref, by proceeding out of a higher court by precept or writ ; whereas the latter proceeds out of an inferior court by precept only. An arrelt lies only on the body of a man ; whereas an attachment lies often on the goods only, and fometimes on the body and goods. An attachment by writ differs from diflrefs, in not ex¬ tending to lands, as the latter does; nor does a ditlrefs touch the body, as an attachment does. Attachment out of the Chancery, is obtained upon an affidavit made, that the defendant was ferved with a fubpoena, and made no appearance ; or it ilfues upon not performing fome order or decree. Upon the re¬ turn of this attachment by the ffieriff, quod non ef in¬ ventus in halhva fua, another attachment, with a pro¬ clamation, iffues ; and if he Hill refufes to appear, a commiffion of rebellion. Attachment of the Foreft, is one of the three courts held in the foreft. The loweft court is called the court of attachment, or wood-mote court ; the mean, fwan- inote ; and the higheft, the jufice in eyre's feat. The court of attachments has its name from the verdurers of the foreft having no other authority in it, but to re¬ ceive the attachments of offienders againft vert and ve- nifon taken by the forefters, and to enroll them, that they may be prefented or puniffied at the next juftice in eyre’s feat. This attachment is by three means : by goods and chattels ; by body, pledges, or main- prize ; or by the body only. This court is held every 40 days throughout the year; and is thence called forty days court. Foreign Attachment, is an attachment of money or goods found within a liberty or city, to fatisfy fome creditor within fuch liberty or city. By the cuftom of London, and feveral other places, a man can attach money or goods in the hands of a ftranger, to fatisfy himfelf. ATTACK, a violent attempt upon any perfon or thi ng, an affault, or the aft of beginning a combat or difpute. Attack, in the Military Art, is an effort made to force a poll, break a body of troops, &c. Attack of a Siege, is a furious affault made by the befiegers with trenches, covers, mines, &c. in order to make themfelves mailers of a fortrefs, by ftorming one of its fides. If there are two or three attacks made at the fame time, there ffiould be a communica¬ tion betwixt them. See War. ATTACOTTI, an ancient people of Britain, men¬ tioned by Ammianus Marcellinus and St Jerome, as wel: as in the Notitia Imperil. They are reprefented as allies and confederates of the Scots and Pi IIL. [ 2>5 ] ATT [2 Attaint. W. III. cap. 3. But in the cafe of Sir John Fen- * * wick there was fomething extraordinary 3 for he was indi&ed of treafon on the oaths of two witnefles, though but only one could be produced againft him on his trial. ATTAINT, is a writ that lies after judgment againtt a ]ury of twelve men that have given falfe ver- di& in any court of record, in an a61ion real or per- fonal, where the debt or damages amounted to above 40s. Stat. 5 and 34 Edw. III. c. 7. It is called at¬ taint, becaufe the party that obtains it endeavours thereby to ilain or taint the credit of the jury with per¬ jury, by whofe verdidl he is grieved. The }ury who are to try this falfe verdift muft be twenty-four, and are called the grand-jury ; for the law wills not that the oath of one jury of twelve men Ihould be attainted or fet afide by an equal number, nor by lefs indeed than double the former. And he that brings the attaint can give no other evidence to the grand 'jury, than what was originally given to the petit. For as their verdi8: is now trying, and the queftion is whe¬ ther or no they did right upon the evidence that ap¬ peared to them, the law adjudged it the higheft abfur- dity to produce any hibfequent proof upon fuch trial, and to condemn the prior jurifdiflion for not believing evidence which they never knew. But thofe againft whom it is brought are allowed, in the affirmance of the firft verdidl, to produce new matter : becaufe the petit jury may have formed their verdift upon evidence of their own knowledge, which never appeared in courtj and becaufe very terrible was the judgment which the common law inflifted upon them, if the grand jury found their verdift a falfe one. The judgment was, i. That they fhould lofe their liberam legem, and be¬ come for ever infamous. 2. That they ftiould forfeit all their goods and chattels. 3. That their lands and tenements fhould be feized into the king’s hands. 4. That their wives and children fhould be thrown out of doors. 5. That their houfes fhould be rafed and thrown down. 6. That their trees fhould be rooted up. 7. That their meadows fhould be ploughed. 8. That their bodies fhould be caft into jail. 9. That the party fhould be reftored to ail that he loft by reafon of the unjuft verdifft. But as the feverify of this punifhment had its ufual effeft, in preventing the law from being executed, therefore by the ftatute u Hen. VII. c. 24. revived by 23 Hen. VIII. c. 3. and made perpetual by 13 Eliz. c. 25. it is allowed to be brought after the death of the party, and a more moderate punifhment was infli&ed upon attainted jurors : viz. perpetual in¬ famy, and if the caufe of action were above 40I. value, a forfeiture of 20b a-piece by the jurors ; or, if under 40I. then 5I. a-piece 3 to be divided between the king and the party injured. So that a man may now bring an attaint either upon the ftatute or at common law, at his eleftion 3 and in both of them may reverfe the former judgment. But the pradice of fetting afide 6 T ATT verdi6ls upon motion, and granting new trials, has fo Attainted fuperfeded the ufe of both forts of attaints, that there II . is hardly any inftance of an attaint later than the rdth Atte”tlon< century. * Attaint, among Farriers, a knock or hurt in a horfe’s leg, proceeding either from a blow with ano¬ ther horfe’s foot, or from an over-reach in frofty wea¬ ther, when a horfe, being rough fhod, or having fhoes with long caulkers, ftrikes his hinder feet againft his fore leg. ATTAINTED, in La%v, is applied to a perfon’s being under attainder. See Attainder. ATTALICiE vestes, in Antiquity, garments made of a kind of cloth of gold. They took the de¬ nomination from Attalus, furnamed Philometer, a wealthy king of Pergamus, who was the firft, accord¬ ing to Pliny, who procured gold to be wove into cloth. ATTALUS, the name of feveral kings of Perga¬ mus. See Pergamus. ATTELABUS. See Entomology Index-. ATTENTION, a due application of the ear, or the mind, to any thing faid or done, in order to ac¬ quire a knowledge thereof. The word is compound¬ ed of ad, “ to,” and tendo, “ I ftretch.” Attention of mind is not properly an aft of the un- derftanding 3 but rather of the will, by which it calls the underftanding from the confideration of other ob- jefts, and direfts it to the thing in hand. Neverthe- lefs, our attention is not always voluntary : an intereft- ing objeft feizes and fixes it beyond the power of con- troul. Attention, in refpeft of hearing, is the ftretching or ftraining of the tnembrana tympani, fo as to make it more fufceptible of founds, and better prepared to catch even a feeble agitation of the air. Or it is the adjufting the tenfion of that membrane to the degree of loudnefs or lownefs of the found to which we are attentive. According to the degree of attention, objefts make a flronger or weaker impreffion (a). Attention is re- quifite even to the fimple aft of feeing : the eye can take in a confiderable field at one look 3 but no objeft in the field is feen diftinftly but that fingly which fixes the attention : in a profound reverie that totally occu¬ pies the attention, we fcarce fee what is direftly before us. In a train of perceptions, no particular objeft; makes fucb a figure as it would do fingly and apart j for when the attention is divided among many objefts, no particular objeft is entitled to a large {hare* Hence the ftilinefs of night contributes to terror, there being nothing to divert the attention : Horror ubique animos,fimul ipfaJUentia ter rent. JEn. ii. Zara. Silence and fohtude are ev’rywhere ! Through all the gloomy ways and iron doors That hither lead, nor human face nor voice Is (a) Bacon, in his natural hiftory, makes the following obfervations. “ Sounds are meliorated by the in- tenfion of the fenfe, where the common fenfe is collefted moft to the particular fenfe of hearing, and the fight fufpended. Therefore founds are fweeter, as'well as greater, in the night than in the day 3 and I fuppofe they _are fweeter to blind men than to others 3 and it is manifeft, that between fleeping and waking, when all the femes are bound and fufpended, mufic is far fweeter than when one is fully waking.” I Attention II Atterbury. ATT [2 Is feen or heard. A dreadful din was wont To grate the lenfe, when enter’d here, from groans And howls of flaves condemn’d, from clink of chains, And crafh of rally bars and creaking hinges 5 And ever and anon the fight was dalh’d With frightful faces, and the meagre looks Of grim and ghaftly executioners. Yet more this ftillnefs terrifies my foul, Than did that fcene of complicated horrors. Mourning Bride, Aft v. fc. 3. In matters of flight importance, attention is moftly dire£fed by will; and for that reafon, it is our own fault if trifling objefts make any deep impreflion. Had we powrer equally to withhold our attention from mat¬ ters of importance, we might be proof againft any deep impreflion. But our power fails us here : an intereft- ing objedl feizes and fixes the attention beyond the poflibility of controul ; and while our attention is thus forcibly attached to one objeft, others may folicit for admittance ; but in vain, for they will not be regard¬ ed. Thus a fmall misfortune is fcarcely felt in prefence of a greater: Lear. Thou think’ll ’tis much, that this contentious fiorm Invades us to the Ikin : fo ’tis to thee : But where the greater malady is fix’d, The leffer is fcarce felt. Thoud’fi: flmn a bear ; But if thy flight lay tow’rd the roaring fea, Thou’dfl: meet the bear i’ th’ mouth. When the mind’s free, The body’s delicate : the temped in my mind Doth from my fenfes take all feeling elfe, Save what beats there. King Lear, A61 iii. fc. 5. ATTENDANTS, or Attenuating Medicines, are fuch as were fuppofed to fubtilize and break the humours into finer parts j and thus difpofe them for motion, circulation, excretion, &c. ATTENUATION, the a61 of attenuating; that is, of making any fluid thinner, and lefs confident, than it was before. The word is compounded of ad *■ to,’ and tenuis ‘ thin.’ Attenuation is defined more generally by Chavin, the dividing or feparating of the minute parts of any body, wdiich before, by their mu¬ tual nexus or implication, formed a more continuous xnafs. Accordingly, among alchemids, we fometimes find the word ufed for pulverization, or the a6t of re¬ ducing a body into an impalpable powder, by grind¬ ing, pounding, or the like. ATTERBURY, Dr Francis, fon of Dr Lewis Atterbury, was born at Milton in Buckinghamflure, 1662; educated at Wedminder; and from thence ele61ed to Chrid-church in Oxford, where he foou di- llinguidred himfelf by his fine genius and turn for po¬ lite literature. The year he was made M. A. 1687, he exerted himfelf in the controverfy with the Papids, vindicated Luther in the flronged manner, and fliow- ed an uncommon, fund of learning, enlivened with great vivacity. In 1690 he married Mifs Ofborn, a didant relation of the duke of Leeds ; a lady of great beauty, but with little or no fortune, who lived at or in the neighbourhood of Oxford. In Feb. 1690-1, we find him refolved to “ bedir himfelf in his office in the houfethat of cenfor pro* Vol. III. Part I. 17 1 A T .T bably, an officer (peculiar to Chrid-church) who prfi-Atterbufy. fides over the claflical exercifes; he then alio held the 11 “ V"'*” catechetical le61ure founded by Dr Bufby. About this period it mud have been that he took orders, and entered into another fcene, and another fort of converfation ; for in 1691 he was eledled lec¬ turer of St Bride’s church in London, and preacher at Bridewrell chapel. An academic life, indeed, mud have been irkfome and infipid to a perfon of his adlive and afpiring temper. It was hardly poflible that a clergy¬ man of his fine genius, improved by fludy, with a fpi* rit to exert his talents, fhould remain long unnoticed ; and we find that he w^as foon appointed chaplain to King William and Queen Mary. The diare he took in the controverfy againd Bent¬ ley (about the genuinenefs of Phalaris’s Epiflles) is now very clearly afcertained. In one of the letters to his noble pupil, dated “ Chelfea 1698 (he fays), the matter had cod him fome time and trouble. In laying the defign of the book, in writing above half of it, in reviewing a good part of the red, in tranfcribing the whole, and attending the prefs (he adds), half a year of my life went aw^ay.” In 1700, a dill larger field of adlivity opened, In which Atterbury w?as engaged four years with Dr Wake (afterwards archbifhop of Canterbury) and others concerning “ the Rights, Powders, and Privi¬ leges of Convocationsin which, however the truth of the queflion may be fuppofed to lie, he difplayed fo much learning and ingenuity, as well as zeal for the intereds of his order, that the lower houfe of convocation returned him their thanks, and the uni- verfity of Oxford complimented him with the degree of D. D. January 29. 1 700, he w’as indalled arch¬ deacon of Totnefs, being promoted to that dignity by Sir Jonathan Trelawmey, then bifhop of Exeter. The fame year he was engaged, with fome other learned di¬ vines, in revifing an intended edition of the “ Greek Tedament,” with Greek “ Scholia,” colledled chiefly from the fathers, by Mr Archdeacon Gregory. At this period he wras popular as preacher at the Rolls chapel ; an office which had been conferred on him by Sir John Trevor, a great difeerner of abilities, in 1698, when he refigned Bridewell, which he had obtained in 1693. Upon the acceffion of Queen Anne in 1702, Dr Atterbury was appointed one of her Majedy’s chaplains in ordinary ; and, in October 1704, was ad¬ vanced to the deanery of Carlifle. About two years after this, he was engaged in a difpute with Mr Hoad- ly, concerning the advantages of virtue with regard to the prefent life ; occafioned by his fermon, preached Augud 30. 1706, at the funeral of Mr Thomas Ben- net a bookfeller. In 1707, Sir Jonathan Trelawney, then bifliop of Exeter, appointed him one of the ca¬ nons refidentiaries of that church. In 1709, he was engaged in a freffi difpute with Mr Hondly, concern¬ ing “ Paffive Obedience ocoafioned by his Latin Sermon, entitled “ Concio ad Clerum Londinenfem, habita in Ecclefia S. Elphegi.” In 1710, came on the famous trial of Dt Sacheverell, whofe remarkable fpeech on that occafion was generally fuppofed to have been drawn up by our author, in conjundtion with Dr Smalridge and Dr Freind. The fame year Dr Atter¬ bury was unanimoufly chofen prolocutor of the lower houfe of convocation, and had the chief management E e of ATT Atterbury. 0f affairs in that houfe. May it. 1711, h L 2 1 , ne was ap¬ pointed by the convocation- one of the committee for comparing Mr Whifton’s do&rines with thofe of the church of England j and in June following, he had the chief hand in drawiqg up “ A Reprefentation of the Prefent State of Religion.” In 171 2, Dr Atterbury was made dean of Chrilt-church, notwithllanding the llrong intereft and warm applications of feveral great men in behalf of his competitor Dr Smalridge. The next year raw him at the top of his preferment, as well as of his reputation : for, in the beginning of June 1713, the queen, at the recommendation of Lord Chancellor Harcourt, advanced him to the bifliopric of Rochefter, with the deanery of Weftminfter in com- mendam j he wTas confirmed July 4. and confecrated at Lambeth next day. At the beginning of the fucceeding reign, his tide of profperity began to turn 5 and he received a fen- iible mortification prefently after the coronation of King George I. when, upon his offering to prefent his Majefty (with a view, no doubt, of Handing better in his favour) with the chair of Hate or royal canopy, his own perquifites as dean of Weflminfter, the offer was rejedted, not without fome evident marks of dif- like to his perfon. During the rebellion in Scotland, w'hen the Pre¬ tender’s declaration was difperfed, the archbifhop of Canterbury, and the bifhops in or near London, had publifhed a Declaration of their abhorrence of the pre¬ fent Rebellion, and an Exhortation to the Clergy and People to be ‘Zealous in the difcharge of their duties to his Majejly King George: but the bifhop of Rochefter re¬ futed to fign it; and engaged Bifhop Smalridge in the fame refufal, on account of fome refledtions it contain¬ ed againft the high church party. He appeared gene¬ rally among the proteftors againft the meafures of the miniftry under the king, and drew up the reafons of the protefts with his ovrn hand. In 17x6, wre find him advifing Dean Srvift in the management of a refradtory chapter. April 26. 1722, he fultained a fevere trial in the lofs of his lady; by whom he had four children 5 Francis, who died an in¬ fant } Ofborn, ftudent of Chrift church j Elizabeth, who died September 29. 1716, aged 17 ; and Mary, who had been then feven years married to Mr Mo- rice. In this memorable year, on a fufpicion of his being concerned in a plot in favour of the Pretender, he w7as apprehended Auguft 24. and committed prifoner to the T ower. Two officers, the under fecretary, and a meffenger, wrent about two o’clock in the afternoon to the bi- fhop’s houfe at Weftminfter, where he then was, w'ith orders to bring him and his papers before the council. He happened to be in his nightgowm when they came in 5 and being made acquainted with their bufinefs, he defired time to drefs himfelf. In the mean time his fe¬ cretary came in ; and the officers wTent to fearch for his papers 5 in the fealing of which the meffenger brought a paper, wffiich he pretended to have found in his clofe-ftool, and defired it might be fealed up with the reft. His Lordfhip obferving it, and believing it to be a forged one of his own, defired the officers not to do it, and to bear witnefs that the paper was not found with him. Neverthelefs they did it j and S ] ATT though they behaved themfelves with fome refpcfl to Atterbury, him, they fuffered the meifengers to treat him in a ve- ^ ry rough manner, threatening him, if he did not make hafte to dreis himfeif, they would carry him away un- dreft as he was. Upon which he ordered his fecretary to fee his papers ail fealed up, and went himfelf direct¬ ly to the Cock-pit, where the council waited for him. The behaviour of the mefiengers, upon this occafion, feems to have been very unwarrantable, if what the au¬ thor of “ A Letter to the Clergy of the Church of England,” &c. tells us be true, that the perfons, di- refted by order of the king and council to feize his lordfhip and his papers, received a ftridf command to treat him with great refpect and reverence. However this was, when he came before the council, he behaved with a great deal of calmnefs, and they with much ci¬ vility towards him. He had liberty to fpeak for him¬ felf as much as he pleafed, and they liftened to his de¬ fence with a great deal of attention $ and, what i§ more unufual, after he was withdrawn, he had twice liberty to re-enter the council chamber, to make for hitnfelf fuch reprefentations and requefts as he thought proper. It is faid, that, while he was under examination, he made ufe of our Saviour’s anfwer to the Jewiih coun¬ cil, while he flood before them $ “ If I tell you, ye will not believe me 5 and if I alfo afk you, ye will not anfwer me, nor let me go.” After three quarters of an hour’s flay at the Cock-pit, he was fent to the Tower, privately, in his owm coach, without any man¬ ner of noife or obfervation. ' This commitment of a bifhop upon a fufpicion of high treafon, as it was a thing rarely pratftifed fince the E.eformation, fo it occafioned various fpeculations among the people. Thofe who were the bifhop’s friends, and pretended to the greateft intimacy with him, laid the whole odium of the matter upon the mx- niftry. They knew the bifhop fo well, they faid, his love to the confiitution, and attachment to the Prote- ftant fucceffion, his profeffed abhorrence of Popery, and fettled contempt of the Pretender, and his caution, prudence, and circumfpeftion, to be fuch, as wmuld never allow him to engage in an attempt of fubverting the government, fo hazardous in itfelf, and fo repug¬ nant to his principles; and therefore they imputed all to the malice and management of a great minifler of ftate or two, who w^ere refolved to remove him, on account of fome perfonal prejudices, as well as the conftant moleftation he gave them in parliament, and the particular influence and aflivity he had fhovn in the late eleftion. The friends to-the miniftry, on the other hand, were ftrongly of opinion, that thu bilhop was fecretly a favourer of the Pretender’s caufe, and had formerly been tampering with things of that na¬ ture, even in the queen’s time, and while his party was excluded from power *, but upon their re-admif- fion, had relinquifhed that purfuit, and his confede¬ rates therein, and became a good lubjeft again. They urged, that the influence which the late duke of Or¬ mond had over him, affifted by his owm private ambi¬ tion and revenge, might prompt him to many things contrary to his declared fentiments, and inconfiftent with that cunning and caution which in other cafes he was mafter of. And to obviate the difficulty, ari- fing from the bifhop’s avprfion to Popery, and the Pretender’s bigotry to that religion, they talked of a new ATT r 2 . t- ^ ATterbury. new invented fcbeme of his, not to receive the Pre- v tender, whofe principles were not to be changed, but his fon only, who was to be educated a Proteftant in the church of England, and the biihop to be his guar¬ dian, and lord proteftor of the kingdom, during his minority. Thefe, and many more fpeculations, amu- fed the nation at that time ; and men, as ufual, judged of things by the meafure of their own affe&ions and prejudices. March 23. 1722-3, a bill was brought into the houfe of commons, lor “ infli&ing certain pains and penalties on Francis Lord Bifliop of Rochefter j” a copy of which was fent to him, with notice that he had liberty of counfel and folicitors for making his defence. Under thefe circumtlances the biihop ap¬ plied, by petition, to the houfe of lords for their dire&ion and advice as to his conduct in this conjunc¬ ture ; and April 4. he acquainted the fpeaker of the houfe of commons, by a letter, that he was determined to give that houfe no trouble in relation to the bill de¬ pending therein ; but Ihould be ready to make his de¬ fence againft it when it Ihould be argued in another houie, of which he had the honour to be a member. On the 9th the bill paffed the houfe of commons, and was the fame day fent up to the houfe of lords for their concurrence. May 6th being the day appointed by the lords for the fir ft reading of the bill, Biihop Atterbury was brought to Weftminfter to make his defence. The counfel for the biihop were. Sir Conftantine Phipps and William Wynne, Efq. ; for the king, Mr Reeve and Mr Wearg. The proceedings continued above a week : and on Saturday May 1 1 th, the biihop was permitted to plead for himfelf. 'Phis he did in a very eloquent ipeech •, which he feelingly opens by com¬ plaining of the uncommon feverity he had experienced in the Power ; which was carried to fo great a length, that not even his fon-in-law Mr Morice was permitted to fpeak to him in any nearer mode than Handing in an open area, whilft the biihop looked out of a two- pair-of-ftairs window. In the courfe of his defence he obferves, “ Here is a plot of a year or two Handing, to fubvert the government with an armed force j an invafion from abroad, an infurreftion at home : juft ' when ripe for execution, it is difcovered ; and twelve months after the contrivance of this fcheme, no con- lultation appears, no men correfponding together, no provifion made, no arms, no officers provided, not a man in arms ; and yet the poor biihop has done all this. What could tempt me to ftep thus out of my way ? LVas it ambition, and a defire of climbing into a higher ftation in the church ? There is not a man in my office farther removed from this than I am. Was money my aim ? I always defpifed it too much, confidering what occafion I am now like to have for it: for out of a poor bilhopric of 500I. per annum, I have laid out no lefs than 1000I. towards the repairs of the church and epifcopal palace ; nor did I tpke one Hulling for dilapidations. I he reft of my little income has been luent, as is neceflary, as I am a biffiop. Was I in- 11 uenced by any dillike of the eftablilhed religion, and fccretly inclined towards a. church of greater pomp and power ? I have, my lords, ever fince I knew what Popery was, oppofed it ; and the better I knew it, the jnore I cppofed it. I began my ftudy in divinity, 19 j ATT when the Popiffi controverfy grew hot, with that im- Atterbury, mortal book of Tillotfon’s, when he undertook the ""'v ■ ■ Proteftant caufe in general; .and as fuch, I efteemed him above all. You will pardon me, my lords, if I mention one thing : Thirty years ago, I writ in de¬ fence of Martin Luther ; and have preached, expref- fed, and wrote to that purpole from my infancy j and whatever happens to me, I will fuffer any thing, and, by God’s grace, burn at the ftake, rather than depart from any material point of the Proteftant religion as profeffed in the church of England. Once more : Can I be fuppofed to favour arbitrary power ? The ■whole tenor of my life has been otherwife : I was al¬ ways a friend to the liberty of the fubjefl; and, to the beft of my power, conftantly maintained it. I may have been thought miftaken in the meafures I took to fupport it; but it matters not by what party I was ' called, fo my actions are uniform.” Afterwards, fpeaking of the method of proceeding againft him as unconftitutional, he fays : “ My ruin is not of that moment to any number of men, to make it worth their while to violate, or even to feem to violate, the conftitution in any degree, which they ought to pre- ferve againft any attempts whatfoever. Though I am wmrthy of no regard, though whatfoever is done to me may for that realon be looked upon to be juft j yet your lordffiips will have fame regard to your own laft* ing intereft and that of pofterity. This is a proceed¬ ing wuth which the conftitution is unacquainted j which, under the pretence of fupporting it, will at laft effec¬ tually deftroy it. For God’s fake, lay afide thefe ex¬ traordinary proceedings 5 fet not up thefe new and dangerous precedents. I, for my part, will voluntarily and cheerfully go into perpetual banilhment, and pleafe myfelf that I am in fome meafure the occafion of put¬ ting a flop to fuch precedents, and doing fome good to my country : I will live, wffierever I am, praying for its profperity ; and do, in the'words of Father Paul to the ftate of "Venice, fay, EJlo perpetua. It is not my departing from it I am concerned for. Let me de¬ part, and let my country be fixed upon the immoveable foundation of law and juftice, and Hand for ever.” After a folemn proteftation of his innocence, and an ' appeal to the Searcher of Hearts for the truth of what he had faid, he concludes thus : “ If, on any account, there (hall (fill be thought by your lord (hips to be any feeming (Length in the proofs againft me j if, by your lordffiips judgments, Springing from unknown motives, I (hall be thought to be guilty 5 if, for any reafons or neceffity of ftate, of the wifdom and juftice of which I am no competent judge, your lordftiips ffiall proceed to pafs this bill againft me; I (hall difpofe myfelf quietly and tacitly to fubmit to what you do ; God’s will be done : Naked came I out of my mother’s womb, and naked (hall I return ; and, whether he gives or takes away, bleffed be the name of the Lord !” On Monday the 13 th he was carried for the laft time from the Tower to hear the reply of the king’s counfel to his defence. Thefe were both men of great knowledge and fagacity in law, but of different talents in point of eloquence. Their fpeeches on this occa¬ fion were made public ; and they feem to have formed their “ Replies,” defignedly, in a different way. The foimer flicks dole to the matter in evidence, and en¬ forces the charge againft the bifliop with great (Length E e 2 and A T T [ 2 Atterbury. and perfpiculty : The latter anfwers all his objetlions, ' and refutes the arguments brought in his defence, in an eafy foft manner, and with great firnplicity of rea- foning. Mr Reeve is wholly employed in faffs, in comparing and uniting together circumftances, in or¬ der to corroborate the proofs of the bilhop’s guilt: Mr Wearg is chiefly taken up in filencing the complaints of the bilhop and his counfel, and replying to every thing they advance, in order to invalidate the allega¬ tions of his innocence. The one, in ihort, pofleffes the minds of the lords with ftrong conviflions again!! the bifhop : The other difpoffelTes them of any favour¬ able impreflion that might poflibly be made upon them by the artifice of his defence. And accordingly Mr Reeve is ftrong, nervous, and enforcing ; but Mr Wearg, fmooth, eafy, and infinuating, both in the man- 2° ] ATT ner of his expreftion and the turn of his periods. Mr Atteibury. Wearg pays the higheft compliments to the biftiop’s v eloquence : but, at the fame time, reprefents it as em¬ ployed to impofe upon the reafon, and mifguide the judgment of his hearers in proportion as it affefted their paftions ; and he endeavours to ftrip the biftiop’s de¬ fence of all its ornaments and colour of rhetoric. On the 15th the bill was read the third time ; and, after a long and warm debate, palled on the 16th, by a majority of 83 to 43. On the 27th, the king came to the houfe, and confirmed it by his royal affent. June 18. 1723, this eminent prelate, having the day . before taken leave of his friends, wdio, from the time of palling the bill againft him to the day of his de¬ parture, had free accels to him in the Tower (b), em¬ barked on board the Aldborough man of war, and landed (b) The following anecdote wTas firft communicated to the public by the late Dr Maty, on the credit of Lord Chefterfield : “ I went (faid Lord Chefterfield) to Mr Pope, one morning, at Twickenham, and found a large folio bible, with gilt clafps, lying before him upon his table j and, as 1 knew his way of thinking upon that book, I alked him, jocofely, if he w7as going to write an anfwer to it ? It is a prefent, laid he, or rather a legacy, from my old friend the Bilhop of Rochefter. I went to take my leave of him yefterday in the Tower, where I faw this bible upon his table. After the firft compliments, the Bilhop faid to me. * My friend Pope, confidering your infirmities, and my age and exile, it is not likely that we Ihould ever meet again j and there¬ fore I give you this legacy to remember me by it. Take it home with you j and let me advile you to abide by it.’—‘ Does your Lordlhip abide by it yourfelf ?’—‘ I do. ‘ If you do, my Lord, it is but lately. May I beg to know what new light or arguments have prevailed with you now7, to entertain a opinion fo contrary to that which you entertained of that book all the former part of your life r’—The Bilhop replied, ‘ We have not time to talk of thefe things} but take home the book 5 I will abide by it, and I recommend you to do fo too ; and fo God blefs you.’ Thefe anecdotes Mr Nichols has inferted in the “ Epiftolary Correfpondence,” vol. ii. p. 79* w^b the pro- felled view of vindicating Atterbury, in the following words of an ingenious corrrefpcndent: “ Dr Warton has revived this ftory, which he juftly calls an ‘ uncommon’ one, in his laft ‘ Elfay on the Genius and Writings of Pope.’ It w7as indeed very uncommon 5 and I have my reafons for thinking it equally groundkfs and invidious. Dr Warton, though he retails the ftory from ‘ Maty’s Memoirs,’ yet candidly ac- knowdedges, that it ought not to be implicitly relied on. That this caution w as not unnecefiary, will, I appre¬ hend, be fufficiently obvious, from the following comparifon be’tween the date of the ftory itlelf and Mr Pape’s- letters to the bilhop. “ According to Lord Chefterfield’s account, this remarkable piece of converfation took place but a few days before the Biftrop went into exile : and it is infinuated that Mr Pope, till that period, had not even enter¬ tained the ftighteft fufpicion of his friend’s reverence for the bible : Nay, it is ailerted, that the very recom¬ mendation of it from a quarter fo unexpefted, ftaggered Mr Pope to fuch a degree, that in a mingled vein of raillery and ferioufnefs, he was very eager to know the grounds and reafons of the Biftiop’s change of fenti- ment. “ Unfortunately for the credit of Lord Chefterfield and his ftory, there is a letter on record, that was written nine months before this pretended dialogue took place, in which Mr Pope ferioully acknowdedged the Bifhop’s piety and generofity, in interefting himfelf fo zealoufly and affedlionately in matters which im¬ mediately related to his improvement in the knowledge of the holy fcriptures. The paffage I refer to is a very remarkable one : and you will find it in a letter, dated July 27. 1722. It appears undeniably from this letter, that the Bifhop had earneftly recommended to Mr Pope the ftudy of the bible } and had foftened his zeal with an unufual urbanity and courtefy, in order to avoid the imputation of ill-breeding, and remove all occalion of difguft from a mind fo ‘ tremblingly alive’ as Mr Pope’s. I will tranfcribe the paffage at large. ‘ I ought firft to prepare my mind for a better knowledge even of good profane writers, efpecially the moralifts, &c. be¬ fore I can be worthy of tailing the Supreme of books, and Sublime of all writings, in which, as in all the intermediate ones, you may (if your friendftiip and charity towards me continue lo far) be the beft guide to, Yours, A. Pope.’ “ The laft letter of Mr Pope to the Bifhop, previous to his going into exile, was written very early in June 1723. It muft have been about this time that Pope paid his farew;ell vilit to the Bifhop in the dower. But whether fuch a converfation as that which hath been pretended adlually took place, may be left to the determination of every man of common fenfe, after comparing Lord Chefterfield’s anecdote with Mr Pope’s letter. “ There muft have been a miftake, or a wilful mifreprefentation fomewdiere. To determine its origin, or to xtark minutely the vaiious degrees of its progrefs, till it ilfued forth into calumny and falfehood, is impoflible. ATT [2 AtterSnrv. landed tlie Friday following at C .liis. Wh en he went ‘ on (liore, having been informed chat Lord Bolingbroke, who had, after the rihng of the parliament, received the king’s pardon, was arrived at the fame' place on his return to England, he laid, with an air of pleafant- ry. “ Then I am exchanged !” and it was, in the opinion of Mr Pope on the fame occafion, “ a lign of the nation’s being curfedly afraid of being overrun with too much politenefs-, w7hen it could not regain one great man but at the expence of another.” But the leverity of his treatment did not ceafe even with his banhhment. The fame vindictive fpirit purfued him in foreign climes. No Britilh fubjedt was even per¬ mitted to vilit him without the king’s fign manual, which Mr Morice was always obliged to folicit, not only for himfelf, but for every one of his family whom he carried abroad with him, for which the fees of of¬ fice were very high. Whan Biihop Atterbury firft entered upon his ba- nilhment, Bruflels wras the place deltined for his refi- dence ; but, by the arts and mitigations of the Britilh minilters, he was compelled to leave that place, and retire to Paris. There being folicited by the friends of the Pretender to enter into their negociations, he changed his abode for Montpelier in 1728 5 and, after reliding there about two years, returned to Paris, where he died Feb. 15. 173 1-2. The affliftion wdaich he fultained by the death of his daughter in 1729, was thought to have haftened his own diffolution. The former event he hath himlelf related in a very affefling manner, in a letter to Mr Pope: “ The earned defire of meeting one I dearly loved, called me abruptly to Montpelier ; where, after continuing two months un¬ der the cruel torture of a fad and fruitlefs expeftation, I was forced at laft to take a long journey to Touloufe; and even there I had miffed the perfon I fought, had fire not, with great fpirit and courage, ventured all night up the Garronne to fee me, which fire above all things defired to do before Ihe died. By that means fhe was brought where I was, between feven and eight in the morning, and lived 20 hours afterwardsj which time was not loft on either fide, but paffed in fuch a manner as gave great fatisfa&ion to both, and fuch as, on her part, every way became her circumftances and character : For Ihe had her fenfes to the very laft gafp, and exerted them to give me, in thofe few hours, greater marks of duty and love than fhe had done in all her lifetime, though fhe had never been wanting in either. The laft words fire faid to me were the kindeft of all ; a reflection on the goodnefs of God, which had allowed us in this manner to meet once more, before we parted for ever. Not many mi¬ nutes after that, fhe laid herfelf on her pillow, in a fleeping pofture, Placidaque ibidemum morte quievit. Judge you, Sir, what I felt, and ftill feel, on this occa- 21 ] ATT fion, and fpare me the trouble of deferibing it. At Atterbury. my age, under my infirmities, among utter ftrangers, how ihall I find out proper reliefs and fupports ? 1 can have none, but thofe with which reafon and religion furnilh me ; and thofe I laid hold on, and grafp as faft as I can. 1 hope that He who laid the burden upon me (for wife and good purpofes ho doubt) will enable me to bear it in like manner as 1 have borne others, with fome degree of fortitude and firmnefs.” How far the vbifhop might have been attached in his inclinations to the Stuart family, to which he might be led by early prejudices of education, and the divided opinions of the times, it is not neceffary here to inquire : But that he fiiould have been weak enough to engage in a plot fo inconfiftent with his fta- tion, and fo clumfily devifed (to fay the leaf! of it, and without entering into his folemn affeveration of inno¬ cence,) is utterly inconfiftent with that cunning which his enemies allowed him. The duke of Wharton, it is well known, was violent againft him, till convinced by his unanfwerable reafoning. It has been faid that Atterbury’s wifhes reached to the bilhopric of London, or even to York or Canter¬ bury. But thofe who were better acquainted with his views, knew that Winchefter would have been much more defirable to him than either of the others. And there are thofe now living, who have been told from refpectable authority, that that bifhopric was offered to him whenever it fliould become vacant (and till that event fhould happen, a penfion of 5000I. a-year, be- fides an ample provifion for Mr Morice), if he would ceafe to give the oppofition he did to Sir Robert Wal¬ pole’s adminiftration, by his fpeeches and protefts in the houfe of lords. When that offer was rejected by the biftiop, then die contrivance for his ruin was deter¬ mined on. In his fpeech in the houfe of lords, the biihop mentions his being “ engaged in a correfpondence with two learned men (Biftiop Potter and Dv Wall) on fettling the times of writing the four gofpels.” Part of this correfpondence is ftill in being, and will foon be publiihed. The fame fubjeft the biihop purfued during his exile, having confulted the learned of all nations, and had nearly brought the whole to a con- clufion when he died. Thefe laudable labours are an ample confutation of Biihop Newton’s affertion, that Atterbury “ wrote little whilft in exile but a few cri¬ tic! fms on French authors.” His body was brought over to England, and in- / terred on . the 1 2th of May following in Weftminfter abbey, in a vault which in the year 1722 had been prepared by his direftions. There is no memorial over his grave ; nor could there well be any, unlefs his friends would have confented (which it is moft pro¬ bable they refufed to do) that the words implying him to have died biihop of Rochefter fhould have been omitted on his tomb. Some I have fimply ftated matters offa£t as they are recorded ; quite fo obvious and indifputable, as they may think fit. Koneft wifh to remove unmerited obloquy from the dead, refpedls ftill fhades the character of this ingenious prelate am, dear Sir, your faithful humble fervant, and leave it to your readers to fettle other points not My motives in this very plain relation arofe from an I fhould fincerely rejoice if the cloud which in other could be removed with equal facility and fuccefs. I Samvel BadcockTI * * * 5 ATT [2 Atterbury.^ ^ Some time before his death, he publifhed a vindica¬ tion of himfelf, Biihop Smalridge, and Dr Aldrich, from a charge brought againft them by Mr Qldmixon, of having altered and interpolated the copy of Lord Clarendon’s “ Hiftory of the Rebellion.’’ BUhop Atterbury’s “ Sermons” are extant in four volumes in ociavo : thofe contained in the two firft were publilhed by himlelf, and dedicated to his great patron Sir Jona¬ than Trelawney biihop of Wincherter; thofe in the two laft were publiftted after his death by Dr Thomas Moore his Lordihip’s chaplain. Four admirable “ Vi- fitation Charges” accompany his “ Epiftolary Corre- fpondence.” As to Bifhop Atterbury’s charafter, however the moral and political part of it may have been different¬ ly reprefented by the oppofite parties, it is univerfally agreed, that he was a man of great learning and un¬ common abilities, a fine writer, and a molt excellent preacher. His learned friend Smalridge, in the fpeech he made when he prefented him to the upper houfe of convocation, as prolocutor, flyles him Ver in nullo Uterarum 'genere hofpes, in plerifque artibus et Jiudiis diu et fehciter exercitatus, in maxime perfect is literarum difciphnis perfe&ijjimus. In his controverfial writings, he was fometimes too fevere upon his adverfary, and’ dealt. rather too much in fatire and inveftive ; but this his panegyrift imputes more to the natural fervour of his wit than to any bitternefs of temper or pre- penle malice. In his fermons, however, he is not only every way unexceptionable, but highly to be com¬ mended. The truth is, his talent as a preacher was fio excellent and remarkable, that it may not impro¬ perly be faid, that he owed his preferment to the pul¬ pit ^ nor any hard matter to trace him, through his writings, to his leveral promotions in the church. We (hall conclude Biihop Atterbury’s charadter as a preacher, with the encomium beftowred on him by the Author of “ the Tatler 5” who, having obferved that the Englilh clergy too much neglefted the art offpeak- ing, makes a particular exception with regard to our prelate *, who, fays he, “ has fo particular a regard to his congregation, that he commits to his memory what he has to fay to them •, and has fo foft and grace¬ ful a behaviour, that it muft attraft your attention. His perfon (continues this author), it is to be confef- fed, is no fmall recommendation ; but he is to be high¬ ly commended for not lofing that advantage, and add¬ ing to propriety of fpeech (which might pafs the cri- ticifm of Longinus) an aftion which would have been approved by Demofthenes. He has a peculiar force in his ^vay, and has affedled many of his audience, who could not be intelligent hearers of his difcourfe were there no explanation as well as grace in his attion. This art of his is ufed with the moft exadi and honed fkill. He never attempts your paffions, till he has convinced your reafon. All the objections which you can form are laid open and difperfed before he ufes* the lead ve¬ hemence in his fermon ; but when he thinks he has your head, he very foon wins your heart, and never pretends to ihow the beauty of holinefs, till he has convinced you of the truth of it.”—In his letters to 1 ope, &c. Biihop Atterbury. appears in a pleafing light, both as a writer and as a man. In eafe and ele¬ gance they are fuperior to thofe of Pope, which are wore dudied. There are in them feveral beautiful re- 22 ] ATT ‘'[e"ces t0 tl1e clafiics. The lii[hop excelled in his Atteftation ailufions to facred as well as profane authors. i.l AT1ESIAIION, the adt of affirming or wit- AttIca‘ neffing tne truth of fomething, more efpeciaily in' ' v writing. - v J ATTIC, any thing relating to Attica, or to the city ot Athens: thus Attic fait, in philology, is a delicate poignant fort of wit and humour peculiar to the Athe¬ nian writers ; Attic witnefs, a witnefs incapable of corruption, &c. Attic Order. See Architecture. Attic Brfe, a peculiar kind of bafe ufed by the ancient architect in the Ionic order j and by Palladio and forre others, in the Doric. Attic Story, in ArchiteBure; a dory in the upper part of a houfe, where the windows are ufually fquare. xx I PICA, an ancient kingdom of Greece, fituated Boundaries, along the north coad of the gulf of Saron 5 boundedextenb on the wed by Megara, Mount Cithaeron, and part of Boeotia ; on the north by the gulf of Euripus, now7 Stretto di negro ponte, and the red of Boeotia ; and on the ead by the Euripus. It extends in length from north-wed to fouth ead about 60 miles; its breadth from north to fouth was 56, decreafing as it appicached the fea. \ 'I he foil of this country was naturally barren and craggy, though by the indudry of its inhabitants it pioduced all the necelfaries of life. On this account Attica was lefs expofed to invafions than other more Inhabitants fertile countries; and hence it preferved its ancient in-to habitants beyond all the other kingdoms in its neiph-be produ" bourhood ; fo that they were reputed to be the fpon-^f fbiT taneous productions of the foil; and as a badge of this, Thucydides tells us, they wore golden grafshoppers in their hair. The chief cities in the kingdom of Attica were A-cities5 thens the capital; next to it Eleufis, fituated on the fame gulf, near the coad of Megara; and next to that Rhamnus famed for the temple of Amphiaiaus and the datue of the goodefs Nemefis. * . T’he fird king of this country, of whom we have anyCecrops didintf account, w^as Cecrops. Others indeed are faidthe firft to have reigned before him, particularly one A&eeus,king' whofe daughter Cecrops married, and in her right laiffi the foundation of his new7 monarchy. Cecrops is faid to have been the fird who deified Jupiter, fet up altars and idols, and indituted, marriage among the Greeks. He is likewife affirmed to have taught his fubje&s navi¬ gation ; and for the better adminidration of judice, and promoting intercourfe among them, to have divided them into the fird four tribes, calledAutochthon, Aclea, and Para/ia ; and he is alfo by fome faid to be’ the founder of the Areopagus. From this monarch the Athenians affiefled to call themfelves Cecropida till the reign of Ereftheus their fixth king, after whom they took the name oi Ereffbydce. Cecrops dying after a reign of 50 years, left three Cnmau* daughters ; by marrying one of whom, probably, Cra- naus a wealthy citizen aifcended the throne. Fie en¬ joyed his crown peaceably for ten years ; till, having married one of his daughters named Attis, to Amphic- tyon the fon of Deucalion, he was by him dethroned, 6 and forced to lead a private life to the lad. From this Whence daughter, the country, which before had been calledthc C0untT7 Actea, took the name of Attica. was caded . „ Attica. After Attica. 7 Eridtho- nius. 8 Pandion. Erectheus xo Cecrops II Pandion II 12 JEgeus. ?3 Thefeus born. ATT [ 2 ) After a reign of io or 12 years:, Amphiftvon was himfelf depofed by Eriahonius, faid to be the fon of Vulcan and Tethys. Being lame of both his feet, he is laid to have invented coaches, or, as others will have it, intiituted horte and chariot races, in honour of Mi¬ nerva. He is alfo reported to have been the firlf who ftamped filver coin. He reigned 50 years, and was fuccceded by his fon Pandion the father of Progne and Philomela; whofe hard fate, fo famous among the poets, is fuppofed to have broke his heart, after a reign of about 40 years. In his time Triptolemus taught the Athenians agriculture, which he had learned from Ceres. Pandion was fucceeded by his fon Ere&heus, who being reckoned the moft powerful prince of his time, Boreas king of Thrace demanded his daughter Orithia in marriage, and on being refufed carried her off by force. After a reign of 50 years, Ere&heus being killed in a battle with the Eleufians, was lucceeded by his fon Cecrops II. who is generally allowed' to have been the firft who gathered the people into towns j they having till then lived in houfes and cottages fcat- tered here and there, without order or regular diftance. After a reign of 40 years he was driven out by his bre¬ thren Metion and Pandorus, who forced him to ily in¬ to /Egialea, where he died. Cecrops II. was fucceeded by his fon Pandion II. and he r\as likewife driven out by IVIetion, who affumed the government. Pandion in the mean time fled into Megara, where he married Pelia the daughter of Pylas king of that place, and was appointed fuccelTor to the kingdom. Here he had four Ions, who returning to Athens, whether with or without their father is uncer¬ tain, expelled the fons of Metion, and after the deceafe 01 Pandion their father, divided the government among themfelves ; notwithftandirig which, the royal dignity did in effeft remain with Algeus the eldeft. Atgeus, when he afcended the throne, finding him¬ felf defpifed by his fubjefts becaufe he had no fons, and fometimes infulted by his brother Pallas, who had no lefs than fifty, confulted the oracle of Apollo at Del¬ phi. Receiving here, as was commonly the cafe, an anfwer which could not be underllood without a com¬ mentator, he applied to Pittheus king of Troezen, fa¬ mous for his fkill in expounding oracles. This prince eafily prevailed with him to lie with his daughter iE- thra, who proved with child; and as none but thefe three were privy to the fe'cret, AEgeus, before his re¬ turn to Athens, hid a hvord and a pair of Ihoes under a ftone, leaving orders with the princefs, that if the child proved a boy, fhe Ihould fend him to Athens with thefe tokens as foon as he was able to.lift up that Hone. He charged her moreover to ufe all imaginable fecrecy, led the fons of his brother Pallas fhould way-lay and mur¬ der him. /itthra being delivered of a fon, Pittheus gave out that Neptune was the father of it. This child was named 'Thefeus, and proved one of the moll famous heroes of antiquity. Being arrived at the age of 16, his mother bi ought him to the Hone above mentioned j and he having lifted it with eafe, was delired to take up t]16 fword and Ihoes and prepare himfelf to go to his lather. He was advifed to go by fea rather than by land, as, ever fine®the departure of Hercules, the roads had been exceedingly infefted by banditti. The- 23 ] ATT feus, however, who had already begun to difeover Attica, marks of uncommon ftrength and courage, no fooner 1^’ heard the name of Hercules mentioned, than he be¬ came defirous of imitating fo great a pattern j and alter performing a number of glorious exploits, for which fee the article Theseus, he arrived fafe at his father’s capital. I he great atchievemefits of our young hero pro-Is made cured him a welcome reception at the court of Aegeus, known to though his birth was unknown to all except Medea, tohisfathen whom the king had lately been married. This queen being a forcerefs, it is not to be fuppofed any thing could be concealed from her : Ihe therefore, by her , diabolical penetration, quickly found out that Thefeus w as the king’s Ion 5 after which fire became fo jealous oi him on account of his valour, that fhe perfuaded her old hufband to invite the young ftranger to a banquet, and poiion him in a glafs of wine. The poifon ivas ac¬ cordingly prepared, and Thefeus invited ; but the prince luddenly drawing his fword, it was immediately recognized by AEgeus to be the fame he had formerly ouried below the Hone. Upon this he Hepped forward to Pheleus, throwung down the poifoned draught in his way j and, embracing him with much tendernefs, owned him for his fon before all the court. At this time the king of Athens had great occafion for fuch a champion as I hefeus. The fons of Pallas, who had all along behaved with great infolence, upon r Thefeus being difeovered to be the king’s fon, and heir apparent to the crown, broke out in open rebel- j. lion. They were foon difeomfited ; but AEgeus and He kills the the whole country of Attica were Hill in great diflrefs Minotaur, on the following account. Some years before, Andro- geus, the fon of Minos king of Crete, came to A- tiiens to be prefent at one of their feaHs. During this vifit he contrafted fuch an intimacy with the fifty fons of Pallas, that AEgeus, fearing feme fatal confequen- ces, caufed him to be privately murdered. Accord¬ ing to others, Androgeus having undertaken to en¬ counter the Marathonian bull, was killed by it. Be this as it will, Minos having received news of his fon’s death, imputed it to the people of Attica ; and there¬ fore, after feveral unfuccefsful attempts to revenae his own quarrel, prayed to the gods to do it, for°hira. i he Athenians, in confequence of this prayer, w7ere vi- fited wfith earthquakes, famine, and peHilence ; on ac¬ count of which they applied to the oracle. Here they were informed, that no relief was to be had till they were reconciled to the Cretan king. Minos refolvino- to make them pay dear for their deliverance, impofed upon them a tribute of feven young men and as many virgins, whom he condemned to be devoured by the Minotaur, a monfier feigned by the poets to have been half man and half bull. This bloody tribute had been twice paid, and Minos had already fent his mefiengers the third time, when I hefeus willingly offered himfelf to be one of the unhappy victims; and embarking with them in one Ihip, he gave the pilot two fails, the one black to fail with, and the other white to be hoifled up at his return in cafe he came off victorious. Our hero had all the iuccefs he could wi(h : he killed the Minotaur, prevailed with Minos to remit the tribute, and his daughter Ariadne to run awav with him; but ' her he left with child in the ifie of Naxos. Unfortu¬ nately, however for AEgeus, the joy of Thefeus and 1 / his Attica. ATT [2 his company was fo great, that at their return they forgot to hoift the white Hag in token of their victory : upon which the old king, taking for granted that his fon was killed, threw himfelf into the fea, which ever fince has from him been called the JEgean Sea. Thefeus being thus left in pofleffion of the kingdom tica^ ^ Attica, began immediately to think of indulging his ’ j.g warlike genius, and rendering the civil affairs of his New mo- kingdom as little troublefome as poffible. To accom- dels the go-pjjih this purpofe, he began with gathering moft of the vernment. pe0p]e Qf Attica into the old and new town, which he incorporated into one city. After this he diverted himfelf of all his regal power, except the title of king, the command of the army, and the guardianfhip of the laws. The reft he committed to proper magiftrates chofen out of three different orders of the people, whom he divided into nobles, hufbandmen, and artificers. The fir ft he inverted with the power of interpreting and executing the law's, and regulating whatever related to ' religion. The other two chofe their inferior magiftrates from among themfelves, to take care of whatever rela¬ ted to their feparate orders : fo that the kingdom wms in fome meafure reduced to a commonwealth, in wdiich the king had the greateft poft, the nobles were next to him in honour and authority, the hufbandmen had the greateft profit, and the attifts exceeded them in number. He likewife abolifhed all their diftinft courts of judicature, and built one common council hall called Prytaneum, wdiich flood for many ages afterwards. Having thus new-modelled the government, his next care was to join to his dominions the kingdom of Me- gara, in right of his grandfather Pandion II. who had married the daughter of Pylas, as above-mentioned. On this occafion he eredled the famous pillar in the ifthmus, which fhowed the limits of the two countries that met there. On the one fide of this pillar w^as infcribed, “ This is not Peloponnefus, but Ionia $” and on the Defeats the other, “ This is Peloponnefus, not Ionia.” After this Amazons, y,e undertook an expedition againft the Amazons, Centaurs w^om overcame, took their queen Hippolita, and -and carries afterwards married her. Soon after this, Thefeus con- off Helena. trafted an intimacy with Perithous the fon of Ixion : and being invited to his nuptials, affifted him in kill¬ ing a number of Centaurs, or rather Theffalian horfe- men (who in their cups had offered violence to their female guefts), and drove the reft out of the country. Our two affociates then proceeded to Sparta, where Thefeus fell in love with the famed Helena, at that time not above nine years old, w7hile he himfelf was upwards of fifty. Her they carried off: and of the rape there are various accounts j but the following one which is given by Plutarch, is generally allowed to be the moft authentic. According to that hiftorian, they ftole this beauty, the greateft in the rvorld at that time, out of the temple of Diana Ortia, where Helena happened to be dan¬ cing. They were purfued as far as Tegea, but made their efcape out of Peloponnefus ; and thinking them¬ felves now fecure of their prey, they agreed to cart lots for her, upon condition that he to whofe lot fhe fell fhould atTift the other in procuring fome celebrated beauty. Fortune having declared for Thefeus, he al- fifted his companion in the like attempt upon Profer- pina daughter of Aidonius king of the Molloffi in Fpirus } who, being the next beauty to Helena, was J 2+ ] ATT guarded by the dog Cerberus, which had three heads, Attica, and was confequently a very formidable enemy. Her ‘ father, however, underftanding that they defigned to fteal awray his daughter, threw Perithous to be torn in 20 pieces by Cerberus, and put. Thefeus in prifon, from hnpnfoned whence he was afterwards relieved at the interceflion °f Epiras"^ Hercules. After this misfortune, Thefeus at length returned to Athens, but found himielf very coolly received by his fubjedls. Mneftheus, the fon of Pteus, and great- grandfon of Ereftheus, had made ufe of the king’s ab- fence to ingratiate himfelf with the people j and, upon, the commencement of a war with Caftor and Pollux, the two brothers of Helena, he perfuaded the people of 2I Athens to open their gates to the two brothers. Up- Driven out on this, Thefeus wras under the neceftity of conveying of Athens, away himfelf and family with all poflible privacy. This he luckily accomplifhed 5 and defigned to have failed to Crete, to have obtained affiftance from Deucalion fon, of Minos, and now brother-in-law to Thefeus himfelf, he having lately married Phaedra fifter to Deucalion. Unfortunately, however, our hero was fhipwrecked on 22 the ifland of Scyros. Here he was at firft kindly re-His death, ceived by Lycomedes the king of that ifland ; but w as foon after killed by a fall from a high rock, over which fome fay he was puftied by Lycomedes himfelf, who had been prevailed upon to deftroy Thefeus in that manner by Mneftheus, that he might with the more fe- curity enjoy the kingdom of Athens. 23 Mneftheus reigned 24 years, but loft his life at the Mneftheus, fiege of Troy ; and was fucceeded by Demophon one ^emoP^on* of the fons of Thefeus by Phaedra, who was likewife at ^ the fiege of Troy, but had the good fortune to return in fafety. In his reign wTas erefled the famous court of the Ephetae ; confifting originally of 50 Athenians and as many Argives, for trying of w ilful murders. By this court the king himfelf afterwards fubmitted to be tried for having accidentally killed one of his fubje£ls. He reigned 3 3 years, and was fucceeded by his fon, ac¬ cording to fome, or according to others his brother, Oxyntes, wdio reigned 12 years. Oxyntes was fuc¬ ceeded by his fon Aphydes, who wras murdered by Thymaetes the baftard fon of Oxyntes. 24 This king difcovered many bafe qualities unworthy Thymsetee of his dignity; and at laft w7as depofed by his fubjefts aeP°^‘ on the following occafion. Xanthus king of Boeotia had a conteft with the Athenians about one of their frontier towns. He offered to decide the matter by fingle combat with the king; but this w7as declined by Thymsetes. It happened, that at that time one Me- lanthus a Meffenian, w7ho had been driven out of his country by the Heraclidae, was come to Athens *, who accepted the king of Boeotia’s challenge. At the firft onfet, Melanthus afked his adverfary, why he had, con- trary to the articles, brought a fecond into the field w7ith him ? and as Xanthus immediately looked about to fee wTo was behind him, Melanthus run him through wdth his lance. This victory, though it did little honour to him w7ho gained it, w7as fo agreeable to the Athenians, that thev depofed their cowrardly king Thymaetes, af- ter he had reigned 8 years ; and appointed Melanthus MelanthtiR in his Head, who after a reign of 37 years left the king¬ dom to his fon Codrus. This prince reigned about 21 years ; during which time the Dores and Heraclidae had regained all Pelo¬ ponnefus, ATT Attica. 26 Codrus the laft king facrifices himfeif for his country, [ 27 Republican govern¬ ment intro¬ duced. 28 Tjraco legi fJator of Athens. 29 Expelled ■ihe city. 30 His death. ponnefus, and were upon tlie point of entering into Attica. Codrus, being informed that the oracle had promifed them vi&ory provided they did not kill the king of the .Athenians, came immediately to a relolu- tion of dying for his country. Difguiling himfeif, therefore, like a peafant, he went into the enemy’s camp, and quarrelling with fomc of the foldiers, was killed by them. On the morrow, the Athenians know¬ ing what was done, fent to demand the body of their king; at which the invaders were fo terrified, that they decamped without flriking a blow. Upon the death of Codrus, a difpute which happened among his fons concerning the fucceffion, furnilhed the Athenians with a pretence for ridding themfelves of their kings altogether, and changing the monarchical form of government into a republican one. It was im¬ probable, they faid, that they fhould ever have fo good as king as Codrus; and to prevent their having a worfe, they refolved to have no king but Jupiter. That they might not, however, feem ungrateful to the family of Codrus, they made his fon Medon their fupreme magi- ftrate, with the title of archon. They afterwards ren¬ dered that office decennial, but continued it ftill in the family of Codrus. The extinftion of the Medontidte at laft left them without reftraint; upon which they not only made this office annual, but created nine archons. By the latter invention they provided againft the too great power of a Angle perfon, as by the former they took away all apprehenfion of the archons having time to eftablifh themfelves, fo as to change the conrtitution. In a word, they now attained what they had long fought, viz. the making the fupreme magiftrates de¬ pendant on the people. We have a lift of thefe archons for upwards of 600 years, beginning with Creon, who lived about 684 years before Chrift, to Herodes, who lived only 60 years before that time. The firft archon of whom we hear any thing worth notice, is named Draco. He - reigned in the fecond, or, as others fay, in the laft year of the 39th Olympiad, when it is fuppofed he publifti- ed his laws : but though his name is very frequently mentioned in hiftory, yet no connefted account can be found either of him or his inftitutions ; only, in gene¬ ral, his laws were exceedingly fevere, infihfting death for the fmalleft faults ; which gave occafton to one De- mades an orator to obferve, that the laws of Draco were written with blood, and not with ink. For this extraordinary feverity he gave no other reafon, than that fmall faults feemed to him to be worthy of death, and he could find no higher punifhment for the great- eft. He was far advanced in years when he gave laws to Athens ; and to give his inftitutions the greater weight, he wmuld not fuffer them to be called ?ioj?ioi, or lawTs, but thefmoi, or fanflions proceeding from more than human wifdom. The extreme feverity of thefe laws, how'ever, foon made the Athenians weary both of them and the author of them; upon wffiich Draco was obliged to retire to TEgina. Here he w^as received with the higheft honours : but the favour of the inhabitants of this place proved more fatal to him than the hatred of the Athenians ; for coming one day into the thea¬ tre, the audience, to fhow their regard, threw, as the cuftom then was, their cloaks upon him ; and the mul¬ titude of thefe being very great, they ftifled the old man, who was too weak to difengage himfeif from their load. Vql. III. Part I. 125 ] ATT AfteTthe expulficn of Draco, nothing remarkable Attica., happened at Athens till the year before Chrift 606, '—~v~—* wffien we find the republic engaged in a war with the ‘V • iViitylemans about the city Sigteum, fituated near the war, mouth of the river Scamander. The Athenian army was commanded by Phrynon, a perfon equally remark¬ able for the coraelinefs of his perfon and the generofity of his mind. The Mitylenians wrere commanded by Pittacus, one of the celebrated fages of Greece. As thefe commanders looked upon the honour of their re- fpeftive countries to be concerned, they exerted them¬ felves to the utmoft. At laft they met in Angle com¬ bat : wherein Phrynon depended on his valhur only : but Pittacus concealed behind his fhield a net, where¬ with he fuddenly entangled his antagonift, and eafily flew him. This, however, not putting an end to the war, Periander tyrant of Corinth interpofed; and both parties having fubmitted to his arbitration, he de¬ creed that Sigseum Ihould belong to the Athenians. About feven years after this wav, a confpiracy w^as Cylon’s formed by Cylon fon-in-law to Theagenes tyrant of confpkacy' Megara, who, having by his affable behaviour procur¬ ed many friends, formed a defign of feizing the fove- reignty of Athens. Having confulted the oracle as to the moft proper time, he was directed to make the at¬ tempt when the citizens of Athens w'ere employed in celebrating their higheft feafts to Jupiter. When ma¬ ny of the citizens therefore were gone to the Olympic games, Cylon and his affociates made themfelves ma¬ ilers of the citadel. Here they were inftantly be- fieged by Megacles at that time archon, and foon re¬ duced to great diftrefs for want of water. The chief, together with his brother, found means to make their efcape, but the meaner fort were left to ftnft for them¬ felves. In this extremity they fled to the temple of Minerva ; from whence Megacles with much ado pre¬ vailed upon them to come dowm and fubmit themfelves to the mercy of their country. Having at laft affented to this, they tied a cord to the image of the goddefs, and carried the clue with them, to demonftrate, that though they were out of the temple they were ftill un- 33 der Minerva’s proteftion. Unfortunately for them, Conipira- however, as they paffed the temple of the Furies, the tors rriaffa” line fnapt of itfelf; which Megacles conftruing into a nwad s- renunciation by the goddefs, caufed his men to fall" Kgl CS upon them and defpatch as many as they could find. Such as were without the temple were immediately maffacred, and thofe who fled thither again were mur¬ dered in their fanftuary. In fliort, none efcapefd but fuch as bribed the wives of the officers of juftice. This carnage, however, did not put an end to the fedition. The remains of Cylon’s faction created great difturb- ances, by infinuating that the violation of Minerva’s fan&uary had drawn down the anger of the gods ; and whcmexe- thefe difcourfes had fuch an effeft, that Megacles and crated by his officers were ftyled execrable, and held to be per-the PeoPlc- fons under the difpleafure of heaven. During the time of this confufion, the Megarenfians Unfuccefs- attacked Nifea, which they took, as well as Salamis ; ful war and fo completely routed the Athenians in every at- with Me* tempt to recover the latter, that a law was at laft paf- gaia' fed, by which it Ihould be capital for any one to pro- pofe the recovery of Salamis. About the fame time the city was difturbed by reports of frightful appear¬ ances, and filled with fuperftitious fears; the oracle at F £ Delphi Attica. ,3<\ Epimeni- des’s expia tion and prophecy. 37 Solon the wife legi- (lator. 3S Salamis re¬ covered by his means. ATT [2 I^elphi was therefore confulted, and an anfvver return¬ ed that the 'city behoved to be expiated. Upon this, Epimenides the Phcftian was fent for from Crete, to perform the neceflary ceremonies, he being reputed a holy^ man, and one that was deeply Ikilled in all the myfteries of religion. His expiation confided in ta¬ lking fome black, 'and fome white fneep, turning them $11 loofe, and direfting fome perfons to follow them to thofe places where they couched, and there to facrifice them to the local deity. He cauied alfo many temples and chapels to be eredled, two of which have been par¬ ticularly noted, viz. the chapel of Contumely and that of Impudence. This man is faid to have looked will¬ fully on the port of Munychia for a long time, and then to have fpoke as follows to thofe that were near him : “ How blind is man to future things ! for did the Athenians know what milchief will one day be deriv¬ ed to them from this place, they would cat it with their teeth.” This prediftion was thought to be accom- pliihed 270 years after, when Antipater conftrained the Athenians to admit a Macedonian garriion into that place. About 597 years before Chrift, Solon the famed Athenian legiilator began to (how himfelf to his coun¬ trymen. He is faid to have been lineally defcended from Codms ; but left by his father in circumftances rather neceffitous, which obliged him to apply to mcr- chandife : it is plain, however, both from his words and writings, that he was a difmterefted patriot. The fhameful decree, that none under pain of death (hould propofe the recovery of Salamis, grieved him fo much, that having compofed an elegy of 100 verfes, fuch as he thought would be mod proper to inflame the minds of the people, he ran into the market-place as if he had been mad, with his night-cap on his head, re¬ peating his elegy. A crowd being gathered round the pretended madman, bis kinfman Pififtratus mingled among the reft, and obferving the people moved with Solon’s words, he alfo feconded him with all the elo¬ quence he ' as mafter of j and between them they pre¬ vailed fo far as to have the law repealed, and a war was immediately commenced againft the people of Me- gara. Who was commander in this expedition is not certain ; but the city was recovered, according to the moft general account, by the following ftratagem. So¬ lon coming with Pififtratus to Colias, and finding there the women bufy in celebrating, according to cuftom, the feaft of Ceres, fent a confidant of his to Salamis, who pretended to be no friend to the people of Attica, telling the inhabitants of Salamis, that if they had a mind to feize the faireft of the Athenian ladies, they might now do it by pafling over to Colias. The Me- garenfians giving eafy credit to what the man faid, im¬ mediately fitted out a ftripy which Solon perceiving from the oppofite fhore, difmiffed the women, and ha¬ ving drefied a number of beardlefs youth in female ha¬ bits, under which they concealed every one a dagger, he fent them to the fea-fide to dance and divert them- felves as the women were wont to do. When thofe who came from Salamis faw thefe young perfons dip¬ ping up and down, they ftrove who fhoulb be firft on Ihore 5 but were every one of them killed, and their vefiel feized 5 aboard which the Athenians embarking, failed immediately to Salamis and took it. On the return of Solon to Athens, he was greatly 26 ] ^ ATT honoured by the people, to whom another occafion of Attica, admiring his wifdom was quickly afforded. The in-v ^ ‘ habitants of Cirrha, a town fituated in the bay of Co-cirrlf^ rinth, after having by repeated incurfions watted thelikewife territory of Delphi, at laft befieged the capital itfelf,reduced br with a view of making themfelves mafters of the trea-s totally routing their forces, and carrying off cidians de- a great number of priioners. The prifoners taken in feated. this war were put in irons, but afterwards fet at liber¬ ty on paying a ranfom of two minae per head. Their fetters were, hotvever, hung up in the citadel; and the Athenians confecrating the tenth of what they had received lor ranfom, purchafed a ftatue, reprefent- ing a chariot and four horfes, which they let up in the portico of the citadel, with a triumphant infcription in token of their viclory. I hefe indignities roufing the Boeotians, they im¬ mediately vowed revenge, and engaged on their fide the people of y£gina, who had an hereditary hatred at the Athenians ; and while the latter bent all their attention to the Boeotian war, the Aiginetans landing 71 a confiderable army, ravaged the coafts of Attica. Attempt of But while the Athenians were thus employed againfi: t ie ' par~ the Boeotians and AEginetans, a jealoufy fprung up on the part of Lacedemon, which wTas never afterwards eradicated. Cleomenes, after his unfuccefsful expedi¬ tion againlt Attica, produced at Sparta certain oracles which he laid he had found in the citadel of Athens while he was befieged therein : the purport of thefe oracles was, that Athens would in time become a rival to Sparta. At the fame time it was difeovered, that Clyllhenes had bribed the priefiefs of Apollo to caufe the Lacedemonians to expel the Pifillratidte from A- thens ; which was facrificing their bell friends to’thofe whom intereft obliged to be their enemies. This had fuch an effedl, that the Spartans, repenting their folly an expelling Hippias, fent for him from Sigeum, in order to rcitore him to his principality : but this not being agreed to by the reft of the ftates, they were for¬ ced to abandon .the enterprife, and Hippias returned to Sigeum as he came. Caufe of the About this time, too, Ariftagoras the Milefian ha- war with ving fet on foot a revolt in Ionia againft the Perfian king, applied to the Spartans for afliftance ; but they declining to have any hand in the matter, he next ap¬ plied to the Athenians, and was by them fnrnifiied with 20 ftiips under the command of Melanthus, a nobleman univerfally efteemed. This rafii aftion coft the Greeks very dear, as it brought upon them the whole power of the P rfian empire 5. for no fooner did the king of Perfia hear of the aftiftance fent from A- thens to hA rebellious fubjefts, than he declared him- lelf the fworn enemy of that city, and folemnly be- fought God that he might one day have it in his power to be revenged on them. The Ionian war being ended, by the redu&ion of that country again under the Perfian government, the king of Perfia fent to demand earth and water as tokens of lubmiflion from the Greeks. Moft of the iilanders yielded to this command out of fear, and among the reft the people of ALgina ; upon which the Athenians accufed the inhabitants 01 this iiland of treachery to¬ wards Greece, and a war was carried on with them for a long time. How it ended we are not informed ; but its continuance ivas fortunate for Greece in general as, by inuring them to war, and fea-affairs in particu¬ lar, it prevented the whole of the Grecian ftates Lora. It Perfia. 1 ] ATT being fwallowed up by the Perfians who were now Attica, about to invade them. _ Befides the difpleafure which Darius had conceived againft the Athenians on account of the aftiftance they had aftorded the lofiians, he was further engaged to an expedition againft Greece by the intrigues of Plippias. 7. Immediately on his returning unfuccefsfully from La- Hippias ap- cedemon, as above related, Hippias pafled over into Plies t0 the Afia, went to Artaphernes governor of the adjacent ^,er^ians• provinces belonging to the Perfian king, and excited him to make war upon his country, promifing to be obedient to the Perfian monarch provided he was re- ftored to the principality of A thens. Of this the A- thenians being apprifed, fent ambaffadors to Arta¬ phernes, defiring leave to enjoy their liberty in quiet : but that nobleman returned for anfwer, that if they would have peace with the great king, they muft im¬ mediately receive Hippias; upon which anfwer the Athenians refolved to afiilt the enemies of Darius as much as poflible. The confequence of this refolution was, that Darius commiftioned Mardonius to revenge him of the infults he thought the Greeks had offered him. But Mardonius having met with a ftorm at fea, and other accidents which rendered him unable to dJ any thing, Datis and Artaphernes the fon of Arta¬ phernes above-mentioned, were commiffioned to do what he was to have done. The Perfian commanders, fearing again to attempt They to double the promontory of Athos, where their fleetinvade had formerly fuffered, drew their forces into the plains Greece' of Cilicia ; and palling from thence through the Cy¬ clades to Euboea, directed their courfe to Athens. Their charge from Darius was to deftroy both Eretria and Athens ; and to bring away the inhabitants, that they might be at his difpofal. Their firft attempt was-Eretm de- on Eretria, the inhabitants of which fent to Athens ^r°>'ed- for aftiftance on the firft approach of the Perfian fleet. The Athenians, with a magnanimity almoft unparallel¬ ed at fuch a jundlure, fent 4000 men to their aftift¬ ance ; but the Eretrians were fo much divided amongft themfelves, that nothing could be refolved on. One party among them was for receiving the Athenian fuc- cours into the city ; another, for abandoning the city and retiring into the mountains of Euboea ; while a third fought to betray their country to the Perfians for their own private intereft. Seeing things in this fitua- tion, therefore, and that no good could poliibly be done,^ one iEfchines, a man of great authority amono- the Eretrians, generoully informed the Athenian com° manders that they might return home. They accord¬ ingly retired to Oropus, by which means they efcaped deftruftion : for Eretria being foon after betrayed to- the Perfians, was pillaged, burnt, and its inhabitants lold for ftaves. On the news of this difafter the Athenians immedi¬ ately drew together all the forces they were able, which after all amounted to no more than 9000 men. Thefe with 1000 Platasans who afterwards joined them, were commanded by ten general officers, who had 'equal' power ; among whom were Miltiades, Ariftides, and I hemiftocles, men of diftinguilhed valour and great abilities. But it being generally imagined that fo .mall a body of troops would be unable to refill the, ct midab.e power of the Perfians, a meffenger was def- patchecL Attica. 76 ATT [23 patched to Sparta to entreat the immediate afliftance of 1 that ftate. He communicated his bufinefs to the fe- nate in the following terms : “ Men of Lacedemon, the Athenians defire you to affift them, and not to fuf* fer the mod ancient of all the Grecian cities to be en- flaved by the barbarians. Eretria is already deftroyed, and Greece confequently weakened by the lofs of fo confiderable a place.” The afliftance was readily grant¬ ed 5 but at the fame time the fuccours arrived fo {low¬ ly, that the Athenians were forced to fight without 7U them. In this memorable engagement in the plains of Perfians de-Marathon, whither Hippias had condufted the Per¬ meated at pians the latter were defeated with the lofs of 6300 Marathon. whIle the Greeks loft only 192. The Perfians being thus driven to their {hips, endeavoured to double Cape Sunium, in ordered to lurpriie Athens itfelf be¬ fore the army could return : but in this they were pre¬ vented by Miltiades 5 who, leaving Ariftides with lOOO men to guard the priioners, returned fo expeditioufly^ with the other 9000, that he was at tne temple of Hercules, which was but a fmall way diftant, before „ the barbarians could attack the city. Integrity of After the battle, Ariftides difcharged the truft re- Arillides. pofed in him with the greateft integrity. 1 hough there ■was much gold and filver in the Perfian camp, and the tents and'ftiips they had taken were Hied with all forts of riches, he not only forbore touching any thing himfelf, but to the utmoft of his power prevented others from doing it. Some, however, found means to enrich themfelves j among the reft, one Callxas, couim- german to Ariftides himfelf. This man being a torch- bearer, and, in virtue of his office, having a fillet on his head, one of the Perfians took him for a king, and, falling down at his feet, difcovered to him a vaft quan¬ tity of gold hid in a well. Callias not only feized, and applied it to his own ufe, but had the cruelty to kill the poor man who difcovered it to him, that he might not mention it to others $ by which infamous aftion he entailed on his pofterity the name of Laccopluti or en- 78 riched by the well. . Miltiades After the battle of Marathon, all the inhabitants of ungrateful- piatgea were declared free citizens of Athens, and Mil- bVthe A* tiades, Themiftocles, and Ariftides, were treated with Athenians.' all poffible marks of gratitude and relpeft. This howTever, was but very ffiortlived ; Miltiades propoied an expedition againft the ifland of Paros, in which ha¬ ving being unfuccefsful, through what caufe is not well known, he was, on his return, accufed, and condemned to pay 50 talents, the whole expence of the fcheme *, and, being unable to pay the debt, was thrown into prifon, where he foon died of a wound received at Paros. • r r n If any thing can exceed the enormity ot Inch a pro¬ ceeding as this, it was the treatment Ariftides next re¬ ceived. Miltiades had propofed an expedition, which had not proved fuccefsful* and in which he might pof- fibly have had bad defigns } but againft Aiiftides not fo much as a ftiadow of guilt was pretended. On the contrary, his extraordinary virtue had procured him the title of Juft, and he had never been found to fwerve from the maxims of equity. His downfal was occa- ffioned by the intrigues of Themiftocles; who being a •man of great abilities, and hating Ariftides on acqount .of the chara&er he defervedly bore among his country- 79 .r As likewile Ariftides. 2 ] A T T men, took all opportunities of infinuating, that his Attics, rival had in fa6t made himfelf mailer of Athens with- ' out the parade of guards and royalty. “ He gives laws to the people (faid he) j and what conftitntes a tyrant, but giving laws ?” In confequence of this ftrange argument, a ftrong party was formed againft the virtuous Ariftides, and it was refoved to baniffi him for to years by the oftracifm. In this cafe, the name of the perfon to be baniffied was written upon a {hell by every one who defired his exile, and carried to a certain place within the forum enolofed with rails. If the number of {hells fo collefled exceeded 6000, the fentence w^as intll&ed ; if not, it w^as otherwife. When the agents of Themiftocles had fufficiently ac- complifhed their purpofes, on a fudden the people , flocked to the forum, defiring the oftracifm. One of -the clowms who had come from a borough in the coun¬ try, bringing a {hell to Ariftides, faid to him, a W rite me Ariftides upon this.” Ariftides, furprifed, alk- ed him if he knew any ill of that Athenian, or if he had ever done him any hurt ? “ Me hurt! (faid the fellow, no, I don’t fo much as know him ^ but I am weary and fick at heart on hearing him everywhere called the juft:' Ariftides, therefore, took the {hell, and wrote his owrn name upon it j and wffien informed that the oftracifm fell upon him, modeftly retired out of the forum, faying, “ I befeech the gods that the Athenians may never fee that day which ftiall force them to remember Ariftides.” After the battle of Marathon, the war with iEgina was revived with great vigour \ but the Atginetans • generally had the fuperiority, on account of their great So naval power. Themiftocles obferving this, was conti-Tiiem;ft0j nually exhorting his countrymen to build a fleet, not cles adyifes only to make them an equal match for the ALginetans, dje buiki- but alfo be caufe he was of opinion that the Perfians ‘"S" a would foon pay them another vifit. At laft, he had the boldnefs to propofe, that the money produced by the filver mines, which the Athenians had hitherto di¬ vided among themfelves ftiould be applied to the build¬ ing of a fleet : which propofal being complied with, 100 gallevs were immediately put upon the flocks; and this fudden increafe of their maritime power proved the means of faving all Greece from flavery. _ sx About three years after the banifliment of Ariftides, Xerxes in- Xerxes king of Perfia fent to demand earth and water i vades but Themiftocles defiring to make the breach withGreece* that monarch ftill wider, put to deatlf the interpreter for publiffiing the decree of the king of Perfia in the language of the Greeks; and having prevailed upon the feveral ftates to lay afide their animofities, and provide tor their common fafety, got himfelf elefted general of the Athenian army. When the news arrived that the Perfians were ad¬ vancing to invade Greece by the ftraits of Thermo- pyhe, and that they were for this purpofe tranfporting their forces by fea, Themiftocles advifed his country¬ men to quit the city, embark on board their galleys, and meet their enemies while yet at a diftance. This they would by no means comply with •, for which reafon Themiftocles put himfelf at the head of the army, and having pined the Lacedemonians, marched towards Tempe. Here, having received advice that the ftraits of Therm op vise were forced, and that both Boeotia and Theffaly ATT Attica. 82 Athens a- bandoned by its inha¬ bitants, 83 and de- ftroyed by the Per- fians. 84 They are totally de¬ feated at Salamis. Themifto- cles ho¬ noured by the Lacede¬ monians. Theflaly had fubmitted to the Perfians, the army re¬ turned without doing any thing. In this diftrefs the Athenians applied to the oracle at Delphi: from whence they received at firft a very fevere^ anfwer, threatening them with total deftruaion ; but atter much humiliation, a more favourable one was delivered, in which, probably by the diredion of The- miitocles, they were promifed lafety in walls of wood. This was by Themillocles and the greateft part of the citizens interpreted as a command to abandon Athens, and put all their hopes of lafety in their lleet. Upon this, the opinion of Themiftocles prevailing, the great- eit part began to prepare for this embarkation"; and had money diftributed" among them by the council of the Areopagus, to the mount of eight drachms per man : but this not proving fufficient, Themiftocles gave out that fomebody had ftolen the ftiield of Mi¬ nerva ; under pretence of fearching for which, he feized on all the money he could find. Some, how¬ ever, there were who refufed to embark with the reft, but raifed to themfelves fortifications of wood ; under- ftanding the oracle in its literal fenfe, and refolving to wait the arrival of the Perfians, and defend them¬ felves to the laft. In the mean time Ariftides w^as re¬ called, when the Athenians faw it their intereft, left he Ibould have gone over to the Perfians and affifted them with his advice. The Perfians having advanced to Athens foon after the inhabitants had deferted it, met with no oppofition except from a few juft now mentioned ; who, as they uxjuld hearken ^o no terms of accommodation, w^ere all cut in pieces, and the city utterly deftroyed. Xerxes, however, being defeated in a fea fight at Salamis, was forced to fly with prodigious lofs. See Salamis. The¬ miftocles was for purfuing him, and breaking down the bridge he had call over the Hellefpont; but this advice being rejefted, he fent a trufty meffenger to Xerxes, acquainting him that the Greeks intended to break down his bridge, and therefore defired him to make all the hafte he could, left by that means lie fiiould be (hut up in Europe. According to Herodo¬ tus, he alfo advifed the Athenians to quit the purfuit and return home, in order to build their ruined houfes. This advice, though mifinterpreted by fome, was cer¬ tainly a very prudent one, as Xerxes, though once de¬ feated, was ftill at the head of an army capable of de- ftroying all Greece ; and had he been driven to defpair by finding himfelf fhut up or w'armly purfued, it was impoftible to fay wdiat might have been the event. Af¬ ter this, Themiftocles formed a fcheme, for the aggran- difement of Athens indeed, but a moft unjuft and in¬ famous one. It was, in Ihort, to make Athens miftrefs of the fea, by burning all the Ihips except thofe belong¬ ing to that republic. He told his countrymen, that he had fomething to propofe of great confequence, but which could not be fpoken publicly : w-hereupon he was defired to communicate it to Ariftides, bv whom the propofal was rejeaed ; and Ariftides having'inform- ed the Athenians that what Themiftocles had faid was very advantageous but very unjuft, they defired him to think no more of it. W hen the fleet returned to Salamis, extraordinary honours were paid to Themiftocles by the Lacedemo¬ nians. On his entering that city, they decreed him a wreath of olives as the prize of prudence: prefented him Vol. III. Part I. f 233 1 ATT wuth the moft magnificent chariot in Sparta : and when Attica. he returned to Athens, he was efcorted by 500 horfe, an honour never paid to any ftranger but himfelf. On his arrival at Athens, however, there were not want*- ing fome who infinuated that the receiving fuch honours from the Lacedemonians was injurious to the republic ; but rhemiftocles, confiding in his innocence, treated thefe clamours with contempt, and exhorted his coun¬ trymen to entertain no doubts of their allies, but ra¬ ther endeavour to preferve the great reputation they' had acquired throughout all Greece. The defeat of Xerxes at Salamis made Mardonius, who was left to carry on the war by land, more ready to treat with the Athenians than to fight them ; and with this view he fent Alexander king of Macedon to Athens to make propofals of alliance with that repub¬ lic, exclufively of all the other Grecian ftates. This gtf propofal, however, was rejeaed; and the confequence Athens a was, that Athens was a fecond time deftroyed, the fecond time Spartans fending afliftance fo {lowly, that the Atheni-deftroyed- ans were forced to retire to Salamis; but they were foon T, freed from all apprehenfions by the total defeat and fian5 fk death of Mardonius at Platrea; where Ariftides, andfeatedat the body of troops under his command, diftinguiftied ^at8ea anc^ themfelves in a moft extraordinary manner. Mycale. The fame day that the battle of Plattea was fought, the Perfians were defeated in a fea-fight at Mycale in Ionia, wherein it was allowed that the Athenians who were there behaved better than any of the other Greeks; but when it was propofed to tranfport the lonians into Europe, that they might be in perfect fafety, and give them the territories of fuch Grecian ftates as had fided with the Perfians, the Athenians refufed to comply, fearing the lonians would rival them in trade, or refufe the obedience they ufed to pay them ; befides which, they would then lofe the opportunity of plundering the Perfians in cafe of any quarrel with Ionia. Before they a returned home, however, the Athenians crofted over to the Cherfonefus, and befieged Seftos. The fiege was SS long and troublefome : but at laft the garrifon, being Seftos ta- prefled with hunger, and having no hopes of relief kcn fotlie divided themfelves into two bodies, and endeavoured ■‘^’•henians, make their efcape ; but w'ere purfued, and all either killed or taken. Oiba%us, one of their commanders was facrificed to a Thracian god ; and the other, call¬ ed ArtyaBes, impaled alive, and his fon ftoned before his face, becaufe he had rilled the fepulchre of Prote- filaus. After the vidlories at Plataea and Mycale, the Athe-They re¬ mans returned without any apprehenfion, and began to build their rebuild their city in a more magnificent manner thancity* before. Here they were no fooner arrived than a dif- pute was ready to be commenced about the form of government. The commons, with Themiftocles at their head, were for a democracy ; to which Ariftides, rather than hazard the raifing difturbances, confented! It was therefore propofed, that every citizen ftrould* have an equal right to the government; and that the archons ftiould be chofen out of the body of the people, without preference or diftinflion: and this propofal being agreed to, put an end to all difeontents for the prefent. At this time alfo I hemiftocles propofed that the city Athens ftiould be fortified in the beft manner pof- fible, that it might not be liable to be again deftroyed, G £ when ATT . t ^ Attica, when the Perfians fhoulJ take it into their heads to * invade Greece. At this propofal the Lacedemonians 90 were exceedingly alarmed 5 and therefore remonftrated, Themifto- tliat aiould Athens once be itrongly fortified, and the cks advifes perfians become pofiTeffed of it, it would be impofiible Athens ^ to get them out of it again. At lall, feeing thefe al¬ and de- guments had no effeft, they abtolutely forbade the A- ceivts the thenians to carry their walls any higher. 1 his com- Spartans r mand gave great offence •, but Themiftocles, confidering wiio oppofe the powfer of Sparta at that time, advifed the Athenians to temporize j and to allure the ambafiadors, that they fliould proceed no farther in their work, till, by an em- baffy of their own, iatisfadfion fhould be given to their allies. Being named ambaffador at his own deure to Sparta, with fome other Athenians, I hemiilocles let out alone, telling the fenate that it would be for the mtereft of the ftate to delay fending the other ambaffadors as long as pofiible. When arrived at Sparta, he put off from time to time receiving an audience, on account of his colleagues not being arrived: but in the mean time the walls of Athens were building with the utmoft ex¬ pedition •, neither houfes nor fepulchres being ipared for materials 5 and men, women, children, ftrangeis, citizens, and fervants, working without intermiliion. Of this the Lacedemonians having notice and the reft of the Athenian ambaffadors being arrived, f hemi- jftocles and his colleagues were fummoned before the ephori, who immediately began to exclaim againft the Athenians for their breach of promile. 1 hemiftocles denied the charge: he faid his colleagues aflured nim of the contrary : that it did not become a great ftate to give heed to vague reports, but that deputies ought to, be fent from Sparta to inquire into the truth of the matter, and that he himfelf would remain as a hoftage, to be anfwerable for the event. This being agreed to, he engaged his affociates to advile the Athenians to c commit the Spartan ambaffadors to fale cuftody till he fhould be releafed ; after which he publicly avowed the whole tranfaftion, took the icheme upon himlelf, and told the Lacedemonians that “all things are law¬ ful for our country.” I he Spartans, feeing no reme¬ dy, concealed their refentment, and fent 1 hemiltocles 91 home in lafety. Makes the rhe next year, being the laft of the 75c * Olympiad, Pyrams the Themiftocles obferving the inconvenience of the port poit of Phalerum, thought of making the Pynuss the port of S* Athens. This he did not at firft think proper to men¬ tion publicly } but having fignified to the people that he had fomething of importance to communicate, they appointed Xanthippus and Ariftides to judge oi his propofal. They readily came into his meafures, and told the people drat what Themiftocles propofed would be of the utmoft advantage to the ftate, at the fame time that it might be performed with eafe. Upon this they were defired to lay the matter before the fenate j who coming unanimoufly into their mealures, ambuiiH- dors were defpatched to Sparta to inimuate theie how proper it would be for the Greeks to have fome great port, where a fleet might always watch the defigns of the Perfians •, and thus having prevented any umbrage from their firft undertakings, the work was let about with fuch expedition, that it was finiftjed before the Lacedemonians knew well what they were about. At this time al!o the fovereignty of the fea was transferred from Sparta to Athens, through the haugh- 4. 1 ATT ty behaviour of Faufanias the Lacederhonian. He Attics, had commanded at Plataea, and ftiil enjoyed the fu- v 1 preme authority in the war which was all this time 9^ carrying on againft the Perfians •, but being elated wTith ® his "fuccefs at Plataea, and having entered into a trea- fta^ransfer- fonable correfpondence with the enemy, he treated the red to captains under his command with the greateft haugh- Athens, tinefs, giving the preference to the Spartans in fuch a manner that the reft of the Greeks could no longer bear his infolence. On the contrary, Ariftides, and Cimon the fon of Miltiades, who commanded the Athenians, by their obliging behaviour gained the favour of every body; fo that the allies, having publicly affronted Pau- fanias, put themfelves under the protection of the A- thenian republic ; and thenceforward the Athenians, and not the Lacedemonians, had the fupreme com¬ mand. 93 * The Greeks being nowr fenfible that they would al- Ariftides ways have occafion to be on their guard againft the taxes Perfians, and that it was neceffary to eftablifti a fund by a common taxation of all the ftates, Ariftides was traordiiiary pitched upon as the only perlbn that could be trufted applaufe. with the power of allotting to each of the ftates its proper quota. This difficult talk he undertook, and executed in a manner unparalleled in the annals of hi- ftory. All parties were pleafed, and his taxation was ftyled the happy lot of Greece. The grofs amount of it w:as 450 talents. 94 It now came to the turn of Themiftocles to experi-Themilto- ence the ingratitude of his countrymen. His fervices kaniHi- had been fo effential, that the treatment he received ^ may perhaps be a fufficient excufe for modern patriots when they conned their own intereft with the fervice of their country. Themiftocles had plainly faved the ftate from ruin by his advice; he had diftinguilhed him¬ felf bv his valour ; had rendered Athens, by his policy, fuperior to the other ftates of Greece ; and entirely fubverted the Lacedemonian Icheme of pow er. Yet notwithftanding all this, he was baniflied by the oftra- cifm, without the fmalleft crime pretended, unlefs that he was hated by the Lacedemonians, and that he had erefted a temple, near his own houfe, dedicated to Diana, the giver of the bejl coiufel; intimating that he himfelf bad" given the belt counfel for the faiety both of Athens and of all Greece, which was no more than the truth. Nay, he w as not only driven out of Athens,, but out of all Greece ; fo that he was forced to feek Ihelter from the king of Perfia, againft whom he had fought with fo much valour. That monarch gave him a gracious reception ; and he Was never recalled, be- caufe the Greeks had no occafion for his fervices. The war with Perfia was not yet difeontinued ; the Slicc^| 0I Greeks found their advantage in plundering and en-cimon riching themfelves with the fpoils of the king of Per- againft the. fia’s fubjechs. For this reafon, in the end of the 77th FtrPians* Olympiad, they equipped a navy, under a pretence of relieving fuch of the Greek cities in Afia as were fub- jeft to the Perfians. Of this fleet Cimon, the fon of Miltiades by the daughter of the king of Thrace, was appointed commander in chief. He had already tafted. the juftice and generofity of his countrymen, having been thrown into prifon for his father’s fine, fiom which he wras releafed by Callias, whom his filler Elpinice married on account of his great wealth procured by no. very honourable means.. He accepted cf the command, however, Attica. 96 He fubclues the Cherfo- nefus. 97 Makes Athens] irreliftible at fea. v 98 He is banilhed. ATT [ 2 liotvevef, and gained fuch immenfe booty in this ex¬ pedition, that the Athenians were thereby enabled to lay the foundation of thofe long extended walls which united the port to the city. The foundation was laid in a moorifh ground ; fo that they were forced to fink it very deep, and at a great expence ; but to this Ci- mon himfelf contributed out of his own fiiare of the fpoils, which was very confiderable. He alfo adorned the forum with palm-trees, and beautified the academy with delightful w'alks and fountains. The Perfians having foon after this expedition in¬ vaded Cherfonefus, and with the afiiftance of the Thra¬ cians made themfelves mailers of it, Cimon was fent again!! them in a great hurry. He had only four Ihips; but neverthelefs with thefe he took 13 of the Perfian galleys, and reduced the whole of the Cherfpnefus. After this he marched again!! the Thracians, who re¬ volting again!! the Athenians, had made themfelves mafiers of the gold mines lying between the rivers Nyffus and Strymon. The Thracians Were quickly ob¬ liged to yield ; after which the Athenians fent a great colony to Amphipolis, a city of Thrace, which for fome time made a confiderable figure, but afterwards attempting to penetrate into the country of the Edones, great part of them were deflroyed. Cimon alfo fell upon the following expedient to make Athens irrefiifible at fea by the other Hates of Greece. Many of the Greek Hates, by virtue of A- riilides’s taxation, were bound to furnifli men ‘and gal¬ leys as well as to pay the tax for their fupport. But when they law themfelves out of danger from the Per¬ fians, rnofi of them were very unwilling to furnifii their quota of men. This the Athenian generals being of¬ fended with, were for having recourfe to force ; but Cimon permitted fuch as were defirous of Haying at home to do fo, and accepted a fum of money in lieu of a galley completely manned. By this means he in¬ ured the Athenians, whom he took on board his galleys, to hardfliip and difcipline} while the allies who re¬ mained at home became enervated through idlenefs, and from being confederates, dwindled into tributaries, and almofi flaves. In the lafl year of the 77th Olym¬ piad, Cimon was fent to affifi the Lacedemonians again!! their Helotes, who had revolted from them. In this he was attended with his ufual fuccefs •, but, fome time after, the Lacedemonians being engaged in the fiege of Ithome, fent again to the Athenians for fuc- cour, and Cimon was a fecond time fent to their relief} but the Spartans having received a fufficient fupply of troops from other quarters before the arrival of the A- thenian general, he and his men were difmiffed without doing any thing. This grrevoufly offended the people of Athens, who thenceforward hated not only the La¬ cedemonians, but all their own citizens who wTere thought to be friends to that Hate. It wras not pofi'rble, however, that any perfon who had ferved the Hate fhould efcape banilhment at A- thens. Cimon had gained great wealth both to the public and to himfelf. In his public charadler he had behaved wfith unimpeached honelly, and as a private citizen he dedicated his wealth to the mofl excellent purpofes. He demolifhed the enclofures about his grounds and gardens, permitting every one to enter and take what fruits they pleafed ; he kept an open table, where both rich and poor were plentifully en- tertain«d. If he met a citizen in a tattered fuit of Attica.. 35 1 A T T clothes, he made fome of his attendants exchange with him; or if the quality of the perfon rendered that kindnefs unfuitable, he caufed a fum of money to be privately given him. " All this, how’ever, was not fuf¬ ficient : he did not concur with every meafure of the commonalty ; and therefore the popular party deter¬ mined not to banifli him, but to put him to death. The crime laid to his charge was, that by prefents from the Macedonians he wras prevailed upon to let flip a manifefi opportunity of enlarging his conquells, after taking from the Perfians the gold mines of Thrace. To this accufation Cimon replied, that to the utmol! of his powTer he had profecuted the wrar againfi the Thracians, and other enemies of the Hate of Athens ; but that, it was true, he had not made any inroads into Macedonia, becaufe he did not imagine he was to a£! as a public enemy of mankind, and becaufe he was flruck wdth refped! for a nation modefi in their car¬ riage, jufl in their dealings, and firidlly honourable in their behaviour towards him and the Athenians : that if h;s countrymen looked upon this as a crime, he muH abide their judgment ; but, for his part, he could never be brought to think fuch condudl amifs. Elpi- nice, Cimon’s fiHer, ufed all her intereH in his behalf, and amongfi others fpoke to Pericles the celebrated flatefman and orator. He was indeed Cimon’s rival, and had no doubt aflifled in flirring up the profecution againH him ; but he did not defire his death : and there¬ fore, though appointed to accufe him, Pericles fpoke in fuch a manner that it plainly appeared he did not think him guilty ; and, in confequence of this lenity, Cimon wus only baniflied by the ollracifm. ^ The Athenian pow'er was nowr rifen to fuch a height, that all the other Hates of Peloponnefus looked upon this republic with a jealous eye, and were continually' watching every opportunity of making war upon it when the Hate was engaged in troublefome affairs, and feemed to be lefs able to refin. Thefe attempts, how’¬ ever, fo far from leflening, generally contributed to in- creafe, the power of the Athenians ; but in the year before Chrifl 458, the republic entered into a war w ith War be- Sparta, ,which was fcarce put an end to but by the de-lween Arudlion of the city of Athens. For this war, there w7as no recent provocation on the part of the Spartans. They had fent a great army to afilil the Dorians againH the Phocians, and the Athenians took this opportunity to revenge themfelves of former quarrels. Having therefore drawn in the Argives and Theffalians to be their confederates, they polled themfelves on the iflh- mus, fo that the Spartan army could not return with¬ out engaging them. The Athenians and their con¬ federates amounted to 74,000 and the Spartans to 11,500. The Spartan general, however, not very will¬ ing to hazard a battle, turned afide to Tanagra, a city in Bceotia, where fome of the Athenians vrho inclined to arillocracy entered into a correfpondence with him. But before their defigns w’ere ripe for execution, the Athenian army marched wdth great expedition to Ta- I0? nagra, fo that a battle became inevitable. When tlmdefeated”5 armies were drawn up in order of battle, Cimon, pre- fented himfelf before his countrymen in complete ar¬ mour, and went to take poll among thofe of his own tribe, but the popular party railed fuch a clamour againH him, that he was forced «to retire. Before he departed, however, he exhorted Euthippus and the reH of his friends to behave in fuch a manner that they G g 2 might 99 A T T [2 Auica. might wipe off the afperfion thrown upon him, as if he had defigned to betray his country’s caule to the La¬ cedemonians. Euthippus defired him to leave his ar¬ mour, which he did ; and a battle enfuing, the Athe¬ nians were defeated with great lofs, and Euthippus with the reft of Cimon’s friends wrere all killed in defence of his armour which they had furrounded. Another engagement loan followed, wherein both armies fuffer- ed fo much, that they were glad to conclude a (hoit truce, that each might have time to recruit their Ihat- I0I tered forces. They gain The fcale of fortune now feemed to turn in favour great ad- of the Athenians. The Thebans, wrho had been de- ovei^the Pr^vec^ t;^e c°mrrtand of Bceotia on account of their Spartans having fided with Xerxes, were now reftored to it by the Lacedemonians. At this the Athenians w7ere lb dilpleafed, that they fent an army under Myronidesthe fon of Callias into Boeotia to overturn all that had been done. That general was met by the Thebans and their allies, who compofed a numerous and well-difciplined army. Neverthelefs, though the Athenians army was but an handful in comparifon of their enemies, Myro- , nides gained a complete victory over the allies, in fome fenfe more glorious than either that of Marathon or Plataea. In thefe battles they had fought again!! effe¬ minate and ill-difciplined Perfians, but now they en¬ countered and defeated a fuperior army compofed of the braveft Greeks. After this victory, Myronides marched to Tanagra 5 which he took by ftorm, and ra¬ zed to the ground : he then plundered Boeotia j defeat¬ ed another army which the Boeotians had drawn to¬ gether to oppofe him : then fell upon the Locrians ; and, having penetrated into Theflaly, chaftifed the in¬ habitants of that country far having revolted from the Athenians j and from thence returned to Athens laden with riches and glory. The next year Tolmides the Athenian admiral in¬ vaded Laconia, where he made himfelf mafter of feve- ral places •, and on the back of this, Pericles invaded Peloponnefus with great fuccefs, burning, fpoiling, or IOj taking, whatever places he attempted. On his return Cimon re- he found the people greatly out of humour on account called. 0f Cimon’s baniftiment; fo he was immediately re¬ called. Cimon was no fooner returned than he fell to his old employment of plundering the Perfians 5 and, accord¬ ing to Plutarch, he had now nothing lefs in view than the conqueft of the wdiole Perfian empire. The Per- lian monarch finding he could have no reft, at laft fent orders to Artabazus and Megabizus, his commanders, to conclude a treaty 5 which wTas done on the following conditions : 1. That the Greek cities in Alia Ihould be free, and governed by their own laws. 2. That the Per¬ fians ftaould fend no army within three days journey of the fea. 3. That no Perfian Ihip of war fhould fail be- tw’een Thefalis and Gyrene, the former a city of Pam- phylia, and the latter of Lycia. His death. While this treaty was carrying on Cimon died, whe¬ ther of ficknefs or of a wound he had received is not known j and after his death the Athenian affairs be¬ gan to fall into confufion. It vras now the misfortune of this-ftate to be alike hated by her enemies and allies} the confequence of which was, that the latter were per¬ petually revolting whenever they thought they had an opportunity of doing fo with impunity. The Mega- 36] ATT rians, at this time, who had been long under the pro- Attica, tectlon or dominion of Athens, thought proper for —-v-—— fome reafon or other to difclaim all dependence on their former proteftors, and have recourfe to Sparta, with which ftate they entered into a ftribl alliance. This the Athenians revenged by ravaging the country of the Megarians } which loon brought on a renewal of the Lacedemonian war that had been for a little time fufpended. Pericles, however, procured the return of the firft Lacedemonian army, without bloodfhed, by bribing Chandrides the young king of Sparta’s tutor. In the winter, Tolmides refolved to undertake an expe¬ dition into Bceotia with a fmall body of troops : which defign he put in execution contrary to the advice of Pericles •, and his raihnefs was foon punifhed by his own death and the total defeat of his army. Notwithftand- IG^ ing this misfortune, however, Pericles loon after inva-A thirty dec! and reduced Euboea: and the Lacedemonians, years truce finding it was not for their intereft to carry on the^^J*1^ war, concluded a truce with the Athenians for 30n;‘an5> years. About this time Pfammiticus, king of Egypt, fent by wray of prefent to the people of Athens 40,000 buihels of wheat} which proved a great misfortune to the city: for Pericles, out of fpite to Cimon, who had Cruelty of children by an Arcadian woman, had preferred a law Pericles, whereby the Athenians of the half blood were disfran- chifed } and this law, on account of the diftribution of the corn above-mentioned, was profecuted with fuch feverity, that no lefs than 5000 peribns, who till then had been confidered as free-men, were fold for Haves. Nurn^er 0f This piece of cruelty has been of great fervice to the the Athe- critics, as by means of it we know exactly the numbernian citi- of Athenian citizens, which at this time amounted tozcns* no more than 14,040 perfons, though Athens was now aiming at no lefs than erefting an univerfal mo¬ narchy. Six years after the conclufion of the peace between Athens and Sparta, a w7ar broke out between the Sa¬ mians and Milefians about the city of Priene, feated under Mount Mycale in Ionia. How this war came to affesimI ^rc however, than the Samians difliking their new formducedby of government, drove out the garrifon he had left} but Pericles. Pericles quickly returning, befieged and took their ci¬ ty, demolilhed their walls, and fined them of the whole expence of the war } part of which he obliged them to pay down, and took hoftages for the remainder. When Pericles returned, he procured himfelf to be appointed to pronounce the public oration in honour of thofe who fell : which he did with fuch eloquence, that wEen he came down from the pulpit the women gathered about him, took him by the hand, and crowned him with garlands. _ i03 A little after this commenced the war between the War be- Corcyrians and Corinthians, which by degrees brought twren the the Athenians into thofe engagements that proved the^°^cJnans ruin of their ftate. The caufes of this war were the^jHn^rin" following. An inteftine war breaking out in the little territory of Epidamnum, a city of Macedonia found¬ ed by the Corcyrians, one party called in to their af- fiftance Attica. 109 Corcyrians. ATT filtance the Illyrians, and the other the Corcyrians. The latter neglefting the matter, Corinth was applied to, as the Corcyrians were a colony from that place. The Corinthians, partly out of pity to the Epidam- nians, and partly out of fpleen to the Corcyrians, fent a very great fleet to the affilfance of the former, by which means that party which had applied to Corinth was thoroughly eilablifhed. This being refented by the Corcyrians, they fent a fleet to Epidamnura to fup- port the exiles j and accordingly this fleet began to acd offenfively on its entering the port, the chief com¬ manders having inflruflions to propofe terms of ac¬ commodation, to which the Corinthians would by no means agree. The next year the Corcyrians defeated at fea the Corinthians and their allies, and took Epi- damnum by itorm j after which they wafted the terri¬ tories of the allies of the Corinthians, which greatly exafperated the latter. At Corinth, therefore, they began to make great preparations for carrying on the war, and prefled their confederates to do the fame, that they might be in a condition to retrieve the honour they had loft, and humble this ungrateful colony which had thus infulted her mother city. The Corcyrians were no fooner acquainted with thefe proceedings, than they defpatched ambafladors to Athens with their complaints; and thefe were quickly followed by others from Corinth on the fame errand. At firft the people of Athens inclined to favour the Athens Me? t|iey foon changed their minds, and with the t00{£ part with the Corcyrians : they contented them- felves, however, with entering into a defenfive alliance with that little ftate, whereby they promifed to afiift each other, in cafe either party fhould be attacked ; and in confequence of this treaty, they furnifhed the Corcyrians with ten gallevs, under Lacedremonius the fon of Cimon, with whom were joined Diotenes and Proteus as colleagues. As foon as the feafon of the year permitted, the Corinthians failed for the coaft of Corcyra with a fleet of 150 (hips, under the command of Xenoclides, af- ftfted by four other Corinthian admirals ; each fqua- dron of their allies being commanded by a chief of their own. The Corcyrian and Athenian fleet amount¬ ed to 120, but the Athenians had orders to give as little afliftance as poflible. The aftion was very briflc for fome time : the Corcyrian right wing broke the left of the Corinthian fleet •, and forcing fome of the fliips on fliore, landed, pillaged their camp, and made a great number of them prifoners: on the other hand, the Corinthian ftiips in the right wing beat the Cor- cyrian fliips there, they being but very faintly aflifted by the Athenians, till the latter were at laft obliged to defend themfelves, which they did fo well, that the Corinthians were glad to retire. The next day pre¬ parations were made on both fides for another engage¬ ment ; but 20 ftiips coming from Athens to the aflift¬ ance of the Corcyrians, the Corinthians declined the combat. As foon as the Corcyrian wrar broke out, the Athe¬ nians fent orders to the citizens of Potidtea to demolifh a part of their wall, to fend back the magiftrates they had received from Corinth, and to give hoftages for their own behaviour. Potidaea was a town in Mace¬ donia, founded by the Corinthians, but at that time in alliance with the Athenians.—Perdiccas king of [ 237 1 ATT no Potidtea be iieged by the Athe¬ nians. Macedon, who hated the Athenians, took this cppor- Attua. tunity to perfuade the Potidaeans to revolt. Accor-w— dingly they fent ambafladors to Athens to entreat the revocation of thefe orders •, but at the fame time fent deputies to Sparta, to join with the Corinthians and Megarians in their complaints againft the Athenians. The Athenians upon this fent a confiderable fleet againft Potidaea, under the command of Calias, a no¬ bleman of great courage. The Corinthians on their part defpatched one Arifteus with a confiderable body of troops to the afliftance of that city. An engage¬ ment following, the Athenians were viftors, but with the lofs of their general. Phormio, who fucceeded in the command, inverted the city in form, and ftiut up its port with his fleet ■, but the Potidteans dreading to fall into the hands of the Athenians, made a nioft ob- ftinate defence, while in the mean time they warmly folicited the Corinthians to perform their promifes, and eneasre the reft of the ftat&s of Pelononnelus in their quarrel. in The Lacedemonians having heard what the Corin-The Spar- thians and other little ftates of Greece bad to faytdnsde- againft the Athenians, fent ambafladors to the latter, f^a“ demanding reparation for the injuries, with orders, in t;ie injuries cafe of a refufal, to declare war. The terms demand-ofl'ered to ed were, in the firft place, the expulflon of thofe A-1'16 flateso^ thenians who were allied to the family of Megacles foGree''c‘ often mentioned. This article was on account of Pe¬ ricles ; for he was the fon of Xanthippus the Athenian commander at Mycale by Agarifte niece to the famous Ciylthenes, who corrupted the prieftefs of Apollo in order to procure the expulfion of the Pififtratidte. They next infilled that the fiege of Potidtea ihould be raifed ; thirdly, that the inhabitants of iEgina fhould be left free 5 and laftly, that a decree made againft the Megarians, whereby they were forbid the ports and markets of Athens, ftiould be revoked, and all the Grecian ftates under the dominion of Athens fet at li¬ berty. > .112 Thefe terms the Athenians were perfuaded by Peri-Their terms cles to reject. The arguments ufed by him were in fub-rejected by ftance as follows : That whatever the Lacedemonians of might pretend as to the juftice of the complaints of the allies, the true ground of this refentment was the pro- fperity of the Athenian republic, which the Spartans always hated, and now fought an opportunity of hum¬ bling : that it muft be owing to the Athenians them¬ felves if this defign fucceeded, becaufe for many rea- fons Athens was better able to engage in a long and expenfive war than the Peloponnefians. He then laid before the people an exadft account of their circum- ftances 5 putting them in mind, that the treafure brought from Delos amounted to 1 o,oco talents j and that though 4000 of thele had been expended on the ftately gate of their citadel, yet that 6000 were ftill in hand ; that they were alfo entitled to the fubfidies paid by the confederate ftates; that the ftatues of their gods, the Perfian fpoils, &c. were worth immenfe fums 5 that private men were arrived at vaft fortunes; and that, confidering their trade by fea, they had a certain annual increafe of wealth ; that they had on foot an army of 12,000 men, and in their colonies and garrifons 17,000 ; that their fleet conftfted of 300 fail; whereas the Peloponnefians had no fuch advantages. For thefe reafons he propofed as the moft feafible and likewife A T T [ 238 j ATT Attica, hkewiie the moft equitable fatisfa£lion that could be : V giveib ^lat they would reverfe their decree againft Me- gara, if the Lacedemonians would allow free egrefs fuid regrefs in their city to the Athenians and their al¬ lies 5 that they would leave all thofe ftates free who were free at the making of the lafl peace with Sparta, provided the Spartans would alio leave all Hates free who were under their dominion •, and that future dif- putes fhould be fubmitted to arbitration. In cafe thefe offers fhould be rejected, he advifed them to hazard a war telling them, that they ihould not think they ran that hazard for a trifle, or retain a fcruple in their minds as if a fmall matter moved them to it, becaufe on this fmall matter depended their fafety, and the re¬ putation of their conitancy and refolution ; whereas, if they yielded in this, the next demand of the Lacede¬ monians would be of a higher nature 5 for having once difcovered that the Athenians were fubjedt to fear, they wmuld thence conclude that nothing could be de¬ nied to Sparta j whereas a ftiff denial in this cafe would teach them to treat Athens for the future on terms of equality. He enforced thefe reafons by fhowing that their anceftors had always added on the like principles, and in all cafes preferred their glory to their eafe, and their liberty to their poffeffions. Attempt of This was the origin of the Peloponnefian wrar, which the The- makes fo great a figure in ancient hiftory. The im- PA -eT mediate preliminary to general hoflilities was an at¬ tempt of the 'Thebans to furprife Plateea. With this view they fent Eurymachus with 300 Thebans to affilt fuch of the Plataeans as they had drawm over to their intereft, in making themfelves mailers of the place. In this defign they fucceeded very well at fiilt, the Plataeans, who had promiled to open the gates, keeping their words exadtly, fo that they were inftantly in pof- feffion of the city. The other party, however, per¬ ceiving how fmall a number they had to contend with, unanimoufly rofe upon them, killed a great many, and forced the reft to furrender themfelves prifoners of war. Another party came from Thebes to aflift their countrymen 5 but they arrived too late : the Pla¬ taeans, however, forefeeing that they would wafte their country, promifed to reieafe their prifoners if they 114 -would forbear to fpoil their lands. On this the The- maflacreel. ^aus wit^drew 5 and the Plateeans cruelly put to death all their prifoners, to the number of 180, with Eury¬ machus their chief, alleging that they had not pro¬ mifed their reieafe but in cafe of peace. The Athe¬ nians, as foon as they had notice of this attempt of the Thebans, caufed all the Boeotians in their terri¬ tory to be arrefted 5 and when they underftood how the Platseans had delivered themfelves, they fent a great convoy of provifions to that city, and a numerous body of troops to effort their wives and children to Athens. Account of Both parties nowr prepared in earneft for war, both the allies on ^ent airff ardors to the Perfians, and both fought to both fides. r°ufe their allies. Moll of the Greek ftates inclined to favour the Spartans, becaufe they a£ted on this occa- fion as the deliverers of Greece, and becaufe they either had been, or feared that they would be, opprefled by the Athenians. With the Spartans joined all the Pe- loponnefians, except the Argives and part of the A- chaeans *, without Peloponnefus, the Megarians, Pbo- cians, Locrians, Boeotians, Ambraciots, Leucadians, 2 and Anacfonans, declared themfelves on their fide. On Attica, the. other hand, the Chians, Lefbians, Platmans, Mef- "a* ffnians, Acarnanians, Corcynans, Eacynthians, Cari- ans, Dorians, Thracians, moil part of the iflands, and all the Cyclades excepting Melos and Thera, with Eu¬ boea and Samos, joined the Athenians. IT^ The Peloponnefian war commenced 431 years before Firft year Chi iff. The Lacedemonian army was affembled at of the war. the ifthmus, and confifted of no lefs than 6o,oco men ; but before Archidamus king of Sparta, who com¬ manded in chief, would enter Attica, he defpatched a herald to Athens. The herald was fent back without any anfvver, by which all hopes of peace w'ere cut off. As Archidamus -was a friend to Pericles, the latter ap¬ prehended that he might forbear plundering his eftates. With this he immediately acquainted the people ; tell¬ ing them at the fame time, that in fuch a cafe he made a preffnt of his lands to the public. He then advifed the citizens to take no care ot defending their country- feats, but to attend only to the city, bufy thernfflves in the equipping of (hips, and fettle a thorough refo- lution not to be intimidated with the firft evils of war. •. 'This propofal the Athenians readily complied with, and appointed Pericles commander in chief, with nine more generals to aflift him. The firft year, the Spartan army committed great ravages in Attica, Pericles having no force capable of oppoling it, and refufing to engage on difadvantageous terms, notwithftanding prodigious clamours were railed againft him by his countrymen. The allies, however, had no great reafon to boaft of the advantages they gained this year : an Athenian fleet ravaged the coafts of Peloponnefus ; another infefted the Locrians, drove out the inhabitants of AEgina, and repeopled the ifland from Athens. They likewiff reduced Cephalenia, and fome towns in Acarnania and Leucas which had de¬ clared for the Lacedemonians; and in the autumn, when the Peleponnefians were retired, Pericles entering the Megarian territory, did all the milchief that could be expedled from a provoked enemy. The fpring of the ffcond year was very fatal to A-Second thens by a dreadful plague which deftroyed great num-year. A bers of the citizens, rvhile the Peloponneftans undertlreadfu! Archidamus wafted every thing abroad. In the midft^^l^af of thefe diftreffes, however, Pericles retained his cou-" rage, and would fuffer none of his countrymen to ftir without the city either to effape the plague or infeft the enemy. He caufed a great fleet to be equipped, on board which he embarked 4000 foot and 300 horfe, with which he failed to Epidaurus. Upon this the enemy withdrew their forces out of Attica ; but Peri¬ cles was able to do no great matter on account of the plague, which made lo great havock among his men, that he brought back to Athens only 15CO of the 4000 he carried out. By this misfortune the Athenians were Athenianj thrown into defpair j they immediately fued for peace, fue for which the Spartans were now too proud to grant j thenPeace* turning their rage upon Pericles, they difmiffed and fined him. Soon after, Pericles’s children and almoft all his relations died of the plague j fo that this great ftatefman was overwhelmed with melancholy, and for fome time (hut himfelf up from public view : at laft, through the perfuafiqn of Alcibiades and fome others, he fhowed himfelf to the people. They received him with acclamations, and at his requeft repealed the un¬ juft 1 .ATT [ Attica. 1x9 Perioes re- quefts the repeal of his law. 120 Third year. Pericles dies. 121 Platgea beheged. 122 Fourth year. Def- perate at¬ tempt of the Platae- ans. 123 Fifth year. Mitylene, &c. taken by the A- thenians. juft law lie had made, whereby, all Athenians of the half blood wei'e disfranchifed, and then reinftated him in all his former honours. Hereupon he inrolled the only fon he had left, who before had been counted a baftard on account of his mother being a Milefian. This year alfo the iiland of Zacynthus was wafted by the Peloponneftans j and the city of Potidsea fub- mitted to the Athenians, after the inhabitants had been driven to fuch extremity as to feed upon human fleftu The Athenians permitted the men to depart with one garment, and the women with two j after which, the town was repeopled by a colony from Athens. The third year of the Peloponnefian war was re¬ markable for the death of the great Pericles, who was taken off by the plague. Platgea alfo was befteged by Archidamus; but without fuccefs, even though the greateft part of it was fet on fire 5 the Plataeans x-efol- ving to i’ubmit to every kind of mifery rather than abandon the Athenian caufe. In the end, therefore, the king of Sparta was obliged to turn the fiege into a blockade 5 and having thrown up an intrenchment for¬ tified with a deep ditch, he left a fufficient number of men to guard his lines, and then returned back to Pe- loponnefus. The following fummer, the Peloponnefians under the ■command of Archidamus invaded Attica, where they wafted every thing with fire and fword j at the fame time the whole ifland of Lefbos, except the diftrift of Methymna, revolted from the Athenians, who here¬ upon invefted the city of Mitylene. All this time the city of Platsea rvas blocked up by the Peloponnefians 5 and its inhabitants being now greatly diftrefl'ed for want of provifions, the garrifon, confifting of 400 natives and 80 Athenians, came to the defperate reiolution of for¬ cing a paffage through the enemy’s lines. When they came to attempt this, however, many of them were in¬ timidated : but 300 perfifted in their refolution ; and of thefe 212 got iafe through and marched to Athens, but the reft xvere compelled to retire. In the beginning of the fifth year, the Peloponne¬ fians fent 40 (hips to the relief of Mitylene ; but with¬ out effeft, for the place had furrendered before the fleet could come to its affiftance. Paches, the Athe¬ nian commander, likewife chafed away the Peloponne¬ fian fleet upon its arrival , and returning to Lefbos fent the Lacedemonian minifter, whom he found in Mi¬ tylene, together with a deputation, to Athens. On their arrival, the Lacedemonian was immediately put to death ; and in a general affembly of the people, it was refolved, that all the Mitylenians who were ar¬ rived at man’s eftate ftioukl be put to death, and the women and children fold for flaves. The next day, however, this cruel decree was reverfed, and a galley fent with all expedition to countermand the bloody or¬ ders. This laft veffel, however, could not get before tlxe other : but Paches, being a man of great humani¬ ty, had taken a day to confider on the orders he haft received ; during which time the laft mentioned galley arrived ; in confequence of which, only about 1000 of the moft forward rebels were put to death ; the walls of the city were alfo demoliftied, their fhips taken away, and.their lairds divided among the Athenians, who let them again to their old mafters at very high rents. The fame fummer the Athenians feized the ifiand of Mino- zs, lying over againlt the territory of Megara: and 39 ] _ A T T likewufe the port of Niftea, which laft they fortified, Attica, and it proved afterwards a place of the utmoft import- ance to them. At this time alfo the Plataeans, driven 1-4 to the laft extremity, furrendered to the Lacedemoni-p*at£ea ans, by whom they were, to the number of 208, in-'ll,~ eluding 25 Athenians, put to death, and their w omen fold for Haves. _ 'Pheir city was foon after razed by their implacable enemies the Thebans, wdxo left only an inn to ftiow wdiere it flood. The fame of Plattea, however, induced Alexander the Great afterwards to rebuild it. ^ In this year happened the famous fedition of Cor-Sedition of cyra, whence other feditions, wdien their eftedts ren- Coicyra dered them terrible, hare been called Corcyrian. It hath been already obferved, that the war between the Corcyrians and Corinthians brought on the general wTar throughout Peloponnefus. A great number of Corcy¬ rians w?ere in the beginning of this w7ar carried away prifoners into Peloponnefus, where the chief of them were very well treated, but the reft fold for flaves. The reafon of this condudl of the Corinthians was a de- fign they had formed of engaging thefe Corcyrians to influence their countrymen to fide with them and their allies. With this view they treated them with all ima¬ ginable lenity and tendernefs, inftillxng into them by degrees an hatred of democratic government 3 after which they were told, that they might obtain their li¬ berty upon condition of ufing all their influence at home in favour of the allies, and to the prejudice of A- thens. This the Corcyrians readily promifed and en¬ deavoured to perform. At firft, thofe who were for an ariftocracy prevailed, and murdered all thofe of the oppofite party that fell into their hands, in which thev W'ere aflifted by a fleet of Peloponnefians : but the A- thenians fending firft one fleet and then another to the afliftance of the diftrefl'ed party, the Peloponnefians were forced to withdraw 3 after which the democratic party fufficiently revenged themfelves, and deftroyeft their antagonifts without mercy. The wmrft of all was, that this example once fet, the feveral ftates of Greece felt in their turns the like commotions, which wei'e al ways heightened by agents from Sparta and Athens 3 the former endeavouring to fettle ariftocracy, and the latter democracy, wherever they came. While the Athenians w7ere thus engaged in a war a^ j.; ,, ~ wherein they w7ere already overmatched, they foolilhly engage in * engaged in a new one, which in the end proved more war with fatal than all the reft. The inhabitants of Sicily were Slcl|y’ fplit into two fadions 3 the one called the Doric, at the head of which was the city of Syracufe ; the other * the Ionic, which owned the Leontines for their chiefs : the latter perceiving themfelves too weak without fo¬ reign aid, fent one Georgias, a celebrated orator, to apply to Athens for relief 3 and he by his fine fpeeches fo captivated the giddy and inconftant Athenians, that they ran headlong into a war which they were unable to maintain while engaged with all the Peloponnefi- ans. Enticed by this new profpedl, therefore, and grafping at the conqueft of Sicily,, as well as of aH. Greece, they fent a fleet to the affiftance of the Le¬ ontines, under the command of Lachetes and Chabrias-3 and they were no fooner failed, than another fleet for the fame purpofe was begun to be fitted out. Aul this time the plague continued to rage with great violence at Athens, cutting off this year 4000 citizens,. b*. fide3* ATT [ 24o ] ATT 'Attica. 127 Sixth year. 128 Seventh year. Pylus forti tied by the Athenians. 129 '•Befieged. 130 -Spartan fleet de- flroyed. 13* Treachery of the Athenians. 132 They at- tackSphac- teria. , T33 Cleon the orator appointed general. Tides a much greater number of the meaner fort of ' people. The fixth year of the Peloponnefian war was remark¬ able for no great exploit : Agis the fon of Archida- mus, king of Sparta, affembled an army in order to invade Attica, but was prevented from fo doing by many great earthquakes which happened throughout Greece. The next year, however, he entered Attica with his army, while the Athenians on their part fent a fleet under the command of Demoflhenes, to infell the coafts of Peloponnefus. As this fleet palled by La- -conia, the commander took notice that the promonto¬ ry of Pylus, which was joined to the continent by a narrow neck of land, had before it a barren illand a- bout two miles in circumference, in which, however, there was a good and fafe port, all winds being kept off by the headland, or by the ifle. Thefe advantages made him apprehend, that a garrifon left here would give the Peloponnefians fo much trouble, that they ■would find it more advifable to proteft their own coun¬ try than to invade that of their neighbours. Accord¬ ingly, having raifed a ftrong fortification, he himfelf with five fliips ftaid to defend it, while the reft of the fleet proceeded on their intended expedition. On the news of this event, the Peloponnefian army immedi¬ ately returned to befiege Pylus. When they arrived before the place they took poffeflion of the harbour, and then caufed a chofen body of Spartans take poffef- fion of the illand of Spha&eria, after which they at¬ tacked the fort with great vigour. Demofthenes and his garrifon defended themfelves with great valour ; and an Athenian fleet arriving very feafonably, offer¬ ed battle to the Peloponnefian fleet. This being re- fufed, the Athenians boldly failed into the harbour, broke and funk moft of the veffels therein, after which they befieged the Spartans in Sphafteria. The Pelo¬ ponnefians now began to treat with their enemies, and a truce was concluded during the time that negocia- tions were carried on at Athens. One of the articles of this truce was, that the Peloponnefians fhould deli¬ ver up all their Ihips, on condition of having them pundlually returned in cafe the treaty did not take ef- fe'ear- ced their alliance with Sparta, aboliflied ariftocracy, drove all the Lacedemonians out of the city, and re¬ newed their league with Athens. The Athenians, in the mean time, being convinced of the treachery of Perdiccas king of Macedon, renounced their alliance with him, and declared war againft him. r^s _ Next year Alcibiades terminated the difputes in the Sixteenth city of Argos, by the banifliment of the Spartan fac- year- , Me~ tion ; after which he failed to the ifiand of Melos, {3°! t;^luCed whofe inhabitants had afted with the greateft invete- Athenians, H h racy ATT [ 242 ] ATT Attica. 149 Seven- racy agalnft liis countrymen : perceiving, however, that the reduction of the iiland would be a work of time, he left a confiderable body of forces there, and returned to Athens. In his abfence the capital of Melos fur- rendered at difcretion, and the inhabitants were treat¬ ed with the utmoft cruelty : all the men capable of bearing- arms being flaughtered, and the women and children carried into captivity. In the beginning of the 17th year, Nicias was ap- teenthyeai. pointed commander of an expedition again!! the Syra- Athenian cufans, along with Alcibiades and Lamachus as col- army in leagues. But while the neceffary preparations were ma- king> a11 thlnSs wrere thrown into confufion by the de- adtliiefto ^cing °f tke Hernue, or llatues of Mercury, of which Sparta. there was a great number in the city. The authors of this facrilege could by no means be difcovered, though rewards wTere offered for this purpofe : at la!l the fufpi- cion fell upon Alcibiades; and for this weighty reafon he was commanded to return from Sicily to take his trial. Alcibiades, however, knew the temper of his countrymen too well to trull himfelt to their mercy ; and therefore, inllead of returning to Athens, he fled immediately to Sparta, where he met with a gracious reception; while the infatuated Athenians were feverely puniftied by the lofs of their army, generals, and fleet, in Sicily, which the fuperior abilities «of Alcibiades would in all probability have prevented. Nineteenth The J9th and 2°th yearS °f the War .Were fpent hy and the Athenians in equipping a new fleet in order to re¬ twentieth pair their vaft Ioffes : but Alcibiades hurt their inte- years, &c. reqs very n)UC|1) by perfuading Tiffaphernes the Per- fian to league with the Spartans again!! them ; at the fame time he perfuaded feveral of the Ionian flates to revolt from Athens, but they were in a ftiort time i5i obliged again to fubmit. Notwithftanding all thefe Alcibiades fervices, however, Alcibiades had rendered himleif fo hateful to Agis by debauching his wife, that he foon found himfelf obliged to fly to the Perfians, where Tiffaphernes gave him a very favourable reception, and profited much by his advice, which was, to let the Greeks weaken one another by their mutual wars, and that the Perfians ought never to fee one ftate to¬ tally deftroyed, but always to fupport the weaker party. When Tiffaphernes had acquiefced with thefe coun- fels, Alcibiades privately wrote to fome of the officers nuuui in the Athenian army at Samos, that he had been democracy treating with the Perfians in behalf of his countrymen, at Athens, but dicT not choofe to return till the democracy fhould be abolifhed ; and 'to incline the citizens to comply with this raeafure, he told them that the Perfian king difliked a democracy, but would immediately aflift them if that was abolifhed, and an oligarchy ereaed in its Head. On the arrival of Pifander and other deputies from the army, with the propofals of .Alcibiades, tue Athe¬ nians without hefitation refolved to overturn that de¬ mocracy which they had all along fo flrenuoufly de¬ fended. The iffue of their prefent debate was, that Pifander with ten deputies fhould return to Alci¬ biades, in order to know on what terms the king of Perfia would make an alliance with them : but that cunning Athenian having perceived that Tiffaphernes was by no means difpofed to afliff the Athenians on account of their having been lately fuccefsful, he fet Attica. flies to Perfia. tS2 Propoles the aboli¬ tion of up fuch high demands in the king of Perfia’s name, that the Athenians of themfelves broke off the treaty, and thus Alcibiades preferved the friendfhip of both parties. Pifander having engaged the army at Samos in his fcheme of overturning democracy, that form of go¬ vernment w’as abolifhed firll in the cities fubjedf to Athens, and laflly in the capital itfelf. Pilander’s new New .form fcheme was, That the old form of government fhould of govern- be totally diffolved : that five prytanes fhould be ele£!-ment ed : that thefe five fhould choofe 100; and that eachaUlV “ ^ ' ©f the hubdred fhould choofe three < that the 400 thus elefted fhould become a fenate with full power ; but fhould occafionally confult with 5000 of the moft weal¬ thy citizens, who fhould thenceforward be effeemed only the people ; and that no authority fhould remain with the lowefl clafs. Though the people were not very fond of this change, thofe who conduced it, being men of great parts, found means to eflablifh it by force ; for when the people were gone out of the city to their ordinary employments, the 400, ha¬ ving each a dagger concealed under his veil, attend¬ ed by a guard of 120 men, entered the fenate-houfe, diffolved the old fenate, and without ceremony turn¬ ed them out; after which the commons, not knowing whom to fubmit to, or to whom to apply, made no oppofition. The fiift ftep of the new governors was to deftroy all their enemies ; who, however, were not very nu¬ merous, fo that little blood was fhed. d hey next fent ambaffadors to Agis to fue for peace ; but he, taking for granted that the Athenians would never defend an oligarchv, gave no anfwer to the ambaffadors, but im¬ mediately marched towards the capital with a defign to attack it. On his arrival, howTever, he was quickly » convinced of his miftake, being repulfed with lofs, and obliged to retire to his old poll. _ T^ In the mean time the Athenian army declared again The army for a democracy ; and having recalled Alcibiades, in- declare for veiled him with full power, and infifted on his irnme-^emo^ diate return to Athens to reftore the ancient govern- ment. This meafure he refuied to comply wuth, andb^gg. perfuaded them to flay where they were, in order to fave Ionia : he alfo prevailed on them to allowr fome deputies, who had been fent from the new gover¬ nors of Athens, to come and deliver their meffage. To thefe deputies Alcibiades replied, that they fhould immediately return to Athens, and acquaint the that they were commanded immediately to refign their power and reftore the fenate ; but that the 5000 might retain theirs, provided they ufed it with mode¬ ration. , 155 By this anfwer the city W’as thrown into the utmoft Great confufion ; but the new government party prevailing,confufion ambaffadors were defpatched to Sparta with orders toat Athens, procure peace on any terms. T rns, however, was not to be effefted ; and^Thrynicus, the head of the em- baffy, and likewife of the new government party, was murdered on his return. After his death, Theramenes, the head of the other party, feized the chiefs of the 4©o ; upon w hich a tumult enfued that had almoll pro¬ ved fatal to the city itfelf. The mob, however, being at laf! difperfed, the 400 affembled, though in great fear, and fent deputies to the people, promising to fet all things to rights. In confequence of this deputa¬ tion. ATT [ H3 1 ATT Attica, tion, a day was appointed for convoking a general af- 1 /—■J fembly, and fettling the Hate-, but when that day came, news was brought that the Lacedemonian fleet appear¬ ed in view, and fleered dire£lly for Salamis. Thus all was again thrown into confufion ; for the people, in- flead of deliberating on the fubjefl propofed, ran in crowds down to the port, and perceiving the Spartans 156 made towards Euboea, a fleet of 36 fnips was immedi- fleeTde*11 ate^ defpatched under the command of Thymochares, ftroyed by to engage the enemy. This fleet was utterly defeated, the Spar- 2 2 of the Athenian fliips being taken, and moft of the tans. others funk or difabled ; but what was worfe, this de¬ feat was followed by the revolt of all the country of Euboea except Orcus. When thefe difmal tidings arrived at Athens, every thing was given up for loll; and had the Lacedemo¬ nians taken this opportunity of attacking the city, they had undoubtedly fucceeded, and thus put an end to the war : but being at all times flow, efpecially in naval affairs, they gave the Athenians time to equip a new fleet, and to retrieve their affairs. One good ef- fe£l of this difafler, howrever, was the putting an end for a time to the internal difienfions of this turbulent people j infomuch that Thucydides the hiftorian is of opinion, that the republic never enjoyed fo much quiet T'7 as at this time. ILvpIotts of Alcibiades now fhorved his abilities and inclination Alcibiades. to ferve country in an eminent manner. By his intrigues he fo effeftually embroiled the Perfians and Peloponnefians with each other, that neither party knew wflrom to truft. Thrafybulus, with 55 flflps, gained a vidlory over the Peloponnefian fleet confifling of 73 : after wfliich he took 8 galleys coming from By¬ zantium ; which city had revolted from the Athenians, but was foon after taken, and the inhabitants feverely fined. The fleet being afterwards joined by Alcibi¬ ades, nine more of the Peloponnefian galleys were ta¬ ken, the Halicarnaflxans w'ere conilrained to pay a large fum of money, and Cos was flrongly fortified ; which tranfaflions ended the 2ill year of the Peloponnefian war. In the fucceeding years of this famous war, the Athenians had at firft great advantages. Thrafybulus gained a fignal victory at fea •, and Alcibiades gained tw'o viiffories, one by fea and another by land, in one i-S took the whole Peloponnefian fleet, and more The Spar- fp°^ than his men could carry away. The Spartans tans fue were now humbled in their turn, and fued for peace ; for peace, but the Athenians were fo intoxicated with their fuc- cefs, that they lent back the ambaffadors without an an- IS9 fwer : which they foon had fufficient reafon to repent They take oh The beginning of the Athenian misfortunes wTas Pylus. the taking of Pylus by the Spartans. The Athenians had fent a fleet under the command of one Anyius to its defence : but he was driven back by contrary winds ; upon which he wTas condemned to death, be- caufe he could not caufc the wind blow' from what quarter he pleafed : this fentence, however, wTas re¬ mitted on his paying a vaft fum of money. This mif- fortune was quickly follow'ed by another. The Me- garians furprifed Nyfaea 5 which enraged the Athe¬ nians fo much, that they immediately fent an army in¬ to that country, who defeated the Megarians who op- pofed them with great daughter, and committed horrid devastations-. Thefe misfortunes as yet, however, were overbalan- Attica, ced by the great adlions of Alcibiades, Thrafybulus,v ^ and Theramenes. When Alcibiades returned, he Alcibhdcs brought with him a fleet of 2CO Ihips, and fuch a load enters A- of fpoils as had never been feen in Athens fince thethensin conclufion of the Perfian war. The people left their triuH1P^> city deftitute, that they might crowd to the port, to behold Alcibiades as he landed ; old and young bleffed him as he palled ; and next day when he made a ha¬ rangue to the affembly, they direcled the record of his banifliment to be thrown into the fea, abfolved him from the curfes he lay under, and created him general with full power. Nor did he feem inclined to indulge I(-r himfelf in eafe, but foon put to fea again with a fleet He is dif- of 100 fliips. He had not been long gone, however, graced, before all this w'as forgot. Alcibiades failed to the Hellefpont with part of his fleet, leaving the reft un¬ der the command of Antiochus his pilot, but with Itridl orders to attempt nothing before his return. This command the pilot paid no regard to, but provoked Lyfander the Lacedemonian admiral to an engage¬ ment, and in confequence of his temerity was defeated with the lols of x 5 fliips, himfelf being killed in the engagement. On the news of this defeat Alcibiades returned, and endeavoured to provoke the Lacedemo¬ nians to a fecond battle j but this Lyfander prudently declined ; and in the mean time the Athenians, with unparalleled ingratitude and inconftancy, deprived Al¬ cibiades of his command, naming ten new generals in his room. r(j2 I his was thelaft ftep the Athenians had to take for The Athe- perfefting their ruin. Conon, who fucceeded to thenians gai.n command, was defeated by Callicratides, Lyfander’s ^re^'lc” lucceffor; but being afterwards ftrongly reinforced, ^7fix of the Lacedemonians were entirely defeated with the lofs their gene- of 77 fliips. Such a viftory might at this time havera!s t0 infpired the Athenians with fome kind of gratitude to-c*eatn- ward the generals who granted it; but inftead of this, on pretence of their not having affifted the wounded during the engagement, eight of them were recalled ; two were wife enough not to return ; and the fix who trufted to the juftice of their country were all put to death. _ l6s The next year Lyfander was appointed commander They are of what fleet the Peloponnefians had left, with which utterb' dei- he took Thafus and Lampfacus. Conon was defpatch- j^ fattler • ed againff him with 180 fliips, which being greatly ' ‘UUCr5 fuperior to Lyfander’s fleet, that general refufed to come to an engagement, and was blocked up in the river TEgos. While the Athenians lay there, they grew quite idle and carelefs ; infomuch that Alcibiades, who had built a caftle for himfelf in the neighbour¬ hood, entreated them to be more on their guard, as he well knew Lyfander’s abilities. They anfwered, that they wondered at his affurance, who was an exile and a vagabond, to come and give laws to them j telling him, that if he gave them any farther trouble, thev would feize and fend him to Athens. At the. fame time they looked on viftory as fo certain, that they confulted what they fliould do with their prifoners"; which, by the advice of Philocles their general, was to cut oft' all their right hands, or, according to Plutarch, their right thumbs ; and Adiamantus one of their of¬ ficers rendered himfelf very obnoxious by faying, that fuch idle difeourfe did not become Athenians. The H h 2 confequences Attica. 164 who takes Athens. 165 Terms of peace. i56 The thirty tyrants. 167 Critias and Therame- nes, their oppofite characters. ATT [244 ATT confequences of fuch conduct may be eafily imagined. Lyfander fell unexpedtedly upon them, and gained a moll complete viftory } Conon, with eight galleys only, efcaping to Cyprus ; after which Lyfander re¬ turned to Lampfacus, where he put to death Philocles with 3000 of his foldiers, and all the officers except Adiamantus. This execution being over, he reduced all the cities fubjeft to Athens ; and with great civi¬ lity fent home their garrifons, that fo the city might be overftocked with inhabitants, and deftitute of provi- fions, when he came to befiege it; which he did foon after by fea, while Agis, with a great army, invefted it by land. For a long time the Athenians did not fo much as delire a peace ; but at laid were forced to fend deputies to Agis, who fent them to Sparta, where no terms could be granted except they confented to demolifh their walls. They next fent to Lyfander, who after a long attendance referred them to Sparta 5 and thither Theramenes with fame other deputies was immediately fent. On their arrival, they found the council of the confederates fitting, who all except the Spartans gave their votes that Athens Ihould be utterly deftroyed 5 but they would not confent to the ruin of that city, which had deferved fo well of Greece. On the return of Theramenes, peace was concluded, on condition, that the long walls and the fortifications of the port ffiould be demolilhed ; that they Ihould give up all their fhips but 12, receive all they had banilhed, and follow the fortune of the Lacedemonians. Thefe fe- vere terms were punctually executed. Lyfander caufed the w^alls to be pulled down, all the mufic in his army playing, on that very day of the year on which they had beat the Perfians at Salamis. He likewife efta- bliffied an oligarchy exprefsly againft the will of the people ; and thus the ruin of Athens ended the 27th year of the Peloponnefian war, and the 404th before Chrift. As foon as Lyfander had demoliffied the long walls, and the fortifications of the Piraeus, he conftituted a council of thirty, with power, as was pretended, to make laws, but in truth to fubjugate the ftate. Thefe are the perfons fo famous in hiflory, under the title of the thirty tvrants. They were all the creatures of Ly¬ fander 5 who, as they derived their rife from conqueft and the law of the fword, exercifed their offices in a fuitable maner ; that is, with the higheft teflimonies of pride, infolence, and cruelty. Infiead of making laws, they governed without them ; appointed a fenate and magiftrates at their will •, and, that they might do all things without danger of controul, they fent for a garrifon from Lacedemon \ which was accordingly grant¬ ed them, under the command of Callidius, upon their promife to pay the foldiers regularly. One of the firft fteps they took was to puniffi all informers j which, though fevere, was popular : but when, through flat¬ tery and bribes, they had wholly drawn over Callidius to their party, they buffered bad men to live in quiet, and turned their rage againfl, the good. Critias and Theramenes were at the head of the thirty, men of the greateft: power and abilities in Athens. The former was ambitious and cruel with¬ out meafure } the latter was fomewhat more merciful: the former pufhed on all the bloody fchemes framed by his confedexatesj and carried into execution many of his own ; the latter always oppofed them, at firft with Attica. moderation, at laft with vehemence. He faid, that ^ “1 power was given them to rule, and not to fpoil, the commonwealth ; that it became them to aft like Ihep- herds, not like wolves ; and that they ought to be¬ ware of rendering themfelves at once odious and ridi¬ culous, by attempting to domineer over all, being fuch a handful of men as they were. The reft, difiiking much the former part of his difcourfe, catched hold of the lat¬ ter, and immediately , chofe out 3000, whom they made the reprefentatives of the people, and to whom they granted this notable privilege, that none of them ffiould be put to death but by judgment of the fenate, thereby openly affuming a power of putting any other of the Athenian citizens to death by their own authority. A glorious ufe they made of this new affumed privilege ; for as many as they conjeftured to be no friends to the government in general, or to any of themfelves in par¬ ticular, they put to death, without caufe, and without mercy. Theramenes openly oppofing this, and abfo- lutely refufing to concur in fuch meafures, Critias ac- cufed him to the fenate as a man of unfteady princi¬ ples, fometimes for the people, fometimes againft them, always for new things and ftate-revolutions. Thera¬ menes owned, that he had fometimes changed his mea¬ fures, but alleged that he had always done it to ferve the people. He faid that it was folely with this view he made the peace with Sparta, and accepted the office of one of the thirty : that he had never oppofed their meafures while they cut off the wicked ; but when they began to deftroy men of fortune and family, then he owmed he had differed with them, w-hich he conceived to be no crime againft the ftate. ^3 While Theramenes was fpeaking, Critias withdrew7, Thera- perceiving that the fenate were thoroughly convinced ofmenes put the truth of what Theramenes had faid : but he quickly t0 death, returned with a guard, crying out, that he had ftruck Theramenes’s name out of the lift of the 3000; that the fenate had, therefore, no longer cognizance of the caufe, when the thirty had already judged and con¬ demned him to death. Theramenes perceiving that they intended to feize him, fled to the altar, which w7as in the midft of the fenate-houfe, and laying his hands thereon, faid, “ I do not feek refuge here be- caufe I expeft to efcape death, or defire it ; but that, tearing me from the altar, the impious authors of my murder may intereft the gods in bringing them to fpeedy judgment, and thereby reftore freedom to my country.” The guards then dragged him from the altar, and car¬ ried him to the place of execution, where he drank the poifon with undaunted courage, putting the people in mind with his laft breath, that as they had ftruck his name out of the 3000, they might alfo ftrike out any of theirs. His death was followed by a train of mur¬ ders, fo that, in a ffiort time, 60 of the wmrthieft and moft eminent citizens of Athens fell by the cruelty of the thirty. Among thefe, the moft pitied was Ni- ceratus the fon of Nicias •, a man univerfally beloved for his goodnefs, and univerfally admired for his vir¬ tues. As for the Spartans, they, lofing their former generofity, were extremely pleafed with thefe things, and, by a public decree, commanded that fuch as fled from the thirty tyrants fhould be carried back bound to Athens: which extraordinary proceeding frightened all Greece) but the Argives and Thebans only had courage ATT t 245 1 ATT Attica, courage to oppofe it : the former received the Athe¬ nian exiles with humanity and kindnefs ; the latter pu- niihed with a mulft fitch of their citizens as did not rife and refcue the Athenian prifoners, who in purfu- ance of the Lacedemonian decree were carried bound through their territories. Thrafybulus, and fuch as with him had taken fhelter in the Theban territory, refolved to hazard every thing, rather than remain perpetual exiles from their country 5 ?nd though he had but 30 men on whom he could de¬ pend, yet confidering the victories he had heretofore ob¬ tained in the caufe of his country, he made an irruption into Attica, where he feized Phyla, a caftle at a very fmall diftance from Athens, where in a very fhort fpace his forces were augmented to 700 men ; and though the tyrants made ufe of the Spartan garrifon in their endeavours to reduce him and his party, yet Thrafybu¬ lus prevailed in various fkirmifhes, and at lail; obliged them to break up the blockade of Phyla, which they had formed. The thirty and their party conceiving it very advantageous for them to have the poffeffion of Eleufina, marched thither, and having perfuaded the people to go unarmed out of their city, that they might number them, took this opportunity moil inhu¬ manly to murder them. The forces of Thrafybulus in- creafing daily, he at length poffeffed himfelf of the Pi¬ raeus, which he fortified in the bell manner he could ; but the tyrants being determined to drive him from thence, came down againft him with the utmofl force they could raife. Thrafybulus defended himfelf with great obftinacy 5 and in the end they were forced to ji ^ retreat, having loft before the place not only a great Critias kill-number of their men, but Critias the prefident of the el- thirty, another of the fame body, and one who had been a captain of the Piraeus. When they came to demand the dead from Thrafy¬ bulus, in order for their interment, he caufed a crier he had with him to make a (hort fpeech in a very loud voice to the people, entreating them to confider, that as they were citizens of Athens without, fo thofe againft whom they fought, and thofe who fought to preferve themfelves within the fort, were Athenian citizens alfo 5 wherefore, inftead of thinking how to ruin and deftroy their brethren, they ought rather to confult how all differences might be compofed, and efpecially ought to rid themfelves of thofe bloody tyrants, who, in the ihort time they had had the adminiftration in their hands, had deftroyed more than had fallen in the Pelo- ponnefian war. The people, though moved by thefe dif- \I7I courfes, differed among themfelves •, the confequence of Theltyrants which was, that they expelled the thirty, and chofe ten expelled, men out of each tribe to govern in their ftead, w here¬ upon the tyrants retired to Eleufina. The citizens, however, though they changed the government, made no agreement with thofe in the Piraeus j but fent away deputies to Sparta, as did alfo the tyrants from Eleu¬ fina, complaining, that the Athenians had revolted, and defiring their afiiftance to reduce them. The Spar- Attempt tans ^ent thereupon a large fum of money to encourage of the Spar-their confederates, and appointed Lvfander commander tans to re- in chief, and his brother to be admiral 5 refolving to duceAthens fencJ fea and land forces to reduce Athens a fecond time n t”lie ’ ^tending, as moft of the Greek ftates fufpefted, to add it now to their own dominions. It is very pro¬ 169 Thratybu- lus feizes Phyla. bable that this defign of theirs wmuld have taken ef- Attica, fee!, if Paulanias king of Sparta, envying Lyfander, ' had not refolved to obftrud! it. With this view, he procured another army to be raifed againft the Athe¬ nians, of wdiich himfelf had the command, and with which he marched immediately to befiege the Piraeus. While he lay before the place, and pretended to attack it, he entered into a private correfpondence with Thra¬ fybulus, informing him what propofitions he fhould make in order to force the Lacedemonians, who were fufpedled by their allies, to grant them peace. The intrigues of Paufanias had all the fuccefs heHowfru- could wifh. The Ephori who w’ere with him in the camp floated, concurred in his meafures, fo that in a Ihort fpace a treaty was concluded on the following terms: That all the citizens of Athens ftiould be reftored to their houfes and privileges, excepting the. thirty, the ten which had fucceeded them and who had adled no lefs tyrannically than they, and the eleven who during the time of the oligarchy had been conftituted governors or keepers of the Piraeus; that all ftiould remain quiet for the fu¬ ture in the city; and that if any wrere afraid to truft to- this agreement, they fhould have free leave to retire to Eleufina. Paufanias then marched awray with the Spar¬ tan army, and Thrafybulus at the head of his forces marched into Athens, where having laid down their arms, they facrificed with the reft of the citizens in the temple of Minerva, after which the popular govern¬ ment was reftored. Yet quiet was not thoroughly efta- blilhed. The exiles at Eleufina having endeavoured by the help of money to raife an army of foreigners, by whofe aid they might recover the authority they had loft : but firft depending on their friends in the city, they fent fome of the principal perfons amonglt them as deputies, to treat with the citizens j but ftridlly inftrudled them to fow jealoufies and excite dilcords among them. This the latter quickly perceiving, put thefe perfons to death ; and then remonftrating to thofe at Eleufina, that thefe contentions would undoubtedly end either in their orvn or the deftrudlion of their coun¬ try, they offered immediately to pafs an ad! of oblivion, wrhich they wmuld confirm with an oath. This being accepted, thofe who had withdrawn re¬ turned to the city, where all differences were adjufted, and both parties moft religioufly obferved the agree¬ ment they had made, and thereby thoroughly refettled J the ftate. In this whole tranfadlion, the virtue of Thra-Virtiufof fybulus deferves chiefly to be admired. When he firftTbrafy- feized the caftle of Phyla, the tyrants privately offered to receive him into their number inftead of Theramenes, and to pardon at his requeft any 1 2 perfons he ftiould name : but he generoufly anfwered, That his exile was far more honourable than any authority could be, pur- chafed on fuch terms 5 and by perfifting in his defign, accompliftied, as we have feen, the deliverance of his country. A glorious deliverance it was; fince, as Ifo- crates informs us, they had put 1400 citizens to death contrary to and without any form of law, and driven 5000 more into baniftiment ; procuring alfo the death of Alcibiades, as many think, though at a great diftance from them. From this time to the reign of Philip of Macedon, the Athenians continued in a pretty profperous fituation,, though they never performed any fuch great exploits Attica. * 'Travels into Greece, p. 2$, &C. . 175 Hiftory of Athens from the time of Alexander the Great to the pre- fent. 176 Athens be- fieged and taken by “Sylla. ATT [ 24C as formerly. By that monarch and his fon Alexander all Greece was in effect fubdued, and the hiftory of all the Grecian ftates from that time becomes much lefs interefting. Of the hiftory of Athens from that time to the preient, the following elegant abridgment is gi¬ ven by Dr Chandler*. “ On the death of Alexander, the Athenians revolted, but were defeated by Antipa¬ ter, who garrifoned Munychia. They rebelled again, but the garrifon and oligarchy wTere reinftated. De¬ metrius the Phalerean, who was made governor, beau¬ tified the city, and they erected to him 360 ftatues •, which on his expulfton they demoliftied, except one in the Acropolis. Demetrius Poliocertes withdrew the garrifon, and reftored the democracy $ wdien they deified him, and lodged him in the Opifthodomos or the back part of the Parthenon, as a gueft to be entertained by their goddefs Minerva. Afterwards they decreed, that the Pineus, with Munychia, fhould be at his difpofal j and he took the Mufeum. They expelled his garrifon, and he was perfuaded by Craterus a philofopher to leave them free. Antigonus Gonatas, the next king, maintained a garrifon in Athens: but on the death of his fon' Demetrius, the people, with the afliftance of Aratus, regained their liberty ; and the Piraeus, Mu¬ nychia, Salamis, and Sunium, on paying a fum of mo¬ ney. “ Philip, fon of Demetrius, encamping near the city, deftroying and burning the fepulchres and temples in the villages, and laying their territory wafte, the Athe¬ nians were reduced to folicit proteftion from the Ro¬ mans, and to receive a garrifon, which remained until the war with Mithridates king of Pontus, when the tyrant Ariftion made them revolt. “ Archelaus the Athenian general, unable to with- ftand the Roman fury, relinquifhed the /ong walls, and retreated into the Piraeus and Munychia. Sylla laid fiege to the Piraeus and to the city, in w7hich Ariftion commanded. He wras informed that fome perfons had been overheard taking in the Ceramicus, and blaming Ariftion for his negledl of the avenues about the Hep- tachalcos, where the wall was acceflible. Sylla refolved to ftorm there, and about midnight entered the town at the gate called Dypylon or the Pirwan ; having levelled all obftacles in the way between it and the gate of the Piraeus. Ariftion fled to the Acropolis, but was com¬ pelled to furrender by the want of water; when he was dragged from the temple of Minerva,, and put to death. Sylla burned the Piraeus and Munychia, and defaced the city and fuburbs, not fparing even the fepulchres. “ The civil war between Caefar and Pompey foon fol¬ lowed, and their natural love of libeity made them flde with Pompey. Here again they were unfortu¬ nate, for Caefar conquered. But Caefar did not treat them like Sylla. With that clemency which made fo amiable part of his character, he difmified them by a fine allufioh to their illuftrious anceftors, faying, that he fpared the living for the fake of the dead. “ Another ftorm followed foon after this yihe wars of Brutus and Caflius with Auguftus and Antony. Their partiality for liberty did not here forfake them : they took part in the conteft with the two patriot Romans, and eredfted their ftatues near their owm ancient deli¬ verers Harmodius and Ariftogiton, who had flain Hip¬ parchus. But they were ftill unhappy, for their ene¬ mies triumphed. I Attica. 1 ATT “ I hey next joined Antony, who gave them Angina and Cea, with other iflands. Auguftus was unkind fo' them ; and they revolted four years before he died. Under Tiberius the city was declining, but free, and regarded as an ally of the Romans. The high privi- ledge of having a liftor to precede the magiftrates was conferred on it by Germanicus; but he was cenfured as treating with too much condefcenfion a mixture of nations, inftead of genuine Athenians, which race was then confidered as extimft. “ The emperor Vefpafian reduced Achaia to a pro¬ vince paying tribute and governed by a proconful. Nerva was more propitious to the Athenians 5 and Pliny, under Trajan his fucceffor, exhorts Maximus to be mindful w'hither he was lent, to rule genuine Greece, a ftate Compofed of free cities; ‘ You wall revere the gods and heroes their founders. You will refpe£t their priftine glory, and even their age. You will honour them fpr the famous deeds, wrhich are truly, nay for thofe w7hich are fabuloufiy, recorded of them. Remem¬ ber, it is Athens you approach.’ This city was now entirely dependent on Rome, and wras reduced to fell Delos and the iflands in its poffefllon. * “ Hadrian, who was at once emperor and an archon of Athens, gave the city laws, compiled from Draco, Solon, and the codes of other legiflators; and difplay- ed his affeftion for it by unbounded liberality. Athens reflourifhed, and its beauty w7as renewed. Antoninus Pius who fucceeded, and Antoninus the philofopher, were both benefadlors. “ The barjprians of the north, in the reign of Vale¬ rian, befieging Theflalonica, all Greece was terri¬ fied, and the Athenians reftored their city-wall, which had been difmantled by Sylla, and afterwards ne- gle£led. u Under the next emperor, w7ho was the archon Gallienus, Athens was befieged, the archontic office ceafed ; and the ftrategtis or general, who had before afted as overfeer of the agora or market, then became the fupreme magiftrate. Under Claudius his fucceffor, the city wras taken, but foon recovered. “ It is related, that Conftantine, when emperor, gloried in the title of general of Athens ; and rejoiced exceedingly on obtaining from the people the honour of a ftatuewith an infcription, which he acknowledged by a yearly gratuity of many bufhels of grain. He conferred on the governor of Attica and Athens the title oi grand duke, ptyxs That office was at firft: annual, but afterwards hereditary. His fon Conftans beftowed feveral iflands on the city, to fupply it with corn. “ In the time of Thecdofius I. 380 years after Chrift, the Goths laid wafte Theffaly and Epirus $ but Theodore, general of the Acheeans, by his prudent condu£l preferved the cities of Greece from pillage, and the inhabitants from being led into captivity. A ftatue of marble was erefted to hirn at Athens by order of the city 5 and afterwards one of brafs, by command of the emperor, as appears from an infcription in a church de¬ dicated to a faint of the fame name, not far from the French convent. It is on a round pedeftal, which fup- ports a flat ftone ferving for the holy table. Eudocia the wife of Theodofius II. was an Athenian. “ The fatal period now approached, and Athens Aiar;c was about to experience a conqueror more favage even the Goth. than ATT [ h; ] ATT than Sylla. This was Alaric king of the Goths; who, under the emperors Arcadius and Honorius, overran Greece and Italy, facking, pillaging, and deftroying. Then the Peloponnefian towns were overturned, Arca¬ dia and Lacedemon were laid wafte, the two feas by the ifthmus were burnilhed with the flames of Corinth, and the Athenian matrons -were dragged in chains by- barbarians. The invaluable treafures of antiquity, it is related, wTere removed ; the ftately and magnificent ftrufiures converted into piles of ruin ; and Athens was dripped of every thing fplendid or remarkable. Syne- fius, a wniter of that age, compares the city to a viftim, of wdiich the body had been confumed, and the hide only remained. “ After this event, Athens became an unimportant place, and as obfcure as it once had been famous. We read that the cities of Hellas w'ere put into a date of defence by Judinian, who repaired the walls, wdiich at Corinth had been fubverted by an earthquake, and at Athens and in Boeotia wrere impaired by age ; and here w7e take a long farewrel of this city. A chafm of near 700 years enfues in its hidory, except that, about the year 1x30, it furnifhed Roger the fird king of Sicily with a number of artificers, wThom he fettled at Palermo, where they introduced the culture of filk, which then pafied into Italy. The worms had been brought from India to Condantinople in the reign of Judinian. “ Athens, as it were, re-emerges from oblivion in the 13th century, under Baldwin, but befieged by a general of Theodorus Lafcaris, the Greek emperor. It was taken in 1427 by Sultan Morat. Boniface, mar¬ quis of Montferrat, poffefled it with a garrifon ; after whom it was governed by Delves, of the houfe of Ar- ragon. On his death it was feized, with Macedonia, Theffaly, Boeotia, Phocis, and the Peloponnefus, by Bajazet; and then, with the idand Zante, by the Spa¬ niards of Catalonia in the reign of the Greek emperor Andronicus Paloeologus the elder. Thefe were difpof- fefied by Reinerius Acciaioli, a Florentine; who, leaving no legitimate male iffue, bequeathed it to the date of Ve¬ nice. His natural fon, Antony, to whom he had given Thebes with Bceotia, expelled the Venetians. He was fucceeded in the dukedom by his kinfman Nerius, who was difplaced by his own brother named slntony, but recovered the government when he died. Nerius, lea¬ ving only an infant fon, wTas fucceeded by his wufe. She was ejefted by Mahomet on a complaint frpm Francus fon of the fecond Antony, who confined her at Me- gara, and made awray with her ; but her fon accufing him to Mahomet the Second, the Turkifh army under Omar advanced, and he furrendered the citadel in 1455 ; the Latins- refufing to fuccour him unlefs the Athe¬ nians would embrace their religious tenets. Mahomet, it is related, when he had finifhed the war wuth the defpot of the Morea, four years after, furveyed the city and Acropolis wTith admiration. The janizariesinformed him of a confpiracy; and Francus Acciaioli, wdio re¬ mained lord of Boeotia, was put to death. In 1464 the Venetians landed at the Piraeus, furprifed the city, and carried off their plunder and captives to Euboea. “ It is remarkable, that after thefe events Athens was again in a manner forgotten. So lately as about the middle of the 16th century, the city w7as commonly be¬ lieved to have been utterly deflroyed, and not to exift, except a few huts of poor filhermen. Crufius, a learned and inquifitive German, procured more authentic in¬ formation from his Greek correfpondents refiding in Turkey, which he publifhed in 1584, to aw'aken curio- fity and to promote farther difcoveries. One of thefe letters is from a native of Nauplia, a town near Argos in the Morea. This writer fays that he had been otten at Athens, and that it ftill contained many things wor¬ thy to be feen, fome of which he enumerates, and then fubjoins ; “ But why do I dwell on this place ? It is as the Ikin of an animal which has been long dead.” It now remains to give fome idea of the charac¬ ter, government, and religion of this once fo famous people. The Athenians, fays Plutarch, are very fubjedl to violent anger ; but they are foon pacified. They are likewife eafily impreffed with humanity and compaffion. That this was their temper, is proved by many hiftori- cal examples. We fhall produce a few. The fentence of death pronounced againff the inhabitants of Mity- lene, and revoked the next day : The condemnation of Socrates, and that of the ten chiefs, each followed by quick repentance and moft pungent grief. The minds of the fame people, adds Plutarch, are not formed for laborious refearches. They feize a fub ■ feft, as it were, by intuition ; they have not patience and phlegm enough to examine it gradually and mi¬ nutely. „ This part of their character may feem fur- prifing and incredible. Artifans, and other people of their rank, are in general flow of comprehenfion. But the Athenians of every degree were endowed with an inconceivable vivacity, penetration, and deli¬ cacy of taile. Even the Athenian foldiers could re¬ peat the fine paffages of the tragedies of Euripides. Thofe artifans and thofe foldiers affifted at public de¬ bates, were bred to political affairs, and were equally acute in apprehenfion and in judgment. We may in¬ fer the underftanding of the hearers of Demofthenes from the genius of his orations, which were laconic and poignant. As their inclination, continues Plutarch, leads them to affiff and fupport people of low condition, they like difcourfe feafoned with pleafantry, and productive of mirth. The Athenians patronize people of low de¬ gree ; becaufe from them their liberty is in no danger, and becaufe fuch patronage tends to fupport a demo- cratical conftitution. They love pleafantry; which turn of mind proves that they are a humane focial people, who have a tafte for raillery and wit, and are not foured with that referve which marks the defpot or the (lave. They take pleafure in hearing themfelves praifed ; but they can likewife patiently bear raillery and cen- fure. We know with what art and fuccefs Ariffo- phanes and Demofthenes applied their praife and their irony to the Athenian people. When the republic enjoyed peace, fays the fame Plutarch in another place, it encouraged the adulation of its orators: but when it had important affairs to difcufs, when the ftate was in danger, it became ferious; and preferred to its eloquent fycophants, the honeft orators who oppofed its follies and its vices; fuch ingenious and bold patriots as a Pericles, a Phocion, and a Demol- thenes. The Athenians, continues Plutarch, often make their governors tremble, and ftiow great humanity to their ATT 248 ] ATT Attica, their enemies. They were very attentive to the infor- ” mation and inftruftion of thofe citizens who were mod; eminent for their policy and eloquence j but they were on their guard againlt the fuperiority of their talents 5 they often checked their boldnefs, and repreffed their exuberant reputation and glory. That this was their temper, we are convinced by the oftracifm: which was eftabliihed to reltrain the ambition of thofe who had great talents and influence, and which fpared neither the greateft nor the bell men. The detellation of ty¬ ranny and of tyrants, which was inherent in the Athe¬ nians, rendered them extremely jealous of their privi¬ leges, made them zealous and a£live in defence of their liberty, whenever they thought it was violated by men in power. As to their enemies, they did not treat them with rigour. They did not abufe victory by a brutal inhu¬ manity to the vanquifhed. The aft of amnefty, which they pafled after the ufurpation of the 30 tyrants, proves that they could eafily forgive injuries. It wras this mildnefs, this humanity of difpofition, which made the Athenians fo attentive to the rules of politenefs and decorum. In their war with Philip, having fei- zed one of his couriers, they read all the letters he bore, except one from Olympias to her hulband, which they fent back unopened. Such was their ve¬ neration of love and conjugal fecrecy ; thofe facred rights, which no emnity, no hoftility, warrants us to violate ! The views of conqueff cherifhed by a fmall republic, were extenlive and aflonifhing but this people, fo great, fo ambitious in their projefts, were, in other refpefts, of a different charafter. In the expences of the table, in drefs, in furniture, in houfes, in fhort, in private life, they were frugal, fimple, modefl, poor ; but fumptuous and magnificent whenever the ho¬ nour of the Hate was concerned. Their conqueffs, their viftories, their riches, their conneftions with the inhabitants of Afia Minor, never reduced them to luxury, to riot, to pomp, to profufion. Xenophon remarks, that a citizen was not diftinguifhed from a Have by his drefs. The wealthieft citizen, the molt renowned general, was not afhamed to go himfelf to market. The tafte of the Athenians, for all the arts and fciences, is well known. When they had delivered themfelves from the tyranny of Pififtratus, and after this had defeated the vail efforts of the Perfians, they may be confidered as at the fummit of their national glory. For more than half a century afterwards they maintained, without controul, the fovereignty of Greece; and that afcendant produced a fecurity, which left their minds at eafe, and gave them leifure to cultivate every thing liberal or elegant. It was then that Peri¬ cles adorned the city with temples, theatres, and other beautiful public buildings. Phidias, the great fculp- tor, was employed as his arehiteft, who, when he had erefted edifices, adorned them himfelf, and added fla- tues and baffo-relievos, the admiration of every be¬ holder. It was then that Polignotus and Myro paint¬ ed; that Sophocles and Euripides wrote; and not long after, that they faw the divine Socrates. Human affairs are, by nature, prone to change ; and ftates, as well as individuals, are born to decay. Jealoufy and ambition infenfibly fomented wars, and 1 fuccefs in thefe wars, as in others, was often various. Attica. The military ftrength of the Athenians was firft im- v— paired by the Lacedemonians; after that it was again humiliated, under Epaminondas, by the Thebans : and laft of all it was wholly crulhed by the Macedonian, Philip. Nor, when their political fovereignty was loft, did their love of literature and the arts fink along with it. Juft at the clofe of their golden days of empire flou- rifhed Xenophon and Plato, the difciples of Socrates, and from Plato defcended that race of philofophers called the 0/d Academy. Ariftotle, who was Plato’s difciple, may be laid not to have invented a new phi- lofophy, but rather to have tempered the fublime and rapturous myfteries of his mafter with method, order', and a ftrifter mode of reafoning. Zeno, who was himfelf alfo educated in the principles of Platonifm, only differed from Plato in the comparative eftimate of things, allowing nothing to be intrinfically good but virtue, nothing intrinfically bad but vice, and con- fidering all other things to be in themfelves indifferent. He too and Ariftotle accurately cultivated logic, but - in different ways; for Ariftotle chiefly dwTelt upon the fimple fyllogifm; Zeno upon that which is derived out of it, the compound or hypothetic. Both too, as well as other philofophers, cultivated rhetoric along w-ith logic ; holding a knowledge in both to be requi- fite for thofe who think of addrefling mankind with all the efficacy of perfuafion. Zeno elegantly illuftra- ted the force of thefe two powers by a fimile taken from the hand : the clofe power of logic he compared to the fift, or hand compreft ; the diffufe power of lo¬ gic, to the palm, or hand open. The new' academy was founded by Arcefilas, and ably maintained by Carneades. From a miftaken imi¬ tation of the great parent of philofophy Socrates (par¬ ticularly as he appears in the dialogues of Plato), be- caufe Socrates doubted fome things, therefore Arce¬ filas and Carneades doubted all.—Epicurus drew from another fource; Democritus had taught him atoms and a void: by the fortuitous concourfe of atoms he fan¬ cied he could form a w^bild ; while by a feigned vene¬ ration he complimented aw'ay his gods, and totally de¬ nied their providential care, left the trouble of it flrould impair their uninterrupted ftate of blifs. Virtue he recommended, though not for the fake of virtue, but pleafure ; pleafure, according to him, being our chief and fovereign good. See Aristotle, Epicurus, Plato, Socrates, &c. We have already mentioned the alliance between philofophy and rhetoric. This cannot be thought wonderful, if rhetoric be the art by which men are per- fuaded, .and if men cannot be perfuaded without a knowledge of human nature : for what but philofophy can procure us this knowledge ? It was for this reafon the ableft Greek philofophers not only taught, but wrote alfo treatifes upon rhetoric. They had a farther induce¬ ment, and that was the mtrinfic beauty of their lan¬ guage as it was then fpoken among the learned and po¬ lite. They wmuld have been alhamed to have deliver¬ ed philofophy, as it has been too often delivered fince, in compofitions as clumfy as the common dialeft of the mere vulgar. The fame love of elegance, which made them at¬ tend to their ftyle, made them attend even to the pla¬ ces A*hca. ATT ces wliere tlieir philofopby was taught, vered his le&ures in a place ftiaded with groves, on the banks of the river Uiffus •, and which, as it once be¬ longed to a perfon called Academus, was called after his name, the Academy. Ariftotle chofe another fpot of a fimilar charadler, where there were trees and fhade j a fpot called the Lyceum. Zeno taught in a portico or colonnade, dillinguilhed from other buildings of that fort (of which the Athenians had many) bv the name of the Variegated Portico, the walls being decorated with various paintings of Polygnotus and Myro, two ca¬ pital mailers of that tranfeendent period. Epicurus addreffed his hearers in tbofe well known gardens, call¬ ed, after his own name, ‘The gardens of Epicurus. Thefe places of public inffitution were called among the Greeks by the name of Gymnajia> in which, what¬ ever that word might have originally meant, were taught all thofe exercifes, and all thofe arts, which tended to cultivate not only the body but the mind. As man w’as a being confining of both, the Greeks could not conlider that education as complete, in which both were not regarded, and both properly formed. Plence their Gymnafia, with reference to this double end, were adorned with two flatues, thofe of Mercury and of Hercules, the corporeal accompliihments being patronized (as they fuppofed) by the god of ftrength, tae mental accomplilhments by the god of ingenuity. It was for the cultivation of every liberal accom- plilhment that Athens was celebrated (as we have laid) during many centuries, long after her political influence was loll and at an end. She was the place of education, not only for Greeks but for Romans. It was hither that Horace wasAent by his father 5 it u^as here that Cicero put his fon Mar¬ cus under Cratippus, one of the ableft philofophers then belonging to that city.—The fedls of philofo¬ phers which we have already deferibed, were ftill ex- ifting wThen St Paul came thither. We cannot enough admire the fuperior eloquence of that apoftle, in his manner of addreffing fo intelligent an audience. We cannot enough admire the fublimity of his exordium ; the propriety of his mentioning an altar which he had found there 5 and his quotation from Aratus, one of their wHl known poets. Nor was Athens only cele¬ brated for the relidence of philofophers, and the infti- tution of youth : men of rank and fortune found plea- fure in a retreat, which contributed fo much to their liberal enjoyment. We ihall finifli this piflure of the Athenians by the addition of one objeft more, to wdiich every one will admit they have a right; an objedl which was promi¬ nent and flriking, in all their aflions and in all their enterprifes : We mean their ardent love of liberty. I his was their predominant quality ; the main fpring of their government. From the beginnin " ' ~ fan wrar, they facrificed every thing to t Greece. They left, without hefitation, their houfes, to fight at fea the common enemy, from whom they were in danger of fervitude. What a glo¬ rious day w?as it for Athens, when all her allies, grow’- ing flexible to the advantageous offers which were made to them by the king of Perfia, (lie replied by Anilides, to the ambaffadors of that monarch,—“ That it was impofhble for all the gold in the world to tempt the re¬ public of Athens: to prevail with her to fell her liber- Vol. III. Parti. [ 249 ] ATT Plato deli- ty, and that of Greece.” It was by thefe genetotrs Attic*, fentiments that the Athenians not only became the bulwark of Greece, but likevufe guarded the reif of Europe from a Perfian invafion. Thefe great qualities were blended with great fail¬ ings, feemingly incompatible with patriotifm. For the Athenians, notwithftanding their tenacious jealoufy of the rights of their country, were a volatile, inconftant, capricious people. lSo There never was a people more attentive to the wor- Religion, fhip of the gods than the Athenians. The worfhip of their principal deities was diffufed over all Greece, and even beyond its limits. Each temple had its particular religious rites: the pomp, the ceremonies, the duration, and the fuccef- fion of the folemn feafts were all appointed by fixed rules. The worfhip paid to each divinity, whether public or private, was founded on traditions, or on laws conllantly obeyed. The feait of Bacchus, the Pana- thentea, the feaft of the myfteries of Eleufis, were ce¬ lebrated according to eftablilhed rules, moft of which were as ancient as the feafts themfelves. The old cu- ftoms, of which the priefts were the guardians, were oblerved in the temples. It is probable that the priefts were confulted on affairs in which the worftiip of a deity was interefted, and that their anfwer was decifive. We are certain that the Eumolpidm had this authority. They were the interpreters of the ancient laws on which the worfhip of Ceres was founded, its magnificence, and its mode—laws which were not written, as Lyfias informs us, but were perpetuated by a conftant obferva- tion. The abufes which had gradually crept into the celebration of thofe feafts, had given rife to feveral new regulations; to that of the orator Lycurgus, for ex¬ ample, and to the law of Solon, which enjoined the fenate to repair to Eleufis on the fecond day of the feaft : but neither thefe, nor the other particular regu¬ lations which we find in Samuel Petit’s colle&ion of Attic laws, could make a religious code. There was no general fyftem which comprehended all the branches of their religion, which, by combining all its articles, might regulate their belief and conduft, and dired the judges in their decifions. rg Crimes againft religion were only punifhed as they Crimes a. affeded the ftate ; and confequently they were tried by gainft reli— the magiftrate. Mere raillery, though fomewhat pro-Sion^hy fane, was thought produdive of no worfe confequence SlSSf3 than offending the minifters of the gods. The Athe- with feve. nians acknowledged no other religion than the heredi- rhy* tary public worlhip 5 no other gods than thofe they had received from their anceftorsj no other ceremonies than thofe which had been eftablifhed by the laws of the ftate, and pradifed by their country from time im¬ memorial. They were only felicitous to preferve this worfhip, which was clofely interwoven with their go¬ vernment, and made a part of its policy. They were likewiie attentive to the ceremonial pomp; becaufe or¬ der, the regular vigour of legillation, depends greatly on the awe imprelfed by externals. But as to the in- confiftent and monftrous romance of fable, foreign opi¬ nions, popular traditions, and poetical fidions, which formed a religion quite different from that of the ftate —in it they were very little interefted, and allowed every one to think of it as he pleafed. 1 his explanation will reconcile a feeming contradic- I i tioa y of the Per- he liberty of their cities, ATT [ 250 ] ATT Attica. 182 Priefts, their duty. 183 Sacred re¬ venues, See tion in tlie conduft of the Athenians, who gave great licenfe to their poets, and feverely puniftied the ci¬ tizens who were guilty of impiety. Ariftophanes, who made as free with the gods as with the great, was applauded by the Athenians. They condemned So¬ crates to death, who revered the Deity, but difapproved the public manner of worlhipping him. The life of JEfchylus was in danger from a lufpicion that he had revealed fome of the fecrets of Eleufis in one of his pieces. The wit of Ariftophanes’s drama was unpu- niihed. The priefts were not confined to the care of the al¬ tars 5 they who were veiled with the facerdotal digni¬ ty, which was only incompatible with profeflxons mere¬ ly ufeful and lucrative, might likewife hold the moll important offices of the commomvealth. This we could prove by a great number of examples •, we lhall cite that of Xenophon the illullrious hillorian and philofo- pher : he was likewife a famous general, and he was a prielt. He was performing the facerdotal funftion ■when he received the news of his fon’s death, who was killed at the battle of Mantinea. The facred minillry was not only compatible with civil offices, but likewife with the proleffion of arms. The prielt and the foldier were often blended. Cal- lias, the prielt of Ceres, fought at Platsea. This cu- itom was not peculiar to the Athenians. The La¬ cedemonians, after the battle which we have juft men¬ tioned, made three graves for their flain ; one for the priefts, one for the other Spartans, and one for the Helots. As the ordinary bufinefs of life was incompatible with the facerdotal dignity, the priefts had a revenue fixed to their office. We know that a part of the victims %vas their right, and that apartments w^ere affigned them near the temples. But, befide thefe advantages, they had a falary proportioned to the dignity of their functions and to the rank of the deities whom they ferved. T heir falary was probably paid from the re¬ venue of the temples. Thofe revenues, which kept the temples in repair, and defrayed the facrificial expences, were very confiderable. They were of many different kinds. A great part of the facred revenues arofe from fines, which individuals were condemned to pay for various offences 5 fines, of which the tenth part was appro¬ priated to Minerva Polias, and the fiftieth to the other gods, and to the heroes whofe names their tribes bore. Befides, if the Prytanes did not hold the affemblies conformably with the laws, they w'ere obliged to pay a fine of 1000 drachms to the goddefs. If the Proe- dri, i. e. the fenators whofe office it was to lay before the affembly the matters on which they were to delibe¬ rate, did not difeharge that duty according to the rules preferibed to them, they were likewife condemned to pay a fine, which, as the former, was applied to the ufe of Minerva. By thefe fines her temple mult have been greatly enriched. Befides this revenue, which was the common pro¬ perty of the gods, and which varied according to the number and degrees of the mifdemeanours, the temples had their permanent revenues : We mean the produce of the lands which were confecrated to the deities. We do not here allude to the lands confecrated to the gods, which were never to be cultivated 5 fuch as the territory of Cirrha, proferibed by a folemn decree of Attica, the Amphi&yons ; the land betwixt Megara and At- " tica, which was confecrated to the goddeffes of Eleu¬ fis, and many others. We wrould fpeak only of thofe which were cultivated, the fruits of which enriched the temples. There were likewife lands belonging to the ftate, the produce of which was deftined to defray the expence of the facrifices which were offered in the name of the re¬ public. There were likewife firft-fruits which the pu¬ blic officers levied on all lands, for the ufe of the gods. All thefe emoluments made a part of the revenue of the temples. The gods, befides the revenues immediately apper¬ taining to their temples, had certain rights which w7ere granted them by particular compaft. The Lepreataer for inftance, were obliged to pay every year a talent to Olympian Jupiter, on account of a treaty of alliance which they made wdth the Eleans in one of their w-ars. The inhabitants of Epidaurus, to obtain leave from the Athenians to cut down olive-trees for ftatues, which the Pythian prieftefs had commanded them to make, engaged to fend deputies every year to Athens, to offer facrifices in their name to Minerva and to Nep¬ tune. But this prerogative was rather honorary than lucrative. The tenth part of the fpoils taken in war was like¬ wife. the property of Minerva. Sacred veffels wrere bought with the effefts of the 30 tyrants. In fliort, the gods were profited by almoft every public accident. But wffiat contributed moft to enrich the famous tem¬ ples of Greece, was the money which was conftantly brought to them by individuals, in confequence of vow’s they had made, or to pay for facrifices which were offered in their names. The credulity of the people was an inexhauftible fund. That credulity en¬ riched the temples of Delos and Eleufis, and fupported the magnificence of Delphi. And thofe immenfe trea- fures which w’ere the fruit of fuperftition, were often a prey to avarice. Thefe revenues were not depofited with the priefts j nor did they expend them. A moderate falary w’as all their gain ; and to offer facrifices to the deities whofe minifters they were, was all their employment. It is very probable that all the facred revenues w^ere paid into the hands of officers wffio were appointed to receive them, and who were to give an account of the difeharge of their truft. Nay, w^e cannot doubt of this, after reading a paffage in Ariftotle, who, fpeak- ing of the officers of the temples, exprefsly mentions thofe who are intrufted with the money appertaining to the gods. Citizens, without doubt, of approved inte¬ grity, were chofen to this office j and their duty muft have been, to keep the temples in repair and order, and to difburfe and keep an account of the ordinary facred expences. As to the folemn feafts, which were incredibly mag¬ nificent, fuch as the feaft of Bacchus, and the Pana- thenfea, they were celebrated at the expence of the choregus; i. e. of the chief of the choir of each tribe j for each tribe had its poet and its muficians, who fung, emulating each other, hymns in honour of the deity. The richeft citizens were appointed chiefs of the dif¬ ferent choirs ; and as their office was very expenfive, to indemnify them in fame degree, the choregus of the ATT [ ] ATT Attica, the vl&orious tribe had the privilege of engraving his —v~J name on the tripod which that tribe fufpended to the roof of the temple. This office, though ruinous, was eagerly folicited; and naturally, in a republican date. It led to honours, like the curule dignity at Romej and it greatly tended to ingratiate its poffelTor with a people who were more affe&ed with pleafures than with effential fervices, and who, confequently, would more highly elteem a profufe choregus than a victo¬ rious general. With regard to the fines, which were in the whole, or in part, the property of Minerva and of the other deities, there were at Athens public treafurers ap¬ pointed to receive them. They were ten in number, and they were nominated by lot. They were called ''Treafurers of the goddefs, or Receivers of the [acred money. That money they received in the prefence of the fenatej and they were empowered to diminilh or to annihilate the fine, if they thought it unjuft. The ftatue of Minerva, that of the Victories, and the other invaluable pledges of the duration of the ftate, were de- pofited with them. The treafury in which the money confecrated to the gods was kept, was in the citadel, behind the temple of Minerva Polias j and from its fituation it was term¬ ed Opiftodomus. It was furrounded with a double wall. It-had but one door, the key of which was kept by the Epiftates, or chief of the Prytanes : his dignity was very confiderable j but it lafted only one day. In this treafury a regifter was kept, in which were written the names of all thofe who were indebted to the ftate j he who owed the fmalleft fine was not omitted. If the debtors proved infolvent, they were profecuted with ex¬ treme rigour, and often punilhed with a cruelty which religion could not excufe •, though the intereft of the gods was the motive, or rather the pretext. The fa- cred treafurers held a confiderable rank among the ma- giftrates who received the public finances. Of thefe magiftrates there were many kinds, as there were many forts of revenues. The Athenian priefts did not compofe an order di- ftinCt and feparate from the other orders of the ftate. They did not form a body united by particular lawTs, under a chief whofe authority extended to all his infe¬ riors. The dignity of fovereign pontiff was unknown at Athens 5 and each of the priefts ferved his particular temple, unconnected with his brethren. The temples, indeed, of the principal deities 5 thofe of Minerva, for inftance, of Neptune, of Ceres, and of Proferpine, had many minifters ; and in each of them a chief prefided, who had the title of High Rmej}. The number of fub- altern minifters was in proportion to the rank of the deity; but the priefts of one temple were altogether a feparate fociety from thofe of another. Thus at A- thens there was a great number of high-priefts, be- caufe many deities were worftiipped there, whofe fer- vice required many minifters. The power of each prieft was coniined to his temple ; and thei'e was no fo¬ vereign pontiff, the minifter general of the gods, and the prefident at all the fearts. It naturally follows from this account, that the mi- niiters ot the gods at Athens were •not judges in matters of religion. They were neither authorized to take cognizance of crimes committed againft the deity, nor to puniffi them. Their fundion was to offer faorifices to the gods, and to entreat their acceptance of the adorations of the people. But the punilhment of Attica, impiety, of facrilege, of the profanation of myfteries, and of other irreligious crimes, was not entrufted to their zeal. The priefts were not only incapable of avenging crimes againft; religion by a temporal procefs j they even could not, without an exprefs order either from the fenate or the people, exercife their right of de¬ voting criminals to the infernal gods. It was in con- fequence of a civil fentence pronounced againft Alci- biades, that the Eumolpidae launched their anathema againft him. It was in virtue of another decree that they revoked their imprecations, when his countrymen wanted nis fervice, and therefore reftored him to their favour. Religious caufes, according to M. de Bougainville, fell under the jurifdiftion of the Heliaftse. The government, though often altered, continued pretty much on the plan eftabliftied by Solon. The people of Athens w’ere freemen, fojourners, or 1S4 flaves. The citizens, called in Greek Politai, were ve- PeoP^e. ry numerous $ but what may feem ftrange, were as ma-^!^,"^'* ny in the time of Cecrops as in the moft fl®urifhing tr^es ftate of the commonwealth, hardly ever exceeding 20,000. It was Solon who decreed that none fliould be accounted free but fuch as were Athenians both by fa¬ ther and mother. After his time it fell into defuetude, till revived by Pericles } and was again at his inftance repealed. After the expulfion of the 30 tyrants, Solon’s law was reftored. A perfon born of a ftranger wras ftyled Nothos, a baftard j whereas the fon of a free w’o- man was called Cnefos, i. e. legitimate. There was in Cynofarges a court of judicature, to which caufes of il¬ legitimacy properly belonged ; and the utmoft care was taken to prevent any from being enrolled Athe¬ nian citizens, who had not a clear title thereto. The citizens were divided by Cecrops into four tribes : the firft called Cecropes, from Cecrops; the fecond, Au¬ tochthon, from a king of that name 5 the third, Adiai, from A&eus, another king of Athens, or rather from Acle, which fignifies a fhore; the fourth, Puralia: thefe names were altered by Cranaus, and again by Eridlhonius. In the reign of Eriftheus, they were again changed $ the foldiers w7ere called Ob/itai, the craftfmen Ergatai, the farmers Georgoi, the graziers and fhepherds Aigicorai: in this ftate they were when Solon fettled the commonwealth, and appointed the fe¬ nate to be compofed of 400, 100 out of each tribe. Clyfthenes increafed the number of the tribes to ten ; and made the fenate confift of 500, taking 50 out of each tribe. In fucceeding times, two other tribes were added. Each tribe wras fubdivided into its Demoi or wards $ and wuth refpeft to thefe it was that Solon infti- tuted the public feafts before-mentioned, at which fome- times the wdiole tribe affembled, fometimes feveral wards, and fometimes only the inhabitants of one wTard. The fecond fort of inhabitants we mentioned were called Mctoicoi, i. e. fojourners; thefe were perfons who lived always at Athens, yet were not admitted free denizens: as for fuch as did not conftantly refide in Athens, they were ftyled Xenoi; i. c. f rangers. The fojourners were obliged to choofe out of the citi¬ zens protestors, who were ftyled Patrons ; they paid lervices to the ftate, and befides thefe an annual tribute of 12 drachms for every man, and fix for every wro- man j but fuch as had fons, and paid for them, were I i 2 exempted. ATT [2 Attica, exempted. If people fell to poverty, and were not v able to pay the tribute, they were feized by the tax- mafters, and actually fold for Haves j which, as Dio¬ genes Laertius tells us, was the fate of Xenocrates the philofopher. The fojourners in Attica were under the lame law as thofe in Athens. As to fervants, they were freemen, wrho through indigency w-ere driven to receive wages, and while they wrere in this Hate had no vote in the aiTembly. As to Haves, they were abfo- lutely the property of their mailers, and as fuch were ufed as they thought fit: They wrere forbidden to wear clothes, or to cut their hair like their mailers j and, which is indeed amazing, Solon prohibited them to love boys, as if that had been honourable : They were likewife debarred from anointing or perfuming them- felves, and from worHiipping certain deities: They were not allo'.ved to be called by honourable names j and in mod other refpe61s were ufed like dogs. Thev lligmatized them at their pleafure, that is, branded them with letters in the forehead and elfewhere. How¬ ever, Thefeus’s temple wTas allow’ed them as a fanfluary, whither, if they W’ere exceedingly ill ufed, they might and thereby oblige their owners to let them be transferred to another mailer. In this and many other refpefls the Athenian Haves were in a much better con¬ dition than thofe throughout the reft of Greece : they were permitted to get eftates for themfelves, giving a fmall premium to their mailers, wdio were obliged to make them free if they could pay their ranfom •, thev likewife obtained the fame favour from the kindnefs of their mailers, or for having rendered military fervices to the Hates. When they wrere made free, they were obliged to choofe patrons ; and had likewife the privi¬ lege of choofing a curator, wdio, in cafe their patrons t?5 injured them, was bound to defend them. General af- The general aftembly of the people, wdiich Solon lembiy o, matje dernier refort, wras called the Ecc/ejia ; and . .e peop e. con£^etj 0p freemen of Athens, excepting fuch as were atimoi or infamous. The meetings of thefe af- femblies were either ordinary or extraordinary. The ordinary were fuch as were appointed by lawr, the ex¬ traordinary fuch as neceftity required. Of the firft there wrere four in 3 9 days. In the firft afiembly they approved or rejected magiftrates, heard propofals for the public good, and certain caufes. In the fecond they received petitions, and heard every man’s judge¬ ment on the matters that wTere before them. In tbu third they gave audience to foreign ambafladors. The fourth was employed altogether in affairs relating to the gods and their worlhip. The extraordinary meet¬ ings were appointed by the magiftrates when occafion required, whereas to the ordinary affemblies the peo¬ ple came of their owm accord. The firft were held ei¬ ther in the market-place, in the Pnyx a place near the citadel, or in the theatre of Bacchus: as to the latter, the magiftrates wdio appointed the extraordinary meet¬ ing appointed alfo the place where it fliould be held. If any ludden tempell rofe, or any earthquake hap¬ pened, or any fign notorioully inaufpicious appeared, the aflembly was immediately adjourned, to prevent the people from apprehending unhappy confequences from their deliberations. But if the wTeather was fair and ferene, and nothing happened out of the ordinary courfe of things, they proceeded to purify the place where the affembly was held, which was done by fprinklbg 52 ] ATT it round with the blood of young pigs j then the crier Attica, made a folemn prayer for the prol’perity of the republic,-v— and that heaven would bellow a happy iflue on their counfels and undertakings: he then pronounced a bit¬ ter execration againft any who Ihould in that affembly propound what might be difadvantageous to the Hate. Thefe ceremonies being over, they proceeded to buft- nefs. Ig(f There were feveral magiftrates who had the overfee-Method of ing and regulating thefe affemblies. Thefe were firft, giving theit the Epiftate, or prefident of the affembly, who vvas 0l,‘n‘0ns* chofen by lot out of the Proedri : his office was to give the fignal for the people’s voting. Next to him were the Prytanes, i. e. a committee of the fenate, who of courfe were prefent on this occafion : by their order a ptogramma, or fcheme of the bufinefs to be propofed at the affembly, was previouHy fet up in feme public place, that every man might know what bufinefs to apply his thoughts to. The Proedri were nine in num¬ ber, appointed by lots out of all the tribes to which the Prytanes did not belong : they had the right of pro- pofmg to the people w hat they were to deliberate upon, and their office ended with the affembly ; there fat with them affeffors, who were to take care that no¬ thing they propoled was detrimental to the common¬ wealth. The firll Hep to bufinefs wras the crier’s read¬ ing the decree of the lenate whereon the affembly was to deliberate j when he had finiflied this, he made pro¬ clamation in thefe words : IVho of the men above 50 will make an oration? When the old men had done fpeaking, the crier made proclamation again that any Athenian might then offer his fentiments, whom the law allowed fo to do ; that is, all fuch as were above 30 years old, and were not infamous. If fuch a one rofe up to fpeak, the Prytanes interpofed, and bid him be filent; and if he did not obey them, the liffiors pull¬ ed him down by furce. When the debates were over, the prefident permitted the people to vote 5 which they did by calling firft beans, but in after times pebbles, into certain veffels: thefe were counted, and then it was declared that the decree of the fenate was either reje&ed or approved : after which, the Prytanes dif- miffed the affembly. - The fenate was inftituted by Solon to prevent thexhe ienate* dangerous confequences of leaving the fupreme power in the people. At the time of his inftitution, it was to confill of 400, 100 out of each tribe \ it was increafed to 500, when the tribes were augmented to 10 ; and when they came to 12, it was alfo fwelled to 600. They were eleffied by lots after this manner : At a day appointed, towards the clofe of the year, the prefident of each tribe gave in a lift of fuch perfons belonging thereto, as were fit for and defired to appear for this dignity : thefe names were engraven on tables of brafs, and a number of beans equal to the number of the amount of them, among which were 100 white ones, put into a veffel ; and then the names ol the candidates and the beans were drawn one by one, and fuch as were drawn by the white beans were received into the fenate. After the fenate was defied, they proceeded to appoint the officers who were to prefide in the ie- nate : thefe were the Prytanes before-mentioned ; and they were defied thus: The names of the ten tribes were thrown into one veffd, and nine black beans and a white one into another veffd. Then the names of the tribes. ATT [2 Attica, tribes were drawn with the beans. The tribe to which < —the white bean anfwered, prefided firft j and the reft rgg according to the order in which they were drawn. Prytanes. The Prytanes, while the fenate confifted of 500, were 50 in number. For the farther avoiding of con- fulion, therefore, 10 of thefe prelided a week, during which fpace they were called Proedri; and out of thefe an Epiftate or prefident w7as chofen, w'hofe office lafted but one day, and by law no man could hold it more than once : the reafon of this w7as, that he had in his cuftody the public feal, the keys of the citadel, and the charge of the exchequer. The reader muft di- ftinguilh between the Epiftates and Proedri laft men¬ tioned, and thofe fpoken of in the former paragraph, becaufe, though their titles were the fame, their offices were perfectly diftindl. The fenate aflembled by di¬ rection of the Prytanes once every day, excepting fe- ftivals, and fometimes oftener in the fenate-houfe, which 189 was thence called Prytaneum. Laws how When a member of the fenate made a motion for a ettabhihed, ngW law? it was immediately engraven on tablets, that the members when they came next might be prepared to fpeak to it. At the fubfequent affembly the Epi¬ ftates opened the matter ; after which every fenator that pleafed delivered his fentiments ; then any of the Prytanes drew up the decree, and repeated it aloud : after which they proceeded to vote ; and if there was a majority of white beans, then it became pfephifmay and was afterwards propounded to the people : if they approved it, it became a law ; otherwife it was of no force longer than the fenate who decreed it fubfifted. The power of the fenate wras very great ; for they took the account of magi Urates at the expiration of their of¬ fices ; they direCted the provifions made for poor citi¬ zens out of the public treafure ; they had the fuperin- tendency of public prifons, and a power of punifhing fuch as committed a£ls morally evil, though not prohi¬ bited by any law ; they had the care likewife of the fleet ; and befides all thefe they had many other branch¬ es of authority, which it is not neceflfary for us to men¬ tion. Before they took their feats, they were con- ftrained to undergo a very ftriCt examination, wherein the whole courfe of their lives was inquired into ; and if the leaft flur on their reputation appeared, they were fet afide. When this examination was over, they took an oath, whereby they bound themfelves to promote in all their counfels the public good, to advife nothing contrary to the laws, and to execute their fumftions ex- aiftly. The higheft fine the fenate could impofe was 500 drachms: if they thought the offender deferved a heavier mulft, they then tranfmitted the caufe to the Thefmothetm, who punilhed them as they thought fit. The fenators, when their year w7as out, gave an ac¬ count of their management to the people : but that they might have the lefs to do, they always puniThed fuch of their number as they found had offended by expulfion'; and in this they were mighty exaft. Yet an expelled fenator was notwuthftanding eligible to any other office, the moft trivial omiffion being fufficient to occasion a difmiffion from the fenatorial dignity j and therefore, when the tribes chofe their fenators, they alfo chofe a certain number of fubfidiaries, out of which, when a feuator was expelled, another was fub- ilituted it> his place. Each fenator was allowed a drachm every day : for ityyas a conftaut rule with the >3 1 AT T Athenians, that the public ought to pay for every man's Attica, time ; and therefore fuch of the poor Athenians as * thought fit to demand it, had three obeli for going to the affembly. If during their adminiftration any {hips of war were built, the fenators had crowns decreed them ; but if not, they were forbid to fue for them. Next to the fenate was the court of Areopagus j for a defeription of which fee that article. 190 The chief magiftrates of Athens were Archons, and Archon«, inferior to them there were many others j of whom it will be neceffary to mention fome. In the firft place h’ they had Nomophylaces, who were alfo ftyled ihe ele- ven, becaufe they were fo many in number, one chofen out of each tribe, and a clerk or fecretary who made up the eleventh. Their duty it was to look to the exe¬ cution of the laws : they had authority to feize robbers and other capital offenders ; and if they confeffed, to put them to death. Dr Potter thinks they refembled our fheriffs. The Phylarchi were the prefidents of the Athenian tribes ; but in time this became a military title. The Philobafileus was an officer in each tribe, who did the fame things within his jurifdidtion as the Bafileus did with refpeft to the ftate. The Demarchi were the principal magiftrates in wards. The Lexar- chi were fix in number, and were bound to take care that the people came duly to the aflemblies; in their cuftody was the public regifter of the citizens names. They had under them Toxotae, who were liflors or bailiffs; they were fometimes 1000 in number : thefe men were neceffary : but, like moft of their fort, were in a manner infamous, as may be gathered from the comedies of Ariftophanes y they were generally Scy¬ thians, raw-boned, brawny fellows, ready to execute any thing they were commanded. The Nomothetic were 1000 in number; their bufinefs was to watch over and infpeft into the laws. There were two forts of orators in the fervice of the ftate. Some were ap¬ pointed to defend an old law, when a motion was made to repeal it; thefe had their fee from the ftate, but the fame man was incapable of being elefted twice. Be¬ fides thefe, there were 10 fettled orators called Rheto- res, defied by lot ; their bufinefs was to plead public caufes In the fenate houfe. For this they had their Ha¬ ted fees; and with refpefl to their qualifications, the 191- law run thus: “ Let no one be a public orator whofiawsre~ bath ft ruck his parents, denied them maintenance, or gardinS- ffiut them out of his doors; who hath refufed to ferve0nit°1'i' in the army; who hath thrown away his fhield ; who hath been acidified to lewd women, notorioufly effe¬ minate, or has run out his patrimony. If any man who has been guilty of thefe crimes dare to deliver an ora¬ tion, let him be brought to trial upon the fpot. Let an orator have children lawfully begotten, and au eftate within Attica ; if in his oration he talks imperti¬ nently, makes idle repetitions, affefls an unbecoming raillery, digreffes from the point in queftion, or, after the affembly is over, abufes the prefident, let the P10- edri fine him 50 drachms ; and if that is not thought enough, let him be brought before the next affemblv and fined again.” v Ir, We {hall conclude this draught of the Athenian go- Courts vernment with an account of their courts of jufiice, juftK'r" which, exclufive of the Areopagus, were 10 in num¬ ber ; four had cognizance of criminal, and fix of civil caufes, XLefe ig courts tvere numbered with the 10 £uit: ATT [ 254 ] ATT Attica. &rft letters of the alphabet, and were thence ftyled, —v—Alpha, Beta, Gamma, &c. When an Athenian was at leifure to hear caufes, he wrote his own name, that of his father, and the ward to which he belonged, up¬ on a tablet •, this he prefented to the Thefmothetse, who returned it again to him with another tablet, with the letter which fell to his lot j then he went to the crier of the court, who prefented him a fceptre, and gave him admillion. When the caufcs were over, eve- ry judge went and delivered his fceptre to the Pryta- nes, and received a ftated fee for every caufe that was tried. But this was intended only to compenfate their lofs of time ; fo, that there might be no appearance of covetoufnefs, a man was forbid to fit in two courts on the fame day. The firft criminal court after the Areo¬ pagus, w'as that of the Ephetce. It confifted of 51 mem¬ bers, all upwards of 51 years old. Draco gave it a very extenfive jurifdiftion j but Solon took aw'ay from them the power of judging in any other caufes than thofe of manflaughter, accidental killing, and lying in wait to dellroy : the Bafileus entered all caufes in this court. The fecond criminal court w-as called Delphi- mum, bpcaufe it was held in the temple of Apollo Del» phinius •, it had cognizance of fuch murders as were confeffcd by the criminal, but at the fame time jufti- fied under fome pretence or other. The Prytaneum was the third criminal court. It held plea of fuch cafes where death enfued from inanimate things: caufes were heard here with the fame folemnity as in other courts j and on judgment given, the thing, whatever it was, that had occalioned the death of a man, was thrown out of the territory of Athens. The laft criminal court was ftyled Phreatum. It fat in a place not far from the fea (hore j and fuch perfons were brought before this court as had committed murders in their own coun¬ try and fled to Attica j the proceedings of this court w'ere fo fevere, that they did not permit the criminal to come on ftiore, but obliged him to plead his caufe in his vefTel; and if he w^as found guilty, he was com¬ mitted to the mercy of the winds and feas. Of the judicatures for hearing civil caufes, the firft was the Parabajlon, fo called, as fome think, becaufe in it no matter could be heard if the caufe of aftion was above one drachm. The Cainon, or new court, was the fecond "tribunal. The third w^as ftyled the court of Lycus, becaufe it aflembled in a temple dedi¬ cated to that hero, whofe ftatue, reprefented with the face of a wolf, was fet up in all courts of juftice. The Trigonon was fo called, becaufe it w^as triangular in its form. The court Metidius derived its appellation from the architeft who built it. The fixth and laft court was called Hel'uea ; it was by far the greateft, and is generally conceived to have derived its name from the judges fitting in the open air expofed to the fun. All the Athenians who were free citizens were allowed by law to fit in thefe courts as judges •, but before they took their feats were fworn by Apollo Patrius, Ceres, and Jupiter the king, that they would decide all things righteoufly and according to law, where there was any law to guide them $ and by the rules of natural equity, where there was none. The Helaeaftic court confided at leaft of 50, but its ufual number w-as 500, judges j when caufes of very great confequence wrere to be tried, a 000 fat therein j and now and then the judges were Increafed to 1500, and even to 200c. There were 1 many inferior courts in Athens for the decifion of tri- Atticus, vial caufes } but of thefe there is no neceftity of fpeak- , AttlIa- ing, fince we defign no more than a fuccinft view of * the Athenian republic, as it was fettled by and in con¬ fequence of Solon’s laws. ATTICUS, Titus Pomponius, one of the molt honourable men of ancient Rome. He underftood the art of managing himfelf with fuch addrefs, that with¬ out leaving his ftate of neutrality, he preferved the efteem and affeftion of all parties. His ftrift friendftiip" with Cicero did not hinder him from having great in¬ timacy with Hortenfius. The contefts at Rome be¬ tween Cinna’s party and that of Marius induced him to go to Athens, where he continued for a long time. He was very fond of polite learning, and kept at his houfe feveral librarians and readers. He might have obtained the moft conliderable polls in the government j but chofe rather not to meddle, becaufe in the corrup¬ tion and faction which then prevailed he could not dif- charge them according to the laws. He wrote Annals. He married his daughter to Agrippa ; and attained to the age of 77. ATTILA, king of the Huns, furnamed thefcourge of God, lived in the 5th century. He may be ranked amongft the greateft conquerors, lince there was fcarce- ly any province in Europe which did not feel the weight of his victorious arms. Attila deduced his noble, perhaps his regal, de- Gibbons fcent from the ancient Huns, who had formerly con- Rome, tended with the monarchs of China. His features, ac-vo^' 1“* cording to the obfervation of a Gothic hiftorian, bore^' the ftamp of his national origin : and the portrait of Attila exhibits the genuine deformity of a modern Calmuck 5 a large head, a fwarthy complexion, fmall deep-feated eyes, a flat nofe, a few hairs in the place of a beard, broad ftioulders, and a ftiort fquare body, of nervous ftrength, though of a difproportioned form. The haughty ftep and demeanour of thfe king of the Huns exprefled the confcioufnefs of his fuperiority above the reft of mankind j and he had a cuftom of fiercely rolling his eyes, as- if he wifhed to enjoy the terror which he infpired. Yet this favage hero was not inacceflible to pity ; his fuppliant enemies might confide in the aflurance of peace or pardon *, and At¬ tila was confidered by his fubjefts as a juft and indul¬ gent mailer. He delighted in w-ar : but, after he had afcended the throne in a mature age, his head, rather than his hand, achieved the conqueft of the north ; and the fame of an adventurous foldier was ufefully ex¬ changed for that of a prudent and iuccefsful general. The effefts of perfonal valour are fo inconfiderable, except in poetry or romance, that victory, even among barbarians, mult depend on the degree of Ikill, with which the paflions of the multitude are combined and guided for the fervice of a Angle man. The arts of Attila w-ere Ikilfully adapted to the charafter of his age and country. It was natural enough, that the Scythians Ihould adore, with peculiar devotion, the god of wTar ; but as they were incapable of forming either an abftraCl idea, or a corporeal reprefentation, they worfhipped their tutelar deity under the fymbol of an iron fcimitar. One of the Ihepherds of the Huns perceived, that a heifer, who was grazing, had wound¬ ed herfelf in the foot •, and curioully followed the track of the blood, till he difcovergd, among the long grafs, ATT [ 2J5 J AT T Attila. the point of an ancient fword ; which he dug out of the ground, and prefented to Attila. That magnani¬ mous, or rather that artful, prince, accepted with pi¬ ous gratitude this celeftial favour 3 and, as the right¬ ful poffeffor of the fword of Mars, aflerted his divine and indefeahble claim to the dominion of the earth. If the rites of Scythia were praftifed on this folemn occa- lion, a lofty altar, or rather pile of faggots, 300 yards in length and in breadth, was raifed in a fpacious plain ; and the fword of Mars was placed erefl on the fummit of this ruftic -altar, which was annually confe- crated by the blood of Iheep, horfes, and of the hun¬ dredth captive. Whether human f^crifices formed any part of the worfhip of Attila, or whether he propitiat¬ ed the god of war with the viftims which he continu¬ ally offered in the field of battle, the favourite of Mars foon acquired a facred charafter, which rendered his conquefts more eafy and more permanent 3 and the barbarian princes confefied, in the language of devo¬ tion or flattery, that they could not prefume to gaze with a fteady eye on the divine majefty of the king of the Huns. His brother Bleda, who reigned over a confiderable part of the nation, was compelled to re- fign his fceptre and his life. Yet even this cruel a£l was attributed to a fupernatural impulfe 3 and the vi¬ gour with which Attila wielded the fword of Mars, convinced the world that it had been referved alone for his invincible arm. But the extent of his empire affords the only remaining evidence of the number and importance of his vidlories 3 and the Scythian monarch, however ignorant of the value of fcience and philofo- phy, might perhaps lament that his illiterate fubjefts were deftitute of the art which’ could perpetuate the memory of his exploits. If a line of feparation were drawn between the civi¬ lized and the favage climates of the globe 3 between the inhabitants of cities ivho cultivated the earth and the hunters and fhepherds who dwelt in tents 3 Attila might afpire to the title of fupreme and foie monarch of the Barbarians. He alone, among the conquerors of ancient and modern times, united the two mighty kingdoms of Germany and Scythia 3 and thofe vague appellations, when they are applied to his reign, may be underflood with an extenfive latitude. Thuringia, which flretched beyond its actual limits as far as the Danube, was in the number of his provinces : he in- terpofed, with the weight of a powerful neighbour, in the domeftic affairs of the Franks 3 and one of his lieu¬ tenants chaflifed, and almoll exterminated, the Bur¬ gundians of the Rhine. He fubdued the iflands of the ocean, the kingdoms of Scandinavia, encompaffed and ^ divided by the waters of the Baltic 3 and the Huns might derive a tribute of furs from that northern re¬ gion, which has been protected from all other conque¬ rors by the feverity of the climate, and the courage of the natives. Towards the eafl, it is difficult to cir- cumfcribe the dominion of Attila over the Scythian de¬ fects : yet we may be affured, that he reigned on the banks of the Volga 3 that the king of the Huns was dreaded, not only as a warrior, but as a magician 3 that he infulted and vanquiffied the khan of the formi¬ dable Geougen 3 and that he fent ambaffadors to nego- ciate an equal alliance with the empire of China. In the proud review of the nations who acknowledged the fovereignty of Attila, and who never entertained du- -ring his lifetime the thought of a revolt, the Gepidse Attire and the Oflrogoths were diftinguifhed by their num- ^ bers, their bravery, and the perfonal merit of their ^ chiefs. The renowned Ardaric king of the Gepidae, was the faithful and fagacious counlellor of the mo¬ narch 3 who efteemed his intrepid genius, whilft he lo¬ ved the mild and difcreet virtues of the noble Walamir king of the Oftrogoths. The crowd of the vulgar kings, the leaders of fo many martial tribes, who ferv- ed under the ftandard of Attila, were ranged in the fubmiffive order of guards and domeftics round the per-' fon of their mailer. They watched his nod 3 they trembled at his frown 3 and at the firil fignal of his will, they executed without murmur or hefitation his item and abfolute commands. In time of peace, the dependent princes, with their national troops, attended the royal camp in regular fucceffion 3 but when Attila colle&ed his military force, he was able to bring into the field an army of five, or, according to another ac¬ count, of feven hundred thoufand Barbarians. The death of Attila was attended with fingular cir- cumftances. He had married a new wife, a beautiful virgin named lldico. His nuptials were celebrated with great feftivity, at his palace beyond the Danube, and he retired late to bed oppreffed with wine. In the night, a blood-veffel burft in his lungs, which fuf- focated him. The bride was found in the morning fit¬ ting by the bedfide, lamenting his death and her own danger. The body of Attila was expofed in the plain, . wffiile the Huns, finging funeral fongs to his praife, marched round it in martial order. The body, enclo- fed in three coffins, of gold, filver, andiron, was pri¬ vately interred during the night 3 and to prevent the violation of his remains by the difcovery of the place where he was buried, all the captive flaves who were employed in the folemnity were barbaroufiy maffacred. This happened about the year 453. With Attila end¬ ed the empire of the Huns. His fons, by dilfenfion a;id civil war, mutually deftroyed each other, or were difpoffeffed by more powerful and independent chief¬ tains. For a farther account of his exploits, fee the article Huns. ATTIRE, in Hunting, fignifies the head or horns of a deer. The attire of a Hag, if perfefl, confifls of bur, pearls, beam, gutters, antler, fur-antler, royal, fur-royal, and crotches ; of a buck, of the bur, beam, brow-antler, advancer, palm, and fpellers. ATTITUDE, in Painting and Sculpture, the ge- fture of a figure or ftatue 3 or it is fuch a difpofition of their parts as ferves to exprefs the aftion and fentiments of the perfon reprefented. ATTIUM, in Ancient Geography, a promontory on the north-weft of Corfica, (Ptolemy). It ftill retains fome traces of its ancient name, being now called Pun- ta di Acciuolo (Cluverius). ATTLERURY, a town in the county of Norfolk in England. E. Long. o. 40. N. Lat. 52. 23. ATTOLLENS, in Anatomy, an appellation given to feveral mufcles, otherwife called levatores and ele- vatores. See Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles. ATTORNEY AT law, anfwers to the Procurator or Proflor of the civilians and canonifts: And he is one who is put in the place, ftead, or turn, of ano¬ ther, to manage his matters of law. Formerly every fuitor ATT l 2 y- Hiltor was obliged to appear in perfon, to profecute or deiend his fuit (according to the old Gothic conftitu- tion), unlefs by fpecial licenfe under the king’s letters patent. This is ftill the law in criminal cafes. And an idiot cannot to this day appear by attorney, but in perfon ; for he hath not difcretion to enable him to appoint a proper fubftitute : and upon his being brought before the court in fo defencelefs a condition, the judg¬ es are bound to take care of his interefls, and they fhall admit the beft plea in his behalf that any one prefent can fuggeft. But, as in the Roman law, a/m o/irn in z/fu fuiflci, alterius nomine agi non pojfe, fed quia hoc non minimum incommod'd at em habebat, cceperunt homines per procuratores litigare; fo, with us, on the fame principle of convenience, it is now permitted in gene¬ ral, by divers ancient llatutes, whereof the firll is Ifa- tute Weft. 2. c. 10. that attorneys may be made to profecute or defend any aftion in the abfence of the parties to the fuit. Thefe attorneys are now formed -into a regular corps ; they are admitted to the execu¬ tion of their office by the fuperior courts of Weftmin- iter hall; and are in all points officers of the refpec- tive courts in which they are admitted ; and as they have many privileges on account of their attendance there, fo they are peculiarly fubjedl to the cenfure and auimadverfion of the judges. No man can praclife as an attorney in any of thofe courts, but fuch as is ad¬ mitted and fworn an attorney of that particular court: an attorney of the court of king’s bench cannot prac- tiie in the court of common pleas; nor vice verfa. To praiftife in the court of chancery, it is alfo necef- fary to be admitted a folicitor therein : and by the fta- tute 2 2 Geo. II. c. 46. no perfon ftiall aft as an attor¬ ney at the court of quarter-feffions, but fuch as has been regularly admitted in fome fuperior court of re¬ cord. So early as the ftatute 4 Hen. IV. c. 18. it was enafted, that attorneys ffiould be examined by the judges, and none admitted but fuch as wrere virtuous, learned, and fworn to do their duty. And many fub- fequent ftatutes have laid them under farther regula¬ tions. Letter of attorney pays by different afts, 6s. By 25 Geo. III. c. 80. the following duties are to be paid by every folicitor, attorney, notary, proftor, agent, or procurator, viz. for every warrant to profecute for a debt of 40s. or to defend, a ftamp duty of 2s. 6d. And they are to take out certificates annually 5 and if refident in London, Weftminfter, the bills of mor¬ tality, or Edinburgh, they are now obliged to pay 5I. for the fame ; and in every other part of Great Bri¬ tain, 3I. The duties are under the management of the commiffioners of ftamps : and every afting folici¬ tor, and other perfons as above, ffiall annually deliver in a note of his name and refidence, to the proper offi¬ cer of the court in which he praftifes ; the entering officers are to certify notes delivered, and iffue annual certificates, ftamped as above, which muft be renewed ten days before the expiration. Refufing to iffue, or improperly iffuing certificates, is a penalty of 50I. and .damages to the party aggrieved. Afting without a certificate, or giving in a falfe place of refidence, is a penalty of 50I. and incapacity to fue for fees due. A ftamped memorandum ffiall be given to the proper officer, of the names of the parties in every aftion 5 and in fuch cafes as ufed to require precipes. Officers 2 56 ] ATT who receive ftamped memorandums, are to file the Attotitfi- lame, on penalty of 50I. and perfons not afting con- ment, formable to this aft forfeit 5I. Attradhori. sltvoRNEr Genera/, is a great officer under the king, 'v ' made by letters patent. It is his place to exhibit in¬ formations, and profecute for the crown, in matters criminal ; and to file bills in the exchequer, for any thing concerning the king in inheritance or profits j and others may bring bills againft the king’s attorney. Plis proper place in court, upon any fpecial matters of a criminal nature, wherein his attendance is required, is under the judges on the left hand of the clerk of the crown : but this is only upon folemn and extraordina¬ ry occafions ; for ufually he does not fit here, but within the bar in the face of the court. ATIOURNMENT, or Attornment, in Lave, a transfer from one lord to another of the homage and fervice a tenant makes ; or that acknowledgment of duty to .a new lord. ATTRACTION, in Natural Philofophy, a gene¬ ral term uied to denote the caufe by which bodies tend towards each other, and cohere till feparated by fome other power. The principle of attraftion, in the Newtonian fenfe of it, feems to have been firft furmifed by Copernicus., “ As for gravity,” fays Copernicus, “ I confider it as nothing more than a certain natural appetence {appe* tentin') that the Creator has impreffed upon all the parts of matter, in order to their uniting or coalefcing into a globular form, for their better prefervation j and it is credible that the fame power is alfo inherent in the fun and moon, and planets, that thofe bodies may conftantly retain that round figure in which we be¬ hold them.” t)e Rev. Orb. Ccelefi. lib. i. cap. 9. And Kepler calls gravity a edrporeal and mutual affeftion between fimilar bodies, in order to their union. Af. Nov. in Introd. And he pronounces more pofitively, that no bodies whatfoever were abfolutely light, but oifly relatively fo ; and confequently, that all matter was fubjefted to the law7 of gravitation. Ibid. The firft in this country who adopted the notion of attraftion was Dr Gilbert, in his book Dc Magnete ; and the next was the celebrated Lord Bacon, Nov. Organ, lib. ii. aphor. 36. 45. 48. Sylv. cent. i. exp. 33. In France it was received by Fermat and Roberval j and in Italy by Galileo and Borelli. But till Sir Ifaac Newton appeared, this principle was very imperfeftly defined and applied. It muft be obferved, that though this great author makes ufe of the word attraftion, in common with the fchool philofophers j yet he very ftudioufly diftinguiflies between the ideas. The ancient attraftion was fup- pofed a kind of quality, inherent in certain bodies themfelves, and arifing from their particular or fpecific forms. The Newtonian attraftion is a more indefinite principle ; denoting not any particular kind or man¬ ner of aftion, nor the phyfical caftfe of fuch aftion $ but only a tendency in the general, a conatus accedendi, to whatever caufe, phyfical or metaphyfical, fuch ef- feft be owing} whether to a power inherent in the bodies themfelves, or to the impulfe of an external agent. Accordingly, that author, in his Philofoph. Nat. Prin. Math, notes, “ that he ufes the words attraBion, impulfe, and propenfion to the centre, indif¬ ferently ; and cautions the reader not to imagine that hT ATT AUra&ion. by attraction he exprefles the modus of the aftion, or 'T the efficient caufe thereof, as if there were any proper poweis in the centres, which in reality are only ma¬ thematical points 5 or as if centres could attiadf.” lib. i. p. 5. So he “ confiders centripetal powers as attraftions, though, phyfically fpeaking, it were per¬ haps more juft to call them impulfes.” lb. p. 147. He adds, “ that what he calls attraction may poflibly be effeCled by impulfe, though not a common or corporeal impulfe, or after fome other manner unknown to us.” Optic, p. 322. Attraction, if confidered as a quality arifing from the fpecific forms of bodies, ought, together with fym- pathy, antipathy, and the whole tribe of occult quali¬ ties, to be exploded. But when we have fet thefe afide, there will remain innumerable phenomena of na¬ ture, and particularly the gravity or weight of bodies, or their tendency to a centre, which argue a principle of aCtion feemingly diftinCt from impulfe, where at leaft there is no fenfible impulfion concerned. Nay, what is more, this aftion in fome refpeCls differs from all impulfion we know of; impulfe being always found to aft in proportion -to the furfaces of bodies, whereas gravity afts according to their folid content, and confequently muft arife from fome caufe that pe¬ netrates or pervades the whole fubftance thereof. This unknown principle, unknown we mean in refpeft of its caufe, for its phenomena and effefts are moft obvious, with all the fpecies and modifications thereof, we call -atiraBion ; which is a general name, under which all mutual tendencies, where no phyfical impulfe appears, and which cannot therefore be accounted for from any known laws of nature, may be ranged. And hence arife divers particular kinds of attrac¬ tion 5 as, Gravity, Magnetifm, E/e&ricity, &c. which are fo many different principles afting by different laws, and only agreeing in this, that we do not fee any phyfical caufes thereof; but that, as to our fenfes, they may really arife from fome power or efficacy in fuch bodies, whereby they are enabled to aft even upon di- ftant bodies, though our reafon abfolutely difallows of any fuch aftion. Attraftion may be divided, with refpeft to the-law it obferves, into two kinds. r. That which extends to a fenfible diftance. Such are the attraftion of gravity, found in all bodies ; and the attraftion of magnetifm and eleftricity, found in particular bodies. The feveral laws and phenomena of each, fee under their refpeftive articles. The attraftion of gravity, called alfo among mathe¬ maticians the centripetal force, is one of the greateft and moft univerfal principles in all nature. We fee and feel it operate on bodies near the earth, and find by obfervation that the fame power (i. e. a power which afts m the fame manner, and by the fame rules, viz. always proportionably to the quantities of matter, and as the fquares of the diftances reciprocally) does alfo obtain in the moon, and the other planets primary and fecondary, as well as in the comets ; and even that this is the very power whereby they are all retained in their orbits, &c. And hence, as gravity is found in all the bodies which come under our obfervation, it is cafily inferred, by one of the fettled rules of philofo- phizing, that it obtains in all others : and as it is found to be as the quantity of matter in each body, it muft Vol. III. Part I. 2J7 ] ATT be in every particle thereof; and hence every particle Attraftion. in nature is proved to attraft every other particle, &c. —v—’ See Attraction, Astronomy Index. From this attraftion arifes all the motion, and con¬ fequently all the mutation, in the material world. By this heavy bodies defcend, and light ones afcend j by this projeftiles are direfted, vapours and exhalations rife, and rains, &c. fall. By this rivers glide, 'the air preffes, the ocean fwells, 8tc. In effeft, the motions arifing from this principle make the fubjeft of that ex- tenfive branch of mathematics, called mechanics or Jla- tics, with the parts or appendages thereof, hydroftatics, pneumatics, &c. 2. That which does not extend to fenfible diftances. Such is found to obtain in the minute particles where¬ of bodies are compofed, which attraft each other at or extremely near the point of contaft, with a force much fuperior to that of gravity, but which at any diftance from it decreafes much fafter than the power of gravity. This power a late ingenious author choofes to call the attraBion of cohefon, as being that whereby the atoms or infenfible particles of bodies are united into fenfible maffes. This latter kind of attraftion owns Sir Ifaac New¬ ton for its difcoverer 5 as the former does for its im¬ prover. The laws of motion, percuflion, &c. in fen¬ fible bodies under various circumftances, as falling, projefted, &c. afcertained by the later philofophers, do not reach to thofe more remote inteftine motions of the component particles of the fame bodies, whereon the changes of the texture, colour, properties, &c. of bodies depend : fo that our philofophy, if it were on¬ ly founded on the principle of gravitation, and carried fo far as that would lead us, would neceffarily be very deficient. But befide the common laws of fenfible maffes, the minute parts they are compofed of are found fubjeft to fome others, which have been but lately taken no¬ tice of, and are even yet imperfeftly known. Sir Ifaac Newton, to whofe happy penetration we owe the hint, contents himfelf to eftablifh that there are fuch mo¬ tions in the minima natura, and that they flow from certain powers or forces, not reducible to any of thofe in the great world. In virtue of thefe powers, he fhows, “ That the fmall particles aft on one another even at a diftance j and that many of the phenomena of nature are the refult thereof. Senfible bodies, we have already obferved, aft on one another divers ways: and as we thus perceive the tenor and courfe of nature, it appears highly probable that there may be other powers of the like kind ; nature being very uniform and confiftent with herfelf. Thofe juft men¬ tioned reach to fenfible diftances, and fo have been obferved by vulgar eyes 5 but there may be others which reach to fuch fmall diftances as have hitherto efcaped obfervation 5 and it is probable eleftricity may reach to fuch diftances, even without being excited by friftion. The great author juft mentioned proceeds to confirm the reality of thefe fufpicions from a great number of phenomena and experiments, which plainly argue fuch powers and aftions between the particles, e. g. of falts and water, fulphuric acid and w-ater, nitre acid and iron, fulphuric acid and nitre. He alfo lhowrs, that thefe powers, See. are unequally ftrong between diffe- K k rent A T Attra&ion. rent bodies ; ftronger, e. g, # " potafli and thofe of nitric acid than thofe of filver, be¬ tween nitric acid and zinc than iron, between iron and copper than filver or mercury. So fulphuric acid a£ts on water, but more on iron or copper, &c. The other experiments which countenance the exig¬ ence of fuch principle of attraction in the particles of matter are innumerable. Thefe aCtions, in virtue whereof the particles of the bodies above mentioned tend towards each other, the author calls by a general indefinite name attraciion ; which is equally applicable to all aCtions whereby di- Itant bodies tend towards one another, whether by im- pulfe or by any other more latent power : and from hence he accounts for an infinity of phenomena, other- wife inexplicable, to which the principle of gravity is inadequate. “ Thus (adds our author) will nature be found very conformable to herfelf and very lixnple ; performing all the great motions of the heavenly bodies by the attraction of gravity, which intercides thofe bo¬ dies, and* alraoft all the fmall ones of their parts, by feme other attraClive power diffufed through the par¬ ticles thereof. Without fuch principles, there never would have been any motion in the world; and with¬ out the continuance thereof, motion would foon perifh, there being otherwife a great decreafe or diminution thereof, which is only fupplied by thefe aClive princi¬ ples. We need not fay how unjuft it is in the generality of foreign philofophers to declare againft a principle which furnifhes fo beautiful a viewr, for no other reafon but becaufe they cannot conceive how one body fhould on another at a diftance. It is certain, philofopby allowTs of no aflion but what is by immediate contact and impulfion (for bow can a body exert any ar an increafe of the quantity of the initial vowels. AUGMENTATION, in a general fenfe, is the aft of adding or joining fomething to another with a de- fign to render it large. Augmentation is alfo ufed for the additament or thing added. Augmentation was alfo the name of a court ereT- ed 27 Hen. VIII. fo called from the augmentation of the revenues of the crown, by the fuppreflicn of reli¬ gious houfes 5 and the office Hill remains, wherein there are many curious records, though the court has been diffolved long fince. Augmentation, in Heraldry, are additional char¬ ges to a coat-armour, frequently given as particular marks of honour, and generally borne either in the ef- cutcheon or a conton ; as have all the baronets of England, who have borne the arms of the province of Ulfler in Ireland. AUGRE, or Awgre, an inffrument ufed by car¬ penters and joiners to bore large round holes ; and con- fifling of a wooden handle, and an iron blade termi¬ nated at bottom with a Heel bit. AUGSBURG, a city of Germany, capital of the circle of Suabia, feated near the confluence of the Ardech and Lech, in one of the moff beautiful plains that can be imagined. It is one of the largefl and handfomeff cities of the empire ; but the fortifications are after the old manner, and very irregular j the Hreets are broad and Hraight; the houfes moflly of timber, plaflered and whitened without, or adorned with paint¬ ings ; the reff are of freeflone ; the churches and foun¬ tains are generally ornamented with fine figures of brafs. Many of the churches are flately, and adorned within with curious workmanfhip and paintings. I hat part of the city eredled by the noble family of the Fuggers, who are lords of the adjacent country, ccnfiffs of feve- ral flreets crofswife, containing 106 houfes : tne poor people that inhabit them are maintained by an annual penfion. Its magnificent town-houfe is little inferior to that of Amfferdam, it being a vaff fquare Hone building, with a marble portico 5 at the top of the front, within the pediment, is a large fpread eagle, holding a feeptre and globe in its talons, of brafs gilt, faid to weigh 2200 weight; the great portal is cf a very beautiful reddifi marble, over which is a balcony of the fame colour, fupported by two pillars of white marble j over the gate there are two large griffins of L 1 2 brafs; AUG [ 268 ]• AUG Augfburg brafs moft of the rooms are wahifcotted and ceiled with very fine timber : the great hall is very magnifi¬ cent, and paved with marble 5 it is 110 leet long, 58 broad, and 52 high, and its roof is fupported by eight columns of red marble the ceiling of the upper wall is of very curious workmanlhip of polilhed afir, confift- ing of compartments, the fquares and pannels of which are enriched with gilded fculptures, and filled with piftures and other ornaments; this is likewife fupport¬ ed by eight pillars writh bafes and chapiters of brafs : the other rooms are handfomely adorned with very fine paintings. In the fquare, near the town-houfe, is the fountain of Auguftus, which is a marble bafon, furrounded wdth iron balluftrades finely wrought: at the four corners are four brafs flatues as big as the life, two of which are vro- men and two men; in the middle of the bafon is a pede- ftai, at the foot of which are four large fphinxes fquirt- ing water out of their breafts j a little above thefe are four infants holding four dolphins in their arms, which pour water out of their mouths ; and over thefe infants are feftoons and pine-apples all of brafs ; upon the pe- deftal is the ftatue of Auguftus as large as the life. The fountain mofc remarkable next to this is that of Hercules, which is a hexagon bafon with feveral brafs figures, particularly Hercules engaging the hydra. Another curiofity is the fecret gate, which w?as contri¬ ved to let in perfons fafely in time of war : it has fo many engines and divifions with gates and keys, and apartments for guards at fome diftance from each other, where paffengers are examined, that it is impoftible for the town to be furprifed this way j the gates are bolted and unbolted, opened and ftvut, by unfeen operators, infomuch that it looks like enchantment. The W'ater- towers are alfo very curious, of wThich there are three feated on a branch of the river Lech, wdiich runs through the city in luch a torrent as to drive many mills, which ■work a number of pumps that raife the water in large leaden pipes to the tops of the towers •, one of thefe lends water to the public fountains, and the reft to near 1000 houfes in the city. The Lutherans have a college here, which is a vaft fquare building, with a fine clock on the top of the front. In this there are feven different claffes, a hall for public difputations, and a theatre for dramatic re- prefentations. The cathedral is a large, gloomy. Go¬ thic building, with two fpire fteeples •, it is adorned with paintings upon whimfical fubjedts, and has a great gate all of brafs, over w’hich are feveral feripture paffages well reprefented in baffo-relievo. The Jefuits had a fplendid college here, v/ith a church full of gild¬ ing, painting, and carving-, and a fine library. Though half the inhabitants are Lutherans, there are a great many Popifh proceffions. There are no Jews in the town, nor are they fuffered to lie there j but they in¬ habit a village at about a league diftance, and pay fo much an hour for the liberty of trading in the day¬ time. The Benedi&ine abbey is a vaft Gothic build¬ ing, the ceiling of which is faid to be the higheft in Germany, and overlooks all the reft of the churches -, it is adorned with feveral ftatues, and has one very grand altar. The church of St Croix is one of the hand- fomeft in Augftrurg for architefture, painting, fculpture, gilding, and a fine fpire. The inhabitants look upon Auguftus Caefar as the founder of the town : it is true, that that emperor fent Angflnirg. a colony there; but the town was already founded,' y--1 —* though he gave it the name of dugujla Vindelicorutn. Augfburg, indeed, is one of the oldeft towns in Ger¬ many, and one of the moft remarkable of them, as it is there and at Nuremberg that you meet with the oldeft marks of German art and induftry. In the 14th and 15th centuries, the commerce of this town was the moft extenfive of any part of fouth Germany, and contributed much to the civilization of the country by the works of art and variety of neceffaries to the com¬ fort and convenience of life which it was the means of introducing. Many things originated in this towm which have had a great influence on the happinefs of mankind. Not to mention the many important diets of the empire held here ; here, in 952, did a council confirm the order for the celibacy of priefts ; here, in 1530, was the confeflion of faith of the Proteftants laid before the emperor and other eftates of Germany ; and here, in 1555, wras figned the famous treaty of peace, by which religious liberty w7as fecured to Ger¬ many. Though the Proteftants were very pow'erful at Augf¬ burg, they could not keep their ground : for the Ba¬ varians drove them from thence : but Guftavus Adol¬ phus reftored them again in 1632 ; fince which time they have continued there, and ftiare the government with the Catholics. In 1703, the eleiftor of Bavaria took the city after a fiege of feven days, and demoliflied the fortifications : however the battle of Hochftedt refto¬ red their liberty, wdrich they yet enjoy under the go¬ vernment of their own magiftrates, the biftiop having no temporal dominion in the city. The chapter is com- pofed of perfons of quality, who are to bring proofs of their nobility. The canons have a right of eledling their own biflrop, w-ho is a fovereign, in the fame man¬ ner as feveral of the German bifhops. The police of the place is very good : and though the tmvn has no territory, it has no debts. Augfburg is, however, no longer what it wras. It no longer has a Fugger and a Welfer in it to lend the emperor millions. In this large and handfome town, formerly one of the greateft trading towns in Germany, there are no merchants at prefent to be found wdio have capitals of more than 20,000k The others, moft of wfliom muft have their coaches, go creeping on with capitals of 3000I. or 4000I. and do the bufinefs of brokers and commiflioners. Some houfes, however, carry on a lit¬ tle banking trade ; and the way through Tyrol and Graubundten occafions fome little exchange betw-een this place and Germany. After thefe brokers and and doers of bufinefs by commiffion, the engravers, fta- tuaries, and painters, are the moft reputable of the la¬ bouring part of the city. Their produdlions, like the toys of Nuremberg, go everywhere. There are al¬ ways fome people of genius amongft them ; but the fmall demand for their art affords them fo little en¬ couragement, that to prevent ftarving they are moftly confined to the fmall religious wmrks which are done elfewhere by Capuchin monks. They furnifh all Ger¬ many wdth little pidlures for prayer books, and to hang in the citizens houfes. There is an academy of arts inftituted here under the protedlion of the magi¬ ftrates : the principal aim of which is to produce good mechanics, and preferve the manufaclures of the city* This AUG [ 269 ] AUG Augfburg This town, which is 9^ miles in circumference, I! contains, according to Mr Riefbeck, hardly 30,000 Augurale jn]ia|J;tants . ]y5[r Nicolai makes them about ' v 'bj^00.0-. ... p # This city has its drinking water from the river Lech, which runs at fome diftance from it; and the aqueduds which convey the wTater are much to be admired. As the court of Bavaria has it in its power to cut off this indil- penfable neceffary, by threatening the town with doing fo, it often lays it under contribution. But as it has, be- fides this, other means of keeping the high council in a tfate of dependence, to fecure itfelf from this oppref- fion, the city feeks the emperor’s protection, upon whom it makes itfelf as dependent on the other fide, fo as to be indeed only a ball which both courts play with. The emperor’s minifter to the circle of Suabia generally refides here, and by fo doing fecures to his court a perpetual influence. There are always Auftrian and Pruffian recruiting parties quartered here, and the partiality of the government to the former is very re¬ markable. In the war of 1756, the citizens were di¬ vided into equal parties for the two courts. The Ca¬ tholics confidered the emperor as their god, and the Proteftants did the fame by the king of Pruffia. The flame of religion had almoff kindled a bloody civil war amongft them.—The bifhop takes his name from this town, but refides at Dillingen. He has an income of about 20,0001. per annum. As a proof of the catho- licifm of this place, the Pope throughout his whole progrefs met nowhere with fuch honours as he did here. This he owed to his friends the Jefuits, wdio have ftill great influence. E. Long. 10. 58. N. Lat. 48. 24. ^ Augsburg ConfeJJion, denotes a celebrated confeffion of faith drawn up by Luther and Melanflhon, on be¬ half of themfelves and other ancient reformers, and prefented in 1530 to the emperor Charles V. at the diet of Augufta or Augfburg, in the name of the evangelic body. This confeflion contains 28 chapters; of which the greateft part is employed in reprefenting, with perfpicuity and truth, the religious opinions of the Proteftants, and the reft in pointing out the er¬ rors and abufes that occafioned their feparation from the church of Rome. AUGUR, an officer among the Romans appointed to foretel future events, by the chattering, flight, and feeding of birds. There was a college or community of them, confifting originally of three members with refpeff to the three tribes, the Luceres, Ramnenfes, and Tatienfes : afterwards the number was increafed to nine, four of whom rvere patricians and five plebeians. They bore an augural ftaff or wand, as the enfign of their authority ; and their dignity was fo much re- fpedled, that they were never depofed, or any fubfti- tuted in their place, though they (hould be convifled of the moft enormous crimes. See Augury. AUGURAL, fomething relating to the augurs.— The augural inftruments are reprefented on feveral an¬ cient medals. Augural Supper, that given by a prieft on his firft admiffion into the order, called alfo by Varro Adji- clalis. Augural Boohs, thofe wherein the difcipline and rules of augury w^ere laid down. AUGURALE, the place in a camp where the ge¬ neral took aufpicia. This anfwered to the Augurato- Augurale rium in the city. A(i Augurale is alfo ufed in Seneca for the enfign or g A badge of an augur, as the htuus. AU CURATOR IUM, a building on the Palatine mount, where public auguries were taken. AUGURY, in its proper fenfe, the art of fore¬ telling future events by obfervations taken from the chattering, finging, feeding, and flight, of birds; though it is ufed by fome writers in a more general fignification, as comprifing all the different kinds of di¬ vination. Augury w'as a very ancient fuperftition. We know from Hefiod, that hufbandry was in part regulated by the coming or going of birds : and moft probably it had been in ufe long before his time, as aftronomy was then in its infancy. In procefs of time, thefe animals, feem to have gained a greater and very wonderful au¬ thority, till at laft no affair of confequence, either of private or public concern, was undertaken without confulting them. They rvere looked upon as the in¬ terpreters of the gods ; and thofe who were qualified to underftand their oracles wTere held among the chief men in the Greek and Roman ftates, and became the affeffors of kings, and even of Jupiter himfelf. How¬ ever abfurd fuch an inftitution as a college of augurs may appear in our eyes, yet, like all other extrava¬ gant inftitutions, it had in part its origin from nature. When men confidered the wonderful migration of birds, how they difappeared at once, and appeared again at ftated times, and could give no guefs where they went, it was almoft natural to fuppofe, that they retired fomewhere out of the fphere of this earth, and perhaps approached the ethereal regions, where they might converfe with the gods, and thence be enabled to predift events. It was almoft natural for a fuper- ftitious people to imagine this; at leaft to believe it, as foon as fome impoftor was impudent enough to affert it. Add to this, that the difpofition in fome birds to imitate the human voice, muft contribute much to the confirmation of fuch a doctrine. This inftitution of augury feems to have been much more ancient than that of arufpicy; for we find many inftances of the for¬ mer in Homer, but not a fingle one of the latter, though frequent mention is made of facrifices in that author. From the whole of what has been obferved, it feems probable that natural augury gave rife to religious au¬ gury, and this to arufpicy, as the mind of man makes a very eafy tranfition from a little truth to a great deal of error. A paffage in Ariftophanes gave the hint for thefe obfervations. In the comedy of the Birds, he makes one of them fay this : ‘ The greateft blefiings which can happen to you, mortals, are derived from us ; firft; we ftrow you the feafons, viz. fpring, winter, au¬ tumn. The crane points out the time for lowing, when fire flies with her warning notes into Egypt; lire bids the faiior hang up his rudder and take his reft, and every prudent man provide himfelf with winter garments. Next the kite appearing, proclaims another leafon, viz. when it is time to {hear his ftieep. After that the fwallow informs you when it is time to put on fummer clothes. We are to you, (adds the chorus), Ammon, Dodona, Apollo : for, after confulting us, you undertake every thing ; merchandife, purchafes, marriages, , AUG [27 marriages, Sec.’ Now, it feems not improbable, that the fame tranfition was made in the fpeculations of men which appears in the poet’s words; and that they were ealily induced to think, that the furprifing fore¬ fight of birds, as to the time of migration, indicated fomething of a divine nature in them 3 which opinion Virgil, as an Epicurean, thinks fit to enter his proteft againlt, when he fays, Haud equulem credo, quia Jit divinitas iiiis Ingenium. But to return to Ariftophanes. The firft part of the chorus, from whence the fore-cited paffage is ta¬ ken, feems, with all its wildnefs, to contain the fabu¬ lous cant, which the augurs made ufe of in order to account for their impudent impofitions on mankind. It fets out with a cofmogony \ and fays. That in the beginning were Chaos and Night, and Erebus and Tartarus : That there was neither water, nor air, nor fky : T hat Night laid an egg, from whence, after a time, Love arofe : That Love, in conjunction with Erebus, produced a third kind ; and that they were the firft of the immortal race, &c. AUGUST, (augujlus), in a general fenfe, fome¬ thing majeftic, venerable, or facred. The appellation was firft conferred by the Roman fenate upon Odlavius, after his being confirmed by them in the fovereign power. It was conceived as exprefling fomething di¬ vine, or elevated above the pitch of mankind, being de¬ rived from the verb aitgeo, “ I increafe,” tanquam fu- pra humanam fortem audius. See Augustus. August, in Chronology, the eighth month of our year, containing 31 days. Auguft was dedicated to the honour of Auguftus Caefar, becaufe, in the fame month, he wras created conful, thrice triumphed in Rome, fubdued Egypt to the Roman empire, and made an end of civil wars, being before called Sextilis, or the lixth month from March. AUGUSTA, or Austa, an ifland in the Adria¬ tic fea on the coaft of Dalmatia, near Ragufa, fubjetft to Venice. E. Long. 17. 50. N. Lat. 42. 35. Augusta, a town of Georgia in North America. See Georgia. Augusta Aufciorum, a town of Aquitania, fo na¬ med out of compliment to Auguftus, being originally called Chmberrum, which name it afterwards refumed. In the middle age, it took the name of the people, Aufci; and is now called Auch, the capital of Gaf- cony. Augusta Emerita, a town of Lufitania on the river Anas, the capital of the province ; a colony of the Emeriti, or fuch foldiers as had ferved out their legal time, -were men of experience, or had received marks of favour. The colony was founded by Auguftus : and is now called Merida, a city of Spain, in Eftremadura, on the river Guadiana. See Merida. Augusta Pretoria, a town and colony of Gallia Cifalpina, and capital of the Salafli ; feated at the foot of the Alpes Graiaa^n the Duria. 'Eiosw Aoijle'm Pied¬ mont. SeeAousTE. Augusta Rauracorum, a town of Gallia Belgicay now a fmall village called Augujl, at the bend of the Rhine northwards, but from the ruins, which are Hill to be feen, appears to have been a confiderable Auauftin. o ] AUG colony, at the diilance of fix miles from Bafil to the Auguft a eaft. Augusta Suejjfinum, a town of Gallia Eelgica'on the Axona; fo called from Auguftus, and with great' probability fuppofed to be the Noviodunum Sucflbnum of Csefar. Now SoiJJons, on the river Aifire, in the Me of France. See So is so ns. Augusta Taurinorum, a town of the Taurini at the foot of the Alps, where the Duria Minor falls into the Po j now lunn, the capital of Piedmont. Augusta Treba, a town of the JEqui, near the fpring of the river Anio in Italy ; now Ereui, in Um¬ bria, or in the eaft of the Campagna di Roma. Augusta Trevirorum, a town of the Treviri, a people inhabiting between the Rhine and the Meufe, but especially about the Mofelle ; now Eriers, or Treves, in the circle of the Lower Rhine, on the Mo¬ felle. Augusta Vindelicornm, a town of the Licates on the Licus; called by Tacitus a noble colony of Rha~ tkt; now Augsburg, capital of Suabia. Augusta Hijloria, is the hiftory of the Roman em¬ perors from the time of Adrian to Carinus, that is, from the year of our Lord 177 to 285, compofed by fix Latin writers, All. Spartiimus, Julius Capitolinus, All. Lampridius, Vulcatius Gallicanus, Trebellius JPol- lio, and Flavius Vopifcus. * AUGUSTALES, in Roman Antiquity, an epithet given to the flamens or priefts appointed to facrifice to Auguftus after his deification \ and alfo to the ludi or games celebrated in honour of the fame prince on the fourth of the ides of Oditober. AUGUST ALIA, a feftival inftituted by the Ro¬ mans in honour of Auguftus Caefar, on his return to Rome, after having fettled peace in Sicily, Greece, Syria, Afia, and Parthia 5 on which occafion they like- wife built an altar to him, inlcribed Fortunce reduci. AUQUSTALIS pr/efectus, a title peculiar to a Roman magiftrate who governed Egypt, wfith a pow’er much like that of a proconful in other provinces. AUGUSTAN Confession. See Augsburg Con- fejjton. AUGUSTIN, or Austin, St, the .firft arch- bifliop of Canterbury, was originally a monk in the convent of St Andrew at Rome, and educated under St Gregory, afterwards Pope Gregory I. by wdiom he was defpatched into Britain with 40 other monks of the fame order, about the year 596, to convert the Eng- liih Saxons to Chriftianity. They landed in the iile of Thanet •, and having fent fome French interpreters to King Ethelbert with an account of their errand, the king gave them leave to convert as many of his fub- je£ls as they could, and afligned their place of refi- dence, at Dorovernum, fince called Canterbury; to v/hich they w ere confined till the king himfelf was con- . verted, wdrofe example had a powerful influence in pro¬ moting the converfion of his fubje£ls ; but though he was extremely pleafed at their becoming Chriftians, he never attempted to compel them. He defpatched a prieft and a monk to Rome, to acquaint the pope with the fuccefs of his million, and to defire his refolution of certain queftions. Thefe men brought back with them a pall, and feveral books, vefiments, utenfils, and ornaments for the churches. His holinefs, by the lame meflengers, AUG [ 27 Aaguftlne. meflenger?, gave Auguftin direftxons concerning the ^ fettling of epifcopal fees in Bfitain ; and ordered him not to pull down the idol-tem>dies, but to convert them into Chriftian churches •, only detlroying the idols, and fprinkling the place with holy water, that the natives, by frequenting the temples they had been al'.vays ac- cuitomed to, might be the lefs (hocked at their entrance into Chriftianity. Auguftin relided principally at Can¬ terbury, which thus became the metropolitan church • of England ; and having eftabliftied biihops in feveral of the cities, he died on the 26th May, 607. The Popifti writers afcribe feveral miracles to him. The obfervation of the feftival of St Auguftin was firft en¬ joined in a fynod held under Cuthbert archbifhop of Canterbury, and afterwards by the pope’s bull in the reign of King Edward III. AUGUSTINE, St, an illuftrious father of the church, was born at Thagafte, a city of Numidia, on the 13th of November 354. His father, a burgefs of that city, was called Patricias; and his mother, Monica, who being a woman of great virtue, inftrudfed him in the principles of the Chriftian religion. In his early youth he was in the rank of the catechumens j and falling dangeroufly ill, earneftly defired to be bap¬ tized •, but the violence of the diftemper ceafing, his baptifm was delayed. His father, who was not yet baptized, made him ftudy at Thagafte, Madaura, and afterwards at Carthage. Auguftine having read Ci¬ cero’s books of philofophy, began to entertain a love for wifdom, and applied himfelf to the ftudy of the Holy Scriptures ', neverthelefs, he differed himfelf to be feduced by the Manicheans. At the age of 19, he returned to Thagafte, and taught grammar, and alfo frequented the bar : he afterwards taught rhetoric at Carthage with applaufe. The infolence of the fcholars at Carthage made him take a refolution to go to Rome, though againft his mother’s will. Here alfo he had many fcholars •, but diff!king them, he quitted Rome, and fettled at Milan, and was chofen public profeffor of rhetoric in that city. Here he had oppor¬ tunities of hearing the fermons of St Ambrofe, which, together w7ith the ftudy of St Paul’s epiftles, and the converfion of two of his friends, determined him to retraft his errors, and quit the feft of the Manicheans; this was in the 32ft year of his age. In the vacation of the year 386, he retired to the houfe of a friend of his, named Verecundus, where he ferioufly applied himfelf to the ftudy of the Chriftian religion, in order to pre¬ pare himfelf for baptifm, -which he received at Eafter in the year 387. Soon after this, his mother came to fee him at Milan, and invite him back to Carthage ; but at Oftia, whither he wTent to embark in order to his return, (he died. Pie arrived in Africa about the end of the year 388 *, and having obtained a garden-plot without the walls of the city of Hippo, he affociated himfelf with 11 other perfons of eminent famflity, who diftinguiftied themfelves by wearing leathern girdles, and lived there in a monaftic way for the fpace of three years, exerciling themfelves in falling, prayer, ftudy, and meditation, day and night : from hence fprung up the Auguftine friars, or eremites of St Auguftine, being the firft order of mendicants ; thofe of St Jerome, the Carmelites, a»d others, being but branches of this of St Auguftine. About this time, or before, Vale¬ rius bifhop of Hippo, againft his .will, ordained him i ] AUG prieil : nevcrthelefs, he continued to refide in his little Auguftine monaftery, with his brethren, who, renouncing, all property, poffeffed their goods in common. Valerius, f v- *' who had appointed St Auguftine to preach in his place, allowed him to do it in his prefence, contrary to the cuftom of the churches in Africa. He explained the creed, in a general council of Africa, held in 393’ 'Two years after, Valerius, fearing he might be pre¬ ferred to be bifhop of another church, appointed him his coadjutor or colleague, and cauted him to be or¬ dained bilhop of Hippo, by Megalus biftiop of Ca- lame, then primate of Numidia. St Auguftine died the 28th day of Auguft, 430, aged 76 years, having had the misfortune to fee his country invaded by the Vandals, and the city where he was bilhop befieged for feven months. The works of St Auguftine make ten volumes : the bell edition of them is that of Maurin, printed at Antwerp, in 1700. They are but little read at this time, except by the clergy of the Greek church and in the Spanilh univerlities. The bookfellers of Lon¬ don receive frequent commiffions for them, and indeed for the moft of the fathers, from Ruftia, and alfo from Spain. Augustine, St, a fort of North America, on the eaft coaft of Cape Florida, fituated in W. Long. 81. 10. N. Lat. 30. o. This fort was built by the Spa¬ niards ; who were fcarce well eftablilhed there when they were attacked by Sir Francis Drake in 1586, wTho reduced and pillaged the fort and town adjacent. In 1665, it underwent a fimilar fate, being attacked by Captain Davis at the head of a confiderable company of bucaniers. In 1702 an attempt was made by Colonel More to annex St Auguftine to the Britilh do¬ minions. He invefted it with only 500 Englilh and 700 Indians 5 which fmall force, however, would have been fufficient to reduce the place, had not fuccours arrived when it was on the point of lurrendering. Even then, it is thought that he might have defeated the re¬ inforcement ryhich arrived •, but he chofe to raife the liege, and retire with precipitation. In 1740, another unfuccefsful attempt was made on this fort by General Oglethorpe : it was, however, together with the whole country of- Florida, ceded to Great Britain by the the treaty of Paris in 1763 5 but has fince been re- ftored to Spain by the treaty of peace 1783. Augustine, a cape of South America. W. Long. 35. 4. S. Lat. 8. 30. AUGUSTINS, or Augustinians, an order of religious •, thus called from St Auguftin, whofe rule they obferve. The Auguftins, popularly alfo called Auftin friars, were originally hermits, whom Pope Alexander IV. firft congregated into one body, under their general Lanfranc, in 1256. Soon after their in- ftitution, this order was brought into England, where they had about thirty-two houfes at the time of their fuppreftion. The Auguftins are clothed in black, and make one of the four orders of mendicants. From thefe arofe a reform, under the denomination of bare-foot Auguftins, or Minarets, or Friars minor. There are alfo canons regular of St Auguftin, who are clothed in white, excepting their cope, which is black. At Paris they were known under the denomination of religious of Genevieve j that abbey was the chief of AUG [2 Au^uflu of tlie order. There are alfo nuns and canoneffes, who m^ns obferve the rules of St Auguftin. Augu&u?. Augustinians are alfothofe divines who maintain, |'=——v—w on the authority of St Auguflin, that grace is effec¬ tual from its nature, abfolutely and morally, and not re¬ latively and gradually. They are divided into rigid and relaxed. AUGUSTOBONA, a city of the Tricaffers in ancient Gaul, from whom it was afterwards called 7W- cajjes, and Trecajfa; and flill farther corrupted to Thraca, or Treci; whence the modern name Troyes, in Champagne, on the Seine. See Troyes. AUGUST ODLTNUM, the capital of the TEdui, where there was a famous academy or fchool for the education of youth ; now Auftun, jor Autun, in the duchy of Burgundy, on the Arroux. See Autun. AUGUSTOMAGUS, an ancient town of Gallia Belgica ; now Sends, in the Ille of France. E. Long. 2. 30. N. Lat. 49. 10. AUGUSTORITUM, \w Ancient Geography, accord- to fome authors the capital of the Pi&ones, afterwards called PiSiavi; now PoiBiers. But by Antonine’s Itiner¬ ary from Burdigala to Argantomagus (or Argenton, as it is interpreted by many), it can be no other but the capital of the Lemovices, now Litnoges, fituated be¬ tween Vefunna of the Petrocorii, or Perigeux, and Argantomagus. E. Long. 1. 22. Lat. 45. 52. AUGUSTOW, a fmall but ftrong town of Poland, in the duchy and palatinate of Polakia, feated on the river Narieu. E. Long. 24. 2. N. Lat. 53. 25. AUGUSTUS, Fort, a fmall fortrefs feated on a plain at the head of Lochnefs in Scotland, between the rivers Taarf and Oich •, the laft is a confiderable ilream, and has over it a Hone bridge of three arches. The fort conlifts of four baftions : within is the go¬ vernor’s houfe, and barracks for 400 men ; it w7as ta¬ ken by the rebels in 1746, who immediately deferted it after demolilhing what they could. The name of this fort in Erfe is Kill Chumin, or the burial place of the Cummins. It lies on the road to the ille of Sky, which is about 52 miles off j but on the wdiole way there is not a place fit for the reception of man or horfe. Augustus, the appellation conferred upon Cae- far Osffavianus, the firft Roman emperor. See Octa- vianus and Rome. The obfcure name of OBavianus, Mr Gibbon ob- ferves, he derived from a mean family, in the little town of Aricia. It was llained wuth the blood of the profcription ; and he was defirous, had it been pofiible, to erafe all memory of his former life. The illuftrious furname of Ceefar he had affumed, as the adopted fon of the diflator 5 but he had too much good fenfe either to hope to be confounded, or to wilh to be compared, with that extraordinary man. It was propofed in the fenate, to dignify their minirter wdth a new appella¬ tion ; and after a very ferious difcufiion, that of Au- gufus wTas chofen among feveral others, as being the moll exprelfive of the character of peace and fan&ity, which he uniformly affected. Augujlus was therefore a perfonal, Ccr/ar* family, diltinftion. The former ihould naturally have expired with the prince’on wLom it w'as bellowed : and however the latter was diffufed by adop¬ tion and female alliance, Nero was the lalt prince who I 72 ] AVI could allege any hereditary claims to the honour of the Julian line. But at the time of his death, the practice of a century hadinfeparably connefted thofe appellations with the imperial dignity, and they have been preferved by a long fucceflion of emperors, Romans, Greeks, Franks, and Germans, from the fall of the republic to the prefent time. A diltinftion was, however, foon introduced. The facred title of Augujlus was always referved for the monarch-, the name of (Afar was more freely communicated to his relations ; and from the reign of Hadrian at leaff, was appropriated to the fe- cond perfon in the Hate, who was confidered as the prefumptive heir of the empire. AVIARY, a place fet apart for feeding and propa¬ gating birds. It fhould be fo large as to give the birds fome freedom of flight ; and turfed, to avoid the appearance of foulnefs on the floor- AVICENNA, or Avicenes, the prince of Arabian philofophers and phyficians, was born at Aliena, a village in the neighhourhood of Bokhara. His father w-as from Balkh in Perfia, and had married at Bokhara. The firll years of Avicenna were devoted to the ftudy of the Koran and the belles lettres. He foon fliow- ed what he was likely to become afterwards ; and the progrefs he made was fo rapid, that when he was but ten years old, he was perfectly intelligent in the moll hidden fenfes of the Koran. Abou-Abdoullah, a native of Napoulous in Syria, at that time profeffed philofophy at Bokhara with the greatell reputation. Avicenna ftudied under him the principles of logic ; but foon, difgulted with the flow manner of the fchools, he fet about ftudying alone, and read all the authors that had written on philofophy, without any other help than that of their commenta¬ tors. Mathematics had no fewer charms for him ; and after reading the firlt fix propofitions of Euclid, he got alone to the laft, having made himfelf perfect ma¬ iler of them, and treafured up all of them equally in his memory. Poffeffed wdth an extreme avidity to be acquainted with all forts of fciences, he likewufe devoted himfelf to the ftudy of medicine. Perfuaded that this divine art confifts as much in practice as in theory, he fought all opportunities of feeing the fick ; and afterwards confeffed, that he had learned more from experience than from all the old books he had read. He was now in his 16th year, and already was celebrated for being the light of his age. He refolved at this age to refume his ftudies of philofophy, which medicine had made him negledl : and he fpent a year and a half in this painful labour, without ever fleeping all this time a whole night together. If he felt himfelf oppreffed by fieep, or exhaufted by ftudy, a glafs of wine re- frefhed his wafted fpirits, and gave him new vigour for ftudy ; if in fpite of him his eyes for a few minutes {hut out the light, it then happened to him to recoi¬ led! and meditate upon all the things that had occu¬ pied his thoughts before fleep. At the age of 21, he conceived the bold defign of incorporating, in one work, all the objedts of human know ledge ; and carried it into execution in an Encyclopedic of 20 volumes, to which he gave the title of the Utility of Utilities. Several great princes had been taken dangeroufiy ill, and Avicenna was the only one that could know their ailments AVI [‘ 2 Avicenna, ailments and cure them. His reputation increafed dai- iy) and all the kings of Alia defired to retain him in their families. Mahmud, the fon of Sabektekin, the firft fultan of the dynafty of the Samanides, was then the moft powerful prince of the call. Imagining that an im¬ plicit obedience fhould be paid by all manner of per- fons to the injumfHons of his will, he wrote a haughty letter to Mamun fultan of Kharazm, ordering him to fend Avicenna to him, who was at his court, with fe- veral other learned men. Philofophy, the friend of li¬ berty and independence, looks down with fcorn on the Ihackles of compulfion and reftraint. Avicenes, ac- cuftomed to the moft flattering diftinftions among the great, could not endure the imperious manner of Mah¬ mud’s inviting him to his court, and refufed to go there. But the fultan of Kharazm, who dreaded his refentment, obliged the philofopher to depart with others whom that prince had demanded to be fent to him. Avicenna pretended to obey ; but inftead of repair¬ ing to Gazna, he took the route of Giorgian. Mah¬ mud, who had gloried in the thoughts of keeping him at his palace, was greatly irritated at his flight. He defpatched portraits done in crayons of this philofo¬ pher to all the princes of Alia, with orders to have him conduced to Gazna, if he appeared in their courts. But Avicenna had fortunately efcaped the moft dili¬ gent fearch after him. He arrived in the capital of Giorgian, where under a difguifed name he performed many admirable cures. Cabous then reigned in that country. A nephew, whom he was extremely fond of, being fallen fick, the moft able phyficians were called in, and none of them were able to know his ailment, or give him any eafe. A\ icenna was at laft confulted. So foon as he had felt the young prince’s pulfe, he was confident with him- felf, that his illnefs proceeded from a violent love, which he dared not to declare. Avicenna commanded the perfon who had the care of the different apart¬ ments in the palace, to name them all in their refpe&ive order. A more lively motion in the prince’s pulfe, at hearing mentioned one of thefe apartments, betray¬ ed a part of his fecret. The keeper then had orders to name all the (laves that inhabited that apartment. At the name of one of thofe beauties, the young Ca¬ bous could not contain himfelf j an extraordinary beat¬ ing of his pulfe completed the difcovery of what he in vain defired to keep concealed. Avicenes, now fully affured that this (lave was the caufe of the prince’s illnefs, declared, that fhe alone had the power to cure him. The fultan’s confent was neceflary, and he of courfe was curious to fee his nephew’s phyfician. He had fcarce looked at him, when he knew in his features thofe of the crayoned portrait fent him by Mahmud j but Cabous, far from forcing Avicenna to repair to Gazna, retained him for fome time with him, and Teaped honours and prefents on him. 1 his philofopher pafled afterwards into the court of Nedjmeddevle, fultan of the race of the Bouides. Being appointed firft phyfician to that prince, he found means to gain his confidence to fo great a degree, that he raifed him to the poft of grand vifir. But he did not long enjoy that illuftrious dignity. Too great an Vol. III. Part I. 73 1 AVI attachment to pleafures, efpecially thofe of love and Avicenna, the table, made him lofe at the fame time his poft and 1 his mailer’s favour. From that time Avicenna felt all the rigours of adverfity, which he had brought upon himfelf by his ill condudl. He wandered about as a fugitive, and was often obliged to fhift the place of his habitation to fecure his life from danger. He died at Hamadan, aged 58 years, in the 428th year of the Hegira, and of Chrift 1036. The pevfedl knowledge he had of phyfic did not fe¬ cure him from the ailments that afflidl human nature. He was attacked by feveral maladies in the courfe of his life, and particularly was very fubjedl to the co¬ lic. His exceffes in pleafures, and his infirmities, made a poet fay who wrote his epitaph, that the pro¬ found ftudy of philofophy had not taught him good morals, nor that of medicine the art of preferving his own health. No one compofed with greater facility than Avicen¬ na, writing, when he fat down to it, 50 pages gene¬ rally in a day, without fatiguing himfelf. The doc¬ tors of Schiras, having made a collection of objections againlt one of his metaphyfical works, fent it to him at Ifpahan by Cafem. This learned man, not arriving till towards evening, came to Avicenna’s houfe, with whom he fat difcourfing till midnight. When Cafem had retired, he wrote an anfwer to the objections of the Schirazians, and finifhed it before funrife. He imme¬ diately delivered it to Cafem, telling him, that he had made all poflible defpatch in order not to detain him any longer at Ifpahan. Avicenna, after his death, enjoyed fo great a repu¬ tation, that till the 12th century he was preferred for the ftudy of philofophy and medicine to all his prede- celfors. His works were the only writings in vogue in fchools, even in Europe. The following are the titles. I. Of the Utility and Advantage of Science, twenty books. 2. Of Innocence and Criminality, two books. 3. Of Health and Remedies, eighteen books. 4. Ca¬ nons of Phyfic, fourteen books. 6. On Aftronomical Obfervations, one book. 7. On Mathematical Sciences. 8. Of Theorems, or Mathematical and Theological Demonftrations, one Book. 9. On the Arabic Lan¬ guage, and its Properties, ten books. 10. On the Laft Judgment. 11. On the Origin of the Soul, and the RefurreCtion of Bodies. 12. Of the end we fhould propofe to ourfelves in Harangues and Philo- fophical Argumentations. 13. Demonftration of the collateral Lines in the Sphere. 14. Abridgement of Euclid. 15. On Finity and Infinity. 16. On Phy- fics and Metaphyfics. 17. On Animals and Vegeta¬ bles, &c. 18. Encyclopedic, 20 volumes—Some, however, charge him with having ftolen what he pu- bulifhed from a celebrated phyfician who had been his mailer. This man had acquired fo much honour and wealth, that he was folicited by many to take their fons to be his fcholars, or even his fervants j but be¬ ing refolved not to difcover the fecrets of his art, he would receive none of them. Avicenna’s mother form¬ ed the following ftratagem : flic offered him her fon as a fervant, pretending he was naturally deaf and dumb : and the youth by his mother’s inftru6tions, counter¬ feited thofe defeats fo well, that the phyfician, after making feveral trials to difccver the reality of them, took the boy into his fervice, and by degrees trufted M m him AVI r 274 ] AVI Aviccnia him fo far as to leave his writings open in his room .jj when he went abroad : Avicenes took that opportu- A *’. nity to tranfcribe them, and carried the copies to *“ his mother j - and after death of his mafter he pu- blifhed them under his own name. Indeed if we re- fle£l that he lived but 58 years, that he was a wan¬ derer and a fugitive, and that he was much addicl- ed to his pleafures, we fhall have fome difficulty to conceive how he could find time to compofe fo many works. Phyfic, however, is indebted to him for the difcovery of caffia, rhubarb, mirabolans, tamarinds j and from him alfo, it is faid, came to us the art of making fugar. AVICENIA, Eastern Anacardium. See Bo¬ tany Index. AVIGATO pear* See Laurus, Botany In¬ dex. AVIGLIANO, a fmall town of Piedmont in Italy. E. Long. 7. 5. N. Lat. 44. 40. AVIGNON, a city of France, in the department of Vauclufe, the capital of the county of Venaiffin, and feated on the banks of the Rhone. It was formerly an archbifhop’s fee 5 and the refidence of feveral popes at this place for 70 years has rendered it confiderable. Near the Rhone there is a large rock, within the cir¬ cumference of the walls, upon which is a platform, from whence may be had a profpefl of the w’hole city and the places about it. This city is about three miles and two furlongs in circumference, and is in general ill built, irregular, and devoid of beauty. But it is furrounded by handfome battlemented walls and tur¬ rets, not unlike thofc of Rome ; and its public edifices are large, folid, and grand as the talle of the four¬ teenth century could make them. Several popes and anti-popes, who, during their lives, (hook the Romiffi church with violence and mutual altercation, repofe quietly near each other in the various monafteries of the place. The church of the Cordeliers contains, in an obfcure corner, the almoft defaced tomb of Pe¬ trarch’s Laura and her huffiand Hugh de Sade ; and nearly oppofite is the tomb of the brave Guilon, fo wTell known for his invincible courage as well as for his inviolable attachment to his fovereign Henry IV. Many productions of Rene of Anjou are to be feen in the city \ whofe inhabitants amount to about 40,000, of whom IOOO are ecclefiaftics and fome hun¬ dreds Jew's. The palace of the vice-legate is compofed of feveral large fquare towers, and he gives audience in a great hall which is full of fine paintings, as is alfo the chapel and the apartments. The arfenal is near the palace. The church of Notre Dame is ancient, but not large, and is one of the belt adorned in the city. After ha¬ ving afeended about 50 fteps, you come to a very an¬ cient portico, which fultains a great tower ; as you en¬ ter the church on the left hand, you fee paintings which equal the finett in Italy. The great altar is very magnificent, and is adorned with a fnrine that contains the relicks of we know7 not howr many faints. The trea- fure of the facrifty is w'orthy of the curiofity of the traveller. The little palace where the archbilhop re- fides is formed of three bodies of lodgings, accompa¬ nied with courts and fmall pavilions. It overlooks the Khone, the city, and the fields. Thefe buildings and the mint adorn a large fquare, which is the common Avignon. wTalk of the inhabitants. * ~ In Avignon they reckon feven gates, feven palaces, feven colleges, feven hofpitals, feven monalteries, fe¬ ven nunneries, and feven popes who have lived there in 70 years. The fleeples are numerous, and the bells are never at reft $ one of filver is rung only on the death of a pope. The church of the Celeftines is very magnificent, [and full of fine monuments, and the reft are not without their curiofities. The univerfity has four colleges; and the place wffiere the Jews live is a diftind! quarter, from whence the Jews who pay tribute dare not ftir cut without yellow7 hats, and the women muft have fomething yellow about their heads, to diftinguiflr them from the Chriftians. Their num¬ ber is very confiderable in a very confined place, where the only way of enlarging their abodes is by building their houfes higher. Their fynagogue is lo dark, that they are obliged to light lamps. However, they are forced to hear a monk preach a fermon every week. Acrofs the Rhone, here, extend the ruinous and de¬ cayed arches of that bridge againft which Madame de Grignan w7as fo near being loft, and of which Madame de Sevigne makes terrified mention. It was demolifh- ed in 1699 by one of the inundations common to the Rhone. When entire, it was not lefs than a quarter of a mile in length j but being fo narrow7 as not to permit two carriages to pafs in any7 part, it had pre- vioufty become almoft ufelefs 5 and motives of policy prevent the conftrudlion of a new bridge, while Avig¬ non belongs to the papal fee. The curious that travel this way go to fee the fountain of Vauclufe, where the river Sorgues, which paffes through this city, has its fource ; and whither Petrarch fo often retired to indulge his grief and hopelefs love. It is fituated in a valley five miles diftant from the city. The fides of the river are fkirted by meadows of the moft lively green } above wffiich rife abrupt and lofty rocks, that feem defigned to feclude it from human view. The valley becomes gradually narrower toward the extre¬ mity, and winding continually deferibes the figure of a horfe-fhoe. The view7 is at length terminated by an enormous mafs of rock, forming a barrier acrofs it, of a prodigious height, and abfolutely perpendicular. Through its vaft recefles run the ftreams which fupply the fountain of Vauclufe, and at its foot appears a ba- fon of water, feveral hundred feet in circumierence, ftretched like an expanfe, filent and quiet. The fides are very fteep, and it is faid that in the middle no bot¬ tom can be difeovered, though attempts have been often made for that purpefe ; a circumftance probably refulting from the violence with which the fprings bub¬ ble up, which prevents any weight from defeending be¬ yond a certain depth. Though the fountain is clearer in itfelf than cryftal, yet the incumbent rock calls a continual fhade, approaching to black, over its furface. The water efcaping from this flate of inaflion by a narrow paffage, is immediately precipitated in a caf- cade down a rocky channel, where it foams over a number of vaft detached ftones, which intercept and impede its progrefs. They are covered with a deep green mofs of many ages, and have probably tumbled from the mountain that overhangs the torrent. The rocks themfelves, which furround and inveft this ro¬ mantic A V I 275 fnantic fpot, are worn by time and tbe inclemency of the weather into a thoufand extraordinary and fantaftic forms, to which imagination gives fhape and figure. On one of the pointed extremities, and in a fituation which appears almoft inacceffible, are fecn the remains of an ancient caftle, projecting over the water. 'I he peafants call it // Cajlello di Pvirarca ; and add, with great fimplicity, that Laura lived upon the oppofite ikle of the river, under the bed of which tvas a fubter- ranean paflage by which the two lovers vifited each other. Nothing is however more certain, than that thefe are the ruins of the chateau belonging to the lords or feigneurs of Avignon ; and the bidiop of Cavaillon relided in it during the frequent vifits which lie ufed to make to Petrarch.—-The poet’s dwelling was much loWrer down, and nearer to the bank of the Sorgue, as evidently appears from his minute de'eription of it, and the relation he gives of his quarrel with the Naiads of the itream, who encroached during the win¬ ter on his little adjoining territory. No remains of it are now to be difeerned. Below the bridge there is rm iiland where the Sorgues joins the Rhone, in which are feveral houfes of plealure. E.. Long. 4. 59. N. Lat. 43. 57. yiriGNOff-Berry, the Fruit of a fpecies of lycium •, growing plentifully near Avignon and in other parts of France. The berry is fontewhat leis than a pea j its colour is green, approaching towards a yellow } and it is of an aftringent and bitter talfe.—It is much ufed by the dyers, who ftain a yellow colour with it ; and by the painters, who alfo make a fine golden yel¬ low of it. AVILA, a city of Old Cafiile, in Spain, feated on an eminence on the banks of the river Adaja, and in fight of the mountains of Pico. It is fortified both by nature and art, having a wall 9075 feet in circum¬ ference, adorned w ith 26 lofty towers, and 10 hand- fome gates. There are 17 principal flieets, the houfes in which are generally good, and fome of them ftately. It hath nine fquares, 2000 houfes, nine parilhes, as many monalteries, feven nunneries, two colleges, nine hof- pitals, 18 chapels, and an allowance of r 0,000 ducats yearly for the maintenance of orphans and other poor people. It has an univerfity, and a confiderable bi- Ihopric 5 befides a noble cathedral, which has eight dig¬ nitaries, 20 canons, and the fame number of minor canons. It Hands in the middle of a fine large plain furrounded wdth mountains, and covered with fruit- trees and vineyards. There is likewife a manufadfure of cloth. W. Long. 4. 13. N. Lat. 40. 35- AVIS, a fmall town of Alentejo in Portugal, feated on an eminence with a caltle near the river Avis. Hence the military order of the knights of Avis have their name. W. Long. 7. o, N. Lat. 38. 40. Avis {Knights d\4vis), an order of knighthood in Portugal eftablilhed about the year 1162. When the city of Evora wras taken from the Moors, in the reign of the firlt king of Portugal, it was garriloned by fe¬ veral perfons who affiimed the title of knights of St Mary of Evora, which was foon after changed for that of knights d’Avis, which the king gave them, and whither they removed from Evora, The badge of the order is a green crofs flory, and they obferve the rule of St BenedidL AVISO, a term chiefly ufed in matter of commerce ] A TJ L to denote an advertifement, an advice, or piece of in¬ telligence. ikVISON, Charles, organift of Newcaftle, and a^ difciple of Geminiani, was the author of an eflay on mufical expreflion, publiflied in the year i752> which are fome judicious refledlions on mufic in general, but. his divifion of the modern authors into clafles is rather fanciful than juft. Throughout his book he celebrates Marcello and Geminiani *, the latter frequently in pre¬ judice to Mr Handel. In the year 1753 came out re¬ marks on Mr Avifon’s eft'ay on mufical expreftion, the author whereof firft points out fundry errors againft the rules of compofition in the works of Avilon. In the fame year Avifon republifhed his elfay, with a reply to the author of the remarks j and a letter, containing a number of loofe particulars relating to mufic, collected in a courfe of various reading, unqueftionably written by Dr Jortin. Avifon promoted and aflifted in the publication of Marcello’s mufic to tbe pfalms adapted to Englifii words. Of his own compofition there are extant five collections of concertos for violins, 44 in number ; and two fets of fonatas for the barpfichord and two violins, a fpecies of compontion little known in England till his time. The mufic of Avifon is light and elegant, but it wants originality j a neceffary con- fequence of his too clofe attachment to the ftyle ot Geminiani, which in a fewT particulars only he was able to imitate. AUK, in Ornithology. See Alca, Ornithology Index* AUKLAND, Bishop’s, a town in the biftiopric of Durham in England, fituated on the river Were. It is a fandluary for debtors ; and here the bilhop has a princely palace and a noble park. W. Long. o. ^5. N. Lat. 54. 44. AULA, is ufed for a court baron by Spelman ; by fome old ecclefiaftical writers, for the nave of a church, and fometimes for a court-yard. Aula Regia or Regis, a court eftablilhed by Wil¬ liam the Conqueror in bis own hall, compofed of the king’s great officers of ftate, who refided irl his palace, and were ufually attendant on his perfon. 7 his court was regulated by the article which forms the eleventh chapter of Magna Charta, and eftfffiliftied inWeftmin- fter-hall, where it hath ever fince continued. See King's Bench. AULCESTER, a town of Warwickffiire in Eng¬ land. W. Long. 1. 47. N. Lat. 52. 15. AULETES, in antiquity, denotes a flute-player. One of the Ptolemies, kings of Egypt, father of Cleo¬ patra, bore the furname or denomination of Aulctes. AULIC, an epithet given to certain officers of the empire, who compofe a court which decides, without appeal, in all procelfes entered in it. Thus we fay, aulic council, aulic chamber, aulic counfellor. The aulic council is compofed of a prefident, who is a catholic ; of a vice chancellor, prefented by the archbithop of Mentz *, and of 18 counfellors, nine of whom are Proteftants and nine Catholics. They are divided into a bench of lawyers, and always follow the emperor’s court *, for which reafon they are called /»- Jiitium imperatoris, the emperor’s juftice, and aulic council. The aulic court ceafes at the death of the emperor j whereas the imperial chamber of Spire is perpetual, reprefenting not only the deceafed emperor, Mm3 but Avifok Auik A U N I 276 ] A V O Aultc Aunger- vyle. but the whole Germanic body, which is reputed never to die. Aulic, in the Sorbonne and foreign univerlities, is an aft which a young divine maintains upon being ad¬ mitted a doftor of divinity. It begins by a harangue of the chancellor, addreffed to the young doftor, after which he receives the cap, and prefides at the aulic or difputation. AULIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Boeotia, over againil Chalcis of Euboea, on the Euripus, where that ftrait is narrowed; j and which was fometimes joined wuth Chalcis together by a mole or caufeway, (Diodorus Siculus) : a craggy fituation, (Homer, Nonnius) ; and a village of the Tanagraei, (Strabo), diftant from Chalcis three miles : A harbour famous for the rendezvous of the Grecian fleet under Agamemnon, previous to the Trojan expedition, (Livy, Virgil, Pliny.) Now en¬ tirely deftroyed. AULNEGER. See Alnager. AULON, anciently a town and dock or Ration for Ihips in Illyricum, on the Adriatic ; now Valona, or Volana, a port-town in the duchy of Ferara on one of the mouths of the Po, on the gulf of Venice. E. Long. 13. N. Lat. 44. 50. Aulon, or Aulona, anciently a town of Elis, in Peloponnefus on the confines of Meffenia. Here flood a temple of ATculapius 5 hence the epithet Aulonius given that divinity, (Paufanias). AULOS, a Grecian long meafure, the fame with ftadium. AULPS, a town of Provence in France, in the diocefe of Frejus, with the title of a vigurie. E. Long. 6. 25. N. Lat. 43. 40. , AULUS gellius. See Gellius. AUMBRY, a country word denoting a cupboard. AUME, a Dutch meafure for Rheniih wine, con¬ taining 40 Englilh gallons. AUNCEL-weight, an ancient kind of balance now7 out of ufe, being prohibited by feveral flatutes, on account of the many deceits praftifed by it. It confifted of fcales hanging on hooks, faftened at each end ox a beam, which a man lifted up on his hand. In many parts of England, auncel-weight fignifies meat fold by the hand, rftthout fcales. AUNE, a long meafure ufcd in France to meafure cloths, fluffs, ribbons, &c. At Rouen, it is equal to one EnglHh ell; at Calais, to 1.52; at Lyons, to 1.061; and at Paris, to 0.95. AUNGERVYLE, Richard, commonly known by the name of Richard de Bury, was born in 1281 at St Edmund’s Bury in Suffolk, and educated at the univerfity of Oxford : After which he entered into the order of Benediftine monks, and became tutor to Ed¬ ward prince of Wales, afterwards King Edward III. Upon the acceflion of his royal pupil to the throne he was firft appointed cofferer, then treafurer of the ward¬ robe, archdeacon of Northampton, prebendary of Lin¬ coln, Sarum, and Litchfield, keeper of the privy feal, dean of Wells, and laft of all was promoted to the bi- Ihopric of Durham. He likewife enjoyed the offices of lord high chancellor, and treafurer of England ; and difcharged two important embaflies at the court of France. Learned himfelf, and a patron of the learn¬ ed, he maintained a correfpondence with fome of the greateft geniufes of the age, particularly with the ce¬ lebrated Italian poet Petrarch. He was alfo of a moft Aunis humane and benevolent temper, and performed many ^ II fignal afts of charity. Every week he made eight, ^ 'voue‘" quarters of wheat into bread, and gave it to the poor. Whenever he travelled between Durham and Newcaftle, he diftributed eight pounds fterling in alms: between Durham and Stockton five pounds, between Durham and Aukland five marks, and between Durham and Middleham five pounds. He founded a public library at Oxford, for the ufe of the ftudents, which he fur- niffted wuth the beft colleftion of books then in Eng¬ land ; and appointed five keepers, to whom he granted yearly falaries. At the diffolution of religious houfes in the reign of Henry VIII. Durham college, where he fixed the library, being diffolved among the reff, fome of the books were removed to the public library, fome to Baliol college, and fome came into the hands of Dr George Ow’en, a phyfician of Godftow7, who bought that college of King Edward VI. Biihcp Aungervyle died at his manor of Aukland, April 24. 1345, and was buried in the fouth part of the crofs aifle of the cathedral church of Durham, to which he had been a benefaftor. He wrote, I. Phi/obiblos, contain¬ ing direftions for the management of his library at Ox- - ford, and a great deal in praife of learning, in bad La¬ tin. 2. Kpiftolce fomiliarhwi ; fome of which are writ¬ ten to the famous Petrarch. 3. Orationes adprincipes ; mentioned by Bale and Pitts. AUNIS, the fmalleff province in France, bounded on the north by Poiftou, on the weft by the ocean, on the eaft and fouth by Saintogne, of which it wras for¬ merly a part. It is watered by the rivers Seure and Sarente, the former of wffiich has its fource at Seure in Poiftou. The coaft of this fmall diftrift has the ad¬ vantage of feveral ports, the moft remarkable of which are Rochefort, Rochelle, Brouge, St Martin de Re, Tremblade, Tonnai, and Charente. The loil of this country is dry, yet produces good corn and plenty of wine. The marlhes feed a great number of cattle, and the fait marfhes yield the beft fait in Europe. AVOCADO, or Avigato, Pear. See Laurus, Botany Index. AVOCATORIA, a mandate of the emperor of Germany, addreffed to fome prince, in order to flop his unlawful proceedings in any caufe appealed to him. AVOIDANCE, in the Canon Law, is when a bene¬ fice becomes void of an incumbent; which happens ei¬ ther in faft, as by the death of the perfon ; or in law, as by ceflion, deprivation, refignation, &c. In the firft of thefe cafes, the patron muft take notice of the avoidance at his peril; but in avoidance by law7, the ordinary is obliged to give notice to the patron, in or¬ der to prevent a lapfe. AVOIRDUPOIS. This is the w7eight for the larger and coarfer commodities, fuch as groceries, cheefe, wool, lead, &c. Bakers, w’ho live not in cor¬ poration towns, are to make their bread by avoirdupois weight, thofe in corporations by troy weight. Apo¬ thecaries buy by avoirdupois wTeight, but fell by troy. The proportion of a pound avoirdupois to a pound troy is as 17 to 14. AVOSETTA. See Recurvirostra, Ornitho¬ logy Index. AVOWEE, one wffio has a right to prefent to a benefice. He is thus called in contradiftinftion to , thofe A U R [ 277 I A U R Avowry thofe who only have the lands to which the advowfon II belongs for a term of years, or by virtue of intrulion ^nr'^ /or dHfeiiin. AVOWRY, in Law, is where a perfon diftrained fues out a replevin •, for then the diftrainer mult vowr, and juftify his plea, which is called his avowry. AURA, among Phyjtolo^ifls, an airy exhalation or vapour. The word is Latin, derived from the Greek, gentle %vind. AURACH, a town of Germany with a good caflle, in the fouth part of Suabia, in the duchy of Wirtem- berg. It is the ufual refidence of the youngeft fons of the houfe of Wirtemberg, and is feated at the foot of a mountain on the rivulet Ermft. E. Long. 9. 20. N. Lat. 48. 25. AURjE, in Mythology, a name given by the Ro¬ mans to the nymphs of the air. They are moftly to be found in the ancient paintings of ceilings ; where they are reprefented as light and airy, generally with long robes and flying veils of fome lively colour or other, and fluttering about in the rare and plealing element afligned to them. They are characterized as fportive and happy in themfelves, and wellwilhers to mankind. AURANCHES, the capital of a territory called Auranchin, about 30 miles in length, in Lower Nor¬ mandy in France, now the department of the Channel. The city is mean ; but its fituation very fine, being on an eminence, near which the river See runs, about a mile and a half from the ocean. The cathedral Hands on a hill, which terminates abruptly \ the front of the church extending to the extreme verge of it, and over¬ hanging the precipice. It bears the marks of high antiquity ; but the towers are decayed in many places, though its original conftru&ion has been wonderfully ftrong. Here, you are told, the Englifh Henry II. re¬ ceived abfolution from the Papal nuncio for the mur¬ der of St Thomas-a-Becket in 1172, and the Hone on which he knelt during the performance of that cere¬ mony is fliown to flrangers. Its length is about 30 inches, and the breadth 12. It Hands before the north portal, and on it is engraved a chalice in commemo¬ ration of the event. The ruins of the caHle of Au- ranches are very extenfive ; and beneath lies a rich ex¬ tent of country, abounding in grain and covered with orchards, from the fruit of which is made the befl cyder in Normandy. W. Long. 1. 20. N. Lat. 48. 3'!. AURANTIUM, in Botany. See Citrus, Bota¬ ny Index. AURAY, a fmall feaport town of Low'er Britanny in France, fituated in the gulf called Morbihan, and in the department of the fame name. It confifls of only one handfome flreet, and is chiefly known for its trade. W. Long. 2. 25. N. Lat. 47. 48. AURELIA, in Natural Hi/fory, the fame with wfliat is more ufually called chryfalis, and fometimes nymph. See Chrysalis,' Entomology Index. AURELIANUS, Lucius Domitius, emperor of Rome, was one of the greatefl generals of antiquity, and commanded the armies of the emperor Claudius wflth fuch glory, that after the death of that emperor all the legions agreed to place him on the throne : this happened in the year 270. He carried the w7ar from the eafl to the wefl, w’ith as much facility, fays a mo¬ dern writer, as a body of troops marches from Alface into Flanders. Fie defeated the Goths, Sarmatians, Aureliu* Marcomanni, the Perfians, Egyptians, and Vandals 5 V,ftor conquered Zenobia queen of the Palmyrenians, and Aunga. Tetricus general of the Gauls; both of whom were —y—. made to grace his triumph, in the year 274. He was killed by one of his generals in Thrace in the year 273, when he w'as preparing to enter Perfia wuth a great army. See Rome. AURELIUS victor. See Victor. AURENGABAL, a city in the Eafl Indies, ca¬ pital of the province of Balagate, in the dominions of the Great Mogul. It is furniflred with handfome mofques and caravanferas. The buildings are chiefly of freeflone, and pretty high, and the flreets planted on each fide w'ith trees. They have large gardens well flocked with fruit trees and vines. The foil about it is alfo very fertile, and the (beep fed in its neighbourhood are remarkably large and ftrong. E. Long. 73. 30. N. Lat. 19. 10. AURENG-ZEBE, a celebrated Mogul emperor. See Indostan. AUREOLA, in its original fignification, fignifies a jewel, w'hich is propofed as a reward of victory in fome public difpute. Hence the Roman fchoolmen applied it to denote the reward beftowed on martyrs, virgins, and doctors, on account of their wTorks of fu- pererogation ; and painters ufe it to fignify the crown of glory with which they adorn the heads of faints, eonfeffors, &c. AUREUS, a Roman gold coin, equal in value to 23 denarii. According to Ainfworth, the aureus of the higher empire weighed near five pennyweights ; and in the lower empire, little more than half that weight. We learn from Suetonius, that it w7as cufto- mary to give aurei to the vidlors in the chariot races. AUREUS mons, in Ancient Geography, a moun¬ tain in the north weft of Corfica, whofe ridge runs out to the north-eaft and fouth-eaft, forming an elbow.—■ Another mountain of Moefia Superior, or Servia (Peu- tinger), to the fouth of the Danube, wdth a cognomi- nal town at its foot on the fame river. The emperor Probus planted this mountain with vines ( Eutropius),- AURICK, a city of Germany ; in Eaft Frielland, in the circle of Weftphalia; to which the king of Pruffia claims a right. It is fituated in a plain fur- rounded w7ith forefts full of game. E. Long. 6. 30. N. Lat. 53. 28. AURICLE, in Anatomy, that part of the ear which is prominent from the head, called by many authors auris externa. Auricles are likewife tw7o mufcular bags fituated at the bafis of the heart, and intended as diverticula for the blood during the diaftole. AURICULA, in Botany. See Primula, Botany Index. AURIFLAMMA, in the French Hi/lory, properly denotes a flag or ftandard belonging to the abbey of St Dennis, fufpended over the tomb of that faint, which the religious on occafion of any war in defence of their lands or rights, took down with great ceremony, and gave it to their proteftor or advocate, to be borne at the head of their forces. Auriflamma is alfo fometimes ufed to denote the chief flag or flandard in any army. AURIGA, the W/icaoKER, in AJlronomy, a con- ftellatiorv A U R { 27 Amiliac ftellation of the northern hemhphere, confining of 23 Aurora ^arS’ accor^“1S to Tycho ; 40, according to Heveliusj Borealis. aiK^ t^ie 'Britannic catalogue. ■ — _• AURILLAC, a town of France in the Lower Au¬ vergne, now the department of Cantal, feated oil a fmall river called Jourdane. It is one of the mod: confiderable towns of the province, has fix gates, is very populous, and yet has but one parifh. The cafile is very high, and commands the town. The abbot was lord of Aurillac, and had epifcopal jurifdiction ; and was alfo chief jultice of the town. This place is remarkable for having produced feveral great men. F. Long. 2. 33. N. Lat. 44. 55. AURIPIGMENTUM, orpiment, in Natural Hi- fi ory. See Orpiment. AURISCALPIUM, an inftrument to clean the ears, and ferving alfo for other operations in diforders of that part. AURORA, the morning twilight, or that faint light which appears in the morning when the fun is within 18 degrees of the horizon. Aurora, the goddefs of the morning, according to the Pagan mythology. She wras the daughter of Hy¬ perion and Theia, according to Hefiod ) but of Titan and Terra, according to others. It was under this name that the ancients deified the light which foreruns the rifing of the fun above our hemifphere. The poets reprefent her as rifing out of the ocean, in a chariot, with rofy fingers dropping gentle dewr. Virgil defcribes her afcendihg in a flame-coloured chariot with four horfes. Aurora, one of the New Hebrides iflands in the South fea, in which Mr Forfler fuppofes the Peak d'Etoile mentioned by Mr Bouganville to be fituated. The ifland is inhabited j but none of its inhabitants came off to vifit Captain Cook. The country is woody, and the vegetation feemed to be exceflively luxuriant. It is about 1 2 leagues long, but not above five miles broad in any part; lying nearly north and fouth. The middle lies in S. Lat. 15. 6. E. Long. 168. 24. Aurora Borealis, Northern Twilight, or Stream¬ ers ; a kind of meteor appearing in the northern part of the heavens, moftly in the winter-time, and in frofly weather. It is now fo generally known, that no defcription is requifite of the appearance w’hich it ufually makes in this country. But it is in the arc¬ tic regions that it appears in perfeftion, particularly during the folftice. In the Schetland iflands, the merry dancers, as they are there called, are the con- llant attendants of clear evenings, and prove great re¬ liefs amidfl: the gloom of the long winter flights. They commonly appear at twfilight near the horizon, of a dun colour, approaching to yellow; fometimes conti¬ nuing in that ffate for feveral hours wfithout any fen- fible motion; after wdiich they break out into llreams of ftronger light, fpreading into columns, and altering fiowly into ten thoufand different fliapes, varying their colours from all the tints of yellow to the obfcureft ruffet. They often cover the whole hemifphere, and then make the moft brilliant appearance. Their mo¬ tions at thefe times are moft amazingly quick ; and they aftonilh the fpeftator with the rapid change of their form. They break out in places where none w7ere feen before fkimming brilkly along the heavens ; are fuddenly extinguifhed, and leave behind an uniform 2 8 1 A U R dufky tra£L This again is brilliantly illuminated in Aurora the lame manner, and as fuddenly left a dull blank. ,'Boreal!S- In certain nights they affume the appearance of vaft columns, on one fide of the deepeft yellow, on the other declining away till it becomes undiltinguifhed \ from the Iky. They have generally a ftrong tremulous motion from end to end, which continues till the whole vaniihes. In a word, W'e, who only fee the extremi¬ ties of thefe northern phenomena, have but a faint idea of their fplendour and their motions. According to the ftate of the atmofphere, they differ in colours. They often put on the colour of blood, and make a moft dreadful appearance. The ruftic iages become prophetic, and terrify the .gazing fpedlators with the dread of w7ar, peftilence, and famine. This fuperfti- tion w7as not peculiar to the northern iflands; nor are thefe appearances of recent date. The ancients called them Chafmata, and Trabes, and Bolides, according to their forms or colours. 1 In old times they were extremely rare, and on that Ufis mete account were the more taken notice ofi From the days of Plutarch to thofe of our fage hiftorian Sir Richard Baker, they were fuppofed to have been portentous of great events, and timid imagination ftiaped them into aerial confiifts: or formeil very rave. Fierce fiery warriors fight upon the clouds In ranks and fquadrons and right form of wrar. Dr Halley tells us, that when he faw a great auro¬ ra borealis in 1716, he had begun to defpair of ever feeing one at all; none having appeared, at leaft in any confiderable degree, from the time he w'as born till then. Notwithftanding this long interval, however, it feems that in fome periods the aurora borealis had been feen much more frequently ; and perhaps this, as well as other natural phenomena, may have fome ftated times of returning. ^ The only thing that refembles a diftimff hlftory of Hiftory br this phenomenon, is what we have from the learned Pr Halley. Dr Halley, Phil. Tranf. N° 347. The firft account he gives, is of the appearance of what is called by the author burning [pears, and w7as feen at London on Ja¬ nuary 30th, 1560. This account is taken from a book entitled, A Defcription of Meteors, by IV. F. D. D. and reprinted at London in 1654. The next appearance, on the teftimony of Stow7, was on October 7th, 1564. In 1574 alfo, according to Camden, and Stow above- mentioned, an aurora borealis w7as obferved twro nights fucceflively, viz. on the 14th and 15th of November, with much the fame appearances as defcribed by Dr Halley in 1716, and which we now fo frequently ob- ferve. Again, the fame was twice feen in Brabant, in the year 1575; viz. on the 13th of February and 28th of September. Its appearances at both thefe times were defcribed by Cornelius Gemma, profeffor of medicine in the univerfity of Louvain, who compares them to fpears, fortified cities, and armies fighting in the air. After this, Michael Mreftlin, tutor to the great Kepler, affures us, that at Baknang in the county of Wurtem- berg in Germany, thefe phenomena, which he ftyles chafmata, w7ere feen by himfelf no lefs than feven times in 1580. In 1581, thej again appeared in an extra¬ ordinary manner in April and September, and in a lefs degree at fome other times of the fame year. In 1621, September 2d, this phenomenon was obferved all over France, Aurora Borealis. 3 MrFor- fter’s ac¬ count of fimilar ap¬ pearances in the fouthern hemi- iphere. Rifes very high. * See Atmo Jphtrc. A U R t 279 J A U R France, and defcribed by GaiTendus, who gave it the name of aurora borealis : yet neither this, nor any fi- milar appearances pofterior to 1574, are defcribed by Engliih writers till the year 1707 ; which, as Dr Hal¬ ley obferves, (hows the prodigious negledl of curious matters which at that time prevailed. From 1621 to 1707, indeed, there is no mention made of an aurora borealis being feen by any body ; and confidering the number of aftronomers who during that period were in a manner continually poring on the heavens, we may very reafonably conclude that no fuch thing did make its appearance till after an interval of 86 years. In 1707, a fmall one was feen in November ; and during that year and the next, the fame appearances were re¬ peated five times. The next on record is that men¬ tioned by Dr Halley in March 1715 —16, the bril¬ liancy of which attracted univerfal attention, and by the vulgar was confidered as marking the introduflion of a foreign race of princes. Since that time thofe me¬ teors have been fo common, that no accounts have been kept of them. It was for a long time a matter of doubt whether this meteor made its appearance only in the northern hemifphere, or whether it was alfo to be obferved near the fouth pole. This is now afcertained by Mr For- fter ; wdio in his late voyage round the world along with Captain Cook, affures us, that he obferved them in the high fouthern latitudes, though with phenome¬ na fomewhat different from thofe which are feen here. On Feb. 17. 1773, as they were in Lat. 58° fouth, “ A beautiful phenomenon (fays he) was obferved du¬ ring the preceding night, winch appeared again this and feveral following nights. It confided ®f long co¬ lumns of a clear white light, fhooting up from the ho¬ rizon to the eaftw'ard, almoft to the zenith, and gra¬ dually fpreading on the whole fouthern pail of the iky. Thefe columns wrere fometimes bent fidewife at their upper extremities ; and though in mod refpedls fimilar to the northern lights {aurora borealis J of our hemifphere, yet differed from them in being always of a whitifh colour, whereas ours aifume various tints, efpecially thofe of a fiery and purple hue. The fky was generally clear when they appeared, and the air lharp and cold, the thermometer Handing at the freezing- point.” Dr Halley obferved that the aurora borealis defcri¬ bed by him arofe to a prodigious height, it being feen from the wed of Ireland to the confines of Ruflia and Poland on the ead ; nor did he know how much further it might have been vifible ; fo that it extended at lead 30 degrees in longitude, and from Lat. 500 north it was feen over all the northern part of Europe j and what was very furprifing, in all thofe places where it was vi¬ fible, the fame appearances were exhibited w'hich Dr Halley obferved at London. He obferves, with feem- ing regret, that he could by no means detex-mine its height, for want of obfervations made at different pla¬ ces othenvife he might as eafily have calculated the height of this aurora borealis, as he did of the fiery -globe in 1719 *. To other philofophers, however, he gives the following exhortation.. “ When therefore for the future any fuch thing (hall happen, all thofe that are curious in adronomical matters are hereby admonijhed and entreated to fet their clocks to the ap¬ parent time at London, for example, by allowing fa many minutes as is the difference of meridians 5 and Aurora then to note, at the end of every half hour precifely, the Borealis, exadl fituation of w'hat at that time appears remarkable 'r~~ in the fky *, and particularly the azimuths of thofe very tall pyramids fo eminent above the red, and there¬ fore likely to be feen furthed : to the intent that, by comparing thefe obfervations taken at the fame mo¬ ment in didant places, the difference of their azimuths may ferve to determine how far thefe pyramids are di ¬ dant from us.” This advice of Dr Halley feems to have been totally negledled by all the philofophical peo¬ ple in his country. In other countries, however, they have been more indudrious. Father Bofcovich has determined the height of an aurora borealis, obferved on the 16th of December 1737 by the marquis of Po- leni, to have been 825 miles high \ the celebrated Mr Bergman, from a mean of 30 computations, makes the average height of the aurora borealis to be 70 Swe- dilh, or upwards of 460 Englilh miles. Euler fuppofes it to be feveral thoufands of miles high ; and Mai- ran alfo affigns them a very elevated region. In the 74th volume of the Philofophical Tranfaclions, Dr Blagden, when fpeaking of the height of fome fiery meteors, tells us, that the “ aurora borealis appears to occupy as high, if not a higher region above the fur- face of the eai-th, as may be judged from the very didant countries to which it has been vifible at the fame time.” The height of thefe meteors, however, none of which appear to have exceeded or even ar¬ rived at the height of a hundred miles, mud appear trifling in comparifon of the vad elevations above mentioned. But thefe enormous heights, varying fo exceedingly, (how that the calculators have not had proper data to proceed upon •, and indeed the immenfe extent of fpace occupied by the aurora borealis itfelf, with its condant motion, mud make it infinitely more difficult to determine the height of it than of a fiery globe, which occupies but a fmall portion of the vifi¬ ble heavens. The mod certain method of making a comparifon betwixt the aurora borealis and the meteors already mentioned, would be, if a ball of fire flxould happen to pafs through the fame part of the heavens where an aurora borealis was 5 when the comparative height of both could eafily be afcertained. One in¬ dance of this only has come under our obfervation, where one of the finall meteors, called falling fars^ was evidently obfeured by an aurora borealis j and there¬ fore mud have been higher than the lower part of the latter at lead. A fingularity in this meteor was, that it did not proceed in a draight line through the hea¬ vens, as is ufual with falling dars, but defcribed a very confiderable arch of a circle, riling in the north-wed, and proceeding fouthward a confiderable way in the arch of a circle, and difappearing in the north.. Its edges were ill defined, and five or fix corrufcations feemed to iffue from it like the rays painted as iffuing from dars. The aurora borealis was not in motion, but had dege¬ nerated into a crepufculum in the northern part of the hemifphere. Indeed, in fome cafes this kind of crepuf- culum appears fo plainly to be connefled with the clouds, that we can fcarcely avoid fuppofing it to pro¬ ceed from them. We cannot, however, argue from this to the height of the aurora borealis when it moves with great velocity, becaufe it then may, and very probably dees, afeend much higher. Dr Blstgden, in- A U R [ 280 ] A U R Aurora deed, informs us, that infiances are recorded, where the ,Borealis, northern lights have been feento^join, and form lu¬ minous balls, darting about with great velocity, and even leaving a train like the common fire-balls. It would feem, therefore, that the higheft regions of the aurora borealis are the fame with thofe in which fire 5 balls move. Conjectures With regard to the caufe of the aurora borealis concerning^ariy conje£tures have been formed. The firft which th's meteor natura^ly occurred was, that it was occafioned by the afeent of inflammable fulphureous vapours from the earth. To this fuppofltion Dr Halley objects the im- menfe extent of fuch phenomena, and that they are conftantly obferved to proceed from north to fouth, but never from fouth to north. This made him very reafonably conclude, that there was fome connexion between the poles of the earth and the aurora borealis j but being unacquainted with the eleftric power, he fuppofed, that this earth was hollow, having within it a magnetical fphere, which correfponded in virtue with all the natural and artificial magnets on the furface j and the magnetic effluvia pafling through the earth, from one pole of the central magnet to another, might fometimes become vifible, in their courfe, which he thought was from north to fouth, and thus exhibit the beautiful Corufcations of the aurora borealis. Had Dr Halley, however, known that a ftroke of eleflrici- ty would give polarity to a needle that had it not, or reverfe the poles of one that had it before, he would undoubtedly have concluded the ele&ric and magnetic effluvia to be the fame, and that the aurora borealis was this fluid performing its circulation from one pole of the earth to the other. In faft, this very hypothe- lis is adapted by S. Beccaria : and by the fuppofed cir¬ culation of the eleftric fluid he accounts for the pheno¬ mena of magnetifm and the aurora borealis in a manner perfeftly fimilar to that of Dr Halley, only changing the phrafe magnetic effluvia for eledric fluid. The fol¬ lowing is the account given us by Dr Prieflley of Bec- caria’s fentiments on this matter. “ Since a fudden ftroke of lightning gives polarity to magnets, he conje6!ures, that a regular and conftant circulation of the whole mafs of the fluid from north to fouth may be the original caufe of magnetifm in gene¬ ral. “ That this ethereal current is infenfible to us, is no proof of its non-exiflence, fince we ourfelves are invol¬ ved in it. He had feen birds fly fo near a thunder¬ cloud, as he was fure they would not have done had they been affefted by its atmofphere. “ This current he would not fuppofe to arife from one fource, but from feveral, in the northern hemi- fphere, of the earth ; and he thinks that the aurora borealis may be this eleflric matter performing its circulation in fuch a ftate of the atmofphere as renders it vifible, or approaching the earth nearer than ufual. Accordingly, very vivid appearances of this kind have been obferved to occafion a flucluation in the magnetic needle.” A direfl difproof of this circulation, however, is fur- niflied by the obfervation of Mr Forfier already men¬ tioned : with which, though neither Dr Halley nor S. Beccaria could be acquainted, they might have thought of it as a final proof either of the truth or falfehood of their hypothefis.—If the aurora borealis is no other I than the ele£fric fluid performing the above-mentioned Aurora circulation, it ought to dart from the horizon towards t ^•orcal‘s- the zenith in the northern hemifphere, and from the ze- v nith to the horizon in the fouthern one: but Mr Forfter plainly tells us, that the columns {hot up from the hori¬ zon towards the zenith as well in the fouthern hemi¬ fphere as in the northern; fo that if the aurora borealis is to be reckoned the jflafliings of electric matter, its courfe is plainly diredted from both poles toward the equator, and not from one pole to the other. Concerning the caufe of this phenomenon, Mr Can¬ ton has the following query : “ Is not the aurora bo¬ realis the flaflung of eledtrical fire from pofitive towards negative clouds at a great diftance, through the upper part of the atmofphere where the refiftance is leafl But to this we muft reply in the negative j for in this cafe it would flaflr in every diredtion according to the pofition of the clouds, as well as from north to fouth. Befides this query, he conjedlures, that when the needle is ditturbed by the aurora borealis, that pheno¬ menon proceeds from the electricity of the heated air ; and fuppofes the air to have the property of becoming eledlric by heat, like the tourmalin. But neither does this hypothefis appear at all probable \ becaufe, in fuch a cafe, the aurora borealis ought to be moll frequent in fummer when the air is moft heated, whereas it is found to be the reverfe. Laftly, with thefe eledfri- cal hypothefes we fhall contraft that of Mr Mairan, wdio imagined this phenomenon to proceed from the atmofphere of the fun, particles of which were thrown off by its centrifugal force acquired by his rotation on his axis ; and that thefe particles falling upon the at¬ mofphere of the earth near its equatorial parts, wrere from thence propelled by the diurnal motion of the earth towards the polar regions, wdiere they formed the aurora borealis. This hypothefis, befides its being a mere fuppofition unfupported by one Angle appear¬ ance in nature, is liable to the objedlion already men- . tioned ; for in this cafe the light fhould dart from the equator to the poles, and not from the poles to the equator : or if we fhould fuppofe this matter to be gra¬ dually accumulated at each of the poles, w'e muft then make other fuppofitions equally vague and ill founded, concerning its getting back with Inch furprifing rapi¬ dity in direft oppofition to the power which once brought it thither. The firft perfon who feems to have endeavoured to find any pofitive proof of the electrical quality of the aurora borealis, was Dr Hamilton of Dublin. He ob- ferves, that though this phenomenon is commonly fup¬ pofed to be eleCtrical, yet he had not feen any attempt to prove that it is fo ; but the only proof he himfelf brings is an experiment of Mr Hawkfbee, by which the eleCtric fluid is {hown to put on appearances fome- what like the aurora borealis, when it paffes through a vacuum. He obferved, that when the air was moft perfectly exhaufted, the ftreams of eleCtric matter were then quite white \ but when a fmall quantity of air wras let in, the light affumed more of a purple colour. The flalhing of this light therefore from the denfe re¬ gions of the atmofphere into fuch as are more rare, and the tranfitions through mediums of different denfity, he reckons the caufe of the aurora borealis, and of the different colours it affumes. Dr Hamilton’s proof, then, of the eleClricity of the A U R * [ 281 ] A U R Aurora tlie aurora borealis, conlifts entirely in the refemblance borealis, the trvo lights beat to one another j and if to this we v that, during the time of an aurora borealis, the magnetic needle hath been difturbed, eleflric fire ob¬ tained from the atmofphere in plenty, and at fome times different kinds of rumbling and hiffing founds heard, we have the fum of all the pofitive evidence in favour of the eleftric hypothefis. Was the aurora borealis the firfi: natural phenome¬ non the folution of which had been attempted by elec¬ tricity, no doubt the proofs juft now adduced would be very infufficient: but when it is confidered, that we have indifputable evidence of the identity of the phe¬ nomena of thunder and of ele&ricity j when we alfo confider, that the higher parts of our atmofphere are continually in a ftrongly electrified ftate ; the analogy becomes fo ftrong that we can fcarce doubt of the au¬ rora borealis arifmg from the fame caufe. The only difficulty is, to give a good reafon why the eleCtricity of the atmofphere fhould be conftantly found to direCt its courfe from the poles towards the equator, and not from the equator to the poles •, and this we think may be done in the following manner. See Eltc- I. It is found that all ele&ric bodies, when confi- tricity paf- derably heated, become conduftors of eleClricity ; thus fim. ^ hot glafs, melted rofin, fealing-wax, &c. are all conductors, till their heat is diflipated, and then they again become eleCtrics. 2. As the converfe of every true propofition ought alfo to be true, it follows from the above one, that if eleCtrics when heated become conductors, then non- eleCtrics when fubjeCted to violent degrees of cold ought to become eleCtric. In one inftance this has been verified by experience ; water, which is a conduc¬ tor when warm or not violently cooled, is found to be¬ come eleCtric when cooled to 20° below o of Fahren¬ heit’s thermometer. With regard to metallic fubftan- ces, indeed, no experiments have as yet been made to determine whether their conducting power is affeCted by cold or not. Very probably we might not be able to produce fuch a degree of cold as fenfibly to leffen their conduaing power •, but ftill the analogy will hold ; and, as we are by no means able to produce the greateft degree of cold poffible, reafon will always fug- geft to us, that if a certain degree of cold changes one conduaor into an ekaric, a fuffident degree of it will alfo change all others into ekarics. 3. If cold is fulficient to change conduaing fub- ftances into ekarics, it muft alfo increafe the ekaric power of fuch fubftances as are already ekaric •, that is to fay, very cold air, glafs, rofin, &c. provided they are dry, will be more ekaric than when they are warmer. With regard to air, which is moft to our prefent purpofe, this is rendered extremely probable, by confidering that clear frofty weather is of all others the moft favourable for ekaric experiments. They mav be made indeed to equal advantage almoft in any ftate of the atmofphere, provided fufficient pains are ufed, but in dry hard frofts they will fucceed much more eafily than at any other time. Thefe three axioms being allowed, the caufe of the aurora borealis is eafily deduced from them. T he air, all round the globe, at a certain height above its fur- face, is found to be exceedingly cold, and, as far as experiments have yet determined^ exceedingly ekclri- Vol. III. Part I. cal alfo. The inferior parts of the atmofphere between Aurora the tropics, are violently heated during the day-time B°reak^ by the reflexion of the fun’s rays from the earth. * ^ Such air will therefore be a kind of condu£tor, and much more readily part with its electricity to the clouds and vapours floating in it, than the colder air torvards the north and fouth poles. Hence the prodi¬ gious appearances of eleftricity in thefe regions, ftrow- ing itfelf in thunder and other tempefts of the moft terrible kind. Immenie quantities of the eleCtric fluid are thus communicated to the earth ; and the inferior warm atmofphere having once exhaufted itfelf, muft ne- ceflarily be recruited from the upper and colder re¬ gion. This becomes very probable from what the French mathematicians obferved when on the top of one of the Andes. They tvere often involved in clouds, which, finking down into the warmer air, ap¬ peared there to be highly eleftrifled, and difcharged themfelves in violent tempefts of thunder and light¬ ning *, while in the mean time, on the top of the mountain, they enjoyed a calm and ferene fky. In the temperate and frigid zones, the inferior parts of the atmofphere never being fo ftrongly heated, do not part with their ekftricity fo eafily as in the torrid zone, and confequently do not require fuch recruits from the upper regions : but notwithftanding the difference of heat obferved in different parts of the earth near the furface, it is very probable that at confiderable heights the degrees of cold are nearly equal all round it. Were there a like equality in the heat of the under part, there could never be any confiderable lofs of equili¬ brium in the eleftricity of the atmofphere : but as the hot air of the torrid zone is perpetually bringing down vaft quantities of ekftric matter from the cold air that lies diredly above it j and as the inferior parts of the atmofphere lying towards the north and fouth poles do not conduft in any great degree j it thence follows, that the upper parts of the atmofphere lying over the torrid zone will continually require a fupply from the northern and fouthern regions. This eafily fliows the neceflity of an eleftric current in the upper parts of the atmofphere from each pole towards the equator : and thus we are alfo furniftied with a reafon why the au- » rora borealis appears more frequently in winter than in fummer *, namely, becaufe at that time the ele&ric power of the inferior atmofphere is greater on account of the cold than in fummer 5 and conkquently the abundant ekftricity of the upper regions muft go al¬ moft wholly off to the equatorial parts, it being impof- fible for it to get down to the earth : hence alfo the aurora borealis appears very frequent and bright in the frigid zones, the degree of cold in the upper and un¬ der regions of the atmofphere being much more nearly equal in thefe parts than in any other. In fome parts of Siberia particularly, this meteor appears conftantly from October to Chriftmas, and its corufcations are faid to be very terrifying. Travellers agree, that here the aurora borealis appears in greateft perfe&ion j and • it is to be remarked, that Siberia is the coldeft coun¬ try on earth. In confirmation of this, it may alfo be obferved, that, from the experiments. hithexto made with the eleftrical kite, the air appears confiderably more electrical in winter than in fummer, though the clouds are known to be often moft violently eleCtrified in the fummer time 5 a proof, that the eleCtricity na- N n turally A U R [ 28 turally belonging to the air is in fummer much more powerfully drawn off by the clouds than in the winter, owdng to the excels of heat in fummer, as already ob- ferved. A confiderable difficulty, however, ftill remains from the upright polition which the ftreams of the aurora borealis are generally fuppofed to have ; whereas, ac¬ cording to the hypothefis above mentioned, they ought rather to run direftly from north to fouth. This dif¬ ficulty occurred to Dr Halley : but he anfwers it by fuppofing his magnetic effluvia to pafs from one pole to another in arches of great circles, arifing to a vaft height above the earth, and confequently darting from the places whence they arofe almoft like the radii of a circle ; in which cafe, being fent off in a direction near¬ ly perpendicular to the furface of the earth, they muff neceffarily appear ereff to thofe who fee them from any part of the furface, as is demonftrated by mathemati¬ cians. It is alio reafonable to think that they v,'ill take this dire&ion rather than any other, on account of their meeting with lefs refiffance in the very high regions of the air than in fuch as are lower. But the greateft difficulty ftill remains : for we have fuppofed the equilibrium of the atmofphere to be bro¬ ken in the daytime, and reftored only in the night j whereas, confidering the iinmenfe velocity with which the eleftric fluid moves, the equilibrium ought to be reffored in all parts almoff inftantaneoufiy •, yet the au- tora borealis never appears except in the night, al¬ though its brightnefs is fuch as muff fometimes make it vifible to us did it really exift in the daytime. In anfwer to this it muff be obferved, that though the paffage of eleftricity through a good conductor is inftantaneous, yet through a bad conduflor it is ob¬ ferved to take fome time in paffing. As our atmo¬ fphere therefore, unlefs very violently heated, is but a bad conduftor of eleflricity ; though the equilibrium in it is broken, it can by no means be inftantaneoufiy reftored. Add to this, that as it is the action of the fun which breaks the equilibrium, fo the fame a&ion, extending over half the globe, prevents almoft any at¬ tempt to reftore it till night, when daffies arife from various parts of the atmofphere, gradually extending themfelves with a variety of undulations towards the equator. It now remains to explain only one particularity of the aurora borealis, namely, that its ftreams do not al¬ ways move with rapidity •, fometimes appearing quite ilationary for a confiderable time, and fometimes being carried in different direftions wuth a flow motion. To this indeed we can give no other reply, than that weak eleftric lights have been fometimes obferved to put on the fame appearance at the furface of the earth : and much more may we fuppofe them capable of doing fo at great heights above it, where the conductors are both fewer in number and much more imperfeCt. When M. de Romas was making experiments with an eleftric kite in Italy, a cylinder of blue light about four or five inches diameter was obferved furrounding the firing. This was in the daytime •, but had it been night, he imagined it muft have been four or five feet In diameter 5 and as the firing was ■'jSo feet long, it would probably have feemed pyramidal, pointing up¬ wards like one of the ftreams of the aurora borealis. A ftill ijiore remarkable appearance, Dr Prieftley tells 2 ] A u R us, was obferved by Mr Hartman. He had been ma¬ king eleftrical experiments for four or five hours toge¬ ther in a very fmall room ; and upon going out of it, and returning with a light in his hand, walking pret¬ ty quick, he perceived a fmall flame following him at about three feet diftance. Being alarmed at this ap¬ pearance, he flopped to examine it, upon which it va- nifhed. This lafl inflance is very remarkable, and An¬ gular in its kind : from both, however, we are fuffici- ently warranted to conclude, that fmall portions of our atmofphere may by various caufes be fo much ele&ri- fied as to flume, and likewife be moved from one place to another without parting with the eleftricity they have received, for a confiderable time. The corona, or circle, -which is often formed near the zenith by the aurora borealis, is eafily accounted for in the fame manner. As this corona is commonly fta- tionary for fome time, we imagine it would be a very proper mark wffiereby to determine the diftance of the meteor itfelf. If an aurora borealis, for inftance, was obferved by two perfons, one at London, and the other at Edinburgh ; by noting the liars among which the corona -was obferved at each place, its true altitude from the furface of the earth could eafily be determin¬ ed by trigonometry. Under the article Atmosphere it was fuggefted, that no good proof had been as yet brought for the extreme rarity of the air ufually fuppofed to take place at no very great heights above the earth. The bright¬ nefs of the meteor there mentioned at 70 miles perpen¬ dicular from the furface, as alfo its figure, feemed to prove the air confiderably denfer at that diftance from the earth. Though the height of the aurora borealis has never been determined, we can fcarce imagine it to be greater than that of this meteor, or indeed fo great : but although its ftreams refemble the paffage of elec¬ tric light through a vacuum, it cannot be from thence inferred, that the air is at all in a flate fimilar to the vacuum of an air-pump in thofe places where the auro¬ ra borealis is produced j feeing we have inllances of fi¬ milar appearances being produced in vfery denfe air. The plate of an eleftrophorus is often fo highly eleclri- fied, as to throw out flafhes from different parts as foon as it is lifted up, and by proper management it may be always made to emit long and broad flafhes which fhall fcarcely be felt by the finger, inflead of fmall, denfe, and pungent fparks ; fo that, though long fiafti- es may be produced in rarefied air, it by no means fol¬ lows, that the lame may not alfo be produced in denf¬ er air. As little can -we infer any thing from the co¬ lours } for we obferve the eledlric fpark fometimes white, fometimes blue, and fometimes purple, in the very fame ftate of the atmofphere, and from the fame fubftance. The aurora borealis is faid to be attended with a pe¬ culiar hiffing noife in fome very cold climates; Gme- lin fpeaks of it in the moft pointed terms, as frequent and very loud in the north-eaftern parts of Siberia j and other travellers have related fimilar fadls. Gmelin’s account is very remarkable. “ Thefe northern lights- (fays he) begin with fingle bright pillars, rifing in the north, and almoft at the fame time in the north-eaft, which gradually increafmg, comprehend a Hrge (pace of the heavens, rufli about from place to place with in¬ credible velocity, and finally almoft cover the whole iky Aurora Borealis. A U R [ 283 ] A U S The ftreams are then feen meet- obferved, that ele&rified bodies are always fur rounded 6 Aurora bo¬ realis fuc- ceeded by fouth-weft winds. 1 Conjecture concerning the reafon. Iky up to the zenith, xng together in the zenith, and produce an appearance as if a vaft extent was expanded in the heavens, glit¬ tering with gold, rubies, and fapphire. A more beau¬ tiful fpectacle cannot be painted ; but whoever fliould fee fuch a northern light for the firft time, could not behold it without terror. For however fine the illumi¬ nation may be, it is attended, as I have learned from the relation of many perfons, with fuch a hiding, cracking, and rufhing noife throughout the air, as if the larged fireworks were playing off. To defcribe what they then hear, they make ufe of the exprefiion, Sf)o/ochi choJuit, that is, ‘ the raging hod is puffing.’ The hunters who purfue the white and blue foxes on the confines of the Icy fea, are often overtaken in their courfe by tbefe northern lights. Their dogs are then fo much frightened, that they will not move, but lie obdinately on the ground till the noife has palfed. Commonly clear and calm weather follows this kind of northern lights. I have beard this account, not from one perfon only, but confirmed by the uniform tedimony of many, who have fpent part of feveral years in thefe very northern regions, and inhabited dif¬ ferent countries from the Yenefei to the Lena j fo that no doubt of its truth can remain. This feems indeed to be the real birthplace of the aurora borealis.'’'' The hiding or rufhing noife above deferibed, Dr Elagden is inclined to attribute to fmall dreams of elec¬ tric matter running off to the earth from the maffes or accumulations of ele&ricity by which the northern lights are fuppofed to be produced. • We lb all conclude this article with an account of a paper prefented to the Royal Society by Mr Winn, in 1772, wherein be fays that the appearance of an au¬ rora borealis is a certain fign of a hard gale of wind from the fouth or fouth-wed. This he never found'to fail in 23 indances ; and even thinks, that from the fplendour of the meteor, fome judgment may be form¬ ed concerning the enfuing temped. If "the aurora is very bright, the gale will come on within twenty-four hours, but will be of no long duration *, if the light is faint and dull, the gale will be lefs violent, and long¬ er in coming on, but it will alfo lad longer. His ob- fervations were made in the Englida channel, where fuch winds are very dangerous ; and by attending to the auroras, he fays he often got eafily out of it, when others narrowly efcaped being wrecked. This is an exceeding ufeful obfervation for lailors : but it cannot be expefted that the winds fucceeding thefe meteors diould in all places blow from the fouth-wed j though no doubt a careful obfervation of what winds fucceed the aurora borealis, and other meteors, in different parts of the world, might contribute in fome meafure to leffen the dangers of navigation. That the aurora borealis ought to be fucceeded by winds, may be eafily deduced from the hypothefis lad mentioned. If this phenomenon is occafioned by the vad quantity of eleflric matter conveyed to the equa¬ torial parts of the earth, it is certain that the earth cannot receive any great quantity of this matter at one place without emitting it at another. The eleftricity, therefore, which is condantly received at the equator, mud be emitted nearer the poles, in order to perform its courfe, otherwife there could not be a condant fup- ply of it for the common operations of nature. . It is by a blad of air, which is fent forth from them in all direftions •, hence, if the eleftric matter find a more ^ ready paffage through one part of the earth than ano¬ ther, a wind will be found to blow from that quarter. If therefore one of thefe places happens to be in the Atlantic ocean near the coad of Fiance, or in the bay of Bifcay, the ele&ric matter which has been received at the equator during an aurora borealis will be dii- charged there fome time after, and confequently a wind will blow from that quarter, which will be from the fouth-wed to thofe {hips which are in the Englifft channel. It cannot be imagined, however, that all the matter can be difeharged from one place j and therefore according to the different fituations of thole eleftrical vents, • winds may blow in different direc¬ tions *, and thus the fame aurora borealis may produce a fouth-wed wind in the Englidi channel, and a north- wed one in Scotland. AURUM. See Gold, Chemistry, and Mine¬ ralogy Index. This metal was introduced into medicine by the A- rabians, who edeemed it one of the greated cordials and comforters of the nerves. From them Europe re¬ ceived it without any diminution of its chaiafter 5 in foreign pharmacopoeias it is dill retained, and,even mixed with the ingredients from which fimple waters are to be didilled. But no one, it is prefumed, at this time expe<3:s any fingular virtues from it, fince it cer¬ tainly is not alterable in the human body. Mr Geof- froy, though unwilling to rejedd it from the cordial preparations, honedly acknowledges that he has no other reafon for retaining it than complaifance to the Arabian fchools. The chemids have endeavoured, by many elaborate proceffes, to extradd what they call a fulphur or anima of gold : but no method is as yet known of feparating the component parts of this me¬ tal ; all the timdures of it, and aurum potabile, which have hitherto appeared, are real folutions of it in aqua regia, diluted with fpirit of wune or other liquors, and prove injurious to the body rather than beneficial. . A place, however, is now given in fome of the foreign pharmacopoeias to the aurum fulminans; and it has of late been recommended as a remedy in fome convulfive difeafes, particularly in the chorea famdi viti. Avrvm Fulminans. See Chemistry Index. Avkvm Mo/aicum. See Chemistry Index. AURUNCI, in Ancient Geography, a people of La- tium, towards Campania j the lame wuth the Aufones, at lead fo intermixed as not to be eafily didinguidi- able, though Pliny feparates them. AUSA, a town of Tarraconenfis, in the middle age called Aufona ; now Vich de Ofuna, a town of Ca¬ talonia in Spain. E. Long. 2. O. N. Lat. 41. 5°' AUSCH. See Auch. AUSI, an ancient and very favage people of Li¬ bya. Herodotus tells us that they w^ere unacquainted with marriage, and had all their women in common. The children were brought up by their mothers till they were able to walk : after which they were intro¬ duced to an affembly of the men, who met every three months j and the man to whom any child fird fpoke, acknOwdedged himfelf its father. They celebrated annually a fead in honour of Minerva, in which the girls divided iuto two companies, fought with dicks N n 2 and An mm it Aufi. Aufimum II. Aufonius. -A U S ^ f 284 ] A U S and ftones, and thofe who died of their wounds were concluded not to have been virgins. , AUSIMUM, or Auximum, an ancient Roman co¬ lony in the Picenum } now OJi?no or Ofmo, in the marqui- fate of Ancona in Italy. E. Long. 15. N. Lat. 43. 20. AUSITiE, or tEsitte, a tribe of ancient Arabs, fuppofed by Bochart to have inhabited the land of Uz mentioned in Scripture. AUSONA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Aufones, a people who anciently occupied all the Lowr- er Italy, from the Promontorium Circaeum down to the flraits of Sicily (Livy), but were afterwards re¬ duced to a much narrower compafs 5 namely, between the Montes Circaei and Maflici: nor did they occupy the whole of this, but other people were intermixed. Concerning Aufona or its remains there is nothing par¬ ticular recorded. AUSONIA, the ancient name of Italy, from its moft ancient inhabitants the Aufones, (Virgil, Ser- vius). AUSONEUM mare, in Ancient Geography, apart of the Ionian fea, extending fouthwards from the pro¬ montory Japygium to Sicily, w-hich it walhes on the eaft, as it does the Bruttii and Magna Graecia on the fouth and eaft. It is feparated from the Tufcan fea by the ftrait of Medina. AUSONIUS (in Latin, Decius, or rather Decinius, Magnus Aufonius), one of the beft poets of the fourth century, was the fon of an eminent phyfician, and born at Bourdeaux. Great care was taken of his education, the whole family interefting themfelves in it, either be- caufe his genius w-as very promifing, or that the fcheme of his nativity, which had been call by his grandfather on the mother’s lide, made them imagine that he would rife to great honour. He made an uncommon pro- grefs in claflical learning, and at the age of 30 was chofen to teach grammar at Bourdeaux. He was promoted fome time after to be profeffor of rhetoric $ in which office he acquired fo great a reputation, that he was fent for to court to be preceptor to Gratian the emperor Valentinian’s fon. The rewards and honours conferred on him for the faithful difcharge of his of¬ fice prove the truth of Juvenal’s maxim, that when For¬ tune pleafes, ffie can raife a man from a rhetorician to the dignity of a conful. He was aftually appointed conful by the emperor Gratian, in the year 379, after having filled other confiderable polls 5 for befides the dignity of quteftor, to which he had been nominated by Valentinian, he was made prefefl of the prmtorium in Italy and Gaul after that prince’s death. His fpeech returning thanks to Gratian on his promotion to the confulihip is highly commended. The time of his death is uncertain j he was Hill living in 392, and lived to a great age. The emperor Theodofius had a great efteem for Aufonius, and preffed him to publiffi his poems. There is a great inequality in his wrorks 5 and in his manner and his ftyle there is a harlhnefs which was perhaps rather the deleft of the times he lived in than of his genius. Had he lived in Au- guftus’s reign, his verfes, according to good judges, would have equalled the moft finilhed of that, age. He is generally fuppofed to have been a Chriftian : fome ingenious authors indeed think otherwife, but, according to Mr Bayle, without juft reafon. The beft edition of his poems is that of Amfterdam in Aufpex 1671. || . AUSPEX, a name originally given thofe wffio , Au^a‘ were afterwards denominated augurs. In which fenfe the word is fuppofed to be formed from avis, “ bird,” and infpicere, “ to infpeft ; aufpices, q. d. avifpices. Some will therefore have aufpices properly to denote thofe who foretold future events from the flight of birds. AUSPICIUM, Auspicy, the fame with augury. AUSTER, one of the four cardinal winds, as Ser- vius calls them,ffielowin'g from the fouth, (Pliny, Ovid, Manilius.) AUSTERE, rough, aftringent. Thus an auftere tafte is fuch a one as conftringes the mouth and tongue : as that of unripe fruits, harffi wines, &c. AUSTERITY, among moral writers, implies Se¬ verity and rigour. Thus we fay, aujierity of manners, aujlerities of the monaf ic life, &c. AUSTIN, Sr. See St Augustin. AUSTRAL, Australis, the fame with fouthern. The word is derived irom aufer, “ fouth wind.” Thus aultral figns are the fix laft figns of the zodiac j fo called becaufe they are on the fouth fide of the equi- noftial. AUSTRALIS PISCIS, the Southern Fish, is a conftellation of the fouthern hemifphere, not vifible in our latitude j whofe ftars in Ptolemy’s catalogue are 18, and in the Britannic catalogue 24. AUSTRIA, one of the principal provinces of the empire of Germany towards the eaft $ from wffiich fi- tuation it takes its name Oof-rych, in the German lan¬ guage fignifying the Eafl Country. It is bounded on the north by Moravia j on the eaft by Hungary j on the fouth by Stiria ; and on the weft by Bavaria. It is divided into Upper and Lower. Upper Auftria is fituated on the fouth, and Lower Auftria on the north fide of the Danube. Vienna the capital is in Up- - per Auftria, which contains feveral other very confi¬ derable towns. The country is very fertile, has a great many mines, and produces vaft quantities of fulphur. In the ninth and tenth centuries, Auftria was the frontier of the empire againft the barbarians. In 928, the emperor Henry the Fowler, perceiving that it was of great importance to fettle fome perfon in Auftria who might oppofe thefe incurfions, invefted Leopold, furnamed the Illujlrious, with that country. Otho I. erefted Auftria into a marquifate in favour of his bro¬ ther-in-law Leopold, whole defeendant Henry II. was created duke of Auftria by the emperor Frederic Bar- barofla. His pofterity becoming extinft in 1 240, the ftates of the country, in order to defend themfelv£s from the incurfions of the Bavarians and Hungarians, refolved to put themfelves under the proteftion of Henry marquis of Mifnia ‘, but Othogar II. king of Bohemia, being likew'ife invited by a party in the duchy, took poffeffion of it, alleging not only the invitation of the ftates, but alfo the right of his wife, heirefs of Frederic the laft duke. The emperor Rodolphus I. pretending a right to this duchy, refufed to give Othogar the in- veftiture of it j and afterwards killing him in a battle, procured the right of it to his own family. From this Rhodolphus the prefent houfe of Auftria is defeended, which A U S F 285 ] A U S Auftria. which for feveral centuries pafl has rendered itfelf fo famous and fo powerful, having given 14 emperors to Germany, and fix kings to Spain. In 1477, Auftria was erefted into an archduchy by the emperor Frederic the Pacific for his fon Maximi¬ lian, with thefe privileges : That thefe {hall be judged to have obtained the inveftiture of the ftates, if they do not receive it after having demanded it three times 5 that if they receive it from the emperor, or the impe¬ rial ambaffadors, they are to be on horfeback, clad in a royal mantle, having in their hand a ftaff of command, and upon their head a ducal crown of two points, and furrounded with a crofs like that of the imperial crown. The archduke is born privy-counfellor to the emperor, and his ftates cannot be put to the ban of the empire. All attempts againft his perfon are punilhed as crimes of lefe-majefiy, in the fame manner as thofe againit the king of the Romans, or eledlors. No one dared to ■ challenge him to fingle combat. It is in his choice to affift at the afiemblies, or to be abfent; and he has the privilege of being exempt from contributions and pu¬ blic taxes, excepting 12 foldiers which he is obliged to maintain againft; the Turks for one month. He has rank immediately after the electors j and exercifes ju- ftice in his ftates without appeal, by virtue of a pri-- vilege granted by Charles V. His fubje&s cannot even be fummoned out of his province upon account of law-fuits, to give witnefs, or to receive the in¬ veftiture of fiefs. Any of the lands of the empire may be alienated in his favour, even thofe that are feudal j and he has a right to create counts, barons, gentle¬ men, poets, and notaries. In the fucceflion to his ftates, the right of birth takes place; and, failing males, the females fucceed according to the lineal right, and, if no heir be found, they may difpofe of their lands as they pleafe Schloflfer, in his Political Journal, w’hich contains an' Auft account of the population of Auftria, eftimates that" ' ^ of this country at 2,ico,oco men. The revenue! amounts to about 14,000,000 of florins, of which the! city of Vienna contributes above five, as one man in the] capital earns as much as three in the country. The fouthern parts of Auftria are covered with hills,: which rife gradually from the banks of the Danube to, the borders of Stiria, and are covered with woods.; They lofe themfelves in the mafs of mountains which , run to the fouth of Germany, and ftretch through all’ Stiria, Camiola, Carinthia, and Tyrol, to the Swifs; Alps j and are probably, after Savoy and Switzerland,' the higheft part of the earth. The inhabitants of this extenfive ridge of mountains are all very much alike j they are a ftrong, large, and, the Goitres excepted, a very handfome people. The charafteriftic of the inhabitants of all this country is linking bigotry, united wdth ftriking fen- fuality. You need only fee what is going forwards here to be convinced that the religion taught by the monks is as ruinous to the morals as it is repugnant to Chriftianity. The Cicilbeos accompany the mar¬ ried women from their bed to church, and lead them to the very confeflional. The bigotry of the public in the interior parts of Auftria, which from the mix-- ture of gallantry with it, is ftill to be found even amongft people of rank, degenerates amongft the com¬ mon people into the groffeft and moft abominable buf¬ foonery. The Windes, wdio are mixed with the Ger¬ mans in thefe countries, diftinguilh themfelves by a fuperftitious cuftom that does little honour to the hu¬ man underftanding, and would be incredible if we had not the moft unequivocal proofs of the fa6t before our eyes. Many years ago, they fet out in company with fome Hungarian enthufiafts to Cologne on the Rhine, Upper Auftria, properly fo called, has throughout which is about 120 German miles diftant, to cut off the appearance of a happy country. Here are no figns of the ftriking contrail betwixt poverty and riches which offends fo much in Hungary. All the inhabi¬ tants, thofe of the capital only excepted, enjoy that happy mediocrity w'hich is the confequence of a gentle and wife adminillration. The farmer has property ; and the rights of the nobility, wFo enjoy a kind of lower judicial power, are w'ell defined. The fouth and fouth- weft parts of the country are bounded by a ridge of hills, the inhabitants of which enjoy a {hare of profperity unknown to thofe of the interior parts of France. There are many villages and market towns, the inhabitants of which have bought themfelves off from vaffalage, are now their own governors, and be¬ long fome of them to the eftates of the country. The cloifters, the prelates of which belong to the eftates of the country, are the richeft in Germany, after the immediate prelacies and abbacies of the empire. One of the greateft convents of Benediftines is worth upwards of 4000 millions of French livres, half of tvhich goes to the rxchequer of the country. Lower Auftria yearly exports more than two mil¬ lions guilders worth of wine to Moravia, Bohemia, Upper Auftria, Bavaria, Saltzburgh, and part of Sti¬ ria and Carinthia. This wine is four, but has a great deal of ftrength, and may be carried all over the world without danger j when it is ten or twenty years old it is very good. This country is very well peopled. Mr the beard of a crucifix there. Every feven years this operation is repeated, as in this fpace of time the beard grows again to its former length. The rich perfons of the affociation fend the poorer ones as their depu¬ ties, and the magiftrates of Cologne receive them as ambaffadors from a foreign prince. They are enter¬ tained at the expence of the ftate, and a counfellor ftiovvs them the moft remarkable things in the towm. This farce brings in large fums of money at ftated times, and may therefore deferve political encourage¬ ment 5 but ftill, however, it is the moft miferable and meaneft way of gain that can be imagined. Thefe Windes have alone the right to {have oui> Saviour, and the beard growls only for them. They firmly believe, that if they did not do this fervice to the crucifix the earth would be ftiut to them for the next feven years, and there would be no harvefts. For this reafon they are obliged to carry the hair home with them, as the proof of having fulfilled their commiflion, the returns of which are diftributed among the different commu¬ nities, and preferved as holy relics. The imperial court has for a long time endeavoured in vain to pre¬ vent this emigration, which deprives agriculture of fo many ufeful hands. When the Windes could not go openly, they wmuld go clandeftinely. At length the court thought of the expedient of forbidding the regency of Cologne to let them enter the town. This happened fix years ago, and the numerous embaffy was-- A uft ra¬ in ancy it Autocra- tory. A U S [ 286 was obliged to beg its way back again without the wonderful beard \ which without doubt the Capuchins, to whom the crucifix belonged, ufed to put together from their own. The trade which the monks carry ' on with holy falves, oils, &c. is ftill very confiderable j a prohibition of the court, lately publilhed, has rather leffened it, but it cannot be entirely fuppreffed till next generation. It is now carried on fecretly, but perhaps to nearly as great an amount as formerly. AUSTROMANCY, Austromantia, properly denotes foothfaying, or a vain method of predi&ing futurity, from obfervations of the winds. AUTERFOITS acqu.t.1 See thc PiSJ „ AvruLfovn Auamt. ^ IndiSmenl. AVTV.RVOlTS*AcqUlt. J AUTHENTIC, fomething of acknowledged and received authority. In Law, it fignifies fomething clothed in all its formalities, and attefted by.;perfons to ' wdiom credit has been regularly given. Thus we fay, authentic papers, authentic injlruments. AUTHOR, properly fignifies one who created or produced any thing. Thus God, by w^ay of emi¬ nence, is called the Author of nature, the Author of the uuiverfe. Author, in matters of literature, a perfon wdro has compofed fome book or writing. AUTHORITY, in a general fenfe, fignifies a right to command, and make one’s felf obeyed. In which fenfe we fay, the royal authority, the epifcopal autho¬ rity, the authority of a father, &c. It denotes alfo the tetiimony of an author, fome apophthegm or fentence of an eminent perfon quoted in a difeourfe by w^ay of proof. Authority is reprefented, in pamting, like a grave matron fitting in a chair of ftate, richly clothed in a garment embroidered with gold, holding sin her right hand a fword, and in her left a feeptre. By her fide is a double trophy of books and arms. AUTOCHTHONES, an appellation aflumed by fome nations, importing that they fprung,_ or were produced, from the fame foil which they Hill inhabi¬ ted. In this fenfe, Autochthones amounts to the fame with Aborigines. The Athenians valued themfelves on their being Autochthones, felf born, or ynyinn, earth-born ; it being the prevailing opinion among the ancients, that, in the beginning, the earth, by fome prolific power, produced men, as it Hill does plants. The proper Autochthones were thofe primitive men who had no other parent befide the earth. But the name was alfo affumed by the defeendants of thefe men, provided they never changed their ancient ftate, nor fuffered other nations to mix with them. In this fenfe it wTas that the Greeks, and efpecially the Athenians, pretended to be Autochthones and as a badge there¬ of, wore a golden grafshopper woven in their hair, an infeft fuppofed to have the fame origin. AUTOCRATOR, a perfon veiled with an abfo- lute independent power, by which he is rendered un¬ accountable to any other for his a&ions. The power of the Athenian generals, or commanders, w'as ufually limited *, fo that, at the expiration of their office, they W'ere liable to render an account of their adminiftra- tion. But, on fome extraordinary occafions, they were exempted from this reftraint, and fent with a full and uncontroulable authority : in which fenfe they were 2 ] A U T ftyled Avloxgxiet?.;. The fame people alfo applied the name to iome of their ambafiadors, w'ho were veiled with a full power of determining matters according to their own diferetion. Thefe were denominated n^icr/3u( Avloxfetlogtf, and refembled our plenipotentiaries. 1. AUTO da fe, act of faith. See Act of Faith. AUTODIDACTUS, a perfon felf-taught, or who has had no mailer or affiftant of his ftudies befides him felf. AUTOGRAPH, denotes a perfon’s hand-writing, or the original manufeript of any book, &c. AUTOLITHOTOMUS, he who cuts himfelf for the Hone. Of this wre have a very extraordinary in- ftance given by Reifelius, in the Ephemerides of the Academy Naturee Curioforum, dec. 1. an. 3. obf. 192. AUTOMATE, called alfo Hiera, one of the Cy¬ clades, an ifiand to the north of Crete (Pliny), laid to have emerged out of the fea, between the iilands The¬ ra and Therafia, in the fifth year of the emperoiyClaU". dius 5 in extent 30 ftadia, (Orolius). AUTOMATON, (from aura? ipf, and ex- citor) a felf-moving machine, or one fo conftrudted, by means of weights, levers, pulleys, &c. as to move for a confiderable time, as though endowed with animal life. According to this defeription, clocks, watches, and all machines of that kind, are automata. Under the article Androxdes we obferved that the higheft perfedlion to which automata could be carried wras to imitate exadlly the motions and adlions of living creatures, efpecially of mankind, which are more dif¬ ficultly imitated than thofe of other animals. Very furprifing imitations, however, have been made of other creatures. So long ago as 400 years before Chrift, Archytas of Tarentum is faid to have made a wooden pigeon that could fly j nor will this appear at all incre¬ dible, when w'e confider the flute-player made by M. Vaucanfon, and the chefs-player by M. Kempell. Dr Hook is alfo faid to have made the model of a flying chariot, capable of fupporting itfelf in the air. But M. Vaucanfon above-mentioned hath diftinguilhed him¬ felf ftill more eminently. That gentleman, encou¬ raged by the favourable reception of his flute-player, made a duck, which was capable of eating, drinking, and imitating exadllythe voice of a natural one. Nay, wThat is ftill more furprifing, the food it fwallowed was evacuated in a digefted ftate j not that it was really in a ftate of natural excrement, but only confidera- bly altered from what it w'as when fwallowed ; and this digeftion was performed on the principles of folution, not of trituration. The wungs, vifeera, and bones, of this artificial duck, wTere alfo formed fo as very ftrongly to refemble thofe of a living animal. Even in the aftions of eating and drinking, this refemblance was preferved j the artificial duck fwallowed with avi¬ dity and vaftly quick motions of the head and throat; and likewife muddled the water with its bill, exaftly like a natural one. M. le Droz of La Chaux de Ponds in the county of Neufchattel, hath alfo executed fome very curious pieces of mechanifm, which wTell deferve to be ranked with thofe already mentioned. One was a clock, which wras prefented to his Spanifli majefty j and had among other curiofities, a ftieep, which imitated the bleating of a natural one j and a dog wratching a balket of fruit. When any one attempted to purloin the fruit, the dog gnafhed Autc- da fe Automa¬ ton. A U T . [2 Autonam?a gnafhed lus teeth and barked ; and if it was actually A in mnal ta^ea away never cealed barking till it was reftored. /' Befides this, he made a variety of human figures, ' which exhibited motions truly furprifing j but all in¬ ferior to Mr Kempell’s chefs-player, which may juftly be looked upon as the greateft mafterpiece in mecha¬ nics that ever appeared. See An oroides. AUTONOMIA, a power of living or being go¬ verned by our own laws and magiftrates. The liberty of the cities which lived under the faith and protec¬ tion of the Romans, confided in their autonomia, i. e. they were allowed to make their own laws, and ele6l their own magiftrates *, by whom juftice was to be ad- minilfered, and not by Roman prefidents or judges, as was done in other places which were not indulged the autonomia. AUTOPYROS, from and 7rvgo$, wheat; in the ancient diet, an epithet given to a fpecies of bread, wherein the -whole fubftance of the wheat was retain¬ ed without retrenching any part of the bran. Galen defcribes it other wife, viz. as bread where only the coarfer bran was taken out.—And thus it was a me¬ dium between the fined bread, called Jimilagineus, and the coarfed called furfuraceus. This was alfo called autopyrites and fyncomijlus. AUTRE-eglise, a village of Brabant, in the An¬ drian Netherlands •, to which the left wing of the French army extended, when the confederates obtained the victory at Ramillies, in 1706. E. Long. 4. 50. N. Lat. 50. 40. AUTRICUM, the capital of the Carnutes, a peo¬ ple of Gallia Celtica ; afterwards called Camotena, Car- notenus, and Civitas Carnotenum: Now Chartres, in the Orleanois on the Eure. E'. Long. 1. 32. N. Lat. 48. 47. AUTUMN, the third feafon of the year, when the harved and fruits are gathered in. Autumn is repre- fented in painting, by a man at perfect age, clothed like the vernal, and like wife girded with a darry gir¬ dle ; holding in one hand a pair of fcales equally pol¬ led, with a globe in each; in the other hand a bunch of divers fruits and grapes. His age denotes the per- ' feftion of this feafon *, and the balance, that fign of the zodiac which the fun enters when our autumn begins. Autumn begins on the day when the fun’s meridian didance from the zenith, being on the decreafe, is a mean between the greated and the lead ; which in thefe countries is fuppofed to happen when the fun enters Libra. Its end coincides -with the beginning of win¬ ter. Several nations have computed the years by autumns ; the Englilh Saxons, by winters. Tacitus tells us, the ancient Germans were acquainted with all the other feafons of the year, but had no notion of autumn. .Lidyat obferves of the beginning of the fe- veral feafons of the year, that T)at Clemens hyemcn, dc.t Petrus ver cathedratus, JEJluat Urbanus, autumnat Bartholomceus. Autumn has always been reputed an unhealthy feafon, I ertullian calls it tcntator valeludtnum ; and the faty- rid Ipeaks of it in the fame light. Autumnus Libitinee quejlus acerbce. AUTUMNAL point, is that part of the equinox from which the fun begins to defcend towards the fouth pole. 87 ] ' A U X Autumnal Signs, in AJlronomy, are the figns Li- Autumnal bra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, through which the fun pafles Jl. during the autumn. Auxusary^ Autumnal Equinox', that time when the fun enters the autumnal point. AUTUN, an ancient city of France, in the depart¬ ment of Saone and Loire, formerly the duchy of Bur¬ gundy, the capital of the Autonois, with a bilhopY fee. The length of this city is about three quarters of a mile, and its breadth nearly equal. The river Ar- roux wadies its ancient walls, whofe ruins are fo firm, and the done fo clofely united, that they feem almoO: to be cut out of the folid rock. In this city are the ruins of three ancient temples, one of which was dedi¬ cated to Janus, and another to Diana. Here are like- wife a theatre and a pyramid, which lad is probably a tomb 5 it dands in a place called the field of urns, be- caufe feveral urns had been found there. Here are al¬ fo two antiques gates of great beauty. The city lies at the foot of three great mountains, in E. Long. 4^ 15. N. Lat. 45. 50. AUTURA, or Audura, a river of Gallia Celtica, only mentioned in the Lives of the Saints. Now the Eure, which falls into the Seine, on the left-hand or fouth fide. AUVERGNE, a late province of France, about 100 miles in length and 75 in breadth. It is bound¬ ed on the north by the Bourbonnois ; on the ead by Torez and Velay j on the wed, by Limofin, Quercy, and La Marche j and on the fouth, by Rovergne and the Cevennes. It is divided into upper and lower j the latter, otherwife called Limagne, is one of the fin¬ ed countries in the world. The mountains of Higher Auvergne render it lefs fruitful j but they afford good padure, vdiich feeds great numbers of cattle, which are the riches of that country. Auvergne fupplies Lyons and Paris with fat cattle, makes a large quantity of cheefe, and has manufactures of feveral kinds. The capital of the \yhole province is Clermont. It is now divided into the departments of Cantal and Puy de Dome. AUVERNAS, a very deep-coloured heady wine, made ot black raifins fo called, which comes from Or¬ leans. It is not fit to drink before it is above a year old ; but if kept two or three years, it becomes ex¬ cellent. AUXERRE, an ancient town of France in the de¬ partment of Yonne, and capital of the Auxerrois, and lately a biffiop’s fee. The epifcopal palace was one of the fined in France, and the churches w’ere alfo very beautiful. This town is advantageouffy fituated for trade with Paris, on the river Yonne. E. Long. 3. 35. N. Lat. 47. 54. AUXESIS, in Mythology, a goddefs rvorfnipped by the inhabitants of Egina,, and mentioned by Herodotus and Paufanias. Auxesis, in Rhetoric, a figure whereby any thing is magnified too much. AUXILIARY, whatever is aiding or helping to another. Auxiliary Verbs, in Grammar, are fuch as help to form or conjugate others j that is, are prefixed to them, to form or denote the modes or tenfes thereof; as, to have and to be, in the Englifti ; etre and avoir, in the French y ho and fono in the Italian, &.c. In the Englifl* language. A X A [ 2S Auxo language, the auxiliary verb am fupplies the want of II paflive verbs. AxayacatL AUXO, in Mythology, the name of one of two Graces worlhipped by the Athenians. See HegemonE. AUXONNE, a fmall fortified town in France, in the department of Cote d’Or; feated on the river Saone, over which there is a bridge of 23 arches, to facilitate the running off of the waters after the overflowing of the river. ° At the end of the bridge is a caufeway 2250 paces long. E. Long. 5. 22. N. Lat. 47. it. AUXY *, the French give the name of auxy wool * to that which is fpun in the neighbourhood of Abbe¬ ville, by thofe workmen who are called houjners. It is a very fine and beautiful wool, which is commonly ufed to make the finelt (lockings. AWARD, in Law, the judgment of an arbitrator, or of one who is not appointed by the law a judge, but chofen by the parties themfelves for terminating their difference. See Arbiter and Arbitration. AWL, among Shoemakers, an inftrument wherewith holes are bored through the leather, to facilitate the ditching or fewing the fame. The blade of the aw 1 is ufuallya little flat and bended, and the point ground to an acute angle. AWL AN, a fmall imperial town of Germany, in the circle of Suabia, feated on the river Kochen. E. Long. 11. 15. N. Lat. 48.52. AWME, or Aume, a Dutch liquid meafure con¬ taining eight deckans, or 20 verges or verteels, equal to the tierce in England, or to one-fixth of a ton of France. AWN. See Arista, Botany Index. AWNING, in the Sea-Language, is the hanging a fail, tarpawling, or the like, over any part of the fliip, to keep off the fun, rain, or wind. AX, a carpenter’s indrument, ferving to hew wood. The ax differs from the joiner’s hatchef, in that it is made larger and heavier, as ferving to hew large duff; and its edge tapering into the middle of its blade. It is furniflied with a long handle or helve, as being to be ufed with both hands. Battle-Ax. See Celt. . . AX AMENT A, in Antiquity, a denomination gi¬ ven to the verfes or fongs of the fain, which they ding in honour of all men. The word is formed, according to fome, from axare, q. d. nominare. Others will have the carmina faliaria to have been denominated axa- menta, on account of their having been written in axi- bus, or on wooden tables. The axamenta were not compofed, as fome have af- ferted, but only ding by the fain. The author of them was Numa Pompilius; and as the dyle might not be altered, they grew in time fo obfcure, that \\\t fain themfelves did' not underdand them. Varro fays they were 700 years old. Quint. Ind. Or. lib. i. c, 11. Axamenta, ox AJfamenta, in Ancient Mufc, hymns or fongs performed wholly with human voices. AXAYACATL, the name of a fpecies of fly, common in Mexico, about the lakethe eggs of which being depofited in immenfe quantities, upon the rudies and corn-flags, form large maffes, which are ta¬ ken up by fifliermen and carried to market for fale. This caviare, called ahuauhth, wdiich has much the fame tade with the caviare of fi(h, ufed to be eaten by £jie Mexicans, and is now a common difli among the 1 8 ] A X t Spaniards. The Mexicans eat not only the eggs, but Axati the flies themfelves, made up together into a mais, Ax1jim and prepared with faltpetre. # v~— AXATI, a town of ancient Baetica, on the Bsetis ; now Lora, a fmall city of Andaluda, in Sgain, feat¬ ed on the Gaudalquiver. W. Long. 5. 20. N. Lat. 37* 20• AXBRIDGE, a town of Somerfetfliire in England, confiding of one long narrow dreet. W. Long. 2. 20. N. Lat. 51. 30. AXEL, a fmall fortified town in Dutch Flanders. E. Long. 40. o. N. Lat. 51. 17. AXHOLM, an ifland in the north-wed part of Lincolnfiiire in England. It is formed by the rivers Trent, Idel, and Dan ; and is about ten miles long and five broad. The lower part is marfliy, but pro¬ duces an odoriferous (hrub called gall; the middle is rich and fruitful, yielding flax in great abundance, as alfo alabafter which is ufed for making lime. 1 he principal towrn is called Axey, and is now very thinly inhabited. . AXIACE, an ancient town of Sarmatia Europea ; now Oc%akow, the capital of Budziac 1 artary. E. Long. 32. 30. N. Lat. 46.0. AXILLA, in Anatomy, the arm-pit or the cavity under the upper part of the arm. Axilla, in Botany, is the fpace comprehended be¬ tween the dems of plants and their leaves. Hence we fay thofe flowrers grow in the axillae of the leaves; 1. e. at the bafe of the leaves, or jud within the angle of their pedicles. . . AXILLARY, fomething belonging to or lying near the axilla. Thus, axillary artery is that part of the fubclavian branches of the afcending trunk of the aorta which paffeth under the arm-pits ; axillary glands are fituated under the arm-pits, enveloped in fat, and lie clofe by the axillary veffels; and axillary vein is one of the fubclavians which paffes under the arm-pit, dividing itfelf into feveral branches, wdiich are fpread over the arm. AXIM, a fmall territory on the Gold-coad in Arrica. The climate here is fo exceflively mold, that it 15 pro¬ verbially faid to rain 11 months and 29 days of the year. This exceflive moidure renders it very unheal¬ thy ; but it produces great quantities of rice, water¬ melons, lemons, oranges, &c. Here are alfo produced vad numbers of black cattle, goats, flieep, tame pi¬ geons, &c. The whole country is filled with beautitul and populous villages, and the intermediate lands well cultivated; befides which, the natives are very wealthy, from the condant traffic carried on with them by the Europeans for their gold. The capital, which is alio called Axim, by fome Achombone, dands under the can¬ non of the Dutch fort St Antonio. Behind, it is fecu- red by a thick wood that covers over the whole declivity of a neighbouring hill. Between the town and the fea runs an even and fpacious ffiore of beautiful white land. All the houfes are feparated by groves of cocoa and other fruit trees, planted in parallel lines, each of an equal width, and forming an elegant viffa. _ The little river Axim erodes the town; and the coad is defended by a number of fmall pointed rocks, which project from the ffiore, and render all accefs to it dangerous. The capital is fituated in W. Long._ 24. o. N. Lat 5. o. This canton is a kind of republic, the government being A X Axinoman-being divided between the Cabocetoes or chief men, cy and Manaceros or young men. It mull be obferved, A|.s hovvever, that in their courts there is not even a pre- * , . j tence of juftice : whoever makes the moft valuable pre- fents to the judges is fure to gain his caufe, the judges themfelves alleging the gratitude due for the bribes re¬ ceived as a reafon : and if both parties happen to make prefents of nearly equal value, they abfolutely refufe to give the caufe a hearing. AXINOMA.NCY, Axinomantia, from curis, and f*xv]-uc, divinatio 5 an ancient fpecies of di¬ vination, or a method of foretelling future events by means of an ax or hatchet.—This art was in confider- able repute among the ancients; and was performed, according to fome, by laying an agate-ftone on a red- hot hatchet ; and alfo by fixing a hatchet on a round flake fo as to be exa£lly poifed j then the names of thofe that were fufpefted were repeated, and he at whofe name the hatchet moved was pronounced guilty. AXIOM, Axioma (from I am worthy); a felf-evident truth, or a propofition whofe truth every perfon perceives at firfl fight. Thus, that the wfhole is greater than a part 5 that a thing cannot be and not be at the fame time *, and that from nothing, nothing can arife •, are axioms. Axiom is alfo an eftablifhed principle in fome art or fcience. Thus, it is an axiom in phyfics, that nature does nothing in vain •, that effedls are proportional to their caufes, &c. So it is an axiom in geometry, that things equal to the fame thing are alfo equal to one another ; that if to equal things you add equals, the fums will be equal, &c. It is an axiom in optics, that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflec¬ tion, See. AX1POLIS, a town of the Triballi in Maefia In¬ ferior } now Axiopoli, in Bulgaria. E. Long. 34. o. N. Lat. 45. 40. AXIS, in Geometry, the flraight line in a plain figure, about which it revolves, to produce or generate a folid. Thus, if a femicircle be moved round its dia¬ meter at reft, it will generate a fphere, the axis of which is that diameter. Axis, in AJlronomy, is an imaginary right line fup- pofed to pafs through the centre of the earth and the heavenly bodies, about which they perform their diur¬ nal revolutions. Axis, in Conic SeBions, a right line dividing the fec- tion into two equal parts, and cutting all its ordinates ■as right angles. Axis, in Mechanics. The axis of a balance is that line about which it moves, or rather turns about. Axis of ofcillation, is a right line parallel to the horizon, pafling through the centre about which a pendulum vibrates. Axis in Peritrochio, one of the fix mechanical powers, confifting of a peritrochium or wheel concentric with the bafe of a cylinder, and moveable together with it about its axis. Axis, in Optics, is that particular ray of light co¬ ming from any objedt which falls perpendicularly on the eye. Axis, in ArchiteBure. Spiral axis, is the axis of a twilled column drawn fpirally in order to trace the circumvolutions without. Axis of the Ionic capital, is Vol. III. Part I. A Y L a line pafling perpendicularly through the middle of Axis the eye of the volute. . Axis of a Vejfel, is an imaginary right line palling ■ '' through the middle of it perpendkulaily to its Dale, and equally diftant from, its fides. Axis, in Botany, is a taper column placed in the centre of fome flowers or catkins, about which the other parts are difpofed. Axis, in Anatomy, the name of the fecond verte¬ bra of the neck j it hath a tooth which goes into the firft vertebra, and this tooth is by fome called the axis. AXMINSTER, a town or Devonlhire, fituated on the river Ax, in the great road between London and Exeter, in W. Long. 3. 15. N. Lat. 50. 40. It was a place of fome note in the time of the Saxons, but now contains only about 200 houfes. Here is a fmall manu- fadlory of broad and narrow cloths, and fome carpets are alfo manufadtured after the Turkey manner. AXOLOTLF. See Lacerta. AXUMA, formerly a large city, and capital of the whole kingdom of Abyflinia in Africa, but now redu¬ ced to a miferable village fcarcely containing r 00 inha¬ bitants. E. Long. 36.4. N. Lat. 14. 13. AXUNGIA, in a general fenfe, denotes old lard, or the drieft and hardeft of any fat in the bodies of ani¬ mals : but more properly it fignifies only hog’s lard, Axungia Vitri, Sandiver, or Salt of Glafs, a kind of fait which feparates from the glafs while it is in fu- fion. It is of an acrimonious and biting tafte. The farriers ufe it for cleanfing the eyes of horfes. It is alfo made ufe of for cleanfing the teeth ; and it is fometimes applied to running ulcers, the herpes, or the itch, by way of deficcative. AXYRIS. See Botany AY, a town of France in Champagne, near the ri¬ ver Maine, remarkable for its excellent wines. E. Long,, 2. 15. N. Lat. 49. 4. AYAMONTE, a fea-port town of Andalufia in Spain, with a ftrong caftle built on a rock 5 feated on the mouth of the river Gaudiana. It has a commo¬ dious harbour, fruitful vineyards, and excellent wine. W. Long. 8. 5. N. Lat. 37. 9. AYENIA, See Botany Index. AYLESBURY. See Ailesbury. This place gave title of earl to the noble family of Bruce, now to a branch of Brudenals by fucceflion. AYLMER, John, bifhop of London, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was born in the year 1521, at Aylmer-hall in the parifh of Tilney, in the county of Norfolk. Whilft a boy, he was diftingujfhed for his quick parts by the marquis of Dorfet afterwards duke of Suffolk who fent him to Cambridge, made him his chaplain and tutor to his children. One of thefe children was the unfortunate Lady Jane Gray, who foon became perfeftly acquainted with the Latin and Greek languages. His firft preferment was to the archdeaconry of Stow, in the diocefe of Lincoln, which gave him a feat in the convocation held in the firft year of Queen Mary, where he refolutely oppofed the return to Popery, to wdrich the generality of the clergy wrere inclined. He wras foon after obliged to fly his country, and take (belter among the Proteftants in Switzerland. On the acceflion of Queen Elizabeth, he returned to England. In 1562, he obtained the arch- O o deaconry [ 289 ] AYR [ 29° 1 AYR Ayr. deaconry of Lincoln; and was a member of the famous —-* fynod of that year, which reformed and fettled the do£lrine and difcipline of the church of England. In the year 1576, he was confecrated bifhop ot London. He "died in the year 1594, aged 735 and was buried in St Paul’s. He was a learned man, a zealous father of the church, and a bitter enemy to the Puritans. He publifhed a piece entitlefl, An harbrowe for faithful and trewe fuhje&s again/} the late lloxvne blafe concern¬ ing the government of women, &c. This was written whilft he was abroad in anfwer to Knox, who publifhed a book in Geneva under this title, The frfblaf again]} the tnonjlrous regiment and empire of women. He is by Strype fuppofed to have publifhed Lady jane Gray’s letter to Harding. He alfo affifled Fox in tranflating his Hiftory of Martyrs into Latin. AYR, a royal borough, of great antiquity, and con- fiderable extent, the county town of Ayrfhire, and the feat of a jufticiary court. It was erefted into a royal borough by William the Lion, about the year 1180; and the privileges granted by that charter are Hill en¬ joyed by the town. It is pleafantly fituated on a point of land, between the influx of the rivers Boon and Ayr, into the Atlantic ocean. The principal ftreet is a fine ornamented, broad, fpacious way, with a row of ele¬ gant houfes on each fide. Its fliape is fomewhat of the form of a crefcent, having the tolbooth and town-hall in the centre, with a fine fpire, 135 feet high. In an¬ cient times we find Ayr to have been a town of con- fiderable trade. The merchants imported a great quan¬ tity of wine from France, and exported corn and other produce of the country. 1 he rifing trade of Glafgow proved very injurious to the trade of this town *, but of late it has much revived. The fea fhore is flat and fhallow, and the entrance of the river Ayr, which forms the harbour, is fubjecl to the inconvenience of a bar,of fand, which is often thrown quite acrofs the ri¬ ver, efpecially with a ftrong north-weft wind. The water never rifes above twelve feet •, but from fome im- • provements and extenfive works now carrying on on the fides of the river, it is hoped the channel will be confiderably deepened. There are eredled two refleft- ing light-houfes to condutt veffels fafely into the har¬ bour. There is great plenty of falmon in the two rivers, the fishings of which rent at upwards of 200I. Befides the falmon fifhery, the fand banks on the coaft abound with all kinds of white fifli; and one or two companies are eftablifhed here for curing them. The principal trade carried on is the exportation of coal to Ireland, in which nearly 2000 tonnage of velfels are annually employed. There is an extenfive manufac¬ ture of leather and foap. Ayr was in ancient times, however, not only diftinguiftied for trade, but alfo for military ftrength. Here the heroic exploits ot Sir William Wallace began, and here Edward I. fixed one of his moft powerful garrifons. Oliver Cromwell, too, judging it a proper place to build a fortrefs, took pof- feffion of the old church, and converted it and the neighbouring ground into a regular citadel. On one of the mounts, within the walls of this fortrefs, flood the old caftle of Ayr, mentioned in ancient hiftories, and the old church, the tower of which ftill remains, noted for the meeting of the Scotifh parliament, when Robert Bruce’s title to the throne was unanimoufly confirmed. Ayr is a very gay and fafhionablg place. It has W'ell attended races, and is fometimes the feat Ayr, of the Caledonian hunt. In 1797, the population a- Ayrfliin?. mounted to 4647 5 in 1801,' 5560. There is a ftrong v “ chalybeate fpring, which is famous in fcrophulous and fcorbutic complaints. Tradition reports an engage¬ ment to have taken place in the valley of Dalrymple, between two kings, Fergus and Coilus, in which both leaders loft their lives ; the names of places in the neighbourhood feem derived from this circumftance, and a cairn of Hones in the midft of the valley is faid to point out the place of the engagement. Hiftory has only recorded two diftinguiftied charatfers in literature, natives of Ayr: 1 ft, Johannes Scotus, furnamed Erigena, celebrated for his acumen of judgment, his readinefs of wit, and fluency of elocution : and, 2d, the Chevalier Ram fay, author of Cyrus’ Travels, and other works. To thefe we may add the late Robert Burns, wdrofe genius, at leaft, will bear a comparifon with any of the former. Ayr, Newton of While the borough of Ayr ex¬ tends along the fouth fide of the river Ayr, this fmall parifh is fituated on the north fide of the fame river. It is a burgh of confiderable domain, having in that domain baronial jurifdi&ion ; governed by a magiftracy ele&ed by free-men, but not having parliamentary re- prefentation. It is of very ancient ere£lion, owing its privileges to Robert Bruce, who, upon being attacked wuth leprofy, came to refide in this place, and w7as in¬ duced to eftablifh a lazar-houfe, and to confer con¬ fiderable favours on the town, and on the fmall village of Prieftwick, about two or three miles diftant. In the Newton of Ayr are a number of very good houfes. It has a tolerable good harbour, chiefly employed in the coal trade. Lying on the banks of Ayr, and the fea coaft •, the foil is moftly flat and fandy. Its extent is about three miles long, and one and a half broad. In 1793, the population wras 1680. Ayr, a river in the parifh of Muirkirk, in Ayrfhirej which after a courfe of about eighteen miles nearly due w7eft falls into the fea at Ayr, where its aeftuary forms a fine harbour. It is for a confiderable courfe only a fmall rivulet; but joined by the Greenock and Garpel, tributary ftreams, it becomes a large body of water. It frequently fhifts its bed, and does con¬ fiderable damage by its encroachments. Its banks are fteep and very romantic ; and the number of feats which orn'ament them prefent a fine pifturefque fce- nery. Sorn-caftle, Auchincruive, and Auchinleck, may be mentioned as the chief beauties of the fcene. The village of Catrine is fituated on its banks. It forms the boundary between the diftritts of Ayrfhire, denominated Kyle and Carrick. AYRSHIRE, a county of Scotland, which is bound¬ ed on the north by the county of R enfrew7; on the eaft by the {hires of Lanark and Dumfries; on the fouth by Galloway ; and on the w7eft by the Iriftr channel, and the frith of Clyde. Its extent in length is about 65 miles, and about 36 in breadth. It is divided into three great diftrifts or ftewarties, which bear the names of Kyle, Cunningham, and Carrick. Thefe divifions are not altogether artificial ; the river Ayr, on which is the towm of Ayr, forming the feparation between Carrick and Kyle (or Ayrfhire Proper), and the river Irvine (at the mouth of which is a borough of the fame name) is the limit between Kyle and Cunningham. ] Thefe / AYR [ 29 Ayrfhire. Thefe diftrlfts are very different from each other in ap- pearance. Carrick, and the interior parts of Kyle, are mountainous, and more fitted for pafture ; while the coaft of Kyle, and the greater part of Cunningham, exhibit a fine level country, interfperfed with numerous villages and towns. The fea coalt is moftly Tandy, with funk rocks, poffeffing feveral good harbours. The ifland of Ailfa is in this county. From the ridge, of which the mountains of Carrick are a part, rife almoll all the rivers of the fouth of Scotland. The Tweed, the Elk, the Nith, the Annan, the Urr, &c. flow to the eaft and fouth, while the Stinchar, the Girvan, the Doon, the Ayr, and the Lugar, pouring into the Irifh channel, interfeft the county of Ayr with their copious ftreams. Belides thefe, the Irvine and other fmaller rivulets, water the more northerly parts of the county. Ayrlhire has two royal boroughs, viz. Ayr and Irvine j and feveral populous towns and villages, of which Kilmarnock, Beith, Saltcoats, Kilwinning, Largs, Gir¬ van, and Ballantrae, are the chief. Fitted as Ayrlhire is in every refpeft for the carrying on of trade, and the extenfion of agricultural improvements, it is only of late years that much has been done in that way. Poffefling valuable feams of excellent coal, and enriched with the returns from its exportation, little attention was paid to the culture of the ground. The eftablilhment of the Douglas and Heron Bank, though ruinous to the proprietors, contributed greatly to promote the im¬ provement of Ayrlhire. The abundance of wealth which it fallacioully feemed to pour into the country, and the ready command of money it gave, fet all the proprietors towards improving and planting their eftates, furnilhed means for railing and burning lime for ma¬ nure, and above all, with the money from the bank, canals and roads were opened through every part of the county. Upon the failure of that extravagant and ill-condufled fpeculation, the proprietors of many eftates faw their property brought to the hammer, and the greater part of their lands purchafed by new pro¬ prietors. After the general diftrefs, confequent on fo difaftrous a fcheme, was fomewhat relieved, the im¬ provement which the land had received during the pro- fufion of money, enabled the proprietors to continue the improvement, and the new fettlers being moftly men of great fortune, allowed no expence to be want¬ ing to produce the fame end : and hence the improve¬ ment of the country wTas rather promoted than retard¬ ed, by an event which threatened to overwhelm not only Ayrlhire, but the greater part of Scotland, into the gulf of bankruptcy. Ayrfhire, befides the inex- hauftible feams of coal with which it abounds, poffeffes feveral other valuable minerals ; as freeftone, limeftone, ironftone, feveral rich ores of lead and copper. A few curious fpecimens are alfo to be found in the hills of Carrick, of agates, porphyries, and of calcareous pe- trifaftions. In the parifh of Stair, galena and plumbago have been found ; and in feveral parts of the county is found that fpecies of whetftone, known by the name of Jlyr-Jlone. There is plenty of marl in moft of the lochs ; the chief of which is Loch Doon, from which the river of that namd' takes its rife. There is annual¬ ly a great quantity of fea weed thrown afhore, from which many tons of kelp are made. All the rivers of Ayrlhire abound with falmon, and the coafts are ad¬ mirably adapted for the white fiihing. i ] - AYR The following is a ftatement of the population of AyrfLire, this county at two different periods. Ayry. Parijh. Ardroffan Auchinleck Ayr Ballantrae 5 Barr Beith Cumbraes Colmonell Coylton 10 Craigie Cumnock, New Cumnock, Old Dailly Dalmellington 15 Dairy Dalrymple Dreghorn Dundonald Dunlop 20 Fenwick Galfton Girvan Irvine Kilbirny 25 Kilbride, Weft Kilmarnock Kilmaurs Kilwinning Kirkmichael 30 Kirkofwald Largs Loudoun Mauchline May bole 35 Monktown Muirkirk Newtoun on Ayr. Ochiltree Riccartoun 40 St Quivox Sorn Stair Stevenftoun Stewartoun 43 Straitoun Symington Tarbolton Population h 1755- X297 887 2964 1049 858 2064 259 1814 527 551 1497 1336 839 739 1498 439 887 983 796 1113 1013 ”93 4025 651 885 4403 1094 2541 710 1168 1164 1494 1169 2058 582 745 581 1210 745 499 1494 369 1412 28x9 1123 359 1365 Total, 59,268 Population in 1790—1798. 1518 775 4647 770 750 2872 5°9 no© 667 700 1200 1632 1607 681 2000 380 830 1317 779 1281^ 1577 £725 4500 700 698 6776 1147 2360 956 l335 1025 2308 1800 375° 717 1X00 1689 1150 13 CO 1450 2779 . 5x8 2425 3000 934 610 1200 75.544 59,268 Increafe, 16,276 AYRY, or Aery, of Ha whs, a npft or company of hawks ; fo called from the old French wTord aire, which fignified the fame. AYSCUE, Sir George, a gallant Englilh admi¬ ral, defcended from a good family in Lincolnlhire. He obtained the honour of knighthood from King Charles I. which, however, did not withhold him from O o 2 adhering Azem. A Z E [292 Aymoutti adhering to the parliament in the civil war : he was by them conftituted admiral of the Irifh Teas, where , he is faid to have done great fervice to the Proteftant interert, and to have contributed much to the reduc¬ tion of the whole illand. In 1651 he reduced Bar- badbes and Virginia, then held for the king, to the obedience of the parliament : and foon after the re¬ iteration behaved with great honour in the war with the Dutch. In the famous engagement in the begin¬ ning of June 1666, when Sir George was admiral of the white fquadron, his fhip the Royal Prince ran up¬ on the Gallop-fand ; where, being furrounded with ene» mies, his men obliged him to ftrike. He went no more to fea after this, but fpent the reft of his days in retirement. AYMOUTH. See Eymouth. AYTONIA. See Botany Index. AZAB, in the Turkifh armies, a diftinft body of foldiery, who are great rivals of the Janizaries. AZAI, a town of Touraine in France, feated on the river Indre. E. Long. 10. 35. N. Lat. 47. 18. AZALEA, American Upright Honeysuckle. See Botany Index. AZAMOR, a fmall fea-port town of the kingdom of Morocco in Africa. It is fituated on the river Morbeya, in the province of Duguella, at fome con- fiderable diftance from its mouth. This town, though formerly very conftderable, is not proper for maritime commerce, becaufe the entrance of the river is danger¬ ous. It was unfuccefsfully befieged by the Portuguefe in 1508 ; it was taken, however, in 1513, by the duke of Braganza, but abandoned about the end of the 16th century. W. Long. 7. o. N. Lat. 32. 50. AZARAKI PES, a fed! of Mahometan Arabs. See Arabia, N° 143, et feq. AZARIAH, or'UzziAH, king of Judah, fucceeded his father Amaziah, 8^0 years before Chrift. He af- fembled an army of above 300,000 men, with which he conquered the Philiftines, and demoliihed the walls of Gath, Jabniel, and Alhdod ; built up the walls of Jerufalem ; furnifhed the city with conduits •, and plant- fed gardens and vineyards : but at laft, being elated with his profperity, and refolving to ufurp the office of high-prieft, he was ftruck with a leprofy, which obli¬ ged him to remain (hut up in his palace for the reft of his days. He died about 759 years before the Chriftian era, and was fucceeded by Jonathan his fon There are feveral other perfons of this name mentioned in the facred Scriptures. AZAZEL. The word relates to the hiftory of the fcape-goat, under the Jewiffi religion. Some call the goat itfelf by this name, as St Jerome and Theodo- rct. Dr Spcnfer fays, the fcape-goat was to be fent to Azazel j by which is meant the devil. Mr Le Clerc tranflates it preecipitium, making it to be that fteep and inacceffible place to vffiich the goat wTas fent, and where it was fuppofed to periffi. AZEKA, in Ancient Geography, a city of the Am- morites, in the lot of Judah ; fituated between Eleu- theropolis and ALlia (Jerome); where the five kings of the Ammorites and their army w^ere deftroyed by hailftones from heaven, ( Joflma). AZEM, As EM, Ass am, or Ac ham, a country of Afia to the north of Ava, but which is very little known to Europeans. Jt is laid to be very fertile, and A z o to contain mines of gold, filver, iron, and lead, all Azimuth which belong to the king, who, in confequence of H enjoying the produce, requires no taxes from his peo¬ ple. They have alfo great quantities of gum lac, and coarfe filk. It is alio thought that the inhabitants of Azem were long ago the inventors of cannon and gun-powder; and that from them the invention pafied to the inhabitants of Pegu and from thence to the Chinefe. AZIMUTH, in Ajlronomy, an arch of the horizon, intercepted between the meridian of thfi place and the azimuth, or vertical circle paffing through the centre of the objedl, which is equal to the angle of the ze¬ nith, formed by the meridian and vertical circle : or it is found by this proportion, As the radius to the tangent of the latitude of the place, fo is the tangent of the fun’s or ftar’s altitude, for inftance, to the cofine of the azimuth from the fouth, at the time of the equi¬ nox. Magnetical Azimuth, an arch of the horizon inter¬ cepted between the aximuth, @r vertical circle, paffing through the centre of any heavenly body and the mag¬ netical meridian. This is found by obferving the ob¬ ject with an azimuth-compafs. AziMVTH-Compafs, an inftrument for finding either the magnetical azimuth or amplitude of a heavenly objedL . The learned Dr Knight invented fome time fince a very accurate and ufeful fea-compafs, which is at pre- fent ufed in the navy. This inftrument, with another invented by the ingenious Mr Smeaton, anfwers the purpofes of an azimuth amplitude compafs. See Com¬ pass. Azimuth Circles, called alfo a-zlmuths, or vertical circles, are great circles of the fphere interfering each other in the zenith and nadir, and cutting the horizon at right angles. Thefe azimuths are reprefented by the rhumbs on common fea-charts, and on the globe they are reprefented by the quadrant of altitude, when ferewed in the zenith. On thefe azimuths is reckoned the height of the ftars and of the fun when not in the meridian. AZMER, a towm of the Eaft Indies in the domi¬ nions of the Great Mogul, capital of a province of the fame name, with a very ftrong caftle. It is pretty large, and fometimes vifited by the Mogul himfelf. It is about 62 leagues diftant from Agra. The prin¬ cipal trade of this province is in faltpetre. ASOGA ships, are thofe Spanifh fhips commonly called the qaichjilver Jhips, from their carrying quick- filver to the Spanifh Weft Indies, in order to extract the filver out of the mines of Mexico and Peru. Thefe fhips, ftriflly fpeaking, are not to carry any goods un- lefs for the king of Spain’s account. AZONI, in Ancient Mythology, a name applied by the Greeks to fuch of the gods as were deities at large, not appropriated to the worfhip of any particular town or country, but acknowledged in general by all coun¬ tries, and wmrfhipped by every nation. Thefe the La¬ tins called dii communes. Of this fort were the Sun, Mars, Luna, &c. AZORES, iflands in the Atlantic ocean, lying be¬ tween 25 and 33 degrees of weft longitude, and be¬ tween 36 and 40 degrees of north latitude. They belong to the Portuguefe, and are alfo called the Wejlern Azores. A 70th Azure A Z U Wejlern Ifles, on account of their htuation. were difcovered by the Flemings in the 15th century. They are feven in number, viz. Tercera, St Michael’s, St Mary’s, Graciofa, St George’s Ifland, Pico, and Fayal. AZOTH, in Ancient Chemijlry, the firft matter of metals, or the mercury of a metal; more particularly that which they call the mercury of phi/ofophers, which they pretended to draw from all fo ts of metallic bo¬ dies. AZOTUS, Azoth, or Ashdod, one of the five cities of the Philiftines, and a celebrated fea-port on the Mediterranean, fituated about 14 or 15 miles fouth of Ekron, between that and Afcalon. It was in this city that the idol Dagon fell down before the ark : and fo ftrong a place it was, if we may believe He¬ rodotus, that it fuftained a fiege of 29 years by Pfammeticus king of Egypt. It was, however, ta¬ ken by the Maccabees in a much fhorter time ; who burnt both city and temple, and w'ith them about 1000 men. The towm is now called by the Arabs Aafa- neyun. It is but thinly inhabited, though the fitua- tion is very pleafant: with regard to the houfes, thofe that were built in the time of Chriftianity, and wEich are nowr inhabited by Mahometans, ftill preferve fome claim to admiration } but the modern buildings, though generally of (tone, have nothing in them which can attradl the notice of a traveller. The flreets are pret¬ ty broad, the inhabitants moftly Mahometans, with a few Chrillians of the Greek communion, who have a church under the jurifdi&ion of the archbilhop of Gaza. The town is about a mile and a half in circum¬ ference *, and has in it a mofque, a public bath, a mar¬ ket-place, and two inns. The number of the inhabi¬ tants is between two and three thoufand. The -’Tioft remarkable things in this place is an old ftrufture with fine marble pillars, which the inhabitants fay w^as the houfe that Sampfon pulled down ; and to the fouth- eaft, juft out of the towm, the water in which the eu¬ nuch Candace wms baptized by the apoftle Philip : be- fides thefe twm, there are feveral ancient buildings, with capitals and pillars Handing. AZURE, in a general fenfe, the blue colour of the fky. See Sky and Blue. Azure, among Painters. This wmrd, which at prefent fignifies in general a fine blue colour, wms for¬ merly applied to /apis /ansuli, called azure Jlone, and to the blue prepared from it. But fince a blue has been extracted from cobalt, cuftom has applied to it the name of azure, although it differs confiderably Azure [ 293 ] ,A z Y. They from the former, and is incapable of being ufed for the fame purpofes, and particularly for painting in oil. A The former at prefent is called lapis lazuli, or only. ^ < lapis ; and the blue prepared from it for painting in oil, is called ultramarine.—The name azure is gene¬ rally applied to the blue glafs made from the earth of cobalt and vitrifiable matters. This glafs, wEich is call¬ ed fmalt when in maffes, is called azure only when it is reduced to a fine powder. Several kinds of azure are diftinguifhed, according to its degrees of beauty, by the names of fne azure, powdered azure, and azure of four fires. In general, the more in- tenfe the colour, and the finer the pow’der, the more beautiful and dear it is. Azure is employed to co¬ lour llarch ■, hence it has alfo been called fiarch blue. It is ufed for painting with colours, and for a blue enamel. Azure, in Heraldry, the blue colour in the arms of any perfon belowT the rank of a baron. In the ef- cutcheon of a nobleman, it is czMeA. fapphire ; and in that of a fovereign prince, 'jupiter. In engraving, this colour is expreffed by lines or ilrokes drawn horizon¬ tally.—This colour may fignify Juftice, Perfeverance, and Vigilance j but according to G. Leigh, when compounded with f Cheerfulnefs. u | Vigilance, g J Readinefs. S® 1 Enterprife. S } Goodnefs. Mournfulnefs. Upton, and his followers, rank Or Arg. Gul. Ver. Pur. Sab. j French heralds, M. this colour before gules. AZYGOS, in Anatomy, a vein rifing within the thorax, on the right fide, having no fellow on the left; whence it is called azygos, or vena fine pan. AZYMITES, in Church Hifiory, Chriftians who adminifter the eucharirt with unleavened bread. The word is formed from the Greek « priv. and fer¬ ment.—This appellation is given to the Latin by the Greek church, becaufe the members of the former ufe fermented bread in the celebration of the eucharift. Thev alfo call the Armenians and Maronites by the fame name, and for the fame reafon. AZYMOUS, fomething unfermented, or made with¬ out leaven •, as unleavened bread. Sea bifcuit is of this kind j and therefore, according to Galen, lefs wEole- fome than bread that has been fermented. T> THE fecond letter of the Englifh and moft other alphabets. It is the firft confonant, and firft mute, and its pronunciation is fuppofed to referable the bleating of a Iheep •, upon which account Pierius tells us in his hieroglyphics, that the Egyptians repre- fented the found of this letter by the figure of that ani¬ mal. B is alfo one of thofe letters which the eaftern gram¬ marians call labial, becaufe the principal organs em¬ ployed in its pronunciation are the lips. It is pronoun¬ ced BAA JBaal. ced by preffing the whole length of them together, r ' and forcing them open with a itrong breath. It has a near affinity with the other labials P and V, and is often ufed for P both by the Armenians and other orientals, as in Betrus for Petrus, apfens for abfens, &.c. •, and by the Romans for V, as in amabit for amavit, berna for verna, &c. whence arofe that jeft of Aure- lian on the emperor Bonofus, Non ut vivat natus ejl, -fed ut bibat. Plutarch obferves, that the Macedonians changed into B, and pronounced Bilip, Berenice, &c. for Philip, Pherenice, &c. j and thofe of Delphos ufed B inftead of n, fix&uv for Trxiitv, /3ix.^aii for ttix-^ov, &c.—The Latins faid fuppono, oppono, for fubpono, obpono ; and pronounced optinuit, though they wrrote obtinuit, as Quintilian has obferved.—They alfo ufed B for F or Ptl : thus, in an ancient infcription mentioned by Gruter, Obrendario, is ufed for Ofrendario. As a numeral B w^as ufed by the Greeks and He¬ brews to denote 2 ; but among the Romans for 300, and with a dafh over it (thus b) for 3000. B is alfo ufed as an abbreviation. Thus B. A. Hands for bachelor of arts ; B. L. for bachelor of law's 5 and B. D. for bachelor of divinity. B. F. in the preface to the decrees or fenatus confulta of the old Romans fignified bonum faclum. In mufic, B Hands for the tone above A ; as B11, or bB, does for B flat, or the femitone major above A. B alfo Hands for bafs j and B. C. for bafjo continue, or thorough bafs. BAAL, the fame as Bel, or Belus 5 an idol of the Chaldeans, and Phoenicians or Canaanites. The former worffiipped Mars under this name, according * Antiquit, to Jofephus * j who, fpeaking of Thurus the fucceflbr lib.viii.cap. Qf Ninus, fays, “ To this Mars the Aflyrians eredled the firH flatue, and v/orlhipped him as a god, calling him Baali" It is probable the Phoenicians worffiipped the fun under the name of Baal j for Jofiah, whiling to make feme amends for the whekednefs of Manafleh, in w'orffiipping Baal, and all the hoH of heayen, put to death the idolatrous priefs that burnt incenfe unto Baal, to the fun, and to the moon, and to the planets, and to all the hof of heaven. He likewfe took away the horfes that the kings of Judah had given to the fun, and burnt the chariots of the fun with fre f. The temples confecrated to this god, are called in the Scripture Charnanim, which fignifies places enclofed with walls in which was kept a perpetual fire. Maund- rell, in his journey from Aleppo to Jerufalem, obferv¬ ed feme traces of thefe enclofures in Syria. In moflof them were no flatues j in a few there wTere fome, but of no uniform figure. The word baal (in the Punic language), fignifies lord or mafer; and doubtlefs meant the fupreme Deity, the Lord and Mafler of the univerfe. It is often joined with the name of fome falfe god, as Baal-berith, Baal- peor, Baal-taephon, and the like. This deity pafled from the Phoenicians to the Carthaginians, who were a colony of the Phoenicians 5 as appears from the Car¬ thaginian names, Hannibal, Afdrubal, &c. according to the cuflom of the eafi, where kings and great men added to their own names thofe of their gods. This falfe deity is frequently mentioned in Scripture in the plural number {Baalim) ; which may fignify, ei¬ ther that the name Baal was given to feveral different gods; or that there wTere many flatues, bearing differ- [ 294 ] BAB Arnobius Baal-berith and that „ IJ , Babel. j 2 Kings 5 markable for the miraculous fruftration of the attempt by the confufion of languages. As to the fituation of ancient Babel, moll authors are of opinion that it was exaftly in the place where the celebrated city of Ba¬ bylon afterwards flood. That it was in the fame coun¬ try, appears indifputably from Scripture \ but that it was exaftly in the fame place is what cannot be prov¬ ed, nor is it a matter of any confequence. Authors have been much divided about the motive by which the whole race of mankind were induced to join as one man in fuch an undertaking. Some have imagined that it was out of fear of a lecond deluge ; others, that they knew beforehand that they were to be difperfed through all the different countries of the world, and built this tower in order to defeat the defign of the Deity, becaufe having a tower of fuch vaft height as they propofed, thofe who "were at a diftance could eafily find their way back again. Had either of thefe been their defign, however, it is probable they would have chofen an eminence rather than a plain for the fi¬ tuation of their tower, or indeed that they wrould have chofen fome high mountain, fuch as Ararat, for their mark, rather than any tower at all : for though it is faid that they defigned the top of their tower to reach to heaven, we can fcarce fuppofe them to have been fo abfurd, as to imagine this poflible in the fenfe we underftand it •, and muft therefore rather take it in the limited fenfe in which it is often ufed by Mofes and his countrymen, wdrere they fpeak of cities walled up to heaven. Others there are who imagine that the. top of this tower was not to reach up to heaven, but to be confecrated to the heavens, i. e. to the worlhip of the fun, moon and liars ; of the fire, air, &c. and other natural powers, as deities 5 and therefore that the true Deity interpofed in order to prevent a total and irrecoverable defedlion. Certain it is, that the fpecies of idolatry which takes for the objedls of its worlhip thofe natural agents, as it is the moll ancient, fo it is by far the moft rational, and the moll difficult to be difproved. It is much more difficult, for inftance, to prove that the fun, which by his enlivening beams gives vigour to the whole creation, is not a deity, than that a log of wood is not one : and hence if fuch a fy- ftem of religion became univerfally eflablilhed among mankind, it would be impoffible ever afterwards to eradicate it. Indeed that the fcheme of Babel, what¬ ever it was, could have been put into execution by man, feems evident from the interpofition of the Deity on the occafion 3 for we cannot fuppofe that he would have worked a miracle on purpofe to defeat that which would have defeated itfelf if he had let it alone r and he exprefsly fays, That now nothing could be reftrain- ed from them 3 which intimates very plainly, that, had this fcheme gone on, the plan wffiich God had laid for the government of the world would have been totally fruflrated : and agreeable to this hypothefis Dr Ten- nifon fuppofes that the tower was of a pyramidal form, in imitation of the fpires of flame ; and that it wras eredled in honour of the fun, as being the moft proba¬ ble caufe of drying up the flood. As to the materials made ufe of in the building of this tower, the Scripture informs us that they -were bricks and flime or bitumen. According to an eaftern tradition,, three years were taken up in making the [ 29j, 1 BAB bricks, each of which was 13 cubits long, to broad, , and five thick. Oriental writers fay, that the city was 313 fathoms in length, and 151 in breadth 3 that the walls were 5533 fathoms high, and 33 in breadth and that the tower itfelf W'as no lefs than 10,000 fa¬ thoms, or 12 miles high. Even St Jerome affirms from the teftimony of eye-witneffes, who as he fays had examined the remains of the tower, that it was four miles high 3 but Ado makes the height to have been no lefs than 5000 miles. The only account of its dimenfions which can be at all depended upon (fup- pofing it to have been the fame which afterwards flood in the midft of the city of Babylon, and round which Nebuchadnezzar built the temple of Belus), is that given under the article Babylon. BABEL MANDEL, the gate of mourning 3 a famous ftrait in the Indian ocean, between the coaft of Arabia Felix in Afia, and that of Adel and Zeila in Africa, at the entrance into the Red fea. By fome it is alfo called the Straits of Moka. It is narrow, and difficult to fail through, on account of the fand banks. At the mouth of the ftrait is a fmall ifiand called alfo Babel Mandel, wffiich is little elfe than a barren rock. E. Long. 44. 30. N. Lit. 12. 40. BABENHAUSEN, a town of Germany in Suabia. E. Long. 9. 16. N. Lat. 48. 39. BABIN A,Commonwealth oF,a fociety ludicrouf- ly fo called, wffiich w7as founded in Poland in the reign of Sigifmund Auguftus, in the 16th century. It took its rife from a fet of gentlemen, inhabitants of Lublin, wffio had agreed to meet at a place called Babma, merely for the purpofes of mirth and jollity. In time their number increafed, and they formed themfelves into a regular government, under the prefidency of a king, fenate, and chief magiftrate. The magiilrates w^ere ele£led from fomething wffiich appeared ridiculous in the charafler or condudl of any of the members. For inftance, if any perfon wras meddling or officious, he was immediately created an archbifhop ; a blun¬ dering or difputatious member was promoted to the fpeaker’s chair 3 a boafter of his own courage, and vain-glorious Thrafo, w7as honoured ufith the commif- fion of generaliffimo, which was prefented him wuth great ceremony by the fubordinate heroe^. Thofe who declined the office for which they were declared qualified w7ere perfecuted with hillings, and abandon¬ ed by the fociety. Thus every vice and every foible was attacked with ridicule 3 and Babina became in a fliort time the terror, the admiration, and the re¬ former, of the Polilh nation : genius flourilhed, wdt was cultivated, and the abufes wffiich had crept into government and fociety were corredted by the judi¬ cious application of good humoured fatire. Never did any inftitution of this nature become fo general or fo ufeful 3 but at length it degenerated into a fet of buf¬ foons, and banterers of every thing facred or profane. For feveral years it wras patronized by the kings of Poland, and Sigifmund himfelf became a member 3 the ftarofta of Babina telling him jocularly, that “ his majefty had certain qualities wffiich entitled him to the firft dignitv in the commonwealth”. Not the leaft remnant of the fociety now7 remains, though it was honoured with extraordinary privileges by kings and emperors. BABINGTON, Gervase, bilhop of Worcefter* was Babel mandcl BAB [ 296 j BAB Baboon, ^as born, according to Fuller, in Nottinghamlhire ; , Babylon. but In what year is uncertain. He was fent to Tri¬ nity College, Cambridge, of which he was made fellow; and, in 1578, was incorporated mafter of arts at Ox¬ ford. He appears, however, to have made Cambridge the place of his refidencs;, where he became an eminent preacher ; and, being now doftor in divinity, was made domeilic chaplain to Henry earl of Pembroke. In this fhttion he is fuppofed to have affifted the countefs in her tranflation of the Pfalms. In 1588 he was inlf ailed prebend of Hereford, and in 1591 confecrated bilhop of Landalf. In 1564 he was translated to the fee of Exeter, and thence to Worcefter in 1597. About this time, or foon after, he was made queen’s counfel for the marfhes of Wales. He was a confiderable be¬ nefactor to the library belonging to the cathedral of Worcefter, where he was buried in May 1610 with¬ out a monument. The feveral hiftorians who have mentioned this prelate agree in giving him the cha- ra&er of a learned and pious man. His writings, like thofe of moft of his cotemporaries, abound with puns and quaint expreflions. His works were printed both in folio and quarto in 1615, and again in folio in 1637, under this title : The works of the right reverend father in God Gervafe Babington, late hifhop of Worcfier, con¬ taining comfortable notes upon the five books of Mofes, viz. Gencfis, isfe. As alfo an expofition upon the Creed, the Ten Commandments, the Lord's Prayer ; with a con¬ ference betwixt man's frailtie and faith, and three fer- mons, is’e. BABOON, in Zoology. See Simia, Mammalia Index. BABYLON, the capital of the ancient kingdom of Babylonia or Chaldea, and fuppofed to have flood in E. Long. 44. o. N. Lat. 32.0. Semiramis is faid by fome, and Belus by others, to have founded this city. But, by whomfoever it was founded, Nebuchadnezzar was the perfon who put the laft hand to it, and made it one of the wonders of the world. The moft famous works in and about it were the walls of the city, the temple of Belus, Nebuchadnezzar’s palace, the hang- ing-gardens, the banks of the river, the artificial lake, x and canals. City de- The city was furrounded with walls, in thicknefs 87 feribed. feet, in height 3 50 feet, and in compafs 480 furlongs or 60 of our miles. Thus Herodotus, who was him- felf at Babylon ; and though fome difagree with him in thefe dimenfions, yet moft writers give us the fame, or nearly the fame, as he does. Diodorus Siculus dimi- nifhes the circumference of thefe walls very confidera- bly, and takes fomewhat from the height of them, as in Herodotus ; though he feems to add 19 their breadth by faying, that fix chariots might drive abreaft thereon: -while the former writes, that one chariot only might turn upon them; but then he places buildings on each fide of the top of thefe walls, which, according to him, were but one ftory high ; which may pretty well recon¬ cile them together in this refpefl. It is obferved, that thofe who give the height of thefe walls but at 50 cu¬ bits, fpeak of them only as they were after the time of Darius Hyftafpis, who had caufed them to be beaten down to that level. Thefe walls formed an exadl fquare, each fide of which was 120 furlongs, or 15 miles, in length ; and were all built of large bricks cemented to¬ gether with bitumen, which in a fhort time grows harder I than the very brick and ftone which it cements. The Babylon. city was encompafled, without the walls, with a vaft' ditch filled with water, and lined wnth bricks on both fides ; ^nd, as the earth that was dug out of it ferved to make the bricks, we may judge of the depth and largenefs of the ditch from the height and thicknefs of the walls. In the whole compafs of the wall there were 100 gates, that is, 25 on each of the four fides, all made of lolid brafs. Between every two of thefe gates, at proper diftances, were three towers, and four more at the four corners of this great fquare, and three be¬ tween each of thefe corners and the next gate on either fide, and each of thefe towers was ten feet higher than the walls. But this is to be underftood only of thofe parts of the walls where towers were needful for de¬ fence. For fome parts of them being upon a morafs, and inacceflible by an enemy, there the labour and cofl was fpared, which, though it muft have fpoiled the fym- metry of the whole, muft be allowed to have favoured of good ceconomy ; though that is what one would not have expeded from a prince who had been fo deter¬ mined, as Nebuchadnezzar murt have been, to make the city complete both for ftrength and beauty. The whole number, then, of thefe towers amounted to no more than 250; whereas a much greater number would have been necellary to have made the uniformity com¬ plete all round. From each of the 25 gates on each fide of this fquare, there w7as a ftraight ftreet, extending to the correfponding gate in the oppofite wall; whence the whole number of the ftreets muft have been but ;o ; but then they were each about 15 miles long, 25 of them crofting the other 25 exadly at right angles. Befides thefe wdrole ftreets, we muft reckon four half ftreets, which were but rows of houfes facing the four inner fides of the wTalls. Thefe four half ftreets were properly the four fides of the city within the walls, and were each of them 200 feet broad, the whole ftreets being about 150 of the fame. By this inter- fedion of the 50 ftreets, the city was divided into 676 fquares, each of four furlongs and a half on each fide, or two miles and a quarter in compafs. Round thefe fquares, on every fide towards the ftreets, flood the houfes, all of three or four ftories in height, and beautified with all manner of ornaments ; and the fpace within each of thefe fquares was all void, and taken up by yards, or gardens, and the like, either for plea- fure or convenience. A branch of the Euphrates divided the city into two, running through the midft of it, from north to fouth ; over which, in the very middle of the city, was a bridge, a furlong in length, or rather more ; and in¬ deed much more, if we hearken to others, w’ho fay it was no lefs than five ftades or furlongs in length, though but 30 feet broad, a difference we (hall never be able to decide. This bridge, hoxvever, is faid to have been built with wonderful art, to fupply a defedt in the bot¬ tom of the river, which w?as all landy. At each end of this bridge were two palaces : the old palace on the eaft fide, the new one on the weft fide of the river ; the former of which took up four of the fquares above- mentioned, and the latter nine. The temple of Belus, which flood next to the old palace, took up another of the fame fquares. The whole city flood in a large flat or plain, in a very fat and deep foil: that part or half of it on the eaft BAB 'Was never fully peo¬ pled, iMiyldn. call; Tide of the river was the old city, and the other on the wefl: was added by Nebuchadnezzar, both being included within the vaft fquare bounded by the walls aforefaid. The form of the whole was feemingly bor¬ rowed from Nineveh, which was alfo 480 furlongs •, but though it was equal in dimenfions to this city, it was lefs with refpedt to its form, which was a paralle¬ logram, whereas that of Babylon was an exaft fquare. It is fuppofedj that Nebuchadnezzar, who had dellroy- ed that old feat of the Affyrian empire, propofed that this newr one fliould rather exceed it 5 and that it was in order to fill it with inhabitants, that he tranfport- ed fuch numbers of the captives from other countries hither; though that is what may be difputed, feeing he therein only followed the conftant practice of the kings of Aflyria, who thought this the moft certain means of enfuring their conquelts either to themfelves or their polterity. But it plainly appears, that it was never wholly in¬ habited ; fo that, even in the meridian of its glory, it may be compared with the flow'er of the field, which nourifhes to-day, and to-morrow is no more. It never had time to grow up to wdiat Nebuchadnezzar vifi- bly intended to have made it $ for, Cyrus removing the feat of the empire foon after to Shulhan, Baby¬ lon fell by degrees to utter decay : yet it mull be owned, that no country wras better able to fupport fo vail and populous a city, had it been completed up to its firfl defign. But fo far wras it from being finifh- ed according to its original defign, that, when Alex¬ ander came to Babylon, Q^Curtius tells us, “ No more than 90 furlongs of it were then builtwhich can be no otherwife underflood than of fo much in length •, and, if we allow the breadth to be as much as the length (which is the utmoll that can be allows ed), it will follow, that no more than 8100 fquare furlongs were then built upon : but the w hole fpace Within the W'alls contained 14,400 fquare furlongs j and therefore there mull have been 6300 fquare fur¬ longs remaining unbuilt, which, Curtius tells us, were ploughed and fown. And, befides this, the houfes wTere not contiguous, but all built with a void fpace on each fide, between houfe and houfe. The next great work of Nebuchadnezzar was the temple of Belus. The wonderful tower, however, that flood in the middle of it, was not his work, but w’as built many ages before j that, and the famous tower of Babel, being, as is commonly fuppofed, one and the fame flruclure. This tow-er is faid to have been compofed of eight pyramidal ones raifed above one another, and by Herodotus faid to have been a furlong in height ; but as there is an ambiguity in his expref- fion, it has been difputed whether each of the towTers was a furlong in height, or the whole of them taken together. On the latter fuppofition, xvhich is the moil probable, this towrer mufl have exceeded the highefl of the Egyptian pyramids by 179 feet, though it fell fhort of its-breadth at the bafis by 33. The way to go up was by flairs on the outfide round it j whence it feems moil likely, that the wdiole afcent was, by the benching in, drawn in a Hoping line from the bottom to the top eight times round it 5 and that this made the appearance of eight towers, one above the other. I ill the times of Nebuchadnezzar, it is thought this tower wras all the temple of Belus: but as he did by Vol. III. Part I. [ 297 I BAB Temple of .Belus. the other ancient buildings of the city, fo he did by Babylon this, making great additions thereto, by vafl edifices — erefled round it, in a fquare of two furlongs on every fide, and jufl a mile in circumference, which exceeded the fquare at the temple of Jerufalem by 1800 feet. On the outfide of thefe buildings w7as a wall, which en- clofed the whole ; and, in confideration of the regu¬ larity wherewith this city was to all appearance marked out, it is fuppofed, that this wall was equal to the fquare of the city wherein it flood, and fo is concluded to have been two miles and a half in circumference. In this rvall Were feveral gates leading into the temple, and all of folid brals j which it is thought may have been made out of the brazen fea, and brazen pillars, and other veffels and ornaments of the kind, which Nebuchadnezzar had tranfported from Jerufalem ; for in this temple he is faid to have dedicated his fpoils from that of Jerufalem. 4 In this temple were feveral images or idols of mafiy Idols of gold, and one of them, as we have feen, 40 feet inSold* &c* height; the fame, as fuppofed, with that which Ne¬ buchadnezzar confecrated in the plains of Dura. . For though this lafl is faid to have been 60 cubits, or 90 feet high, thefe dimenfions appear fo incredible, that it has been attempted to reconcile them into one, by fuppofing, that in the 90 feet the height of the pedeifal is included, and that the 40 feet are for the height of the ftatue without the pedeftal 5 and being faid to have weighed 1000 talents of Babylon, it is thence computed, that it was worth three milions and a half of our money. In a word, the whole weight of the ftatues and decorations, in Diodorus Siculus, amounting to ycoo and odd talents in gold, the whole is eflimated at above 2i,ooo,oool. of our money; and a fum about equal to the fame, in tieafure, utenfils, and ornaments, not mentioned, is allowed for. Next to this temple, on the call fide of the river, flood the old palace of the kings of Babylon, being four miles in circumference. Exactly oppofite to it, on the other fide of the river, was the new palace built by Nebuchadnezzar, eight miles in circumference, and con- fequently four times as big as the old one. But nothing was more wonderful at Babylon than Hanging the hanging-gardens, which Nebuchadnezzar made in gardens, complaifance to his wife Amyte; who, being a Mede, and retaining a flrong inclination for the mountains and forells of her own country, was defirous of having fomething like them at Babylon. They are faid to have contained a fquare of four plethra, or 400 feet, on each fide ; and to have confided of terraces one above another, carried up to the height of the wall of the city, the afcent from terrace to terrace being by fleps ten feet wide. The whole pile confided of fub- dantial arches upon arches, and was drengthened by a wall furrounding it on every fide, 22 feet thick; and the floors on each of them were laid in this order ; fird, on the tops of the arches was laid a bed or pave¬ ment of dones 16 feet long, and four feet broad ; over this was a layer of reed mixed with a great quantity of bitumen; and over this two courfes of brick, clofely cemented together with plader; and over all thefe were thick flieets of lead, and on thefe the earth or mould' of the garden. This floorage was defigned to retain the moidure of the mould ; which was fo deep, as to give root to the greated trees which were planted up- P p \ on t Babylon. 6 Bmks of the river, canals, Sec. BAB [ 298 ] BAB en every terrace, together with great variety of other vegetables pleafing to the eye. Upon the uppermoft of thefe terraces was a refervoir, fupplied by a certain engine with water from the river, from whence the gardens on the other terraces were fupplied. The other works attributed to Nebuchadnezzer by Berofus and Abydenus, were the banks of the river, the artificial canals, and the great artificial lake faid to have been funk by Semiramis. The canals were cut out on the eaft fide of the Euphrates, to convey the water of the river, when it overflowed its banks, into the Tigris, before 'they reached Babylon. The lake was on the weft fide of Babylon and, according to the loweft computation, 40 miles fquare, 160 in com- pafs, and in depth 35 feet, as we read in Herodo¬ tus, or 75, as Megafthenes will have it 5 the former, perhaps, meafured from the furface of the fides, and the latter from the tops of the banks that were caft up upon them. This lake was dug to receive the wa¬ ters of the river, while the banks were building on each fide of it. But both the lake, and the canal which led to it, were preferved after that work was completed, being found of great ufe, not only to pre¬ vent all overflowings, but to keep water all the year, as in a common refervoir, to be let out, on proper occa- fions, by fluices, for the improvement of the land. The banks were built of brick and bitumen, on both fides of the river, to keep it within its channel •, and extended on each fide throughout the whole length of the city, and even farther, according to fome, who reckon they extended 160 furlongs, or twenty miles 5 whence it is concluded they muft have begun two miles and a half above the city, and have been continued an equal diftance below it, the length of the city being no more than 15 miles. Within the city they were built from the bottom of the river, and of the fame thicknefs with the walls of the city itfelf. Oppofite to each ftreet, on either fide of the river, was a brazen gate in the laid wall, with flairs leading down from it to the river : thefe gates were open by day, and ftiut by night. Berofus, Megafthenes, and Abydenus, attribute all thefe works to Nebuchadnezzar •, but Herodotus tells us, the bridge, the banks, and the lake, were the work of a queen after him, called Nitocris, who may have finfthed what Nebuchadnezzar left imperfect, and thence have had the honour this hiftorian gives her of the whole. The tower or temple flood till the time of Xerxes. But that prince, on his return from the Grecian expe¬ dition, having firft plundered it of its immenfe wealth, demolifhed the whole, and laid it in ruins. Alexan¬ der, on his return to Babylon from his Indian expedi¬ tion, propofed to rebuild it, and accordingly fet 10,000 men to work to clear away the rubbifh. But his death happening foon after, a flop wras put to all fur¬ ther proceedings in that defign. After the death of that conqueror, the city of Babylon began to decline apace j which was chiefly owing to the neighbourhood of Seleucia, built by Zeleucus Nicator, as is faid, out of fpite to the Babylonians, and peopled with 500,000 perfons drawn from Babylon, which by that means con¬ tinued declining till the very people of the country were at a lofs to tell where it had flood. Such is the defeription we have by ancient hiftorians of the grandeur of this city ; which, if thefe accounts Babylon. are not exaggerated, muft have exceeded every piece of v ■" '-r human grandeur that hath yet appeared. Many of the moderns, however, are of opinion that thefe mag¬ nificent deferiptions are very far from being true ; al¬ though it is certain that few other arguments can be brought againft the reality of them, than that we do not fee things of a fimilar kind executed in our own days. The following are the arguments ufed on this fubjeft by the prefent Goguet. “ Authors have greatly extolled the public works and edifices which once rendered Babylon one of the wonders of the wmrld. We may reduce all thefe ob- jefts to five principal heads : 1. the height of its walls; 2. the temple of Belusj 3. the hanging gardens j 4. the bridge built over the river Euphrates, and the quays w'hich lined the river •, 5. the lake and canals dug by the hand of man to diftribute the waters of the Eu¬ phrates. y “ All thefe works, fo marvellous in the judgment of Goguet’s antiquity, appear to me to have been extremely exag- arguments gerated by the authors who have fpoke of them. How can we conceive, in effeft, that the walls of Babylon foreao;ng could have been 318 feet high, and 81 in thicknefs, in relation, a compafs of near ten leagues ? “ I ihall fay the fame of that fquare building, known under the name of the temple of Be/us. It was com. pofed of eight towers placed one above another, di- minifhing always as they went up. Herodotus does not tell us what was the height of this monument. Diodorus fays, that it furpaifed all belief. Strabo fixes it to one ftadium, a meafure which anfwers nearly to 600 of our feet. For in the time of this geogra¬ pher the ftadia were much more coufiderable than in the firft ages. The entire mafs of this building ought to have been anfwerable to its exceflive height; and this is alfo the idea that the ancients defigned to give us of it. We may judge by the following faift. Xerxes had entirely demoliftied this temple. Alexander under¬ took to rebuild it. He defigned to begin by clearing the place and removing the ruins. Ten thoufand work¬ men who were employed two months in this work, were not, fay they, able to finifti it. “ The riches enclofed in the temple of Belus were pro¬ portioned to its immenfity. Without fpeaking of the tables and cenfers, the cups and other facred vafes, of mafiy gold, there was a ftatue 40 feet high, which alone weighed 1000 Babyloniftr talents. In fhort, ac¬ cording to the inventory that the ancients have given us of the riches contained in this temple, the total fum would amount to twm hundred and twenty millions and a half of French livres. Exaggerations like thefe de- ftroy themielves. “ As to the hanging gardens, according to all ap¬ pearance they never exifted. The fiience of Herodotus on a work fo Angular and fo remarkable, determines one to place in the rank of fables all that the other waiters have, delivered upon this pretended wonder,. Herodotus had carefully vifited Babylon. He enters into fuch details as prove that he has omitted none of the rarities of that city. Can wre prefume that he wmuld have palled over in fiience fuch a work as the hanging gardens? All the authors who have fpoken of it are of much later date than this great hiftorian. None of them except Berofus fpeaks on his own teftk mony. Babylon, Babylonia. BAB mony. It is always on the report of others, had extracted from Ctefias what he fays of thefe famous gardens. There is alfo great appearance that Strabo had drawn from the fame fource. In a word, the manner in which Quintius Curtius expreffes himfelf, fufficiently (hows how much the exiftence of thefe gardens appeared to him fufpicious. He judged they owed the greatelt part of it to the imagination of the Greeks. “ Let us now fpeak of the bridge of Babylon, which the ancients have placed in the number of the moft marvellous works of the eaft. It was near too fathoms in length, and almoil four in breadth. We cannot deny but that a great deal of art and labour was ne- ceifary to lay the foundations, which it could not be eafy to fettle in the bed of an extremely deep and ra¬ pid river, which alfo rolls along a prodigious quantity of mud, and whofe botttom is entirely fandy. They had therefore taken many precautions to fecure the piers of the bridge of Babylon. .They were built of Hones joined and faftened together with cramps of iron, and their joints filled with melted lead. The front of the piers, turned towards the current of the Euphrates, was defended by buttrefies extremely advanced, which diminilhed the weight and force of the water, by cutting it at a great diftance. Such was the bridge of Babylon. * “ While we do juftice to the {kill of the Babylonians in conducing thefe works, we cannot help remarking the bad tafte which at all times reigned in the works of the eaftern nations. The bridge of Babylon furnilh- es a ftriking inftance of it. This edifice was abfolute- ly without grace, or any air of majefly. The breadth of it was in no fort of proportion to its length. The diftance between the piers was alfo very ill contrived. They were diftant from each other only 11 feet and a half. Finally, this bridge was not arched. We may judge of its effedft on the view. “ The Babylonians, however, were not the only people who were ignorant of the art of turning an arch. This fecret, as far as I can find, was unknown to all the people of remote antiquity, who, generally fpeaking, do not appear to have been very Ikilful in ftone-cutting. “ As for the quays which lined the Euphrates, we may believe that they were grand and magnificent; but I (hall not eafily believe that they furpaffed thofe which we have daily under our eye. In this refpeft, I believe Paris may difpute it for magnificence, and for the extent of the work, wdth all the cities of the univerfe.” Babylon, a town of Egypt near the eaftmoft branch of the river Nile, now fuppofed to be Grand Cairo, or this city to Hand near its ruins. E. Long. zi. 12. N. Lat. 30. 5. BABYLONIA, or Chaldea, a kingdom of Afia, and the moft ancient in the world, being founded by Nimrod the grandfon of Ham, who alfo, according to the margin of ©ur Bibles, founded Nineveh the capital of the kingdom of Aflyria. Indeed, thefe two king¬ doms feem to have ahvays continued in fuch a ftate of friendfhip, that we can fcarce help thinking they muft have been the fame, or perhaps Babylonia was for fome time a province of Aflyria. Nothing certain is known concerning either of them, except what may be ga- [ 299 ] BAB Diodorus thered from Scripture. From thence we learn, that in Babylonia. the days of Abraham there was a king of Shinar, call-' y——J ed Amraphel, who, under the king of Elam or Perfia, made war upon the Canaanites. From this time we have nothing that can be depended upon till the days of Nabonafler, the firft king of Babylon mentioned in Ptolemy’s canon. It is plain, indeed, both from Scrip¬ ture and profane hiftory, that Babylonia fubfifted as a diftindl kingdom from Aflyria even when the latter was in all its glory. The moft probable account of the matter is this : The empire of Aflyria was found¬ ed by Pul, on the ruins of that of Damafcus or Syria, in the days of Menahem king of Judah. This king left two fons, Tiglath-Pileler, and Nabonafler. To the former he bequeathed the empire of Aflyria, and to the latter that of Babylon. Tiglath-Pilefer refided at Nineveh, the original feat of the Aflyrian empire $ while Nabonafler, who was the younger brother, held his refidence at Babylon. As the two kingdoms were governed by princes of the fame family, we may well fuppofe a perfedt harmony to have reigned between them, the younger branch at Babylon acknowdedging a kind of fubjedlion to the elder at Nineveh. That the Babylonian empire wras of Aflyrian origin, we are af~ fured by the prophet Ifaiah, in the following words ; “ Behold the land of the Chaldeans : this people was not till the Aflyrian founded it for them that dwelt in the wildernefs ; they fet up the towers thereof; they built the palace thereof.” As to the kingdom of Af- fyria, the Scripture mentions only five kings, viz. Pul, Tiglath-Pilefer, Shalmanafer, Sennacherib, and Efar- haddon j whofe hiftory, as related by the facred writers, it is needlels to mention particularly here. From the days of Nabonafler to Nabopolafler, that is, from the year before Chrift 747 to 626, the kings of Babylon made no figure, and were therefore probably in a ftate of dependence on the kings of Aflyria \ but at that time, in the reign of Chyniladan, the Sardanapalus of the Greeks, Nineveh was taken and deftroyed by the Medes and Babylonians, and the feat of the empire transferred to Babylon. This Nabopokffler was the father of the famous Nebuchadnezzar, for wdiofe hifto¬ ry we muft refer to the facred writers; and from his time to that of the Beljha^xar of Daniel, and Nabona- dius of other authors, the hiftory of Babylon is little better than a mere blank. Of the redutfion of Baby¬ lon by Cyrus, which happened at this time, wre have the following account. War had been begun betwrixt the Medes, Perfians, and Babylonians, in the reign of Nerigliflar the father of Nabonadius, which had been carried on with very bad fuccefs on the fide of the Babylonians. Cyrus, who commanded the Median and Perfian army, having fub- dued the feveral nations inhabiting the great continent from the Aegean fea to the Euphrates, bent his march towards Babylon. Nabonadius, hearing of his march, immediately advanced againft him with an army. In the engagement which enfued, the Babylonians were defeated 5 and the king, retreating to his metropolis, was blocked up and clofely befieged by Cyrus. The redu&ion of this city was no eafy enterprife. The walls were of a prodigious height, the number of men to defend them very great, and the place ftored with all forts of provifions for 20 years. Cyrus, defpairing of being able to take fuch a city by ftorm, caufed a line P p a of BAB [ 300 ’ ] BAB Babylonia, of clrcumvallation to be drawn quite round it, with a v ' ' large and deep ditch ; reckoning, that if all communi¬ cation with the country were cut off, the belieged would be obliged to furrender through famine. That his troops might not be too much fatigued, he divided his army into twelve bodies, appointing each body its month to guard the trenches 5 but the befieged, look¬ ing upon themfelves to be out of all danger by reafon of their- high walls and magazines, infulted him from the ramparts, and looked upon all the trouble he gave himfelf as fo much unprofitable labour. After Cyrus had fpent two whole years before Ba¬ bylon, without making any progrefs in the fiege, he at laff thought of the following ftratagem, which put him in poffellion of it. He was informed, that a great an¬ nual folemnity was to be held at Babylon 5 and that the inhabitants on that occafion were accuflomed to fpend the wdiole night in drinking and debauchery. This he therefore thought a proper time, for furprifing them ; and accordingly fent a llrong detachment to the head of the canal leading to the great lake, with orders, at a certain time, to break down the great bank which was between the lake and the canal, and to turn the whole current into the lake. At the fame time he appointed one body of troops at the place where the river entered the city, and another where it came out 5 ordering them to march in by the bed of the river as foon as they Ihould find it fordable. To¬ wards the evening he opened the head of the trenches on both Tides the river above the city, that the water might difcharge itfelf into them ; by which means, and the breaking down of the great dam, the river was foon drained. Then the two above-mentioned bodies of troops, according to their orders, entered the chan¬ nel 5 the one commanded by Gobryas and the other by Gadates : and finding the gates all left open by reafon of the diforders of that riotous night, they penetrated into the very heart of the city without oppofition 5 and meeting, according to agreement, at the palace, they lurprifed the guards, and cut them in pieces. Thofe who were in the palace opening the gates to know the caufe of this confufion, the Periians ruihed in, took the palace, and killed the king, who came out to meet them fword in hand. Thus an end was put to the Ba¬ bylonian empire •, and Cyrus took poffeffion of Baby¬ lon for one called in Scripture Darius the Mode, moll probably Cyaxares II. uncle to Cyrus. From this time Babylonia never was eredted into a diftindl kingdom, but hath always followed the fortune of thofe great conquerors who at different times have appeared in A- lia. It is now’ frequently the objedt of contention be¬ tween the Turks and Perfians. See Assyria. Concerning the nature of the country, manners, cu- ffoms, &c. of the ancient Babylonians, the following account is colledled by M. Sabbathier. “ As all the nations under the dominion of Cyrus, befide the ordinary tributes, w’ere obliged to maintain him and his army, the monarch and his troops were iupported by all Alla. The country of Babylon alone was obliged to maintain him four months of the year ; its fertility, therefore, yielded a third of the produce of Alia. The government of this country, which the Perfians termed fatrapy, was richer and more exten- five than any of the reft. It maintained for the king, befides the w.ar-horfes, a ftud of 8co ftallions, and 16,000 mares. So great a number of Indian dogs Baby! were likewife bred in this province for the king, that four of its cities kept thofe animals \ and in return, they w7ere exempted from all taxes and tributes. “ It rained very feldom in this country, according to Herodotus. The earth was watered by the river, which w7as here diffufed by human induftry, as the Nile is over Egypt by nature j for all the country of Babylon w’as divided by canals, the greateft of w’hich w*as navigable, and flowed from fouth to north, from the Euphrates to the Tigris. In fiiort, it w7as one of the fineft countries for corn in the w’orld $ but for pro¬ ducing trees, the fig-tree, the vine, and the olive, it was not famous. It was fo luxuriant in grain, that it commonly yielded a hundred times more than what was Town } and in good years it yielded three hun¬ dred times more than it received. The leaves of its wheat and barley were four inches broad. ‘ Though I know7,’ fays Herodotus, ‘ that the millet and the fe- fame of that country grow’ to the fize of trees, I will not deferibe them particularly 5 left thole who have not been in Babylonia fliould think my account fabu¬ lous.’ “ They had no oil but what they made from Indian corn. The country abounded with palm-trees, which grew fpontaneouily ; and moft of them bore fruit, of w’hich the inhabitants made bread, wine, and honey They cultivated thefe trees and their fig-trees in the fame manner. Some of them, as of other trees, the Greeks called male ones. They tied the fruit of the male to the trees which bore dates; that thp mofquito, leaving the male, might caufe the date to ripen, by pe¬ netrating it 5 for without that afliftance it came not to maturity. Mofquitos bred in the male palms as in the wild fig-trees. “ But w7e muft not here omit to giv an account of the peculiar and furprifing conftruftion of their boats of fkins, in which they failed along the river to Baby¬ lon. Thefe boats rvere invented by the Armenians, whofe country lay north from Babylonia. They made them with poles of willow, which they bent, and co¬ vered with fkins; the bare fide of the fkins they put outw ards; and they made them fo tight, that they re- fembled boards. The boats had neither prow nor ftern, but were of a round form like a buckler. They put ftraw on the bottom. Two men, each with an oar, rowed them down the river, laden wfith different wrares, but chiefly with palm wine. Of thefe boats fome were very large, and fome very fmall-. The lar- geft carried the w’eight of 500 talents. There was room for an afs in one of their fraall boats 5 they put many into a large one. When they had unloaded, af¬ ter their arrival at Babylon, they fold the poles of their boats and the ftraw ; and loading their affes with the fkins, returned to Armenia : for they could not fail up the river, its current was fo rapid. For this reafon they made their boats of fkins, inftead of wood 5 and on their return to Armenia with their affes, they ap¬ plied the fkins to their former ule. “ As to their drefs, they wore a linen fhirt, which came down to their feet. Over it they wore a W'ool- len robe ; their outer garment was a w hite veft. Their fhoes refembled thofe of the Thebans. They let their hair grow7. On their heads they wore a turban. They rubbed their bodies all over with fragrant liquors. Each B A E [3 Each man had a ring on his finger, and an elegant cane in his hand, with an apple at the top, or a rofe, a lily, or an eagle, or feme other figure ; for they were not fuffered to ufe canes without devices. “ With regard to their policy, Herodotus thinks that their bell: law was one which the Heneti, an Il¬ lyrian people, likewife obferved in every town and vil¬ lage. When the girls were marriageable, they were or¬ dered to meet in a certain place, where the young men likewife afletnbled. They were then fold by the public crier : but he firft fold the molt beautiful one. When he had fold her at an immenfe price, he put up others to fale, according to their degrees of beauty. The rich Babylonians were emulous to carry off the finell wo¬ men, who were fold to the higheff bidders. But as the young men who were poor could not afpire to have fine women, they were content to take the uglieft with the money which was given them : for when the crier had fold the handfomeft, he ordered the uglieft of all the women to be brought ; and alked, if any one was will¬ ing to take her with a fmall fum of money. Thus {he became the wife of him who was moft eafily fatisfied •, and thus the fineft women were fold } and from the money which they brought, fmall fortunes were given to the uglieft, and to thofe who had any bodily in¬ firmity. A father could not marry his daughter as he pleafed ; nor wTas he who bought her allowed to take her home, without giving fecurity that he would marry her. But, after the iale, if the parties were not agreeable to each other, the law enjoined that the purchafe-money fhould be reftored. The inhabitants of any of their towns were permitted to marry wives at thefe au&ions. Such were the early cuftoms of the Babylonians. \ “ But they afterwards made a law, which prohi¬ bited the inhabitants of different towns to intermarry, and by which hufbands were punivhed for treating their wives ill. When they had become poor by the ruin of their metropolis, fathers ufed to proftitute their daugh¬ ters for gain. There was a fenfible cuftom among the Babylonians, worthy to be related. They brought their fick into the forum, to confult thofe who palled on their difeafes $ for they had no phyficians. They alked thofe who approached the fick, if they ever had the fame diftemper ? If they knew any one who had it ? and how he was cured ? Hence, in this country, every one who faw a fick perfon was obliged to go to him and inquire into his diftemper. “ They embalmed their dead with honey; and their mourning was like that of the Egyptians. “ There were three Babylonian tribes, who lived only upon fifli, and who prepared them in the fol¬ lowing manner: they dried them in the fun, and then beat them in a mortar to a kind of flour, which after they had fifted through linen, they baked it in rolls. “ The Babylonians at firft worfliipped only the fun and the moon ; but they foon multiplied their divini¬ ties. They deified Baal, Bel, or Belus, one of their kings, and Merodach-Baladan-. They alfo worftiipped Venus, under the name of Mylitta. She and Belus wrere the principal deities of the Babylonians. They counted their day from funrife to funrife. They fo- lemnized five days of the year with great magnificence, and almoft the fame ceremonies with which the Ro¬ mans celebrated their Saturnalia, >i ] BAG “ The Babylonians were very much addicted to ju¬ dicial aftrology. Their priefts who openly profeffed that art, were obliged to commit to writing all the events of the lives of their illuftrious men ; and on a fancied conned!km between thofe events and the mo¬ tions of the heavenly bodies, the principles of their art were founded. They pretended that tome of their books, in which their hiftorical tranfadlions and re¬ volutions were accurately compared with the courfes. of the ftars, were thoufands of years old. This af- fertion of their judicial aftrologers we may reafon- ably difpute ; but that their aftronomers had made a long feries of obfervation, is inconteftably true. It is certain that fome of thofe obfervations were extant in the days of Ariftotle, and that they were older than the empire of the Babylonians.” See Hijlory of Astro¬ nomy. BABYLONIAN, Babylonius, is ufed in fome ancient writers for an aftrologer, or any thing related to aftrology. Hence Babylonia cura, the art of caft- ing nativities ; and nnmeri Babylonii, the computation ol aftrologers. BABYLONICA texta, a rich fort of weavings, or hangings, denominated from the city Babylon, where the practice of interweaving divers colours in their hangings firft obtained. Hence alfo Babylonic garments, Babylonic {kins, Babylonic carpets, hou- fings, &c. Babylonic folana, coverings laid over couches, &c. painted with gold, purple, and other co¬ lours. BABYLONICS, BABYLONICA, in Natural Hifloryy a fragment of the ancient hiftory of the world, ending at 267 years before Chrift ; and compofed by Berofus, or Beroffus, a prieft of Babylon, about the time of Alexander. Babylonics are fometimes alfo cited in an¬ cient writers by the title of Chaldaics. The Babylonics were very confonant with Scripture, as Jofepbus and the ancient Chriftian chronologers affure ; whence the author is ufually fuppofed to have confulted the Jewiftv writers. Berofus fpeaks of an univerfal deluge, an ark, &c. He reckons ten generations between the firft man and the deluge ; and marks the duration of the feveral generations by far01, or periods of 223 lunar months; which reduced to years, differ not much from the chronology of Moles.— The Babylonics con- fifted of three books, including the hiftory of the an-r cient Babylonians, Medes, &c. But only a few im~ perfefl extracts are now remaining of the work ; pre¬ ferred chiefly by Jofephus and Syncellus, where all the paffages of citatioris of ancient authors out of Be¬ rofus are colle&ed with great exaflnefs. Annius of Viterbo, to fupply the lofs, forged a complete Berofus out of his own head. The world has not thanked him for the impofture. BABYROUSSik, in 'Zoology, a fynonime of a fpe- cies of fus. See Sus, Mammalia Index. BAG, in Navigation, is ufed for a praam, or ferry¬ boat. * Bac, in Brewing, a large flat kind of tub, or vef- fel, wherein the wort is put to itand and cool be¬ fore boiling. The ingredients of beer pafs through three kinds of veffels. They are malked in one, worked in another, and cooled in a third called bacs or coolers. Bac, in DiJUllery, veffels into which the liquor to BAG [ 3°2 ] BAG Bac II Bacchana lia. be fermented is pumped from the cooler, in order to be worked with yeft. BAC-Maker, is one who makes liquor-bacs, under- j bacs, coolers, mafh-tuns, working-tuns, &c. for the brewers. The workmanlhip is partly* carpentry, in a particular manner, for it muft be tight enough to hold liquor j and partly cooperage, viz. the mafh-tun, or vat, which is hooped. There are not many of this trade-, and it requires chiefly ftrength, with a little art. A fmall flock of fluff, befides tools, will fet a man up tolerably well; but with 200I. or 300L he will make a good figure in bufinefs. BACA, or Baza, a town of Spain in the king¬ dom of Granada. W. Long. 3. 6. N. Lat. 37. 18. It is fituatcd in a valley called Hoya de Baza. It is encompafled with old walls, and has a caftle half ruinUd. It contains about 4000 honfes, but has no¬ thing remarkable except the church dedicated to the Virgin Mary. The land about it is well cultivated for half a league round, and is fertile in wheat, wine, honey, hemp, and flax, being watered by the little ri¬ ver Guadalantin. BACACUM, a town of the Nervii in Gallia Bel- gica ; now Bavay, in Hainault. E. Long. 3. 30. N. Lat. 50. 25. BACAIM, a handfome fea-port town of the king¬ dom of Vifapour on the Malabar coafl in Afia. It is fubjefl to the Portuguefe ; and Hands in E. Long. 73. 10. N. Lat. 19. o. BACASERAY, a town in the peninfula of Crim fartary, and, as the khan ufually takes up his refi- dence there, it may be confidered as the capital of the country. E. Long. 35. 10. N. Lat. 45. 30. BACANTIBI, in Kcclejiajhcal Antiquity, wander¬ ing clerks, who ftrolled from church to church. The word feems formed by corruption from vacantivi. BACCA, berry, in Botany, is ufed to fignify fuch fruits as confift of a pericarpium full of juice and feeds, without any valves. BACCALARIA, in middle-age writers, denotes a kind of country-farms, confifting of feveral manfes. Baccalaria dominicana, or indominicata, was more particularly ufed for a farm belonging to the lord, and kept in his own hands. BACCARACH, a town of Germany in the Lower Palatinate ; formerly imperial and free, but now fub- je£l to the ele£lor Palatine. It is famous for excellent wine ; and is fituated on the Rhine, in E. Long. 7. 5. N. Lat. 49. 57. BACCHAL, in Antiquity, the priefleffes of Bacchus, tvho celebrated the orgia or myfteries of that god. The word was alfo ufed for the ivy crowns or garlands worn by the priefts of Bacchus, in offering facrifices to him. BACCHANALIA, feafls celebrated in honour of Bacchus by the ancients. The two moll remarkable were called the greater and lejfer. The latter called lenaa, from a wrord fignifying a wine-prefs, were held in the open fields about autumn; the greater, called Dionyjia, from one of the names of Bacchus, were ce¬ lebrated in the city, about the fpring-time. Both thefe feafts were accompanied with games, fpe£lacles, and theatrical reprefentations; and it was at this time the poets contended for the prize of poetry. Thoi'e who I were initiated into the celebration of thefe fealls, re- Baccharis prefented, fome Silenus ; others, Pan ; others, Satyrs ; II and in this manner appeared in public, night and day, ,Eacchu!;- counterfeiting drunkennefs, dancing obfcenely, and v-’1" committing all kinds of licentioufneis and debauchery. See Bacchus. BACCHARIS, ploughman’s spikenard. See Botany Index. BACCHI, in Mechanics, a kind of ancient ma¬ chines, in form of goats, ufed by Jupiter, in his w^ars againft the giants. Rudbeck defcribes two kinds of bacchi, one made like the battering-ram, wherewith Jupiter demolilhed the enemy’s fortifications; the other contrived to call fire out of, from whence the Greeks are conje£lured to have framed their idea of the chimera. BACCHIC, fomething relating to the ceremonies of Bacchus. The celebrated intaglio, called Michael Angelo’s ring, is reprefentation of a Bacchic feall. Bacchic fong, is fometimes ufed for a chanfon a Loire, or coropofition to infpire jollity. But in a more proper fenfe it is rellrained to a dithyrambic ode or hymn. BACCHINI, Benedict, a benediftine monk, and one of the moll learned men in his time, w as born at Borgo San Domino in 1651 ; and wrote a great num¬ ber of books in Latin and Italian, the moil confide- rable of which is a Literary Journal. He died at Bo¬ logna in 1721, aged 70. BACCHIUS, a follower of Arilloxenus, fuppofed by Fabricius to have been tutor to the ejnperor Marcus Antoninus, and confequently to have lived about A.C. 140. He wrote in Greek a very Ihort introduftion to mufic in dialogue, which, wfith a Latin tranllation thereof, Meibomius has publilhed. It feems it was firfl publifhed in the original by Merfennus, in his Commentary on the firfl fix chapters of Genefis ; and tl at afterwards he publilhed a tranflation of it in French, wdrich Meibomius in the preface to his edition of the ancient mulical authors, cenfures as being grofsly er¬ roneous. Bacchius, in Ancient Poetry, a kind of foot com- pofed of a Ihort fyllable and too long ones ; as the word [avail]. It takes its name from the god Bacchus, becaufe it frequently entered into the hymns compofed in his honour. The Romans called it likcwife anotrius, tripodius, fa/tans. BACCHUS, in Heathen Mythology, the god of wine, with whofe fabulous adventures every fchool-boy is acquainted. This perfonage is feldom named in modern times but as a fenfual encourager of feall and jollity ; but he w^as regarded in a more refpeflable light by the ancients, who worlhipped him in different coun¬ tries under the following appellations : in Egypt, he was called 0fir is; in Myfia, Fanaces ; in India, Di- onyfus ; Liber, throughout the Roman dominions ; A- doneus, in Arabia ; and Pentheus, by the Lucanians. Mythologills furnilh reafons for all thefe different names given to the fame god, which may be feen in the fe- cond volume of Banier’s Mythology. It is natural to fuppofe that the Greeks and Romans, as ufual, bellowed upon the one Bacchus which they worlhipped, the feveral adlions and attributes of the many divinities knowm by that name, and by other equivalent denominations in different countries. How¬ ever, Bacchus, Bacchy tides. BAG [ 303 ] ever, antiquity chiefly diftinguiflied two gods under the of Pindar, title of Bacchus : that of Egypt, the fon of Ammon, and the fame as Oliris j and that of Thebes in Boeotia, the fon of Jupiter and Semele. The Egyptian Bacchus was brought up at Nyfa, a city of Arabia Felix, whence he acquired the name of Dionyjius, or the god of Nyfa) and this was the con¬ queror of India. Though this Bacchus of the Egyp¬ tians was one of the elder gods of Egypt, yet the fon of Semele was the youngeft of the Grecian deities. Diodorus Siculus tells us, that Orpheus firft deified the fon of Semele by the name of Bacchus, and appointed his ceremonies in Greece, in order to render the family of Cadmus, the grandfather of the Grecian Bacchus, illuftrious. The great Bacchus, according to Sir Ifaac Newton, flourifhed but one generation Before the Argonautic expedition. This Bacchus, fays Hermippus, was po¬ tent at fea, conquered eaftward as far as India, re¬ turned in triumph, brought his army over the Helle- fpont, conquered Thrace, and left mufic, dancing, and poetry*there. And, according to Diodorus Siculus, it was the fon of Semele who invented farces and theatres, and who firft eftabliftied a mufic fchool, ex¬ empting from all military fumftions fuch muficians as difcovered great abilities in their art j on which ac¬ count, lays the fame author, muficians formed into companies have fince frequently enjoyed great privi¬ leges. Hipry of Dr Burney * obferves, that the dithyrambics which B A C Both fung the vi&ories of Hiero at the Mufu, gave birth to dramatic reprelentations, are as ancient p. 29S, et as the worlhip of Bacchus in Greece ; and there is fit' little doubt but that the ceremonies of his myfteries gave rife to the pomp and illufions of the theatre. Many of the moft fplendid exhibitions upon the ftage for the entertainment of the people of Athens and Rome, being performed upon the feftivals of Bacchus, gavef occafion to the calling all thofe that were em¬ ployed in them, whether for finging, dancing, or re¬ citing, of Bacchus. Pauianias, in his Attics, fpeaks of a place at Athens confecrated to Bacchus the finger; thus named, he fays, for the fame reafon as Apollo is called the chief ♦ and conduBor of the mufes. Whence it fliould feem that Bacchus was regarded by the Athenians not only as the god of wine, but of fong •, and it muft be owned, that his followers, in their cups, have been much in¬ clined to finging ever fince. Indeed we are certain, that in none of the orgies, proceflions, triumphs, and feftivals, inftituted by the ancients to the honour and memory of this prince of hons vivans, mufic was for¬ gotten, as may be ftill gathered from ancient fculpture, where we find not only that muficians, male and female, regaled him with the lyre, the flute, and with fong 5 but that he was accompanied by fawns and fatyrs play¬ ing upon timbrels, cymbals, bagpipes, and horns j theie Suidas calls his minftrels ; and Strabo gives them the appellations of Bacchi, Si/eni, Satyri, Bacchic, Le- ruc, Thyce, Mamillones, Naiades, Nympha, and Tityri. Thefe reprefentations have furniftied fubje&s for the fineft remains of ancient fculpture ; and the moft vo¬ luptuous paflages of ancient poetry are defcriptions of the orgies and feftivals of Bacchus. See OrGia. BACCHYLIDES, a famous Greek poet, was the nephew of Simonides, and the cotemporary and rival public games. Befides odes to athletic vidlors, he was author of Love Verfes 5 Profodies) Dithyrambics } Hymns; Paeans j Hyporchemes j Parthenia, or fongs to be fung by a chorus of virgins at feftivals. The chronology of Eufebius places the birth of Bacchylides in the Bad Olympiad, about 450 B. C. BACCIO, or Baccius, Andrew, a celebrated phyfician of the 16th century, born at St Elpideo. He praftifed phyfic at Rome with great reputation, and was firft phyfician to Pope Sixtus V. The moft; fcarce and valuable of his works are, 1. De thertnis. 2. De naturali vinorum hifioria. 3. De vencnis et an- tidotis. 4. De getnmis ac lapidibus pretiofis. Baccio, Fra. Bartolomeo, called Bartelem i di S-. Marco, a celebrated painter of hiftory and portrait, was born at Savignano near Florence in 1469, and wras a difciple of Cofumo Rofelli j but his principal knowledge in the art of painting was derived from Leonardo da Vinci. He underftood the true principles of defign better than moft mafters of his time, and was alfo a confiderable painter in perfpeftive ; which induced Raphael to have recourfe to him after he had quitted the fchool of Perugino ; and under his direc¬ tion likewife Raphael ftudied the art of managing and uniting colours, as well as the rules of perfpeftive. Some years after the departure of Raphael from Flo¬ rence, Baccio vifited Rome j and by the obfervations he made on the antiques, and the works of Raphael which were then the admiration of the whole world, he was extremely improved, and manifefted his ac¬ quired abilities by a picture of S. Sebaftian, which he finifhed at his return to Florence. It was fo well defigned, fo naturally and beautifully coloured, and had fo ftrong an expreffion of pain and agony, that it was removed from the place where it was pub¬ licly feen (in the chapel of a convent), as it had been obferved to have made too ftrong an impref- fion on the imaginations of many women who beheld it. He was very laborious, and made nature his per¬ petual ftudy ; he defigned the naked correftly ; his fi¬ gures had a great deal of grace, and his colouring was admirable. He is accounted to have been the firft in¬ ventor of that machine called a layman by the artifts,. and which to this day is in general ufe. Upon that he placed his draperies, to obferve with greater exact:- nefs their natural and their more elegant folds. A capital pi&ure of the afcenfion by Baccio, is in the Florentine colleftion. He died in i i;i7. BACHELOR, or Batchelor, a common term for a man not married, or who is yet in a ftate of celi¬ bacy The Roman cenfors frequently impofed fines on old bachelors. Dion Halicarnafleus mentions an old conftitution, by which all perfons of full age were ob¬ liged to marry. But the moft celebrated law of this kind, was that made under Auguftus, called the lex fulia de maritandis ordimbus; by which bachelors were made incapable of legacies or inheritances by will, unlefs from their near relations. This brought many to marry, according to Plutarch’s obfervation, not fo much for the fake of railing heirs to their own eftates, as to make themfelves capable of inheriting thofe of other men.—The rabbins maintain, that, by the laws of Mofes, every body, except fome few particulars, is obliged inconfcience to marry at 20 years of age : this makes Baccio, Bachelor, « BAG [ 304 ] BAG Bachelor, makes one of their 613 precepts. Hence thofe ftraxims .Kachdors. p0 frequent among their cafuifts, that he who does not take the neceiTary meafures to leave heirs behind him, is not a man, but ought to be reputed a homicide.—* Lycurgus was not more favourable 5 by his laws, bachelors are branded with infamy, excluded from all offices civil and military, and even from the ffiows and public fports. At certain feafts they were forced to appear, to be expofed to the public derifion, and led round the market place. At one of their feafts, the women led them in this condition to the altars, where 'they obliged them to make amende honourable to nature, accompanied with a number of blows and lalhes with a rod at difcretion. To complete the affront, they forced them to fing certain fongs compofed in their own deri- fton.—The Chrirtian religion is more indulgent to the bachelor ftate : the ancient church recommended it as in * fame circumftances preferable to, and more perfedft than, the matrimonial. In the canon law, we find injunctions on bachelors, when arrived at puberty, either to marry or to turn monks and profefs chaftity in earneft In England, there was a tax On bachelors, after 25 years of age, 12I. 1 os. for a duke, a common perfon is. by 7 Will. III. 1695. In Britain, at prefent, they are taxed by an extra-duty on their fervants. Every man of the age of 21 years and upwards, never having been married, who fhall keep one male fervant or more, fhall pay il. 5s. for each above or in addition to the ordi¬ nary duties leviable for servants. Every man of the age of 21 years and upwards, never having been mar¬ ried, keeping one female fervant, ftiall pay 2s. 6d. in addition to the former 2s. 6d.; 5s. in addition for each, if he has two female fervants j and 10s. in addition for each for three or more female fervants. Bachelor, was anciently a denomination given to thofe who had attained to knighthood, but had not a number of vafials fufficient to have their banner carried before them in the field of battle ; or if they were not of the order of Bannerets, were not of age to difplay their own banner, but obliged to march to battle Under another’s banner. It was alfo a title given to young cavaliers, who having made their firft campaign^ re¬ ceived the military girdle accordingly. And it ferved to denominate him who had overcome another in a tournament the firft. time he ever engaged The word bachelor, in a military fenfe, is derived by Cuias from huccelarius, a kind of cavalry, anciently in great efteem. Du Cange deduces it from baccalaria, a kind of fees or farms, confifting of feveral pieces of ground, each whereof contained 12 acres, or as much as two oxen would plough : the pofleflbrs of which baccalaria were called bachelors. Cafeneuve and Altaferra derive ba¬ chelor from baculus, or bacillus, “ a ftaff,” becaufe the young cavaliers exercifed themfelves in fighting with Haves. Martinius derives it from baccalaureus, i. e. bacca laurea donatus, in allufion to the ancient cuftom of crowning poets with laurel, baccis lauri, as was the cafe with Petrarch at Rome in 1341. Alciat and Vives are of the fame opinion : nor is this etymology improbable. Knights-BACHELORS, the moft ancient, but the loweft order of knights in England 5 known by the name of knights only. They are ftyled knights-bachelors, either (according to fome) as denoting their degree, quafibas 2 chevaliers ; or, according to others, becaufe this title itafcfiehrf*. does not defeend to their pofterity. u The cuftom of the ancient Germans was to give their young men a fhield and a lance in the great coun¬ cil ; this was equivalent to the toga virilis of the Ro¬ mans. Before this, they were not permitted to bear arms, but were accounted as part of the father’s houfe- hold ; after it, as part of the public. Hence fome de¬ rive the ufage of knighting, which has prevailed all over the weftern world, fince its reduftion by colonies, from thofe northern heroes. Knights are called in La¬ tin equites aurati; aurati, from the gilt fpurs they wore ; and cquites, becaufe they always lerved on horfe- back ; for it is obfervable, that almoft all nations call their knights by fome appellation derived from a horfe. They are alfo called in our law mifotes, becaufe they formed a part, or indeed the whole, of the royal army, in virtue of their feudal tenures ; one condition of which was, that every one who held a knight’s fee (which in Henry II.’s time amounted to 20k per an¬ num') was obliged to be knighted, and attend the king in his wars,' or pay a fine for his non-compliance. The exertion of this prerogative, as an expedient to raife money in the reign of Charles I. gave great offence, though warranted by law and the recent example of Queen Elizabeth. At the Reftoration, it was, to¬ gether with all other military branches of the feudal law, abolifhed ; and it now only exifts as an honorary title j though, on account of its indiferiminate attain¬ ment, not very generally regarded. It is conferred in - difcriminately upon gownfmen, burghers, and phyfi- cians, by the king’s lightly touching the perfon, who is then kneeling, on the right {boulder with a drawn fword, and faying, Rife Sir. See the articles Knight and Nobility. Bachelors, in a univerfity fenfe, are perfons that have attained to the baccalaureate, or who have taken the firft; degree in the liberal arts and fciences. The degree of bachelor was firft introduced in the 13th century by Pope Gregory IX. but it remains ftill unknown in Italy. At Oxford, before a perfon is en¬ titled to the degree of bachelor of arts, he muft have ftudied there four years; three years more to become mafter of arts 5 and feven more to commence bachelor of divinity. At Cambridge, to commence bachelor of arts, he muft have been admitted near four years ; and above three years more before he commence mafter $ and feven more ftill to become bachelor of divinity. He may commence bachelor of laiv after having ftudied it fix years At Paris, to pafs bachelor in theology, a perfon muft have ftudied two years in philofophy and three years in theology, and held two acls of ex¬ amination in the Sorbonne Bachelors in the canon law are admitted after two years ftudy in the fame, and fuftaining an aft according to the forms. A bachelor of phyfic muft have ftudied two years in medicine after having been four years mafter of arts in the univerfity, and have ftood an examination ; after which he is in¬ verted with the fur, in order to be licenfed In the univerfity of Paris, before the foundation of divinity- profefforftiips, thofe who had ftudied divinity fix years were admitted to go through their courfe, whence they were called baccalariicurfores ; and as there were two courfes, the firft employed in explaining the Bible durin|; n a c fcaclulors during three fucceffive years, the fecond for explain- Back ing the mafter of the fentences for one year, thofe who j were in their Bible-courfe were called baccalnrii Bib- lici, snd thofe arrived at the fentences bciccalarii fen- tentiarii. And, laftly, thofe who had gone through botli were denominated bacCalaru formator formed bachelors. At prefent, formed bachelor denotes a perfon who has taken the degree regularly after the due courfe of ftudy and exercifes required by the ftatutes; by way of oppofition to a current bachelor, who is admitted in the Way of grace, or by diploma. We alfo find mention of bachelors of the church, baccalani ecclefue. The biihop with his canons and bacca/arii, cum confilio et confenfu omnium canonicorum fuorum et baccalariorum. Bachelors, in the livery companies of London, are thofe not yet admitted to the livery. Thefe com¬ panies generally conlilt of a mafter, two wardens, the livery, and the bachelors, who are yet but in expecta¬ tion of dignity in the company, and have their func¬ tion only in attendance on the mafter and wardens. They are alfo called yeomen. Bachelor is alfo a name given in the fix conpanies of merchants at Paris to the elders, and fuch as, having ferved the offices, have a right to be called by the ma¬ tters and wardens to be prefent with them, and affift them in fome of the functions, particularly in what re¬ lates to the chefd'oeuvres or mafter-pieces of fuch as are candidates for being admitted mafters. BACHERAC, a town of the palatinate of the Rhine, fituated on the weftern fliore of that river, in E. Long. 7°.. and NL Lat. 58°. It is remarkable for ex¬ cellent wine, from thence called Bachcrac. BACHIAN, one of the Molucca iflands, belong¬ ing to the Dutch j fituated under the equator, in E. Long. 1250. BACHU, a city of Shirvan in Perfia, and the beft haven in the Cafpian fea. It is defended by a double wall, as alfo by a ditch and redoubts, made by the Ruf¬ fians when they were mailers of the place. It had a fumptuous caftle, but it is reduced to a ruinous Hate by the Ruffians. Formerly many merchants refided here, and carried on a confiderable traffic in raw filk ; but that commerce is now given up. All the coun¬ try round is much impregnated with fulphur, which renders the water very unpleafant. The neighbour¬ hood of this city fupplies the countries adjacent with naphtha, brimflone, and rock-falt; and is the only place thereabouts which produces faftron. Round Bachu are feveral very fteep craggy mountains, on which are ftrong wvatch-toWers. E. Long. 49. 5. N. Lat. 40. o. BACK, BjcK-Bone, or Spine. See Anatomy Index. Back, in the Manege, and among Farriers. A horle’s back fliould be ftraight, not hollow, which is cdiled faddle-bached: horfes of this kind are generally light, and carry their heads high, but want in ftrength and fervice. A horfe with a weak back is apt to Vol. III. Part I. 305 1 ftumble. BAG In the French riding-fchools, to mount r iRadt- is to mount him bare-backed, without a gatamdfc horfe a dos, faddle. BACK-Gammon, an Ingenious game played with dice, upon a table, by two perfons. Manner of playing the game. The table is divided into two parts, upon which there are 24 black and white fpaces, called points. Each adverfary has 15 men, black and white, to diftinguifh them j and they are difpoled of in the followfing manner : Suppofing the game to be played into the right-hand table, two are placed upon the ace-point in the adverfary’s table, five upon the fix point in the oppofite table, three up’ on the cinque point in the hithermoft table, and five on the fix point in the right-hand table. The grand objeft in this game is for each player to bring the men round into his right-hand table, by throwing with a pair of uice^ thofe throws that contribute towards it, and at the fame time prevent the adverfary doing the like. The firft beft throw upon the dice is efteemed aces, becaufe it flops the fix point in the outer table, and fecures the cinque in the throrver’s table ; whereby the adverfary’s two men upon the thrower’s ace point cannot get out with either quatre, cinque, or fix. This throw is an advantage often given to the antagonift by the fuperior player. When he carries his men hotne in order to lofe nd point, he is to carry the moft diftant man to his ad- verfary’s bar point, that being the firft ftage he is to place it on ; the next ftage is fix points farther, viz. in the place where the adverfary’s five men are firft placed, out of his tables. He muft go on in this me¬ thod till all his men are brought home, except two, when by lofing a point, he may often fave the gam¬ mon, by throwing two fours or twro fives. When a hit is only played for, he fhould endeavour to gain either his owm or adverfary’s cinque point; and if that fails by his being hit by the adverfary, and he finds him fonvarder than himfelf, in that cafe he muff throw more men into the adverfary’s tables j which is done in this manner : He muft put a man upon his cinque or bar point; and if the adverfary ne- glefts to hit it, he may then gain a forward game in- ftead of a back game : but if the adverfary hits him, he fliould play for a back game ; and then the greater number of men which are taken up makes his game the better, becaufe by thefe means he will preferve his game at home ; and then he fhould endeavour to gain both his adverfary’s ace and trois points, or his ace and deuce points, and take care to keep three men upon the adverfary’s ace point, that in cafe he hits him from thence, that point may remain ftill fecure to himfelf. _ A back game fliould not be played for at the be¬ ginning of a fet, becaufe it would be a great difadvan- tage, the player running the rifk of a gammon to win a Angle hit. Rules for playing at fetting out all the throws on the dice, when the player is to play for a gammon or for it fngle hit (a). I. Twro aces are to be played on the Qji cinque (a) The rules marked thus f are for a gammon only j thofe marked thus * are for a hit only. B A C cinque point and bar point, for a gammon or for a hit. 2. Two fixes, to be played on the adverfary’s bar point and on the thrower’s bar point, for a gam¬ mon or for a hit. 3. f Two trois, to be played on the cinque point, and the other two on the trois point in his own tables, for a gammon only. 4. f. Two deuces, to be played on the quatre point in his own tables, and two to be brought over from the five men placed in the adverfary’s tables for a gammon only. 5. f Two fours, to be brought over from the five men placed in the adverfary’s tables, and to be put upon the cinque point in his own tables for a gammon only. 6. Two fives, to be brought over from the five men placed in the adverfary’s tables, and to be put on the trois point in his own tables, for a gammon or for a hit. 7. Size ace, he muft take his bar point for a gammon or for a hit. 8. Size deuce, a man to be brought from the five men placed in the adverfary’s tables, and to be placed in the cinque point in his own tables, for a gammon or for a hit. 9. Six and three, a man to be brought from the adverfary’s ace point, as far as he will go, for a gammon or for a hit. 10. Six and four, a man to be brought from the adverfary’s ace point, as far as he will go, for a gammon or for a hit. 11. Six and five, a man to be carried from the adverfary’s ace point, as far as he can go, for a gam¬ mon or for a hit. 12. Cinque and quatre, a man to be carried from the adverfary’s ace point, as far as he can go, for a gammon or for a hit. 13. Cinque trois, to make the trois point in his table, for a gammon or for a hit. 14. Cinque deuce, to play two men from the five placed in the adverfary’s tables, for a gammon or for a hit. 15- f Cinque ace, to bring one man from the five placed in the adverfary’s tables for the cinque, and to play one man down on the cinque point in his own tables for the ace, for a gammon only. 16. Quatre trois, two men to be brought from the five placed in the adverfary’s tables, for a gammon or for a hit. 17. Quatre deuce, to make the quatre point in his own tables, for a gammon or for a hit. 18. f Quatre ace, to play a man from the five placed in the adverfary’s tables for the quatre j and for the ace, to play a man down upon the cinque point in his own tables, for a gammon only. 19- + Trois deuce, twro men to be brought from the five placed in the adverfary’s tables, for a gammon only. 20. Trois ace, to make the cinque point in his own tables, for a gammon or for a hit. 21. f Deuce ace, to play one man from the five men placed in the adverfary’s table for the deuce ; and for the ace to play a man down upon the cinque point in his own tables, for a gammon only. 22. * I w7o trois, two of them to be played on the cinque point in his own tables, and with the other two he is to take the quatre point in the adverfary’s tables. 23. * Two deuces, two of them are to be played on the quatre point in jhis own tables, and with the other two he is to take the trois point in the adverfary’s tables. By playing thefe two cafes in this manner, the player avoids being ihut up in the adverfary’s tables, and has the chance of throwing out the tables to win the hit. 24. * Two fours, twTo of them are to take the ad¬ verfary’s cinque point in the adverfary’s tables, and for the other two, twro men are to be brought from the five placed in the adverfary’s tables. 25. * Cinque ace, [ 306 ] BAG the cinque fhould be played from the five men placed Back - ( in the adverfary’s tables, and the ace from the adver- gammon, ^ farv’s ace point. 26. * Quatre ace, the quatre to be played from the five men placed in the adverlary’s ace point. 27. * Deuce ace, the deuce to be played from the five men placed in the adverfary’s tables, and the ace from the adverfary’s ace point. The three laft chances are played in this manner j becaufe an ace being laid down in the adverfary’s tables, there is a probability of throwing deuce ace, trois deuce, quatre trois, or fize cinque, in two or three throws •, either of which throws fecures a point, and gives the player the beft of the hit. Cautions, is’c. The player muft underftand by the diretlions given to play for a gammon, that he is to make fome blots on purpofe, the odds being in his fa¬ vour that they are not hit: but if it Ihould happen that any blot is hit, as in this cafe there will be three men in the adverfary’s tables, he muft then endeavour to fe- cure the adverfary’s cinque, quatre, or trois point, to prevent a gammon, and muft be very cautious of his fourth man’s not being taken up. He muft not crowd his game at any time if he can help it; that is to fay, he ftrould not put many men either upon the trois or deuce points in his owm tables, being the fame as lofing thofe men, not having them in play. Befides, by crowding the game, and attempt¬ ing to fave a gammon, the player is often gammoned. His game being crowded in his own tables, the adver- fary has room to play as he thinks proper. The following calculations will ftiow the odds of en¬ tering a fingle man upon any certain number of points 5 and accordingly the game ftrould be played. It is neceffary to know that there are thirty-fix chances upon two dice, and the points that are upon thefe thirty-fix chances are as follow: Viz. Aces Deuces T rois Fours Fives Sixes And 5 And 4 And 3 And 2 And 1 twice twice twice twice twice 5 And 4 twice And And And And And And And And And twice twice twice twice twice twice twice twice twice Divide by 36)294(8 and it proves, that upon an ave- 288 rage the player has a right to 8 points each throw. 6 The BAG Back- The chances upon two dice calculated , gammon. gammon are as follow j I 3°7 1 BAG 2 Sixes 2 Fives 2 Fours 2 Trois 2 Deuces 2 Aces 6 And 6 And 6 And 6 And 6 And 5 And 5 And 5 And 5 And 4 And 4 And 4 And 5 twice 4 twice 3 twice 2 twice 1 twice 4 twice 3 twice 2 twice 1 twice 3 twice 2 twice 1 twice 3 And 2 twice 3 And 1 twice 2 And 1 twice for back- The odds of hitting with double dice are as follow : To hit upon for againft for ag. 7 is - 6 to 30 Or about - 1 to 5 8 - 6 30 - - 15 9 *5 3i - - 16 10 -3 33 - - 1 n 11 -2 34 - - 1 17 12 - 1 36 - - 1 35 How to find out the odds of being hit upon a fix, by the table of thirty-fix chances. 1 2 Sixes 2 Trois 2 Deuces 6 And 5 twice 6 And 4 twice 6 And 3 twice € And 2 twice 6 And 1 twice 5 And 1 twice 4 And 2 twice Back¬ gammon. I 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 17 36 As it may feem difficult to find out by this table of thirty-fix chances what are the odds of being hit upon a certain or flat die, let the following method be pur- fued. The player may obferve in the table that what are thus f marked are, f 2 Aces - - 1 f 6 And 1 twice - 2 f 5 And 1 twice - 2 f 4 And 1 twice - 2 f 3 And i twice - 2 f 2 And 1 twice - 2 Total, 11 When deducted from - 36 There remains - - 25 So that it appears it is twenty-five to eleven againft hitting an ace upon a certain or flat die. The above method holds good with refpeft to any other flat die. For example, what are the odds of en¬ tering a man upon I, 2, 3, 4, or 5 points ? Anfwer. To enter it upon for againft for ag. 1 point is 11 to 25 Or about - 4 to 9 2 points 20-16 - ? 4 3 -27-9 - 3 1 4 - 32 - 4 - 81 5 - 35 - 1 - 35 1 The following table (hows the odds of hitting with any chance, in the reach of a fingle die. To hit upon for againft 1 is - 11 to 25 2 - 12 - 24 3 - 14 - 22 4 - 15 - 21 5 - 15 - 21 6 - 17 - 19 for ag. Or about - 4 to 9 1-2 2 - 3 5 - 7 5 - 7 n 91 Which deduced from - - 36 There remains - - 19 By which it appears to be 19 to 17 againft being hit upon a fix. The odds on the hits. 2 Love is about - - - 5 to 2 2 to 1 is - - - 21 I Love is - - - 3 2 Direflions for the player io hear his men. If a player has taken up two of the adverfary’s men, and happens to have two, three, or more points made in his own tables, he (hould fpread his men, that he either may take a new point in his tables, or be ready to hit the man which the adverfary may happen to enter. If he finds upon the adverfary’s entering, that the game is upon a par, or that the advantage is on his own fide, he (hould take the adverfary’s man up whenever he can, it being 25 to 11 that he is not hit: except when he is playing for a fingle hit only ; then, if playing the throw otherwife gives him a better chance for it, he ought to do it. It being five to one againft his being hit with double dice, he fhould never be deterred from taking up any one man of the adverfary’s. If he has taken up one of the adverfary’s men, and (hould happen to have five points in his own tables, and forced to leave a blot out of his tables, he (hould en¬ deavour to leave it upon doublets preferable to any other chance, becaufe in that cafe the odds are 35 to one that he is not hit ; whereas it is only 17 to one but he is hit upon any other chance. When the adverfary is very forward, a player ihould never move a man from his own quarter, trois, or deuce points, thinking to bear that man from the point where he put it, as nothing but high doublets can give him any chance for the hit. Inftead of playing an ace or a deuce from any of thofe points, he Ihould play them from his own fize or higheft points, fo that throwing two fives, or two fours, his fize and cinque points being eafed, would be a confiderable advantage Q^q 2 to - 1* BAG [ 308 to him ; whereas had they been loaded, he muft have , been obliged to play otherwife. It is the intereft of the adverfary to take up the player as foon as he enters. The blot fhould be left upon the adverfary’s loweil point; that is to fay, up¬ on his deuce point rather than upon his trois point; or upon his trois point rather than his quatre point, or upon his quatre point preferable to his cinque point, for a reafon before mentioned j all the men the adver- fary plays upon his trois or his deuce points are deem¬ ed loft, being greatly out ®f play ; fo that thofe men not having it in their power to make his cinque point, and his game being crowded in one place and open in another, the adverfary muft be greatly annoyed by the player. If the player has two of the adverfary’s men in his tables, he has a better chance for a hit than if he had more, provided his game is forwarder than that of his antagonift’s *, for if he had three or more of the adver¬ fary’s men in his tables, he would ftand a worfe chance to be hit. When a player is running to fave the gammon, if he fhould have two men upon his ace point, and feveral men abroad, although he ftiould lofe one point or two in putting his men into his tables, it is his intereft to leave a man upon the adverfary’s ace point, becaufe it will prevent his adverfary from bearing his men to the greateft advantage, and at the fame time the player will have a chance of the adverfary’s making a blot, which he may chance to hit. However, if a player finds upon a throw, that he has a probability of faving his gammon, he fhould never wait for a blot, as the odds are greatly againft his hitting it, but ftiould em¬ brace that opportunity. How to calculate the odds of favlag or winning the gammon. Suppofe the adverfary has fo many men abroad as require three throws to put them into his tables, and at the fame time that the player’s tables are made up, and that he has taken up one of the ad¬ verfary’s men \ in this cafe, it is about an equal wager that the adverfary is gammoned. For in all probability the player has bore two men before he opens his tables, and when he bears the third man, he wall be obliged to open his fize or cinque point. It is then probable, that the adverfary is obliged to throw twice before he enters his men in the player’s tables, twice more be¬ fore he puts that man into his own tables, and three throws more to put the men which are abroad into his own tables, in all feven throw’s. Now the player having 12 men to bear, he may be forced to make an ace or a deuce twice before he can bear all his men, and confe- quently will require feven throws in bearing them \ fo that, upon the whole, it i,s about equal whether the ad¬ verfary is gammoned or not. Suppofe a player has three men u^on his adverfary’s ace point and five points inhisowm tables, and that the adverfary has all his men in his tables, three upon each of his five higheft points. Has the player a probability ©f gammoning his adverfary or not ? For bearing three men from his Cth point is From his 5th point Points. 18 *5 33 1 BAG Carried forward From his 4th point From his 3d point - . From his 2d point In all 60 Bringing his three men from the adverfary’s ace point to his fize point in his own ta¬ bles, being 18 points each, and making together - - ^4 There muft remain - 5 It is plain from this calculation, that the player has much the belt of the probability of the gammon, ex- clufive of one or more blots which the adverfary is li¬ able to make in bearing his men, fuppofing at the fame time the throws to be upon an equality. Suppofe two blots are left, either of which cannot be hit but by double dice; one muft be hit by throwing eight and the other by throwing nine ; fo that the ad¬ verfary has only one die to hit either of them. What are the odds of hitting either of them i1 The chances of two dice being in all The chances to hit 8 are 6 and 2 twice 5 and 3 twfice 2 Deuces _ . . 1 Fours - The chances to hit 9 are 6 and 3 twice 5 and 4 twice 2 Trois 36 2 2 I 1 2 2 I For hitting in all - _ „ j t Chances for net hitting, remain - 25 So that the odds are 2 5 to 11 againft hitting either of thefe blots. This method may be taken to find out the odds of hitting three, four, or five blots upon double dice ; or blots made upon double and fingle dice at the fame time. After knowing how many chances there are to hit any of thofe blots, they muft be added all to¬ gether, and then fubtradled from the number 36, which are the chances of the tu’odice, and the queltion is folved. A critical cafe for a Back-game. Suppofe the fore¬ game to be played by A, and that all his men are placed as ufual; B has fourteen of his men placed upon his adverfary’s ace point and one man upon his adverfary’s deuce point, and B is to throw. Who has the beft of the hit r1—Anfwer : A has the beft of it, gold to filver: becaufe, if B does not throw an ace to take his adverfary’s deuce point, which is 25 to 11 againft him, A will take up B’s men in his tables, ei¬ ther fingly or to make points ; and then if B fecures either A’s deuce or trois point, A will put as ihany men down as poflible, in order to hit, and thereby get a back-game. It is evident that the back-game is very pow’erful; confequently, whoever praftifes it muft be¬ come a greater proficient at the game than he could by any other means. Another critical cafe. Suppofe A to have five men placed upon his fize point, as many upon his quatre point, and the fame number upon his deuce point, all in his own tables. At the fame time, let us fuppofe B to have three men placed upon A’s ace point, as many Back- B A C ^ ^09 m:tny^upon A’s trois point, and the fame number upon fore Li A C A’s cinque point, in his own tables, and three men J placed as ufual out of his tables. Who has the bell of the hit ?-—Anfxver; The game is equal till B has gain¬ ed his cinque and quatre points in his own tables 5 which if he can effedl, and by playing two men from A’s cinque point, in order to force his adverfary to blot by throwing an ace, which Ihould B hit, he will have the bell of the hit. A cafe of curiojity and infru&ion: in which is Ihown the probability of making the hit lalt by one of the players for many hours, although they lhall both play as fall as ufual. Suppofe B to have bore 13 men, and that A has his fifteen men in B’s tables, viz. three men upon his fize point, as many upon his cinque point, three upon his quatre point, the fame number upon his trois point, two upon his deuce point, and one upon his ace point. A in'this fituation can prolong it, as aforefaid by bringing his 15 men home, always fecu- ring fix clofe points till B has entered his two men, and brought them upon any certain point; as foon as B has gained that point, A will open an ace, deuce, or trois point, or all of them ; which done, B hits one of them, and A taking care to have trvo or three men m B’s tables, is ready to hit that man ; and alfo he being certain of taking up the other man, has it in his power to prolong the hit almoll to any length, pro¬ vided he takes care not to open fuch points as two fours, two fives, or two fixes, but always to open the ace, deuce, or trois points, for B to hit him. A critical game to play. Suppofe A and B place their men for a hit in the following manner: A to have three men upon the fize point in his own tables, three men out of his tables upon the ufual point, and nine men upon his adverfary’s ace, deuce, and trois points j that is, three upon each : and fuppofe B’s men to be placed in his own and his adverfary’s tables in the lame order. So fituated, the bell player Ihould win the hit. The game being fo equal, that in this cafe the dice ihould be throw-n for. Now if A throws firff, he Ihould endeavour to gain his adverfary’s cinque point: this being done, he Ihould lay as many blots as pofiible, to tempt B to hit him, as it puts him back¬ ward, and A thereby gains an advantage. A ihould always endeavour to have three men upon each of his adverfary’s ace and deuce points; becaufe when B makes a blot, thefe points will remain fecure, and when A has bore five., fix, or more men, A yet may fecure fix clofe points out of his tables, in order to prevent B from getting his man home, at which time he Ihould calculate who has the bell of the hit. If he finds that B is foremoll, he fnould then try to lay fuch blots as may be taken up by his adverfary, that he may have a chance of taking up another man, in cafe B ihould hap¬ pen to have a blot at home. Laws (f' Bach-gammon. 1. If a man is taken from any point, it mull be played ; if two men are taken rrom it, they alfo mull be played. 2. A man is not .uppofed to be played till it is placed upon a point and quitted. 3. If a player has only fourteen men in play, there is no penalty inilidled, becaufe by bis playing with a lelfer number than he is entitled to, he plays to a uifadvantage ior want of the ■deficient man to make up his tables. 4. If he bears any number of men btr J he has entered a man taken up, and which of Back- courfe he was obliged to enter, fuch men lo borne mull, Painting- be entered again in the adverfary’s tables as well as the “ man taken up. 5. If he has millaken his throw and played it, and his adverfary has thrown, it is not in the choice of either of the players to alter it, unlefs they both agree fo to do. BACK-Pamting, the method of painting mezzotin- to prints, palled on glafs, with oil-colours. See Mez - ZOTINTO. The art confills chiefly in laying the print upon a piece of crown-glafs, of fuch a fize as fits the print. In order to do this, take your print, and lay it in clean water for two days and two nights, if the print be on very ftrong, clofe, and hard gummed paper : but if upon an open, foft, fpongy paper, two hours will fometimes fuflice, or more, according as the pa¬ per is. The paper or pi&ure having been fufficiently foaked, take it out and lay it upon two Iheets of paper, and cover it with trvo more j and let it lie there a little to fuck out the moiilure. In the mean time, take the glafs the piflure is to be put upon, and fet it near the fire to warm; take Straf- burg turpentine, warm it over the fire till it is grown fluid, then with a hog’s hair brulli fpread the turpen¬ tine very fmoothly and evenly on the glafs. When this has been done, take the mezzotinto print from between the papers, and lay it upon the glafs y beginning firft at one end, rubbing it down gently as you go on, till it lie clofe, and there be no wind blad¬ ders between. Then, with your fingers, rub or roll off the paper from the backfide of the print, till it looks black, i. e. till you can fee nothing but the print, like a thin film, left upon the glafs, and fet it by to dry. When it is dry, varnifli it over with feme white tranfparent varnifli, that the print may be feen through it ; and then it is fit for painting. The utmoft care will be neceffary In rubbing or roll¬ ing the paper off the print, fo as not to tear it, efpe- cially in the light parts.- You may, inftead of foaking your prints two days and two nights, roll them up and boil them fer about two hours, more or lefs, according to the quality of the paper, in water ;• and that will render it as fit for rubbing, rolling, or peeling, as the other way. This being done, and your oil-colours prepared, ground very fine, and tempered up very ftiff, lay on the back fide of the tranfparent prints fuch colours as each particular part requires ; letting the maffer lines of the print Hill guide your pencil, and fo each particular colour will lie fair to the eye on the other fide of the glafs, and look almoft as well as a painted piece, if it be done neatly. The fhadows of the print are generally fufficient for the fhadow of every colour; but if you have a mind to give a ftiadow by your pencil, then let the ffiadows be laid on firft, and the other colours afterward. In laying on colours in this kind of back-painting, you need not be curious as to the laying them ou fmooth. This is not at all requifite here, where thr chief aim is only to have the colours appear well on the fore fide of the print 5 and therefore the only care to Jackeleer. BAG [ 3 Back-ftaff be ufed in tbis work, is to lay tbe colours on thick enough, that its body may ftrike the colour of it plain¬ ly through the glafs. BACK-Staff, a name foimierly given to a Tea-qua¬ drant invented by Captain Davis : becaufe the back of the artift is turned towards the Tun at the time of ob- fervation. See Quadrant. BACK-Stays, of a (hip, are ropes belonging to the m.ain-maft and fore-maft, and the marts belonging to them ; ferving to keep them from pitching forwards or overboard. BACK-Tack, In Scotch Low : When a wadfetter, in- rtead of pofferting the wadfet-lands, grants a tack thereof to the reverfer for payment of a certain fum in name of tack-duty, that tack is called a back-tack. BACK-Worm. See Filanders. BACKER, or Barker, Jaques, a painter of hi- ftory, was born at Antwerp in 1530 ; and learned the principles of painting from his father, who was an ar¬ tift very knowing in his profeflion, though his works were in no great eftimation. After the death of his father, he lived in the houfe of Jacopo Palermo, a dealer in pictures, who avaricioufly took care to keep him incertantly employed, and fent his paintings to Paris to be difpofed of, where they happened to be ex¬ ceedingly admired. The judicious were very eager to purchafe them j and though the tranfaflor fold them at a great price, yet the poor artift was not propor- tionably rewarded, but continued in the fame obfcure and deprefled condition. His merit, indeed, was uni- verfally allowed, but his name, and the narrownefs of his circumftances, were as univerfally unknown. He had a clean light manner of penciling, and a tint of colour that was extremely agreeable.—He died in 1560. Backer, or Barker, Jacob, painter of portrait and hiftory, was born at Harlingen in i 609, but fpent the greateft part of his life at Amfterdam ; and by all the writers on this fubjeft, he is mentioned as an ex¬ traordinary painter, particularly of portraits, which he executed rvith ftrength, fpirit, and a graceful refem- blance. He was remarkable for an uncommon readi- nefs of hand and freedom of pencil j and his incredible expedition in his manner of painting, appeared even in one portrait of a lady from Haerlem, that he paint¬ ed at half length, which wras begun and finilhed in one day, though he adorned the figure wdth rich drapery and feveral ornamental jewels. He alfo painted hifto- rical fubje£ts with good fuccefs; and in that ftyle there is a fine pidture of Cimon and Iphigenia, which is ac¬ counted hy the connoiffeurs an excellent performance. In defigning academy figures his expreffion was fo juft, and his outline fo corredl, that he obtained the prize from all his competitors} and his works are ftill bought up at very high prices in the Low Countries. In the colledlion of the Eleftor Palatine there is an excellent head of Brouwrer, painted by this mafter ; and in the Carmelites church at Antwerp is preferved a capital pidlure of the Laft Judgment, which is well defigned and well coloured. He died in 1651. BACKEREEL, called Bacquerelli, William, a painter of hiftory, was born at Antwerp, and was a difciple of Rubens, at the fame time that Vandyck was educated in that fchool. When each of them quitted that mafter, and commenced painters, Backe- 10 ] BAG reel was very little inferior to Vandyck, if not near¬ ly his equal. And this may be manifeftly feen in the works of the former, which are in the church of the Auguftin monks at Antw erp j where thofe two great artifts painted in competition, and both were praifed for their merit in their different w’ays 5 but the fuperi- ority was never determined in favour either of the one or the other. He had likewife a good tafte for poetry j but, hy exercifing that talent too freely, in writing fatires againft the Jefuits, thefe ecclefiaftics purfued him with unremitted revenge, till they compelled him to fly from Antwerp ; and by that means deprived his own country of fuch paintings as would have contribu¬ ted to its perpetual honour.—Sandrart takes notice, that in his time there were feven or eight painters, who were very eminent, of the name of Backereel, in Italy and the Low Countries. BACKHUYSEN, Ludolph, an eminent painter, was bom at Embden in 1631, and received his earlieft inftnnftion from Albert Van Everdingen ; but acquired his principal knowledge by frequenting the painting rooms of different great mafters, and obferving their various methods of touching and colouring. One of thefe mafters was Henry Dubbels, whofe underftand- ing in his art was very extenfive ; and he was as re¬ markably communicative of his knowledge to others. From him Backhuyfen obtained more real benefit than from all the painters of his time, either by ftudying their works, or perfonally convetfing with them. His fubjefts were fea-pieces, fhips, and fea-ports. He had not praftifed very long when he became the objeft of general admiration; fo that even his drawings were fought after, and feveral of them were bought up at 100 florins a-piece. It was obferved of him, that while he was painting, he would not fuffer even his moft intimate friends to have accefs to him, left his fancy might be difturbed, and the ideas he had formed in his mind be interrupted. He ftudied nature atten¬ tively in all her forms j in gales, calms, ftorms, clouds, rocks, Ikies, lights, and lhadowrs 5 and he expreffed every fubjeft with fo fweet a pencil, and fuch tranfpa- rence and luftre, as placed him above all the artifts of his time in that ftyle, except the younger Vanderyelde, who is defervedly eiteemed the firft in that manner of painting. It was a frequent cuftom with Backhuyfen, whenever he could procure refolute mariners, to go to fea in a ftorm, in order to ftore his mind with grand images, direftly copied from nature, of fuch feenes as wmuld have filled any other head and heart with terror and difmay 5 and the moment he landed he always im¬ patiently ran to his palette to fecure thofe incidents of which the traces might by delay be obliterated.—He perfeTlly underftood the management of the chiaro- feuro, and by his Ikill in that part of his art, he gave uncommon force and beauty to his objects. He ob¬ ferved ftrihtly the truth of perfpe&ive, in the diftances of his veffels, the receding of the grounds on the ftiores, and the different buildings which he deferibed in the fea-ports : whether they were the refult of his own imagination, or Iketched, as he ufually did, after na¬ ture. His works may eafily be diftinguifhed by an ob- fervant eye, from the freedom and neatnefs of his touch; from the clearnefs and natural agitation or quiefcence of the water *, from a peculiar tint in bis clouds and Ikies; and alfo from the exafr proportions Backliuy- b A e [ 31 Backing of his ihips, and the gracefulnefs of their pofition. For II the burgomafters of Amfterdam he painted a large ^;tCon‘ , picfure, with a multitude of velTels, and a view of the city at a diftance, for which they gave him thirteen hundred guilders, and a confiderable prefent; which picture they afterwards prefented to the king of France, who placed it in the Louvre. No painter was ever more honoured by the viiits of kings and princes than Backhuyfen •, the king of Pruffia was one of the num¬ ber •, and the czar Peter the Great took delight to lee him paint, and often endeavoured to draw after veffels which he had defigned. He was remarkably afliduous, and yet it feems aftonilhing to confider the number of pictures which he finiihed, and the exquiiite manner in which they are painted. He died in 17°9' BACKING, in HorfemanJJnp. See Horseman¬ ship. B acking the Sails, in Navigation ; to arrange them in a fituation that will force the drip to retreat, or move backwards. This is, however, only done in nar¬ row channels, when a fliip is carried along fidewife by the tide or current, and wants to avoid any thing that may interrupt her progrefs, as flioals, veffels at anchor, &.c. or in the line of battle, when a Hup wants to be immediately oppofite to another with which fhe is en- gaged. _ . BACKS, among dealers in leather, denote the thickell and belt tanned hides, ufed chiefly for foies of fhoes. Backs, in Brewing and Dijfdhng. See Bac. BACULARIUS, in writers of the middle age, an ecclefiaftical apparitor, or verger 5 who carries a flaff, bacillus, in his hand, as an enfign of his office. BACON, fwines fleffi falted, and dried in the chim¬ ney.— Old hiftorians and law-writers Ipeak of the /er- vice of the bacon, a cuftom in the manor of Whichen- acre in Staffordlhire, and priory of Dunmore in Eflex ; in the former of which places, by an ancient grant of the lord, a flitch of bacon, with half a quarter of wheat, was to be given to every married couple who could fwear, that, having been married a year and a day, they would never within that time have once ex¬ changed their mate for any other perfon on earth, however richer, fairer, or the like. But they were to bring two of their neighbours to fwear with them that they believed they fwore the truth. On this the lord of another neighbouring manor, of Rudlow, was to find a horfe faddled, and a fack to carry the bounty in, with drums and trumpets, as far as a day’s journey out of the manor : all the tenants of the manor being fum- moned to attend, and pay fervice to the bacon. The bacon of Dunmore, firft erefted under Henry III. was on much the fame footing •, only the tenor of the oath was, that the parties had never once repented, or wilh- ed the mfelves unmarried again. Bacon, Roger, a Francifcan friar of amazing genius and learning, was born near Ilchefter in Somer- fetfliire, in the year 1214. He began his ttudies at Oxford ; but in what fchool or college is uncertain. Thence he removed to the univerfity of Paris, which, in thofe times, was efteemed the centre of literature. He re, we are told, he made fo rapid a progrefs in the fciences, that he was efteemed the glory of that uni¬ verfity, and was much carefled by feveral of his coun¬ trymen, particularly by Robert Gxoutbead, afterwards 1 J B A c bilhop of Lincoln, his Angular friend and patron. Bacon. About the year 1240, he returned to Oxford 3 and alfuming the Francifcan habit, profecuted his favourite ftudy of experimental philofophy with unremitting ardour and affiduity. In this purfuit, in experiments, infiruments, and in fcarce books, he tells us, he fpent, in the fpace of 20 years, no lefs than 2000I 3 which, it feems, was given him by feme of the heads of the univerfity, to enable him to profecute his noble in¬ quiries. But luch extraordinary talents, and afloniffiing progrefs in fciences, which, in that ignorant age, were totally unknown to the reft of mankind, whilft they raifed the admiration of the more intelligent few, could not fail to excite the envy and malice of his illiterate fraternity 3 who found no difficulty of poffeffing the vul¬ gar with the notion of Bacon’s dealing with the devil. Under this pretence, he was reftrained from reading leifures; his writings were confined to his convent 3 and finally, in 1278, he himfelf was imprifoned in his cell. At this time he was 64 years of age. Neverthelefs, being permitted the ufe of his books, he went on in the rational purfuit of knowledge, correfted his former labours, and wrote feveral curious pieces. When he had been 10 years in confinement, Jerom de Afcoli being elefted pope, Bacon folicited his holinefs to be releafed 3 in which, it feems, he did not immediately fucceed. However, towards the latter end of that pope’s reign, he obtained his liberty, and fpent the remainder of his life in the college of his order, where he died in the year 1294, in the 80th j^ear of his age, and was buried in the Francifcan church. Such are the few particulars which the moft diligent refearches have been able to difeover concerning this very great man 3 who, like a Angle bright ftar in a dark hemi- fphere, ffione forth the glory of his country, and the pride of human nature. His works are, 1. Epi- Jlola fratris Rogeri Baconis de fecretis operibus artis et fiaturce, et de nullitate magice. Paris, 1542, qto. Bafil, 1593, 8vo. 2. Opus majus. Lend. 1733, fol. publiflred by Dr Jebb. 3. Thefaurus chemicus, Francf. 1603, 1620. This was probably the editor’s title 3 but it contains feveral of our author’s trea- tifes on this fubjeff. Thefe printed works of Bacon- contain a confiderable number of eflays, which, in the catalogue of his writings by Bale, Pits, &c. have been confideredas diftinft books 3 but there remain in differ¬ ent libraries feveral manuferipts not yet publifhed. By an attentive perufal of his works, the reader will be aftoniflred to find, that this great luminary of the 13th- century was a great linguift and a fkilful grammarian, that he was well verfed in the theory and pradtice of perfpedlive; that he underftood the ufe of convex and concave glafles, and the art of making them : that the camera obfeura, burning-glaffes, and the power of the telefcope were known to him 3 that he was well verfed in geography and aftronomy 3 that he knew the great error in the kalendar, affigned the caufe, and propofed the remedy 3 that he underftood chronology well 3 that he was an adept in chemiftry, and was really the inven¬ tor of gun-powder ; that he poffeffed great knowledge in the medical art 3 that he was an able mathematician, logician, metaphyfician, and theologift. Bacon, Sir Nicholas, lord keeper of the great feal in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was born at Chifle- hurft, in Kent, in xjio, and educated at the univenT- BAG { 3i ty of Cambridge j after which he travelled into France, ; and made fome flay at Paris. On his return, he fettled in Gray’s Inn, and applied himfelf with fuch afTiduity to the itudy of the law, that he quickly biftinguifhed himlelf fo, that on the diflblution of the monaftery of St Edmund’s Bury, in Suffolk, he had a grant from King Henry VIII. in the 36th year of his reign, of feveral manors. In the 38th of the fame king, he was promoted to the office of attorney in the court of wards, which was a place both of honour and profit. In this office he was continued by King Edward VI. ; and in 1552 he was eledled treafurer of Gray’s Inn. His great moderation and confummate prudence preferved him through the dangerous reign of Queen Mary. In the very dawn of that of Elizabeth he was knighted ; and on the 22d of December 1558, the great feal of England, being taken from Nicolas Heath archbiffiop of York, was delivered to him with the title of lord keeper, and he was alfo made one of the queen’s privy council. He had a confiderable (hare in the fettling of religion: as a ftatefman, he was remarkable for a clear head and. deep counfels : but his great parts and high preferment were far from raifing him in his own opinion, as appears from the model! anfwer he gave Queen Elizabeth, when Ihe told him his houfe at Red¬ grave was too little for him : “ Not fo, madam, (re¬ turned he) ; but your majerty has made me too great for my houfe.” After having had the great feal more than 20 years, this able ftatefman and faithful counfel- lor Was fuddenly removed from this life, as Mr Mallet informs us, by the following accident: he was under the hands ot the barber, and thinking the weather warm, had ordered a window before him to be thrown open, but fell affeep as the current of frefti air was blowing in upon him, and awakened fome time after di- ftempered all over. He was immediately removed into his bed-chamber, where he died a few days after, on the 26th of February 1578-9, equally lamented by the queen and her fubjeas. He was buried in St Paul’s, where a monument was ereaed to him, which was de- ftroyed by the fire of London in 1666. Mr Granger obferves, that he was the firft lord keeper that ranked as lord chancellor 5 and that he had much of that pe¬ netrating genius, folidity, and judgment, perfuafive eloquence, and comprehenfive knouftedge of law and equity,^ which afterwards ftione forth wdth fo great a luftre in his fon, who svas as much inferior to his fa¬ ther in point of prudence and integrity, as his father was to him in literary accompliftiments. Bacon, Francis, lord high chancellor of England under King James I. was fon of Sir Nicholas Bacon . lord keeper of the great feal in the reign of Queen E- lizabeth, by Anne daughter of Sir Anthony^ Cook, eminent for her Ikill in the Latin and Greek tongues. He was born in 1560 $ and fhowcd fuch marks of ge- 11 jus, that he was particularly taken notice of by Queen Elizabeth when very young. He was educated at 1 rinity college, Cambridge ; and made fuch incredi¬ ble progreis in his ftudies, that, before he was 16, he had not only run through the whole circle of the libe¬ ral arts as they wrere then taught, but began to per¬ ceive thole imperfedions in the reigning philofophy, which he afterwards fo effedually expofed, and there¬ by not only overturned that tyranny which prevented the progrefs of true knowledge, but laid the founda- 2 2 ] BAG tion of tnat free and ufeful philofophy which has fince Hacofn opened a way to fo many glorious difcoveries. On his v~““ leaving the univerfity, his father fex t him to France 5 where, before he was 19 years of age, he wrote a ge¬ neral view of the ftate of Europe : but Sir Niched as dying, he was obliged fuddenly to return to England j when he applied himfelf to the ftudy of the common lawq at Gray’s Inn. At this period the famous earl of' Effex, who. could diftinguilh merit, and who paffion- ately loved it, entered into an intimate friendlhip with him ; zealoully attempted, though without fuccefs, to procure him the office of queen’s folicitor ; and, in or¬ der to comfort his friend under the difappointment, conferred on him a prefent of land to the value of 1800I. Bacon, notwithftanding the friendlhip of fo great a perfon ; notwithftanding the number and pow’- er of his own relations ;• and, above all, notwithftand¬ ing the early prepoffeflion of her majefty in his favour j met with many obftacles to his preferment during her reign. In particular, his enemies reprefented him as a Ipeculative man, whofe head was filled with philofo- phical notions, and therefore more likely to perplex than forward public bufinefs. It was not without great difficulty that lord treafurer Burleigh obtained for him the reverfion of regifter to the liar-chamber, worth about 1600I. a-year, which place fell to him about 20 years after. Neither did he obtain any other prefer-* ment all this reign j though if obedience to a fovereign in wffiat muft be the moll difagreeable of all offices* viz. the calling relledlions on a deceafed friend, enti¬ tled him, he might have claimed it. The people were fo clamorous even againft the queen herfelf on the death of Effex, that it wras thought neceffary to vindi¬ cate the conduft of the adminiftration. This was affigned to Bacon, wffiich brought on him uuiverlal cenfure, nay his very life was threatened. Upon the acceffion of King James, he was foon railed to conli- derable honours j and wrote in favour of the union of the two kingdoms of Scotland and England, which the king fo paffionately defired. In 1616, he was fworn of the privy-council. He then applied himfelf to the reducing and recompofing the law’s of England. He diftinguilhed himfelf, when attorney-general, by his endeavours to reftrain the cuftom of duels, then very frequent. In 1617, he was appointed lord keeper of the great feal. In 1618, he was made lord chancel¬ lor of England, and created Lord Verulam. In the midft of thefe honours and applaufes, and multiplicity of bufinefs, he forgot not his philofophy, but in 1620 publifired his great wmrk entitled Novum Organum* We find by feveral letters of his, that he thought con¬ vening of parliaments Was the bell expedient for the king and people. In 1621, he wTas advanced to the dignity of Vifcount St Albans, and appeared with the greateft fplendour at the opening of the fefiion of parliament. But he was foon after furprifed with a melancholy re- verfe of fortune. For, about the 12th of March, a committee of the houfe of commons was appointed to infpedl the abufes of the courts of juftice. The firft thing they fell upon w’as bribery and corruption, of which the lord chancellor was accufed. For that very year complaints being made to the houfe of commons of his lordfiup’s having received bribes, thole com¬ plaints were fent up to the houfe of lords j and new ones being daily made of a like nature, things foot* grew BAG [ 3 grew too high to be got over. The king found it was ^ ? impoffible to fave both his chancellor, who was open¬ ly accufed of corruption, and Buckingham his favour¬ ite, who was fecretly and therefore more dangeroudy attacked as the encourager of whatever was deemed moil illegal and opprefiivp : he therefore forced the former to abandon his defence, giving him pofitive ad=- vice to fubmit himfelf to his peers, and promifing upon his princely word to fcreen him in the laft determina¬ tion, or, if that could not be, to reward him after- wards with an ample retribution of favour. The chan¬ cellor, though he forefaw his approaching ruin if he did not plead for hirr.felf, refolved to obey ; and the houfe of peers, on the 3d of May 1621, gave judg¬ ment againil him, “ That he fliould be fined 40,000!. and remain prifoner in the Tower during the king’s pleafure ; that he flrould for ever be incapable of any office, place, or employment, in the Hate or common- wealth ; and that he ffiould never fit in parliament, or come within the verge of the court.” The fault which, next to his ingratitude to ElTex, thus tarniffied the glory of this illullrious man, is faid to have principally proceeded from his indulgence to his fervants, who made a corrupt ufe of it. One day, during his trial, paffing through a room where feveral of his domellics were fitting, upon their rifing up to falute him, he laid, “ Sit down, my mailers ; your rife hath been my fall.” Stephens, p. 54. And we are told by Rufh- worth, in his hillorical colle&ions, “ That he treafured up nothing for himfelf or family, but was over-indul¬ gent to his fervants, and connived at their takings, and their ways betrayed him to that error ; they were profufe and expenfive, and had at their command what¬ ever he was mailer of. The gifts taken were for the moll part for interlocutory orders •, his decrees wTere generally made with fo much equity, that though gifts rendered him fufpefled for injullice, yet never any de¬ cree made by him wras reverfed as unjull.” It was pe¬ culiar to this great man (fay the authors of the Biogr. Brit.) to have nothing narrow and felfilh in his compo- fition : he gave away without concern whatever he pof- fefled ; and believing other men of the fame mould, he received with as little confideration. He retired, af¬ ter a Ihort imprifonment, from the engagements of an a6live life, to which he had been called much againil his genius, to the lhade of a contemplative one, which he had always loved. The king remitted his fine, and he was fummoned to parliament in the firil year of King Charles I. It appears from the works compofed du¬ ring his retirement, that his thoughts were Hill free, vigorous, and noble. The lall five years of his life he devoted wholly to his Itudies. In his recefs he com¬ pofed the greatell part of his Englilh and Latin works. He expired on the 9th of April 1626 5 and was buried in St Michael’s church at St Alban’s, according to the direftion of his lall will, where a monument of white marble was erefted to him by Sir Thomas Meautys, formerly his fecretary, and afterward clerk of the privy council under two kings. A complete edition of this great man’s works was publilhed at London in the year i74o.—Addifon has faid of him, That he had the found, difiinft, comprehenfive knowledge of Ari- 1 otle, with all the beautiful light graces and embel- -lilhments of Cicero. The honourable Mr Walpole calls him the Prophet of Arts which Newton was a£- Vol. III. Part I. 13 ] BAG terwards to reveal j and adds, that his genius and his Bacon works will be univerfally admired as long as fcience „ J!. exills. “ As long as ingratitude and adulation are de- actna' fpicable, fo long lhall we lament the depravity of this n great man’s heart. Alas ! that he who could command immortal fame, ffiould have Hooped to the little ambi¬ tion of power.” Bacon, Sir Nathaniel, knight of the bath, and an excellent painter, was a younger fon of the lord keep¬ er, and half brother to the great Sir Francis. He tra¬ velled into Italy, and ftudied painting there •, but his manner and colouring approaches nearer to the ftyle of the Flemiffi fchool. Mr Walpole obferves, that at Culford, where he lived, are preferved fome of his works j and at Gorhambury, his father’s feat, is a large pidlure by him in oil, of a cook-maid with a dead fowl, admirably painted, with great nature, neatnefs, and luftre of colouring. In the fame houfe is a whole length of him, by himfelf, drawing on a paper, his fword and pallet hung up, and a half length of his mo¬ ther by him. BACON FHORP, John, called xht refo/ute doflor, a learned monk, was born towards the end of the 13th century at Baconthorp, a village in Norfolk. He fpent the early part of his life in the convent of Black- ney, near Walfingham in the fame county ; whence he removed to Oxford, and from thence to Paris; where being diilinguilhed for his learning, he obtained de¬ grees in divinity and laws, and was elleemed the prin¬ cipal of the A verroills *. In 13 2 9 he returned to Eng- * see land, and was immediately chofen twelfth provincial rces. of the Engliffi Carmelites. In 1333 he was fent for to Rome $ where, we are told, he firil maintained the pope’s fovereign authority in cafes of divorce, but that he afterward retraced his opinion. He died in Lon¬ don in the year 1346. Leland, Bale, and Pits, una- nimoufly gave him the charafter of a monk of genius and learning. He wrote, 1. Comment aria feu queftones fupcr quatuor hbros fententiarum ; and, 2. Compendium legis Chrijli, et quodlibeta ; both which underwent fe¬ veral editions at Paris, Milan, and Cremona. Leland, Bale, and Pits, mention a number of his works never publiffied. BACTRIA, orBACTRiANA, now Choraffan or Khe- rafan, an ancient kingdom of Afia, bounded on the weft by Margiana, on the north by the river Oxus, on the fouth by Mount Paropifmus, and on the eail by the Afiatic Scythia and the country of the Maffagetae. It was a large, fruitful, and well-peopled country, containing according to Ammianus Marcellinus xoco cities, though of thefe only a few are particularly mentioned by hiftorians, of which that formerly call¬ ed Maracanda, now Samarcand, is the molt confider- able. Of the hiftory of this country we know but little. Authors agree that it was fubdued firil by the Afly- rians, afterwards by Cyrus, and then by Alexander the Great. Afterwards it remained fubjeft to Seleucus Nicator and his fucceffors till the time of Antiochus Theos ; when Theodorus, from governor of that pro¬ vince, became king, and ftrengthened himfelf fo effec¬ tually in his kingdom, while Antiochus was engaged in a war with Ptolemy Philadelphus king of Egypt, that he could never afterwards difpoffefs him of his ac- quifitions. His pofterity continued to enjoy the king- R r dom BAD [3 JSa&rope- dom for fome time, till tliey were driven out by the ra|a Scythians, who reigned in Baflria at the time of A- Badagfhan d”an» Antoninus Pius, &c. The Scythians were in ^ —i——c '■ their turn driven out by the Huns or Turks, and thefe often conquered by the Saracens and Tartars ; never- thelefs they continued in pofTeflion of this country in the time of Ladillaus IV. king of Hungary. In early times the Baftrians differed little in their manners from the Nomades *, and be ingnear neigh¬ bours of the Scythians, who were a very warlike peo¬ ple, the Baftrian foldiers were reckoned the bell in the world. Their appearance was very favage j being of an enormous ftature, having a terrible afpeft,, rough beards, and long hair hanging down their Ihoulders. Some authors alfert that they kept dogs on purpofe to devour fuch as arrived at extreme old age, or who were exhaufted by long licknefs. They add, that for all their fiercenefs, the Bacfrian hufbands were luch dupes to their wives, that they durft not complain of them even for conjugal infidelity, to which it feems the lat¬ ter were very much addhffed. BACTROPERATA, an ancient appellation given to philofophers by way of contempt, denoting a man with a llaff and a budget. We fuppofe it is of the fame people that Pauchafias Radbertus fpeaks under the corrupt name of Baco/je- ritce or Bacchionitce, whom he defpribed as philofophers who had fo great a contempt for all earthly things, that they kept nothing but a difh to drink out of 5 and that one of this order feeing a peafant fcooping up the water in his hand, threw aw&y his cup as a fuperfluity : which is nothing but the old Rory of Diogenes the Cynic. BACCULE, in Fortification, a kind of portcullis, or gate, made like a pit-fall with a counterpoife, and fupported by two great flakes. It is ufually made be¬ fore the corpade-guard, not far from the gate of a place. BACULOMETRY, the art of meafurlng accefli- ble or inacceffible heights, by the help of one or more baculi, ftaves, or rods. See Geometry. BACURIUS, or Baturius, king of the Iberians, a people on the fide of the Cafpian fea. One day being a-hunting, he lort fight of his company, through a great ftorm and hidden darknefs ; upon which he vow¬ ed to the God of his Chriftian Have, that if he were de¬ livered he would worfliip him alone : the day breaking up immediately, he made good his promife, and be¬ came the apoftle of his country. BADAGSHAN, a very ancient city of Great Bukharia, in the province of Balkh, fituated at the foot of thofe high mountains which feparate Indoftan from Great Tart aryl The city is exceedingly ftrong by its fituation } and belongs to the khan of Proper Bukha¬ ria, who ufes it as a kind of ftate-prifon to fecure thofe he is jealous of. The town is not large, but well built, and very populous. It Hands on the north fide of the river Amu, about 100 miles from its fource, and is a great thoroughfare for the caravans travelling to Little Bukharia. The inhabitants are enriched by mines of gold, filver, and rubies, which are. in the neighbourhood *, and thofe who live at the foot of the mountains gather a great quantity of gold and filver dart brought down in the fpring by torrents oecafioned by the melting of the fnow on the top. 4 1 BAD BADAJOZ, a large and flrong town, capital of Badajdz Eftremadura in Spain. It is feated on the river Gua- II diana, over which there is a fine bridge built by the . a( en- ^ Romans. On this bridge the Portuguefe were defeat¬ ed in 1661, by Don John of Auftria. The population of Badajoz is computed at near 9,000 inhabitants, but a fmall number in proportion to its extent. Mofl of the ftreets are extremely narrow, and the houfes fmall and crowded. W. Long. 7. 3. N. Lat. 38. 35. BADELONA, a town of Catalonia in Spain, feat¬ ed on the Mediterranean. Lord Peterborough landed here in 1704, when, with Charles then king of Spain, he laid fiege to Barcelona, from which it is ten miles diftant. E. Long. 2. 20. N. Lat. 41. t2. BADEN, the diflridt of, in Swifferland, has three cities, Baden, Keifers Stoul, and Rlingnaw, befides a town that partes for a city, named Zur%ach. It is one of the fineft countries in Swiflerland 5 and is wa¬ tered with three navigable rivers, the Limmet, Rufs, and Are. The land is fertile in corn and fruit, and there are places on the fides of the Limmet which pro¬ duce wine. It maintains a communication between the cantons of Zurich and Bern, being feated between their north extremities. It extends on one fide to the Are, as far as the place where it falls into the Rhine, and on the other fide beyond the Rhine, where there are fome villages which depend thereon. Moft of the inhabitants are Papifts. By the treaty of peace at the conclufion of the war which broke out in 1712 between the Proteflant and Popifh cantons, this country was yielded to the Proteftant cantons of Zurich and Bern. Before, it was the property of the eight old cantons *, however, as the carton of Claris had taken no part in this ivar, by the confent of both parties its right was ftill continued. Baden, the capital of the above diftricl, is an agree¬ able city, moderately large, feated on the fide of the Limmet, in a plain Hanked by two high hills, between which the river runs. This city owes its rife to its baths, which were famous before the Chriftian era. Several monuments of antiquity have been found here from time to time, particularly in 1240. When they were opening the large fpring of the haths, they found ftatues of feveral heathen gods, made of alabafter Roman coins, made of bronze, of Auguftus, Vefpafi- an, Decius, &c. •, and feveral medals of the Roman emperors, of gold, filver, copper, and bronze. There are two churches in Baden 5 one of which is collegiate, and makes a good appearance ; the other is a monafle- ry of the Capuchins, near the townhoufe. This lafl building ferves not only for the aflemblies of their own council, but alfo for thofe of the cantons. The diet aflembles there in a handfome room made for that pur¬ pofe •, the deputies of Zurich fit at the bottom behind a table, as the moft honourable place ; the ambaffa- dors of foreign powers are feated on one fide to the right, and the deputies of the other cantons are ranged on each fide the room. The bailiff of Baden refides in a caftle at the end of a handfome wooden bridge, which is covered in. Before this caftle there is a ftone pillar, eredted in honour of the emperor Trajan, who paved a road in this country 85 Italian miles in length. The inhabitants are rigid Roman catholics, and for¬ merly behaved in a ’jroft infolent manner, to the Prote- ftantSj but they are now obliged by their mafters to bo- more BAD [ 3 Ba-len rriofe fubmlfTive. The baths wliich are on each fide of !! the river are a quarter of a league from the city. Join- Weiiler in% t0 ^ baths there is a village, and to the >. - t- 1- large a town which may pafs for a fecond Baden. It is feated on a hill, of which the afcent is fleep. There the baths are brought into inns and private houfes, by means of pipes, which are about 60 in all. There are alfo public baths in the middle of the towns, from a fpring which rifes in the ftreet, where the poor bathe gratis, but they are expofed quite naked to all that pafs by. All the baths are hot, and one to fo great a de¬ gree as to fcald the hand •, and they are impregnated with a great deal of fulphur, with fome alum and nitre. ri hey are ufeful for drinking as well as bathing j and are faid to cure all difeafes from a cold caufe, head¬ aches, vertigoes, See. They ftrengthen the fenfes, cure difeafes of the bread: and boWels, afthmas, and obftrufrions. They are peculiarly excellent for wo¬ men’s difeafes. E. Long. 8. 25;. N. Lat. 47. 27. _ Baden, the Margravate of, in the circle of .Swa¬ bia, in Germany, is bounded by the Palatinate of the Rhine, on the north j by the Black Foreft, on the eaft ; by Switzerland, on the foiith j and by the Rhine, which divides it from Alface, on the eaft : and is about 90 miles in length, from north to fouth; but not above 20 in breadth, where it is wideft. It is a very popu¬ lous and fruitful country, abounding in corn and wine, Venifon and wild fowl are fo plentiful, that they are the common diet of the peafants. The rivers that water this territory, are the Rhine, Ens, Wirmbs, and Phints, which yield plenty of filh. They feed their hogs with chefnuts, which make the bacon excellent. They have free-done for building, and marble'of all colours. They have fome agate, and great quantities of hemp and flax for exportation. The chief towns are Baden, Durlach, Stolhafen, Radadt, Gerfbach, Pforfheim, and Hochberg. Baden, the chief city of the above margravate, has a cadle that dands on the top of a hill, which is the refidence of a prince. The towm is feated among hills, on rocky and uneven ground, which renders the dreets * inconvenient and crooked. It is famous for its baths, the fprings of which are faid to be above 300. Some of them are hot, and accounted to be very good in ner¬ vous cafes. Thev partake of fait, alum, and fulphur. E. Long. 9. 24. N. Lat. 48. 50. Baden, a town of Germany, in the archduchy of Audria, feated on the Little Suechat, is a neat little willed town, danding in a plain not far from a ridge of hills which run out from the mountain Cetius. It is much frequented by the people of Vienna, and the neighbouring parts, on account of its baths. The fprings fupply two convenient baths within the town, five without the walls, and one beyond the river. They . are good for didempers of the head, the gout, dropfy, and mod chronic difeafes. E. Long. 17. 10. N. Lat. 48. o. BAD ENOCH, the mod eaderly part of Invernefs- drire, in Scotland, extending about 33 miles in length from ead to wTed, and 27 from north-ead to fouth- wed where broaded. It has no confiderable towm, nnd is very barren and hilly, but abounds with deer, and other kinds of game. BADEN-weiller, a town of Germany, belonging 15 ] BAD to the longer margravate of Baden. E. Long. 7. 30. Badetw N. Lat. 47. 55. . II BADENS, Francis, hidorical and portrait paint- cr, was born at Antwerp in 15715 and the fird rudi¬ ments of the art wTere communicated to him by his fa¬ ther, w7ho w'as but an ordinary artid. However, he vifited Rome, and feveral parts of Italy, and then formed a good tade of defign, and a manner exceed- ingly pleafing. When he returned to his own country his merit procured for him great employment, and dill greater reputation, and he was ufually didinguidred by the name of the Italian painter. His touch wTas light and fpirited, and his colouring wrarm 5 and he had the honour of being the fird who introduced a good tade of colouring among his countrymen. While his ac ¬ knowledged merit w'as rewarded with every public te- dimony of edeem and applaufe, unhappily he received an account of the death of his brother, who had been affaffinated on a journey 5 and the intelligence affected him fo violently, that it occafioned his own death, to the inexpredible regret of every lover of the art, in i6°3. BADGE, in naval architecture, fignifies a fort of ornament placed on the outfide of fmall (hips, -very near the dern, containing either a window for the con¬ venience of the cabin, or a reprefentation of it. It is commonly decorated with marine figures, martial in- druments, or fuch like emblems. BADGER, in 'Zoology, the Englifb name of a fpe- cies of urfus. See Ursus. Badger, in old law-books, one that w'as licenfed to buy corn in one place and carry it to another to fell, without incurring the punifhment of an engroffer. BADIA, an ancient town of Baitica, on the Anas; now fuppofed to be Badajoz on the Guadiana. BAD I AG A, in the materia medica the name of a fort of fpongy plant, common in the (hops in Mofcowr, and-fome other northern kingdoms. The ufe of it is the taking away of livid marks from blows and bruifes, wdiich the powder of this plant is faid to do in a night’s time. BADIANE, or Bandian, the feed of a tree which grows in China, and Imells like anife-feed. The Chi- nele, and the Dutch in imitation of them, fometimes ufe the badiane to give their tea an aromatic tade. BADIGEON, a mixture of plader and free-done, w'ell ground together, and fifted ; ufed by datuaries to fill up the little holes, and repair the defefts in dones, wdiereof they make their datues and other v^ork. The fame term is alfo ufed by joiners for faiv-dud mixed with drong glue, wherewith they fill up the chaps and other defefts in wTood after it is wrought. BADILE, Antonio, hidory and portrait painter, wTas born at Verona in 1480, and by great dudy and application acquired a more extenfive knowledge of the true principles of painting than any of his prede- ceffors. He was confeffedly a mod eminent artid ; but he derived greater honour from having twm fuch difciples as Paolo Veronefe and Baptida Zelotti, than he did even from the excellence of his own' compofi- tions. He died in 1560. His colouring was admi¬ rably good ; his carnations beautiful ; and his portraits preferved the perfeft refemblance of flelh and real life : nor had he any caufe to envy the acknowledged R r 2 merh * li jE T [3 ^aclis merit of Titian, Giorgione, or the bell of his cotem- II poraries. £setyha; _ BADIS, a fortrefs of Livonia, fubje£l to Ruffia. E. Long. 23. IO. N. Lat. 59. 15* RADIUS, Conrad, and Stephen Robert, his brother j French refugees j celebrated as printers at Geneva, and Conrad as an author. The latter died in 1566. BALCKEA. See Botany Index. BiETERRiE, an ancient town of the Tertofages in Gallia Narbonenfis j now Bejiers, on the eaft bank of the Obris, now Orbis or Orbe, in Lower Languedoc. BriETICA, a province of ancient Spain, fo called from the famed river Baetis, afterwards TarteJJhs, now Guadalquiver, or the great river. It was bounded on the weft by Lufitania j on the fouth, by the Mediterra¬ nean, and Sinus Gaditanus 5 on the north by the Can- tabric fea, now the bay of Bifcay. On the eaft and north-eaft, its limits cannot be fo well afeertained as . they are very reafonably thought to have been in a continual ftate of fluftuation, as each petty monarch had an opportunity of encroaching upon his neighbour. The province was divided in two by the river Baetis already mentioned. On the one fide of which, towards the Anas, were fttuated the Turdetani, from whence the kingdom was called Tnrdetama, though more ge¬ nerally known by the name of Bcetuna. On the other fide were fituated the Baftuli, Baftetani, and Conteftani, along the Mediterranean coafts. The Ba¬ ftuli were fuppofed to be of Phoenician extra#, and dwelt along the coafts of the Mediterranean, till, driven from thence by the Moors, they fled into the moun¬ tainous parts of Galicia, which they then called from their own name Bajhilia. The Baftetani were feated higher up, on the fame coafts. The territories of both thefe made part of what has fince become the kingdom of Granada ; in which there is a ridge of very high mountains, called from the above-mentioned people, the Bqfletanian mountains. Mention is alfo made of their capital Bateftana ; a place of fuch ftrength, that King Ferdinand was fix months befieging it before he could take it from the Moors. The whole province of Bae- tica, according to the moft probable account, con¬ tained what is now called Andalujia, part of the king¬ dom of Granada, and the outward boundaries of Eftre- madura. B/ETJS. See B^etica. BiETULO, a town of ancient Spain in the Terra- conenfisj now Badelona in Catalonia. BriETYLIA, anointed ftones, worlhipped by the Phoenicians, by the Greeks before the time of Cecrops, and by other barbarous nations. They were com¬ monly of a black colour, and confecrated to fome god, as Saturn, Jupiter, the Sun, &c. . Some are of opinion that the true original of thefe idols is to be derived from the pillar of ftone which Jacob ere#ed at Bethel, and which was afterwards worfliipped by the Jews. Thefe bcetylia were much the obje# of the veneration of the ancientjpieathens. Many of their idols were no other. In reality, no fort of idol was more common in the eaftern countries, than that of oblong ftones erected, and hence termed by the Greeks, Kims, pillars. In fome parts of Egypt they were planted on both fidcs of the highways. In the temple of Heliogaba- X 6 ] BAG lus, in Syria, there was one pretended to have fallen Baeza from heaven. There was alfo a famous black ftone in II Phrygia, faid to have fallen from heaven. The Ro- ag ta_^ mans fent for it and the priefts belonging to it with much ceremony, Scipio Nafica being at the head of the embaffy. BfEZA, a city of Andalufia in Spain, feated on a high hill three miles from the Guadalquiver ; it is the fee of a bifhop, and has a kind of univerfity founded by John d’Avila. It rvas taken from the Moors about the end of the 15th century. E. Long. 3. 15. N. Lat. 37. 45. BAFFETAS, or Bastas, a cloth made of coarfe white cotton thread, which comes from the Eaft Indies. That of Surat is the beft. BAFFIN’S bay, a gulf of North America, running north-eaft from Cape Farew'ell in Weft Greenland, from 6° to 8° of north latitude. BAFFO, a confiderable town in the ifland of Cy¬ prus, with a fort built near ancient Paphos, of which fome confiderable ruins yet remain, particularly fome broken columns, which probably belonged to the tem¬ ple of Venus. E. Long. 32. 20. N. Lat. 34. 50. BAG, in Commerce, a term fignifying a certain quantity of fome particular commodity : a bag of al¬ monds, for inftance, is about 300 weight j of anife- feeds, from 300 to 400, &c. Bags, are ufed in moft countries to put feveral forts of coin, either of gold, filver, brafs, or copper. Bank¬ ers, and others, who deal much in current cafh, label their bags of money, by tying a ticket or note at the mouth of the bag, fignifying the coin therein contain¬ ed, the fum total, its weight, and of whom it was re¬ ceived. Tare is allowed for the bag. Bag, among Farriers, is when, in order to retrieve a horfe’s loft appetite, they put in an ounce of afafee- tida, and as much powder of favin, into a bag, to be tied to the bit, keeping him bridled for two hours, fe¬ veral times a-day ; as foon as the bag is taken oflF he will fall to eating. The fame bag will ferve a long time. BAGAMADER, or Bagamedri, a province of the kingdom of Abyflinia in Africa. It is faid to re¬ ceive its name from the great number of fheep bred in it ; medcr fignifying land or earth, and bag a flieep. Its length is eftimated about 60 leagues, and its breadth 20 : but formerly it was much more extenfive } feveral of its provinces having been difmembered from it, and joined to that of Tigre. A great part of it, efpecially towards the eaft, is inhabited lay wandering Gallas and Caffres. BAGAUDiE, or Bacauda:, an ancient fatlion of peafants, or malecontents, who ravaged Gaul. The Gauls being opprefled with taxes, rofe about the year of Chrift 290, under the command of Amand and Elian 5 and affumed the name bagauda, which, according, to fome authors, fignified in the Gallic language forced rebels; according to others, tribute; according to others, robbers; which laft fignification ( others allow the word had, but then it was onjy after the time of the bagaudee, and doubtlefs took its rife from them. BAGDAD, a celebrated city of Alia in Irak Arabia, •feated on the eaftern barks of the Tigris, in E. Long. 43 40. N. Lat. 33. 15. By many authors this city i^ very Why the city was built. Ancient city de- fcribed. BAG [31 Bagdad, very Improperly called Babylon. The latter flood on -—V—the Euphrates at a considerable diflance. This city, for many years the capital of the Saracen empire, was founded by the caliph A1 Manfur, the Se¬ cond of the houfe of A1 Abbas, after an attempt by the Rawandians to affaffinate him, as already mentioned. See Arabia, N° 184. The reafons afligned by the Arabian hitlorians for building the city of Bagdad are, That the above-men¬ tioned attempt to affaffinate the caliph had difgufted him at his Arabian fubje£ls in general, and that the fpot where Bagdad flood was at a confiderable diflance from the city of Cufa particularly ; the inhabitants of which were remarkable for their treachery and incon- ftancy, Al Manfur himfelf having felt Several inftances of it. Befides the people of Irac, who had always continued faithful to him, reprefented, that by build¬ ing his capital near the confluence of the Euphrates and Tigris, it would be in a great meafure Secured from the infults and attacks of thofe who fhould have an in¬ clination to difpute the caliphate with him ; and that by being fituated as it were in the middle of the tra& comprehending the diftrifls of Bafrah, Cufa, Wafet, Mawfel, and Swada, at no great diftance from thefe cities, it would be plentifully Supplied with proviflons by means of the aforefaid rivers. Concerning the origin of the name Bagdad, there are various accounts, which, being equally uncertain and trifling, merit no attention. The firft city that went by this name was fituated on the weftern bank of the Tigris ; from whence Al Manfur defpatched his Son Al Mohdi with a body of Moflem troops to the oppo- fite bank. Here the young prince took port, and for¬ tified the place on which he had encamped with a wall, in order to cover his troops, as well as the workmen employed by his father on the other fide of the river, from the incurfions of the Perfians, who Seemed to have taken umbrage at the ereftion of a new metropolis fo near the frontiers of their dominions. Hence that part of the city Soon after built on the eaftern banks of the Tigris, received the name of the Camp or Fortrefs of Al Mohdi. The caliph had a Superb and magnificent palace both in the eaflern and weftern part of the town. The eaftern palace was Surrounded on the land fide by a Semicircular wall that had fix gates •, the principal of which Seems to have been called the gate of prefers, whofe entrance was generally killed by the princes and ambafladors that came to the caliph’s court. The weft¬ ern part of the city was entirely round, with the ca¬ liph’s palace in the centre, and having the great mofque annexed to it. The eaftern part confifted of an interior and exterior town, each of which was Surrounded by a wall. For Some time the building of the city went but flowly on, owing to a Scarcity of materials for building •, for which reafon the caliph was Sometimes inclined to remove the materials of Al Madayen, the ancient metropolis of the Perfian empire. But, upon trial, he found the ftones to be of Such immenfe fize, that the removal of them to Bagdad would be attended with great difficulty and expence \ befides, he confidered that it would be a reflexion upon himfelf to have it faid that he could not finifli his metropolis without de¬ ft roying Such a pile of building as perhaps could not be paralleled in the whole world ; for which reafons he at length gave over his defign, and erected the city 7 ] BAG of Bagdad moft probably out of the ruins of the ancient Bagdad ^ cities of Seleucia and Ctefiphon, putting an end to his undertaking in the 149th year of the Hegira, or four years after the city was begun. From the building of the city of Bagdad to the death of Al ManSur nothing very remarkable happened, ex¬ cepting Some irruptions made into the territories of the Greeks, and by the Arabs into Some of the caliph’s other territories. In the 157th year of the Hegira alfo,_ a grievous famine was felt in Mefopotamia, wrhich was quickly after followed by a plague that deftroyed great numbers. This year likewiie, the Chriftians, wTho had been all along very Severely dealt with by Al ManSur, were treated with the utmoft rigour by Mufa Ebn Mo- Saab the caliph’s governor ; every one who was unable to pay the enormous tribute exafted of them being thrown into prifon without diftindlion. o The next year, being the 158th of the Hegira, the Death ofAi caliph Set out from Bagdad, in order to perform the pil- Manfur. grimage to Mecca: but being taken ill on the road, he expired at Bir Maimun, whence his body w7as carried to Mecca; where, after a hundred graves had been dug, that his fepulchre might be concealed, he was in¬ terred, having lived according to Some 63, according to others 68 years, and reigned 2 2. He is faid to h^ve been extremely covetous, and to have left in his trea- fury 600,000,000 dirhems, and 24,000,000 dinars. He is reported to have paid his cook by afligning him the heads and legs of the animals dreffed in his kitchen, and to have obliged him to procure at his own expence all the fuel and veflels he had occafion for. 4 When Al Manfur expired at Bir Maimun, he had Succeeded only his domeftics and Rabi his freedman with him. The latter of thefe, for Some time, kept his death con-1 cealed, and pretended to have a conference with him, in which, as he gave out, the caliph commanded him to exaft an oath of allegiance to Al Mohdi his fon, as his immediate fucceffor, and to Ifa Ebn Mufa his coufin-german, as the next apparent heir to the crown. He then deipatched a courier to Bagdad with the news of Al Manfur’s death j upon which Al Mohdi was unanimoufly proclaimed caliph. Ha Ebn Mufa, how¬ ever, no Sooner heard this news, than he began to en¬ tertain thoughts of Setting ifp for himfelf at Cufa, wrhere he then refided •, and in order to facilitate the execution of his Scheme, fortified himfelf in that city. But Al Mohdi being apprifed of his defedlion, Sent a detachment of 1000 horfe to bring him to Bag¬ dad ; which being done, Al Mohdi not only prevail¬ ed upon him to own his allegiance to him, but alfo to give up his right to the fucceffion for 10,000 accord¬ ing to fome, or according to others for 10,000,000, dinars. » ^ From the acceffion of Al Mohdi to the 146th year Rebellion of the Hegira, the moft remarkable event was the re-°f AlMo- bellion of Al Mokanna. This impious impoftor, whofe kann3‘ true name was Hakem Ebn He/ham, came originally from Khorafan, and had been an under Secretary to Abu Moflem governor of that province. He after¬ wards turned Soldier, and palled thence into Mawaral- nahr, where he gave himfelf out for a prophet. The name of Al Mokanna, as alfo that of Al Borkai, that is, the veiled^ he took from his cuftom of covering his face with a veil or girdle malk, to conceal his defor¬ mity } he having loft an eye in the wars, and being otherwife Bcjhlad. 6 dreadful cataftrophe -of him and all his fa¬ mily. Harun Al Rafchid’s fuccefs againft the 'Greeks. 8 Unaccount¬ able dark- nefs. BAG [ 3 otlierwile of a defpicable appearance ; tliougli his fol¬ lowers pretended he did this for the fame reafon that Mofes did, viz. left the fplendour of his countenance fliould dazzle the eyes of his beholders. In fome places he made a great many profelytes, deluding the people with a number of juggling tricks which they fwallowed as miracles, and particularly by caufing the appearance of a moon to rife out of a well for many nights together; whence he was alfo called in the Per- »an tongue, Sa-zendeb mak, or the moon-maker. This wretch, not content with being reckoned a prophet, arrogated to himfelf divine honours; pretending that the Deity redded in his perfon, having proceeded to him from Abu Modem, in whom he had taken up his refidehce before. At laft this impoftor raifed an open rebellion againft the caliph, and made himfelf mafter of feveral fortified places in Khorafan, lb that Al Moh- di was obliged to fend one of his generals with an army againft him. Upon the approach of the ca'liph’s troops, Al Mokanna retired into one of his ftrong for- treffes which he had well provided for a fiege ; and fent his emiflaries abroad to perfuade the people that he raifed the dead to life, and foretold future events. But being clofely befieged by the caliph’s forces, and feeing no poflibility of efcaping, he gave poifon in wine to his whole family and all that were with him, in the caftle ; when they rvere dead, he burnt their bodies, together wbth all their furniture, provifions, and cattle; and laftly, he threw himfelf into the flames, or, as others fay, into a tub of aquafortis, or fome other preparation, which confumed every part of him except the hair. When the befiegers therefore entered the place, they found no living creature in it, except one of Al Mokanna’s concubines, who, fufpefling his defign, had hid herfelf, and now difcovered the whole matter. ’I his terrible contrivance, however, failed not to produce the defired effebl. He had promifed his followers, that his foul fliould tranfmigrate into the form of an old man riding on a greyifti coloured beaft, and that after fo many years he would return and give them the earth for their poffeflion; which ri¬ diculous expedition kept the fed! in being for feveral years. All this time war had been carried on with the Greeks, but without any remarkable fuccefs on either fide. In the 164th year of the Hegira, however, Al- Mohdi ordered his fon Harun Al Rafchid to penetrate into the Greek territories with an army of 95,000 men. Harun, then, having entered the dominions of the em- prefs Irene, defeated one of her commanders that ad¬ vanced againft him ; after which he laid wafte feveral of the imperial provinces with fire and fword, and even threatened the city of Conftantinople itfelf. By this the emprefs was fo terrified, that flie purchafed a peace with the caliph by paying him an annual tribute of 70,000 pieces of gold ;- which, for the prefent at leaft, delivered her from the depredations of thefe bar¬ barians. After the figning of the treaty, Harun returned home laden with fpoils and glory. This year, accord¬ ing to fome of the oriental hiftorians, the fun one day, a little after his rifing, totally loft his light in a moment, without being eclipfed, when neither any fog nor any cloud of drift appeared to obfeure him. This fright¬ ful darknefs continued till noon, to the great aftonifli- 2 18 ] BAG ment of tne people fettled in the countries where it Bagdad, happened. 1 : > In the 169th year of the Hegira, Al Mohdi was 9 pofloned, though undefignedly, by one of his concu- Mohdi bines named Hnfanah. She had defigned to deliroy Poifonetl ’ one of her rivals whom ftie imagined to have too great an afeendant over the caliph by giving her a poxfoned pear. This the latter, not fuipefting any thing, gave to the caliph ; who had no fooner eaten it than he felt himfelf in exquifite torture, and foon after expired. . °n the death of Al Mohcfi, he was fucceeded by as likewife his eldeft fon Al Hadi; who having formed a defign to hisfuccdTof deprive his younger brother Harun Al Rafchid of his Al Haul, right of fucceflion, and even to afihflinate him, was poifoned by his vizier in the 170th year of the Hegira; and on his death the celebrated caliph Harun Al Rafnid afeended the throne. Ihis was one of the beft and wifeft princes that Harun Al ever fat on the throne of Bagdad. He was alfo ex-Raflhd ex¬ tremely fortunate in all his undertakings, though he didliph' not much extend his dominions by conqueft. In his time the Modem empire may be faid to have been in its moft tlourifliing ftate, though by the independency of the Modems in Spain, who had formerly fet up "a caliph of the houfe of Ommiyab, his territories were not quite fo extenfive as thofe of fome of his predecef- fors. He poffefled the provinces of Syria, Paleftine, 12 Arabia, Perfia, Armenia, Natolia, Media or Aderbijan ^xtem of Babylonia, Affyria, Sindia, Sijiftan, Khcrafan, Tabre- ‘1S emi)UC> ftan, Jorjan, Zableftan or Sablejlan, Mawaralnahr or Great Eukharia, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, &c.; fo that his empire was by far the moft powerful of any in the world, and extended farther than the Roman em¬ pire ever had done. The firft inftance of Harun’s good fortune, and He finds a which w-as taken for a prefage of a profperous and ring he had happy reign, was his finding a valuable ring which hetlirown had thrown into the Tigris to avoid being deprived ofthe Tigris* it by his brother Al Hadi. He was able to give the divers no other diredlion than by throwing a ftone from, the bridge of Bagdad, about the fame’ place of the river in which he had thrown the ring; notwith- ftanding which, they found it without any great difli- culty. In the 186th year of the Hegira, beginning Janu-Divides the ary 10. 802, the caliph divided the government ofempire a- his extenfive dominions among his three fons, in themong his following manner: To Al Amin the eldeft, he afligned the provinces of Syria, Irak, the three Arabias, fucceffiom Mefopotamia, Afifyria, Media, Paleftine, Egypt, and all that part of Africa extending from the confines of Egypt and Ethiopia to the ftraits of Gibraltar, with the dignity of caliph ; to Al Mamun the fecond, he afligned Perfia, Kerman, the Indies, Khorafan, Ta- breftan, Cableftan, and Zableftan, together with the vaft province of Maw'aralnahr; and to this third fon Al Kafem, he gave Armenia, Natolia, Jorjan, Georgia, Gircaflia, and all the Moflem territories bordering upon the Euxine fea. As to the order of fucceflion, Al Amin wras to afeend the throne immediately after his father’s deceafe ; after him, Al Mamun ; and then Al Kafem, whom he had furnamed Si/ Mutaman. The moft confiderable exploit performed by this • caliph His fuccefs- ful wars' with the Greeks. BAG [ 319 ] BAG calipli were againft the Greeks, who by their perfidy provoked him to make war upon them, and whom he always overcame. In the 187th year of the Hegira, the caliph received a letter from the Greek emperor Nicephorus focn after he had been advanced to the im¬ perial dignity, commanding him to return all the money he had extorted from the emprefs Irene, though that had been fecured to him by the laft treaty concluded with that princefs, or expe£l foon to fee an imperial army in the heart of his territories. This infolent letter fo exafperated Harun, that he immediately affembled his forces and advanced to Heraclea, laying the coun¬ try through which he paffed wafte with fire and fword. For fome time alfo he kept that city ftraitly befieged } which fo terrified the Greek emperor, that he fubmit- ted to pay an annual tribute. Upon this Harun grant¬ ed him a peace, and returned with his army. But a hard froft foon after happening in thefe parts, Nicephorus took for granted that A1 Rafliid would not pay* him another vifit, and therefore broke the treaty he had concluded. Of this the caliph receiving advice, he in- ftantly put himfelf in motion*, and, notwithflanding the inclemency of the weather, forced the emperor to ac¬ cept of the terms propofed. According to a Perfian hiftorian, before the hofiilities at this time commenced, Nicephorus made the caliph a prefent of feveral fine fwords, giving him thereby plainly to underftand that he was more inclinable to come to blows than to make peace with him. All thefe fwords Harun cut afunder with his famous fword Samfamab, as if they had been fo many radilhes, after which fevere proof there did not appear the lead flaw in the blade *, a clear proof of the goodnefs of the fvvord, as the cutting the others wfith it was of the ftrength of Harun’s arm. This fword had fallen into Al Rafliid’s hands among the fpoils of Ebn Dakikan, one of the laft Hamyaritic princes of Yaman ; but is faid to have belonged ori¬ ginally to a valiant Arab named Amru Ebn Maadi Carby by whofe name it generally went among the Modems. This man is faid to have performed very extraordinary feats with his fword, which induced a certain prince to borrow it from him 5 but he not be- % ing able to perform any thing remarkable with it, complained to Amru that it had not the defired effeft: upon which that brave man took the liberty to tell him, that he had not fent him his arm along with his fword. In the 18 8th year of the Hegira, w7ar was renewed wnth the Greeks, and Nicephorus with a great army attacked the caliph’s forces with the utmofi: fury. He was, however, defeated wuth the lofs of 40,000 men, and received three wounds in the a£tion \ after which the Moflems committed terrible ravages in his territo¬ ries, and returned home laden wfith fpoils. The next year Harun invaded Phrygia ; defeated an imperial army lent to oppofe him \ and having ravaged the country, returned without any confiderable lofs. In the 190th year of the Hegira, commencing November 27. 805, the caliph marched irvto the imperial territories with an army of 135,000 men, befides a great number of vo¬ lunteers and others w ho were not enrolled among his troops. He firft took the city of Heraclea, from whence he is faid to have carried 16,000 prifoners 5 after which he made himfelf mailer of feveral other places: and in the conclufion of the expedition, he made a defcent on the ifland of Cyprus, which he piun- Bagdad ^ dered in a terrible manner. This fuccefs fo intimida- '~t' _v ted Nicephorus, that he immediately fent the tribute due to Harun, the withholding of which had been the caufe of the war, and concluded a peace upon the ca¬ liph’s own terms } one of which was, that the city of Heraclea fhould never be rebuilt. This perhaps Ha- I(j run would not have fo readily granted, had not one Rebellion Rafe Ebn Al Leith revolted againft him at Samarcand, in Khora- and affembled a confiderable force to iupport him inlan* his defedtion. *The next year being the 191ft of the Hegira, the caliph removed the governor of Khorafan from his em¬ ployment, becaufe he had not been fufficiently attentive to the 'motions of the rebel Rale Ebn Al Leith. As this governor had alfo tyrannized over his lubjedls in the moft cruel manner, his fuccefior no fooner arrived than he fent him in chains to the caliph 5 but notwith- ftanding all Harun’s care, the rebels made this year a great progrefs in the conqueft of Khorafan. Next year the caliph found it neceffary to march in perfon againft the rebels, wrho were daily becoming more formidable. The general rendezvous of his troops was in the plains of Rakka, from whence he advanced at the head of them to Bagdad. Having at that place fupplied the troops with every thing neceffary, he con¬ tinued his match to the frontiers of Jorjan, where he was feized with an illnefs which grew more violent after he had entered that province. Finding himfelf there¬ fore unable to purfue his journey, he refigned the com¬ mand of the army to his fon Al Mamun, retiring him- 17 felf to Tus in Khorafan. We are told by Khondemir,The ca- • that, before the caliph departed from Rakka, he had a j^h-atTi dream, wherein he faw a hand over his head full of.red ^ a jreaiTU earth, and at the fame time heard a perfon pronouncing thefe words, “ See the earth where Harun is to be buried.” Upon this he demanded where he was to be buried ; and was inftantly anfwered, “ At Tus.” This dream greatly difeompofing him, he communicated it to his chief phyfician, who endeavoured to divert him, telling the caliph that the dream had been occafioned by the thoughts of his expedition againft the rebels, lie therefore advifed him to purfue fome favourite di- verfion that might draw his attention another way. The caliph accordingly, by his phyfician’s advice, pre¬ pared a magnificent regale for l^is courtiers, which lafted feveral days. After this, he put himfelf at the head of his forces, and advanced to the confines of Jorjan, where he was attacked by the diftemper that proved fatal to him. As his diforder increafed, he found him¬ felf obliged to retire to Tus 5 where being arrived, he fent for his phyfician, and faid to him, “ Gabriel, do you remember my dream at Rakka ? we are now* ar¬ rived at Tus, the place, according to what was pre¬ dicted in that dream, of my interment. Send one of my eunuchs to fetch me a handful of earth in the neigh¬ bourhood of this city.” Upon this, Mafrur, one of his favourite eunuchs, was deipatched to bring a little of the foil of the p1ace to the caliph. He foon returned and brought a handful of red earth, which he prefented to the caliph with his arm half bare. At the fight of this Harun inftantly cried out, “ In truth this is the earth, and this the very arm, that I faw in my dream- His fpirits immediately failing, and his malady being greatly increafed by the perturbation of mind enfuiwg upon ip Succeeded by his Ton Al Amin. BAG [5 'Bagdad, upon tins fight, he died three days after, and rvas bu- I“ ~v tied in the fame place. According to Abul Faraj, Ba¬ ld dl8 fi“r -^1 Leith the arch-rebel’s brother was brought cording to chains t0 the caliph, %vho was then at the point of the prcdic- death. «At the fight of whom Harun declared, that tion. if he could fpeak only two words he would fay kill him ; and immediately ordered him to be cut to pieces in his prefence. This being done, the caliph foon after ex¬ pired, in the year of the Hegira 193, having reigned 23 years. The diilemper that put an end to his days is laid to have been the bloody-flux. Upon the arrival of a courier from Tus, with the news of Al Raihid’s death, his fon Al Amin was im¬ mediately proclaimed caliph \ and was no fooner feated on the throne,, than he formed a defign of excluding his brother Al Mamun from the fucceffion. Accordingly he deprived him of the furniture of the imperial palace of Khorafan •, and in open violation of his father’s will, who had bellowed on Al Mamun the perpetual go¬ vernment of Khorafan, and of all the troops in that province, he ordered thefe forces to march direflly to Bagdad. Upon the arrival of this order, Al Mamun expollulated with the general Al Fadl Ebn Rabbi wiio commanded his troops, and endeavoured to prevent his marching to Bagdad ; but without effed, for he punc¬ tually obeyed the orders fent by the caliph. Al Ma¬ mun, however, took care not to be wanting in fidelity to his brother. He obliged the people of Khorafan to take an oath of fidelity to Al Amin, and reduced fome wLo had a&ually excited a confiderable body of the people to revolt, while the general Al Fadl having in¬ gratiated himfelf with the caliph by his ready compli¬ ance with his orders, was chofen prime vizir, and go¬ verned with an abfolute fway : Al Amin abandoning himfelf entirely to drunkennefs. Al Fadl wras a very able miniiler*, though fearing Al Mamun’s refentment if ever he fhould afcend the throne, he gave Al Amin fuch advice as proved in the end the ruin of them both. He told him that his brother had gained the affe&ion of the people of Khorafan by the good order and police he had eftablilhed among them; that his unwearied application to the adminiftration of juftice had fo attrafted their efteem, that the whole pro¬ vince W’as entirely at his devotion; that his own condu£t ■was by no means relilhed by his fubjefts, whofe minds were almoft totally alienated from him ; and therefore -that he had but one part to a£!, w'hich was to deprive Al Mamun of the right of fuccefiion that had been given him by his father, and transfer it to his own fon Mufa, though then but an infant. Agreeable to this pernicious advice, the caliph fent for his brother Al Ka- fem from Mefopotamia, and recalled Al Mamun from Khorafan, pretending he had occafion for him as an af- ^ fillant in his councils. Al Mamun By this treatment Al Mamun wTas fo much provoked, takes up that he refolved to come to ah open rupture with his armsagainft brother, in order if poflible to fruftrate his wicked de¬ ns rotier-figns. Inllead, therefore, of going to Bagdad as he had been commanded, he cut off all communication be¬ tween his own province and that capital : pretending, that as his father Harun had afligned him the lieute¬ nancy of Khorafan, he was refponfible for all the dif- orders that might happen there during his abfence. He alfo coined money, and would not fuffer Al Amin’s eaine to be imprefied upon any of the dirhems or di- 2© .infamous behaviour of the new caliph. 20 ] BAG nars ftruck in that province. Not content with this, Bagdad, he prevailed upon Rafe Ebn Al Leith, who had been l—-v— for fome time in rebellion, to join him with a body of troops ; whole example was foon after followed by Harthema Ebn Aafan ; which put him in poflfeflion of all the vafi: territory of Khorafan. Here he go¬ verned with an ablolute fway, officiated in the mofque as Imuriy and from the pulpit conftantly harangued the people. The follow ing year, being the 195th year of the Hegira, beginning Odober 4. 810, the caliph Al- Amin, finding that his brother fet him at defiance, de¬ clared war againll him, and fent his general Ali Ebn lla with an army of 60,000 men to invade Khorafan. Al Mamun, being informed that Ali was advancing Amin’s againft him with fuch a powerful army, put on foot forces de- all the troops he could raife, and gave the command touted. Thaher Ebn Hofein, one of the greateft generals of his age. Thaher being a man of undaunted refolution, chofe only 4000 men whom he led againfl: Al Amin’s army. Ali, feeing fo fmall a number of troops advan- cing againft him, was tranfported with joy, and pro- mifed himfelf an eafy viftory. Defpifing his enemies, therefore, he behaved in a lecure and carelefs manner; the conlequence of which was, that his army was en¬ tirely defeated, and himfelf killed, his head being af¬ terwards fent as a prefent to Al Mamun, who amply rewarded Thaher and Harthema for their fervices. After this viftory, Al Mamun afiumed the title of caliph, ordered Al Amin’s name to be omitted in the public prayers, and made all neceffary preparations for carrying the war into the very heart of his brother’s dominions. For this purpofe he divided his forces into two bodies, and commanded them to march into Irak by different routes. One of them obeyed the orders of Thaher, and the other of Harthema. The firft direfled his march tow ards Ahw-as, and the other towards Hol- wan, both of them propofing to meet in the neighbour¬ hood of Bagdad, and after their junflion to befiege that city. - , In the 196th year of the Hegira, Thaher Ebn Ho-Al Ma- fein made a moll rapid progrefs wdth the troops under n^n’s rapid his command. Having advanced towards Ahwas, he concluefts' there defeated a body of the caliph’s forces; and though the vidftory was by no means decifive, it fo in¬ timidated the commander of Ahwas, that he thought fit to furrender that fortrefs to him. This opened him a way to Wafet upon the Tigris, and facilitated the conqueft of that place. After this he marched with his army to Al Madayen ; the inhabitants of w’hich immediately opened their gates to him. The rapidity of thefe conquefts, and the infamous condufl of Al Amin, excited the people of Egypt, Syria, Hejaz, and Yaman, unanimouily to declare for Al Mamun ; who wras accordingly proclaimed caliph in all thefe pro¬ vinces. The next year, Al Mamun’s forces under Thaher siege of and Harthema, laid fiege to Bagdad. As the caliph Bagdad, was {hut up in that place, and it had a numerous gar- rifon, the befieged made a vigorous defence, and de- ftroyed a great number of their enemies. The befiegers, howrever,, inceffantly played upon the town writh their catapults and other engines, though they were in their turn not a little annoyed by the garrifon with the fame fort of military machines. The latter likewife made continual ’Ba.trdad. Al Amin ssmrdered. 26 Succeeded by Al Mu¬ ni un. 27 Khorafan difmem- bered from the em¬ pire. 23 Death of Al Mamun ..B ,A G ;'. r 32 continual fallies, and fought like men in defpair, though they were always at laft beaten back into the town with confiderable lofs. In fhort the fiege continued during the whole of this year, in which the greateft part of the eahern city, called the Cam/* of Al Mohdi, was deffiolifhed or reduced to allies. The citizens, as well as the garrifon, were reduced to the laft extremity, by the length and violence of the fiege. In the beginning of the 198th year of the Hegira, Al Amin finding himfelf deferted by his troops, as well as by the principal men of Bagdad, who had kept a private correfpondence with Thaher, was obliged to retire to the old towm on the weft bank of the Tigris. He did not, however, take this ftep, before the inhabi¬ tants of the new town had formally depofed him, and proclaimed his brother Al Mamun caliph. Thaher, receiving advice of this, caufed the old town to be im¬ mediately invefted, planted his engines againft it, and at laft ftarved it to furrender. Al Amin being thus reduced to the neceffity of putting himfelf into the hands ofpne of the generals, chofe to implore the pro¬ tect ion of Harthema, whom he judged to he of a more humane difpofition than Thaher. Having obtained this, he embarked in a fmall veffel in order to arrive at that part of the camp where Harthema was polled ; but Thaher being informed of his defign, which, if put in execution, he thought would eclipfe the glory he had acquired, laid an ambufti for him, which he had not the good fortune to efcape. Upon his arrival in the neighbourhood of Harthema’s tent, Thaher’s foldiers rulhed upon him, drowned all his attendants, and put himfelf in prifon. Here he was foon after maffacred by Thaher’s fervants, who carried his head in triumph to their mafter, by whofe order it was afterwards expof- ed to public view in the ftreets of Bagdad. Thaher afterwards fent to Al Mamun in Khorafan, together with the ring or feal of the caliphate, the feeptre, and the imperial robe. At the fight of thefe, Al Mamun fell down on his knees, and returned thanks to God for his fuccefs ; making the courier who brought them a prefent of a million of dirhems, in value about ioo,ocol. Sterling. The fame day that Al Amin was affaftinated, his brother Al Mamun was proclaimed caliph at Bagdad. He had not long been feated on the throne when he was alarmed by rebellions breaking out in different parts of the empire. Thefe, however, were at laft; hap¬ pily extinguiflred ; after which, Thaher Ebn Hofein had the government of Khorafan conferred upon him and his defeendants with almoft abfolute and unlimited power. This happened in the 205th year of the He¬ gira, from which time we may date the diimember- ment of that province from the empire of the caliphs. During the reign of this caliph nothing remarkable happened ; only the African Modems invaded the ifland of Sicily, where they made themfelves mailers of feveral places. He died of a furfeit in the 218th year of the Hegira, having reigned 20, and lived 48 or 49 years. On the death of Al Mamun, his brother Al Mota- fem, by fome of the oriental hiftorians furnamed Bi/Iah, was faluted caliph. He fucceeded by virtue of Al Mamun’s exprefs nomination of him to the exclufion of his own fon Al Abbas and his other brother Al Kafem, who had been appointed by Harun Al Rafchid. In Vol. III. Part I. ] BAG the beginning of his reign he was obliged to employ Bagdad, the whole forces of his empire againft one Babec, who ~v had been for a confiderable time in rebellion in Perfia ^ar and Perfian Irak. This Babec firft appeared in the tween the year of the Hegira 201, when he began to take upon new caliph him the title of a prophet. What his particular doc- Mota- trine was, is now unknown 5 but his religion is faid to have differed from all others then known in Afia. He gained a great number of profelytes in Aderbijan and the Perfian Irak, where he foon grew powerful enough to wage war with the caliph Al Mamun, whofe troops he often beat, fo that he was now become extremely formidable. The general fent by Al Motafem to re¬ duce him was Haider Ebn Kaus, furnamed Affhin, a Turk by nation, who had been brought a Have to the caliph’s court, and having been employed in difcipli- ning the Turkifh militia there, had acquired the repu¬ tation of a great captain. By him Babec was defeated -0 with prodigious {laughter, no fewer than 60,coo men Babec de-» being killed in the firit engagement. The next year, feated. being the 220th of the Hegira, he received a ftiil greater overthrow, lofing 100,000 men either killed or taken prifoners. By this defeat he was obliged to retire into the Gordyaean mountains; where he fortified himfelf in fuch a manner, that Afthin found it impoffible to reduce him till the year of the Hegira 222. This commander having reduced with irfvincible patience all Babec’s caftles one after another, the im- poftor was obliged to fiiut himfelf up in a ftreng for- trefs called Cajhabad, which was now his laft reiource- Here he defended himfelf with great bravery for ieve- ral months ; but at laft finding he ftrould be obliged to lurrender, he made his efcape into a neighbouring- wood, from whence he foon after came to Afihin, upon that general’s promifing him pardon. But Afthin no Taken pri- fooner had him in his power, than he firft caufed histoner aiKl hands and feet, and afterwards his head, to be cut off. Babec had lupported himfelf againft the power of the caliphs for upwards of 20 years, during which time ,, he had cruelly maffacred 250,000 people j it being his He deftroy- cuftom to fpare neither man, woman, nor child, of the ed vail Mahometans or their allies. Amongff the prifoners numbers c: taken at Caftiabad there was one Nud, who had been ^c^ems* one of Babec’s executioners, and who owned that in obedience to his mailer’s commands he had deftroyed 20,000 Moflems with his own hands; to which he add¬ ed, that vaft numbers had alfo been executed by his companions, but that of thefe he could give no precife account. In the 223d year of the Hegira, the Greek emperor Theophilus invaded the caliph’s territories, where he behaved with the greateft cruelty, and by deftroying Sozopetra the place of Al Motafem’s nativity, not- withftanding his earneft entreaties to the contrary, oc- cafioned the terrible deftrudlion of Arnorium mention¬ ed under that article. The reft of this caliph’s reign is remarkable for nothing but the execution of x'kfihin, who was accufed of holding correfpondence with the caliph’s enemies. After his death a great number of idols were found in his houfe, which were immediately burned, as alfo feveral books faid to contain impious and deteftable opinions. In the 227th year of the Hegira died the caliph Al Death of Motafem, in the 48th or 49th year of his age. He ^ota* reigned eight years eight months and eight days, was S f born ; 34 He built the city of Sarra Manray. 3'5 His fuc- ceffors A1 Wathek and Al Motawak- kel. Monftrous cruelty of Ai Mo- tawakkel. BAG [ 32 Bagdad, born in the eighth month of the year, fought eight —’ battles, had 8000 Haves, and had 8,000,000 dinars and 80,000 dirhems in his treafury at his death, whence the oriental hiftorians give him the name of Al Motha- men, or the OSlonary. He is faid to have been lo ro- buft, that he once carried a burden of 1600 pounds weight feveral paces. As the people of Bagdad dif- turbed him with frequent revolts and commotions, he took the refolution to abandon that city, and build another for his own refidence. The new city he built was firft called Samarra, and afterwards Sarra Manray, and flood in the Arabian Irak. He was attached to the opinion of the Motazalites, who maintain the cre¬ ation of the Koran ; and both he and his predeceffbr cruelly perfecuted thofe who believed it to be eternal. Al Motafem was fucceeded by Al Wathek Bilah, who the following year, being the 228th of the Hegira, invaded and conquered Sicily. Nothing remarkable happened during the reft of his reign ; he died in the 2 3 2d year of the Hegira, and was fucceeded by his brother Al Motawakkel. The new caliph began his reign -with an a£f of the greateft cruelty. The late caliph’s vizir having treat¬ ed Al Motawakkel ill in his brother’s lifetime, and op- pofed his eledfion to the caliphate, was on that account now fent to prifon. Here the caliph ordered him to be kept awake for feveral days and nights together : after this, being fuffered to fall atleep, he flept a whole day and a night 5 and after he awoke wras thrown into an iron furnace lined with fpikes or nails heated red hot, where he was miferably burnt to death. During this reign nothing remarkable happened, except wars with the Greeks, which wTere carried on with various fuccefs. In the year 859 too, being the 245th of the Hegira, violent earthquakes happened in many provin¬ ces of the Moflem dominions; and the fprings at Mec¬ ca failed to fuch a degree, that the celebrated well Zemzem was almoft dried up, and the water fold for too dirhems a bottle. In the 247th year of the Hegira, the caliph wTas nf- faffinated at the inftance of his Ion Al Montafer ; who fucceeded him, and died in fix months after. He was fucceeded by Al Moftain, who in the year of the He¬ gira 2^2 wras forced to abdicate the throne by his bro¬ ther Al Motazz, who afterwards caufed him to be pri¬ vately murdered. He did not long enjoy the dignity of which he had fo iniquitoully poffeffed himfelf; be¬ ing depofed by the Turkifti militia (who now began to fet up and depofe caliphs as they pleafed) in the 25 ^th year of the Hegira, After his depofition, he wms lent under an efcort from Sarra Manray to Bagdad, where he died of thirft or hunger, after a reign of four years and about feven months. The fate of this caliph was peculiarly hard : the Turkifti troops had mutinied for their pay; and Al Motazz, not having money to fatisfy their demands, applied to his mother named Kabiha for 50,000 dinars. This (he refufed, telling him that fhe had no money at all, although it afterwards appear¬ ed that fhe wms pofTeffed of immenfe treafures. After his depofition, however, ftie was obliged to difeover them, and even depofite them in the hands of the new caliph Al Mokhtadi. They confifted of i,oco,ooo dinars, a bufhel of emeralds, and another of pearls, and three pounds and three quarters of rubies of the colour of fire. ] BAG .37 „ He is affaf- finated. 33 Hard fate of \1 Mo¬ tazz, a fuc ceeding caliph. Al Mokhtadi, the new caliph, was the fon of one of Bagdad. Al W athek’s concubines named Korb, or Karb, who v" J is by fome fuppofed to have been a Chriftian. The be- 3? ginning of his reign is remarkable for the irruption of^T1”1^ the Zengians, a people of Nubia, Ethiopia, and the jjans }n country of the Caffres, into Arabia, where they penetra- the reign ted into the neighbourhood of Bafra and Cufa. TheofAl chief of this gang of robbers, who, according to fome Mokhtadi. of the Arab hiftorians, diftered but little from wdld beafts, w;as Ali Ebn Mohammed Ebn Abdalrahman, who falfely gave himfelf out to be of the family of Ali Ebn Abu Taleb. This made fuch an impreflion upon the Shiites in thofe parts, that they flocked to him in great numbers; which enabled him to feize upon the cities of Bafrah and Ramla, and even to pafs the Tigris at the head of a formidable army. He then took the title of Prince of the Zenjians, in order to ingratiate himfelf with thofe barbarians, of whom his army was principally compofed. In the 256th year of the Hegira, Al Mokhtadi was barbaroufly murdered by the Turks who had railed him to the throne, and w as fucceeded by Al Monta- med the fon of Al Motawakkel. This year the prince of the Zenjians, Ali, or as he is allb called Al Habib, Ai made incurfions to the very gates of Bagdad, doingfuccelk prodigious mifehief wherever he palled. The caliph therefore lent againft him one Jolan wdth a confider- able army ; he was overthrown, however, with very great daughter by the Zenjian, who made himfelf mafter of 24 of the caliph’s largeft fhips in the bay of Bafra, put a vaft number of the inhabitants of Obol- la to the fw ord, and feized upon the town. Not con¬ tent with this, he fet fire to it, and foon reduced it to allies, the houfes moftly confifting of the wood of a certain plane tree called by the Arabians Saj. From thence he marched to Abadan, which likewife fur- rendered to him. Here he found immenfe treafure, which enabled him to poflefs himfelf of the whole di- ftridl of A-hwaz. In flrort, his forces being now in- creafed to 80,000 ftrong, moft of the adjacent terri¬ tories, and even the caliph’s court itfelf, were ftruck with terror. Irrthe 257th year of the Hegira, Al Habib conti¬ nued vidlorious, defeated feveral armies fent againft him by the caliph, reduced the city of Bafrah, and put 20,000 of the inhabitants to the fword. The follow¬ ing year, the caliph, fupported by his brother Al Mo- vvaffek, had formed a defign of circumfcribing the power of the Turkifh foldiery, who had for fome time given lawr to the caliphs themfelves. But this year the Zeniians made fo rapid a progrefs in Perfia, Arabia, and Irak, that he was obliged to fufpend the execution of his defign, and even to employ the Turkilh troops to aflift his brother Al Mowaffek in oppofing thefe rob¬ bers. The firfl of the caliph’s generals who encountered Al Habib this year, w’as defeated in feveral engage¬ ments, and had his army at laft entirely deftroyed. Af¬ ter this Al Mow'affek and another general named Mof- leh, advanced againfl: him. In the firft engagement Mofleh being killed by an arrow, the caliph’s troops retired; but Al Mow^affek put them afterwards in fuch a pofture of defence, that the enemy durft not renew the attack. Several other ftrarp encounters happened this year, in which neither party gained great advan¬ tage; but, at laft, fome contagious diftempers breaking out BAG [ 323 ] BAG Bagdad. 4* Rebellion in Fars, Ahwaz, and Balra. 42 Rebels de¬ feated, but cannot be reduced. 43. Al Habib ftill victo¬ rious. out in Al Mowaffek’s army, he was obliged to conclude a truce, and retire to Wafet to refrefh his troops. In the 259th year of the Hegira,'commencing Nov. 7. 872, the war between the caliph and Al Habib Hill continued. Al Mowaffek, upon his arrival at Bag¬ dad, fent Mohammed furnamed Mowal/ed with a powerful army to aft againft the Zenjians 5 but he could not hinder them from ravaging the province of Ahwaz, cutting off about 50,000 of the caliph’s fubjefts, and difmantling the city of Ahwaz •, and notwithftanding the utmoll efforts of all the caliph’s generals, no confi- derable advantages could be gained either this or the following year. In the 26111 year of the Hegira, beginning Oftober 16. 874, Mohammed Ebn Wafel, wTho had killed the caliph’s governor of Fars, and afterwards made himfelf mailer of that province, had feveral engagements with Al Habib, but with what fuccefs is not known. The caliph, having been apprized of the Hate of affairs on that fide, annexed the government of Fars, Ahwaz, and Bafrah, to the prefefture he had given to Mufa Ebn Baga, whom he looked upon as one of the bell gene¬ rals he had. Mufa, foon after his nomination to that poll, fent Abdalrahman Ebn Mofleh as his deputy to Ahwaz, giving him as a colleague and affiftant one Ti- fam, a Turk. Mohammed Ebn Wafel, however, refu- iing to obey the orders of Abdalrahman and Tifam, a fierce conflift enfued, in which the latter was defeated, and Abdalrahman taken prifoner. After this viftory, Mohammed advanced againft Mufa Ebn Boga himfelf j but that general finding he could not take poffeflion of his new^ government without a vaft effufion of blood, recalled the deputies from their provinces, and made the bed of his w'ay to Sarra Manray. After this, Ya¬ kub Ebn Al Leit, having taken Khorafan from the de- fcendar.ts of- Thaher, attacked and defeated Moham¬ med Ebn Wafel, feizing on his palace, wdiere he found a fum of money amounting to 40,000,000 dirhems. The next year Yakub Ebn Leit being grow formi¬ dable by the acquifition of Ahwaz and a confiderable portion of Fars, or at leaft the Perfian Irak, declared war againft the caliph. Againil him Al Motamed def- patched Al Mowaffek j who having defeated him with prodigious (laughter, plundered his camp, and purfued him into Khorafan j where meeting with no oppofition, he entered Nifabur, and releafed Mahomet the Tha- herian, whom Yakub had detained in prifon three years. As for Yakub hitftfelf, he made his efcape wfith great difficulty, though he and his family continued fe¬ veral years in poffeffion of many of the conquefts he had made. This war with Yakub proved a feafonable di- verfion in favour of Al Habib, wffio this year defeated all the forces fent againft him, and ravaged the diftrift of Wafet. The follownng year, being the 263d of the Hegira, beginning September 24. 876, the caliph’s forces, under the command of Ahmed Ebn Lebuna, gained two confiderable advantages over Al Habib} but being at laft drawn into an ambufeade, they were almoft totally defi:royed, their general himfelf making his efcape with the utmoft difficulty, nor w7ere the caliph’s forces able, during the courfe of the next year, to make the leaft impreflion upon thefe rebels. In the 265th year of the Hegira, beginning Septem¬ ber 3. 878, Ahmed Ebn Tolun rebelled againft the caliph, and fet up for himfelf in Egypt. Having af- Bagdad, fembled a conderable force, he marched to Antioch,' J and befieged Sima the governor of Aleppo and all the Rekej[jon provinces known among the Arabs by the name of jllin Egypt jdwafem., in that city. As the befieged found that he which can- was refolved to carry the place by ajl’ault, they thoughtnot I?® fuP" fit, after a (hort defence, to fubmit, and to put Sima1/1 e e into his hands. Ahmed no fooner had that officer in his power, than he caufed him to be beheaded \ after which he advanced to Aleppo, the gates of which w'ere immediately opened unto him. Soon after, he reduced Damafcus, Hems, Hamath, Kinnifrin, and Al Rakka, fituated upon the eaftern bank of the Euphrates. This rebellion fo exafperated Al Motamed, that he caufed . Ahmed to be publicly curled in all the mofques belong¬ ing to Bagdad and Irak ; and Ahmed on his part or¬ dered the fame malediftion to be thundered out againft the caliph in all the mofques within his jurifdiftion. This year alfo a detachment of Al Habib’s troops pe¬ netrated into Irak, and made themfelves mailers of four of the caliph’s drips laden with corn ; then they advanced to Al Nomanic, laid the greateft part of it in adres, and carried off wfith them feveral of the inhabi¬ tants prifoners. After this they poffeffed themfelves of Jarjaraya, where they found many prifoners more, and deftroyed all the adjacent territory with fire and fword. > This year there were four independent powers in the Four inde- Moilem dominions, befides the houfe of Ommiyah in pendent Spain, viz. The African Modems, or Aglabites, who Power!j.ltj. . had for a long time afted independently j Ahmed in ^r^'i^ldo- Syria and Egypt; Al Leit in Khorafan; and Al Ha-inin;on3„ bib in Arabia and Irak. In the 266th year of the Hegira, beginning Auguft 23. 879, Al Habib reduced Ramhormoz, burnt the (lately mofque there to the ground, put a vaft num¬ ber of the inhabitants to the fword, and earned away great numbers, as well as a vaft quantity of fpoil.— This was his laft fuccefsful campaign; for the year fol- Aj bib’s lowing, Al Mowaffek, attended by his fon Abul Ab- bad fuccefs bas, having attacked him with a bo_dy of 10,000 horfe and death, and a few infantry, notwithftanding the vaft difparity of numbers (Al Habib’s army amounting to 100,coo men), defeated him in feveral battles, recovered moll of the towns he had taken, together with an immenfe quantity of fpoil, and releafed 5000 women that had been thrown into prifon by thefe barbarians. After thefe viftories, Al Mowaffek took poll before the city of Al Mabiya’, built by Al Habib, and the place of his refidence; burnt all the ftiips in the harbour; thorough¬ ly pillaged the town ; and then entirely difmantled it. After the reduftion of this place, in which he found immenfe treafures, Al Mowaffek purfued the flying Zenjians, put feveral of their chiefs to the fword, and advanced to Al Mokhtara, a city built by Al Habib. As the place was itrongly fortified, and Al Habib was polled in its neighbourhood, with an army, according to Abu Jaafer Al Tabari, of 300,000 men, Al Mowaf¬ fek perceived that the reduftion of it would be a mat¬ ter of fome difficulty. ' He therefore built a fortrefs oppofite to it, where he erefted a mofque, and coined money. The new city, from its founder, was called by the Kxdas AlMowaffekkia, and foon rendered confider¬ able by the fettlement of feveral wealthy merchants there. The city of Al Mokhtara being reduced to great ftraits was at laft taken by itorm, and given up to S f 2 be BAG Bagdad, be plundered by the caliph’s troops; alter which A1 ‘— Mowaffek defeated the numerous forces of A1 Habib in fuch a manner, that they could no more be rallied during that campaign. The following year, being the 268th of the Hegira, A1 Pvtowaffek penetrated again into A1 Mabiya’, and demoliflied the fortifications which had been raifed fince its former redu&ion, though the rebels difputed every inch of ground. Next year he again attacked A1 Habib with great bravery ; and -would have en¬ tirely defeated him, had he not been wounded in the breaft with an arrow, which obliged him to found a retreat. However, as foon as he was cured of his wound, A1 Mowaffek advanced a third time to A1 Mabiya’, made himielf mafter of that metropolis, threw down the -walls that had been railed, put many of the inhabitants to the fword, and carried a vaft number of them into captivity. The 27th year of the Hegira, commencing July 1 ith 883, proved fatal to the rebel A1 Habib. A1 Mowaf¬ fek made himfelf a fourth time mafter of A1 Mabiya’, burnt A1 Habib’s palace, feized upon his family, and fent them to Sarra Manray. As for the ufurper him¬ felf, he had the good fortune to efcape at this time ; but being clofely purfued by A1 Mowaffek into the province of Ahwaz, where the ibattered remains of his forces were entirely defeated, he at laft fell into the hands of the viilor, who ordered his head to be cut off, and car¬ ried through a great part of that region which he had fo long difturbed. By this complete viftory A1 Mowaf¬ fek obtained the title of Al Nafir Lidmilbah, that is, the proteBor of Mabometanifm. This year alfo died Ahmed Ebn Tolun, who had feized upon Egypt and Syria, as wre have already obferved: atid was iucceeded by his fon Khatnarawiyah. The next year, a bloody engagement happened be¬ tween the caliph’s forces commanded by Al Mowaffek’s fon, and thofe of Khamarawiyah, who had made an irruption into the caliph’s territories. The battle was fought between Al Ramla and Hamafcus. In the be¬ ginning,. Khamarawiyah found himfelf fo hard preffed, that his men were obliged to give wray } upon which, taking for granted that all was loft, he fled with great precipitation, even to the borders of Egypt } but, in the mean time, his troops being ignorant of the flight of their general, returned to the charge, and gained a complete victory. After this, Khamarawiyah, by his }uft and mild adminiftration, fo gained the affe&ians of his fubje&s, that the caliph found it impoffible to gain the leaft advantage over him. In the 276th year of the Hegira, he overthrew one of the caliph’s generals named Abul Saj, at Al Bathnia near the city of Da- mafcus; after which he advanced to Al Rakka on the Euphrates, and made himfelf mafter of that place. Having annexed feveral large provinces to his former dominions, and left fome of his friends in whom he could confide to govern them, he then returned into Egypt, the principal part of his empire, which now extended from the Euphrates to the borders of Nubia and Ethiopia. The following year, being the 278th of the Hegira, was remarkable for the death of Al Mowaffek. He died of the elephantiafis or leprofy •, and while in his laft illnefs, could not help obferving, that of 100,000 men whom he commanded, there was not one fc xnifer- 47 Succefs of the fultan of Egypt. 3H 1 B. A G able as himfelf. This year is alfo remarkable for the firft Bagdad, difturbances raifed in the Moflem empire by the Kar- 1 ' 1 matians. The origin ot this fe£t is not certainly known j > but the moft common opinion is, that a poor fellow, 49 by fome called Kar mat a, came from Khuzeftan to the villages near Cufa, and there pretended great fandlity tiani> and ftrieftnefs of life, and that God had enjoined him to pray 50 times a-day ; pretending alfo to invite peo¬ ple to the obedience of a certain Imam of the family of Mahomet •, and this way of life he continued till he had made a very great party, out of whom he chofe twelve as his apoftles to govern the reft, and to propagate his dodfrines. He alfo affumed the title of prince, and obliged every one of his earlier followers to pay him a dinar a-year. But Al Haidam, the governor of that province, finding men negle&ed their work, and their hufbandry in particular, to fay thofe 50 prayers a-day, feized the fellowr, and having put him in prifon, fwore that he fhould die. This being overheard by a girl belonging to the governor, ftie, out of compaflion, took the key of the dungeon at night from under her ma¬ iler’s head, releafed the man, and reftored the key to its place while her mafter flept. The next morning the governor found his prifoner gone ; and the accident being publicly known, raifed great admiration ; Kar- mata’s adherents giving out that God had taken him into heaven. After this he appeared in another pro¬ vince, and declared to a great number of people he got about him, that it w'as not in the power of any perfon to do him hurt j notwithftanding which, his cou¬ rage failing him, he retired into Syria, and was never heard of any more. After his difappearance, the fedt continued and increafed ; his difciples pretending that their mafter had manifefted himfelf to be a true pro¬ phet, and had left them a new law, wherein he had changed the ceremonies and form of prayer ufed by the Modems, &c. From this year, 278, thefe fe&aries gave almoft continual difturbance to the caliphs and their fubjedls, committing great diforders in Chaldaea, Arabia, and Mefopotamia, and at length eftablifned a confiderable principality. <.0 In the 279th year of the Flegira died the caliph Al Sultan of Motamed } and was fucceeded by Al Motaded, fon to Egypt’s Al Mowaffek. The firft year of his reign, Al Motaded ‘^ demanded in marriage the daughter of Khamarawiyah, tj)e caijpg fultan, or caliph, of Egypt *, which was agreed to by Al Motad- him with the uUnoft joy, and their nuptials w^ere fo-ed. lemnized with great pomp in the 2 8zd year of the Flegira. Fie carried on a war with the Karmatians ; but very unfuccefsfully, his forces being defeated with great flaughter, and his general Al Abbas taken pri- foner. This caliph alfo granted to Harun, fon to Khamarawiyah, the perpetual perfedfure of Awafam and Kinnifrin, which be annexed to that of Egypt and Syria, upon condition that he paid him an annual tri¬ bute of 45,000 dinars. He died in the year of the Hegira 289, and was fucceeded by his fon Al Moc- tafi. 5* 48 , Al Mowaf- fek dies. This caliph proved a warlike and fuccefsful prince.%yPh Fie gained feveral advantages over the Karmatians, but^1^1^1 was not able to reduce them. The lurks, however,ppjj Aj having invaded the province of Mawaralnahr, wereMoctaR, defeated with great flaughter •, after which, Al Moctafi carried on a fuccefsful war againft the Greeks, from whom he took Seleucia. After this he invaded Syria and BAG [ 3 lagciad. and Egypt, which provinces he recovered from the ’ ' houfe of Ahmed Ebn Tolun. Diftrefferl The reduflion of Egypt happened in the zgid year ftate of the Hegira, after which the war was renewed with caliphs af- fuccefs againft the Greeks and Karmatians. The ca- ter his jlph died in the 295th year of the Hegira, after a reign •ieath. agout- gx years and a half. He w;as the laft of the caliphs who made any figure by their warlike exploits, His fucceffors A1 Moktader, A1 Kaher, and A1 Radi, were fo diftreffed by the Karmatians and numberlefs ufurpers who wrere every day ftarting up, that by the 325th year of the Hegira they had nothing left but the city of Bagdad. In the 324th year of the Hegira, commencing November 30. 935, the caliph A1 Radi, finding hjmfelf diftreffed on all iides by ufurpers, and ^ having a vizir of no capacity, inftituted a new office New office fuperior to that of vizir, which he entitled Emir Al of Emir Al Qmra, or Commandant of commandants. This great t^Tcfb111 A~1 °®cer was trufted with the management of all military Rudi. ^ affairs, and had the entire management of the finances in a much more abfolute and unlimited manner than any of the caliph’s vizirs ever had. Nay, he officiated for the caliph in the great mofque at Bagdad, and had his name mentioned in the public prayers throughout the kingdom. In flrort, the caliph was fo much under the power of this officer, that he could not apply a fingle dinar to his own ufe without the leave of the E- Divifion of mir Al Omra. In the year 325, the Mollem empire, the Vfoflem once fo great and powerful, wras lhared among the fol- tmpire in }owJng ufurpers. The cities of Wafet, Bafra, and Cufa, with the reft of the Arabian Irak, were confidered as the property of the Emit Al Omra, though they had been in the be¬ ginning of the year feized upon by a rebel called Al Baridi, who could not be driven out of them. The country of Fars, Farfeftan, or Ferfa properly fo called, was poffeffed by Amado’ddawla Ali Ebn Buiya, who refided in the city of Shiraz. Part of the tradf denominated Al yebol, together with Perfian Irak, which is the mountainous part of Perfia, and the country of the ancient Parthians, obey¬ ed Rucno’ddowla, the brother of Amado’ddawla, who refided at Ifpahan. The other part of that country was poffeffed by Walhmakin the Deylamite. Diyar Rabia, Diyar Beer, Diyar Modar, and the city of Al Mawfel, or Moful, acknowledged for their fovereigns a race of princes called Hamdanites. Egypt and Syria no longer obeyed the caliphs, but Mahomet Fdbn Taj, who had formerly been appointed governor of thefe provinces. Africa and Spain had long been independent. Sicily and Crete were governed by princes of their own. The provinces of Khorafan and Mawaralnahr were under the dominion of Al Nafr Ebn Ahmed, of the dynafty of the Sammarians. The provinces of Tabreftan, Jorjan, or Georgia, and Mazanderan, had kings of the firft dynafty of the JDeylamites. The.province of Kerman was occupied by Abu Ali Mahomet Ebn Eylia Al Sammani, who had made him- felf matter of it a ffiort time before. And, Laftly, the provinces of Yamama and Bahrein, in¬ cluding the diftrifk of Hajr, were in the poffeffion of Abe Thaher the Karmatian. Bagdad. the 325th year of the Hegira. 25 ] B A G . Thus the caliphs were deprived of all their domi¬ nions, and reduced to the rank of fovereign pontiffs ; in M ' which light, though they continued for Ibme time to be regarded by the neighbouring princes, yet their power never arrived to any height. In this low ftate the ca¬ liphs continued till the year of the Hegira 656, com¬ mencing January 8. 1258. This year was rendered remarkable by the taking of Bagdad by Hulaku the 53 Mogul or Tartar j who likewife abolifhed the caliphate, putting the reigning caliph Al Moftafem Bilah to a 4^ Tar"-, moft cruel death. Thefe diabolical conquerors, after tars, they had taken the city, maflacred, according to cu- ftom, a vaft number of the inhabitants ; and after they had plundered it, fet it on fire. The fpoil they took from thence was prodigioufly great, Bagdad being then looked upon as the firft city in the world. ^ Bagdad remained in the hands of the Tartars or Hiftory of Moguls to the year of the Hegira 795, of Chrift 1392,tJ5e C!ty when it was taken by Tamerlane from Sultan Ahmed tSia‘* Ebn Weis ; who being incapable of making head a- gainft Tamerlane’s numerous forces, found himfelf ob¬ liged to fend all his baggage over the Tigris, and abandoned his capital to the conqueror. He was, how¬ ever, hotly purfued by' his enemy’s detachments to the plain of Karbella, where feveral Ikirraifhes happened, and a confiderable number of men wTere loft on both fides. Notwithftanding this difafter, he found means to efcape the fury of his purfuers, took refuge in the territories of the Greek emperor, and afterwards re- poffeffed himfelf of the city of Bagdad. There he re¬ mained till the year of the Hegira 803, when the city was taken a fecond time by Tamerlane 5 who never- thelefs reftored it to him, and he continued lovereign of the place till driven from thence by Miram Shaw. Still, however, he found means to return *, but in the 815th year of the Hegira was finally expelled by Kara Yufef the Turcoman. The defeendants of Kara Yufef continued matters of Bagdad till the year of the Blegi- ra 875, of Chrift 1470, when they were driven out by Ufun Caffun. The family of this prince continued till the year of the Hegira 914, of our Lord 1508, when Shah Iftimael, furnamed Sufi or Sof, the firft prince of the royal family reigning in Iran or Perfia, till the dethroning of the late Shah Hofein, made himfelf ma¬ tter of it. From that time to this Bagdad has conti ¬ nued to be a bone of contention between the Turks and Perfians. It was taken by Soiiman furnamed the magnificent, and retaken by Shah Abbas the great; king of Perfia; but being at length befieged by Am- ruth or Morad IV. with a formidable army, it was fi¬ nally qbliged to furrender to him in the year 1638 ; fince which time the Perfians have never been able to make themfelves matters of it for any length of time. ^ The city is large'and populous ; and the advantage Tts prefent of the Tigris is fo confrderable, with regard to com¬ merce, that although the climate is exceffively hot, and in other refpeRs far from being agreeable, yet the num¬ ber of its inhabitants is computed at 300,000 ; but be¬ fore the plague broke out there, they wrere fuppofed to be four times that number. It is governed by a ba- ffiaw, whofe authority extends as far as Curdiftan. The revenues would be immenfe was the government mild ; but inftead thereof, oppreffion rules here with the moft defpotic fway. The baffiaw is continually ex¬ torting money from, the poor inhabitants, and none fiufTse Hate. BAG [3 fuffer more than the unfortunate Jews and Chriftians, many of whom are put to the moft cruel tortures in order to force their property from them. This feries of tyranny and oppreffion has almoft entirely driven them out of the city ; in confequence of which the trade muff fuffer very confiderably, they being gene¬ rally the principal merchants in the place. In the months of June, July, and Auguft, the weather is fo extremely hot, as to oblige the inhabitants to live for thefe months in fubterraneous apartments, which are arched over, to admit the freer circulation of the air. The houfes are generally large, built of brick and ce¬ ment, and are arched over. Many of the windows are made of elegant Venetian glafs} the ceilings are mofl- ly ornamented with a kind of chequered work, which has generally a noble appearance j moft of the houfes have a court-yard before them, in the middle of which is a little plantation of orange trees, &c. that has a very pleafing effedl. The foil, which would produce not only every conveniency in life, but almoft every luxury, is through the natural indolence of the Turks, and the many faults in the government of the country, in a great meafure uncultivated and neglefted. The revenues are computed at 125 lacks of piaftres, or 1,562,500!. fterling ; but a quarter part of this is not colledled, “owing to the flothfulnefs of the Turks, who fuffer the Arabs to plunder them of the remainder. This in fome meafure accounts for the cruelties and extortions that are continually praiftifed here. As the baihaw lives in all the fplendour of a fovereign prince, and maintains a very large army, he could not be able to defray his expences, was he not to have recourfe to oppreffion and injuftice ; and he, by his extenfive power, adling almoft independent of the Porte, only acknowledges it to bring in a balance from thence yearly in his favour. The bazars or markets here are large and extenfive ; being covered over with arches built of mafonry, and divided into different ftreets, filled with {hops of all kinds of merchandife, to the number of 12,000. E- very thing a perfon can have occafion'for may be had there. The number of houfes in the city is computed at near 80,000 •, and each houfe and ffiop pay an an¬ nual tribute to the bafiiaw, which is calculated to pro¬ duce the fum of 300,000k fterling. Befides thefe im- menfe revenues that are colledled, the baffiaw pre¬ tends, that by repairs on the fortifications 30,000k or 40,000k are annually expended, when not fo many hundreds are taken out of his coffers for that purpofe. Likewife clearing the river and mending the bridge become a charge greater than their income, and pro¬ bably not the value of an Engliffi {hilling is expended. —To fupport the expence of the feraglio, their clothes, caparifons of their horfes, and every outward pomp, the amount is confiderable. On the north fide of the town Hands the citadel, which commands the river ; and confifts of curtains and baftions, on which fome very long cannon are mounted, with two mortars in each baftion, placed on no other beds than the ground, and in very bad condition. The carriages of the guns are likewife fo unwieldy, and in fuch a {battered condition, that from their appearance they would not fupport one fir¬ ing, but would be ftiaken in pieces. Their elevations were from 30 to 40 degrees, but they had no quoins I 16 ] BAG to level them. There are, befides, a number of fmall Bagdad, towers, and loop-holes for mulketry, placed at certain —y—» diftances, all well encompaffed by a ditch of 25 feet deep, which can be filled at any time by the waters of the Tigris. The citadel is fo clofe to the houfes, that it might be eafily taken if poffeffion was once gained of the town ; but an attack made towards the land would not probably be fuccefsful, as lluices might with the greateft facility be cut into the ditch, and fo overflow the country for miles round •, but it is faid an advantageous attack might be made from the water. The city, which is fortified by lofty thick walls of brick covered with earth, and ftrengthened by great towers much refembling cavalier baflions, the whole being furrounded by a deep ditch, is in the form of an irregular Iquare 5 but the walls in many places are bro¬ ken down, occafioned by the difputes which happened on the death of Abdulla Baffiaw a few years ago, when two competitors arofe in Bagdad for the balhawic, who fought feveral times in the town and citadel, and laid great part of it in ruins. In the interim, the go¬ vernor of Moufful and Nineveh being appointed ba- ftiaw’ by the Porte, came hither with a confiderable ar¬ my, and took poffeffion of the fovereignty, vanquifh- ing his two opponents. Oppofite to the city, on the other fide of the river, are very extenfive fuburbs, from whence fhells might be thrown into the town, which wmuld have a dreadful effect on a place fo clofely built. There is a communication between the city and fub¬ urbs by a bridge of boats ; the only kind of bridge which that river will admit of, as it is broad and deep, and in its ordinary courfe very rapid. At certain fea- fons it fwells to a prodigious height, and overflowing the country occafions many moraffes on that fide oppo¬ fite to the city. Among thefe are feveral towns and villages, whofe inhabitants are faid to be the ancient Chaldeans : they are of a particular religion, which they pretend is that of Seth. The inhabitants of this city are compofed chiefly of Perfians, Armenians, Turks, Arabs, and Jews, which laft aft in the capa¬ city of fchroffs, or bankers, to the merchants. The Jews, notwithftanding the fevere treatment they meet with from the government, are induced to live heie from a reverence to the prophet Ezekiel, whofe mau- foleum they pretend is a day’s journey from the city. Befides the Jews w ho refide here, there are many that come every year out of devotion to vifit the prophet’s tomb. There are alfo two European gentleman, a Venetian and a Frenchman, with five Romifh priefts, who are Frenchmen and Italians. Two chapels are permitted for thofe of the Romiffi and Greek perfua- fions; at the former the five priefts officiate. In the city are feveral large beautiful mofques, but into which Chriftians are never fuffered to enter if known to be fuch, for fear it fliould defile them. The Mahometan women are very richly dreffed, wearing bracelets- on their arms and jewels in their ears : the Arabian wm- men have the partition betw'een their noftrils bored, wherein they wear rings. There are alfo a number of antique buildings. At the diftance of about ten miles Hand the ruins of an ancient tower called the Tower of Nimrod. Whether this tower was at firft of a fquare or round form is now difficult to determine : though the former is moft pro¬ bable, BAG [ - Baggage, bable, becaufe all the remaining bricks are placed fquare, and not in the leall circular. The bricks are all twelve inches fquare and four and a half thick. The cement is of mud or llime, mixed with broken reed, as we'mix hair with mortar j which (lime might either have been had from one of the great rivers, or taken out of one of the fwamps in the plain, with which the country hereabout very much abounds. The height of the ruin is i 26 feet; the diameter of the largelt and middle part about 100 feet. It would ap¬ pear to be folid to the centre ; yet near the top there is a regular opening of an oval form. The circumfe¬ rence of that part of the tower which remains, and is above the rubbifh, is about 300 feet ; but probably could the foundation be come at, it would be found of far greater extent. The prefent Turks, Jew?s, and A- rabians, are fond of believing this to be the identical ruin of the ancient tower of Babel, for which they af- fign a variety of reafons ; but all fo void of the appear¬ ance of truth, that to fet about confuting them would be lofing time in trifles. It appears to have been a beacon or watch-Uwer, to give notice of the approach of an enemy : or perhaps was ufed as an obfervatory to infpefl the various motions of the heavenly bodies j which fcience was fo much cultivated among the an¬ cient inhabitants of this country, that even the Gre¬ cians, though defirous of being efteemed the inventors of all arts and fciences, could never deny the Babylo¬ nians the honour of having laid the foundations of aftronomy. BAGGAGE, in Military Affairs, denotes the clothes, tents, utenfils of divers forts, provifions, and other neceffaries belonging to the army. .Before a march, the waggons with the baggage are mar (hailed according to the rank which the feveral re¬ giments bear in the army •, being fometimes ordered to follow the refpeflive columns of the army, fometimes to follow the artillery, and fometimes to form a column by themfelves. The general’s baggage marches firft j and each waggon has a flag, fhowing the regiment to which it belongs. Paching up the Baggage, vafa co/ligere, was a term among the Romans, for preparing to go to w^ar, or to be ready for an expedition. The Romans dillinguiihed two forts of baggage ; a greater and lefs. The leffer was carried by the foldier on his back, and called farcina; confiding of the things mod neceffary to life, and which he could not do without. Hence colligere farcinas, packing up the baggage, is ufed for decamping, cajlra movere. The greater and heavier was carried on holies and vehicles, and called onera. Hence on era vehiculorum, farcirue hominum. The baggage-horfes wTere denominated fag- men t aril equi. The Roman foldiers in their marches were heavy loadcn ; infomuch, that they were called by way of jed muli mariani, and cerumme. They had four forts of luggage, which they never w ent without, viz. corn or huccellatum, utenfils, valli, and arms. Cicero ob- ferves, that they ufed to carry with them above half a month’s provilions \ and we have indances in Livy, where they carried provifions for a whole month. Their utenfils comprehended thofe proper for gathering fuel, drefiing their meat, and even for fortification or in- trenchment j and what is more, a chain for binding 27 ] BAG captives. For arms, the foot carried a fpear, diield, Baglana faw, baiket, rutrum, hatchet, lorum, falx, &c. Al- ^ ^eres fo dakes or pales, valli, for the fudden fortifying a ag -3‘ camp ; fometimes feven or even twelve of thefe pales were carried by each man, though generally, as Poly¬ bius tells us, only three or four. On Trajan’s co¬ lumn we fee foldiers reprefented with this fardle of corn, utenfils, pales, &c. gathered into a bundle and laid on their fiioulders. Thus inured to labour, they grerv drong, and able to undergo any fatigue in bat¬ tle ; the greated heat of which never tired them, or put them out of breath. In aftertimes, when difei- pline grew flack, this luggage was thrown on carriages and porters ihoulders. The Macedonians were not lefs inured to hardfhip than the Romans: when Philip firll formed an army, he forbade all ufe of carriages j yet, with all their load, they wmiild march, in a fummer’s day, 20 miles in mi¬ litary rank. BAGLANA, or Buglana, a province of the kingdom of Dekkan in the Mogul’s empire. It is bounded on the north and ead by Guzzerat and Balia- gat 5 and on the fouth and wed by that part of Villa- pour called Konhan, belonging to the Mahrattas. It ends in a point at the fea coad between Daman and Balfora, and Is the lead province in the kingdom. The Portuguefe territories begin in this province at the port Daman, 21 leagues fouth of Surat ; and run a- long the coad by Baffaim, Bombay, and Chawl, to Dabul, aimed 50 leagues to the north of Goa. BAGLIVI, George, a mod iiludrious phyfician of Italy, was a native of Apulia, and born about the year 1668. He dudied at Padua, where he became doctor •, and then went to Rome, where he was chofen profeflbr of anatomy. He was a man of mod uncom¬ mon force of underdanding, of which he gave ample proofs in many curious and accurate productions, phi-. fofophical as wrell as medicinal. He died at Rome 1706, in the flow7er of his age, and w’hen he wTas no more than 38. A collection of his works was printed fird in 1710, quarto j and has fince been reprinted, in the fame fize, at various places. His Praxis Medico, and De Fibra Matricis, are the principal pieces. He wrote a Dilfertation upon the Anatomy, Bite, and EffeCts, of the Tarantula, which is the production of his coun¬ try *, and gave a particular account of the earthquake at Rome and the adjacent cities in 1703. His works are all in Latin. BAGNAGAR, a town of Afia, in the dominions of the Great Mogul, and capital of the kingdom of Golconda in the peninfula on this fide the Ganges,. The inhabitants within the towm are the better fort; the merchants and meaner people inhabiting the fub- urbs, which is three miles long. It is chiefly re¬ markable for a magnificent refervoir of water, fur- rounded with a colonnade fupported by arches. It is feated on the river Newa, in E. Long. 96. o. N. Lat. I5- 3°- BAGNAR A, a fea-port town of Italy in the king¬ dom of Naples, in the farther Calabria, with the title of a duchy. E. Long. 16. 8. N. Lat. 58. 15. BAGNAR EA, a town of Italy in St Peter’s patri¬ mony, and in the territory of Orvieta, with a bilhop’s fee. E. Long. 12. 10. N. Lat. 42. 36. BAGNERESj a town of France in Gafcony, and in BAG [32 Sagnialack in the county of Bigorre, now the department of the II. Upper Pyrenees, fo called from its mineral waters, > ff Plpe’, which are much reforted to. It is feated on the river Adour, in E. Long. o. 12. N. Lat. 43. 3. BAGNIALACK, a large town of Turkey in Eu¬ rope, in the province of Bofnia. E. Long. 18. 10. N. Lat. 44. o. BAGNIO, an Italian word, lignifying a bath. We life it for a houfe with conveniences for bathing, cup¬ ping, fweatirig, and otherwife cleaning the body; and i'ometimes for wTorfe purpofes. In Turkey it is be- ,come a general name for the prifons where the Haves are enclofed, it being ufual in thefe prifons to have ■baths. BACNOLAS, a town of Lowrer Languedoc, now the department of Herault in France. It has a very handfome fquare, and two fountains which rife in the middle of the town ; the waters of which, being re- -ceived in a bafon, are conveyed by a canal out of town, and from thence to the lands about it. E. Long. 4. 43. N. Lat, 44. 10. BAGNOLIANS, or Bagnolanses, in Church Hijlory, a fed! of heretics, who in reality were Mani- chees, though they fomewhat difguifed their errors. They rejedled the Old Teftament and part of the New ; held the world to be eternal; and affirmed that God did not create the foul when he infufed it into the body. BAG01, among the ancient Perfians, were the .fame with thofe called by the Latins ffiadones, viz. a fpecies of eunuchs, in whom the canal of the penis was fo contorted by a tight vinculum, that they could .not emit the femen. BAG-PIPE, a mulical inltrument, of the wind ■kind, chiefly ufed in Scotland and Ireland. The pe- .culiarity of the bag-pipe, and from which it takes its name, is, that the air which blows it is colledled in¬ to a leathern bag, from whence it is prefled out by the arm into the pipes. Thefe pipes confifl: of a bafs, and tenor or rather treble ; and are different according to the fpecies of the pipe. The bafs part is called the drone, and the tenor or treble part the chanter. In all the fpecies, the bafs never varies from its uniform note, and therefore very defervedly gets the name of drone; and the compafs of the chanter is likewife very limit¬ ed. There is a confiderable difference between the Highland and Lowland bag-pipe of Scotland ; the former being blown with the mouth, and the latter with a fmall bellows: though this difference is not ef- fential, every fpecies of bag-pipes being capable, by a proper conftrudtion of the reeds, of producing mufic either with the mouth or bellows. T he following are the fpecies of bag-pipes molt commonly knowm in this country. 1. The Irifb Pipe. This is the fofteft, and in fome refpedls the moft melodious of any, fo that mulic- books have been publiihed with directions how to play on it. The chanter, like that of all the reff, has eight holes like the Englifh flute, and is played on by open¬ ing and {hutting the holes as occafion requires ; the bafs confifts of two fliort drones and a long one. The Iowrefl: note of the chanter is D on the German flute, being the open note on the counter-firing of a vio¬ lin ; the fmall drone (one of them commonly being flopped up) is tdned in unifon with the note above 2 S ] BAG this, and the large one to an oCtave below; fo that a Bag-pipe, great length is required in order to produce fuch a '—“ low note, on which account the drone hath fometimes tvm or three turns. The inftrument is tuned by lengthening or fliortening the drone till it founds the note dell red. 2. The Highland Bag-Pipe. This confifts of a chanter and twTo ftiort drones, which found in unifon the loweft note of the chanter except one. This is ex¬ ceedingly loud, and almoft deafening if played in a room ; and is therefore moftly ufed in the field, for marches, &c. It requires a prodigious blaft to found it ; fo that thofe unaccuitomed to it cannot imagine how Highland pipers can continue to play for hours together, as they are often known to do. For the fame reafon, thofe who ufe the inftrument are obliged either to ftand on their feet or walk when they play. This inftrument hath but nine notes ; its fcale, how ever, hath not yet been reduced to a regular ftandard by com¬ paring it with that of other inftruments, fo that we.can fay nothing about its compafs. Thole who are belt acquainted with it, however, affirm that it plays only the natural notes, without being capable of variation by flats or fharps. 3. The Scots Lowland Pipe. This is likewife a very loud inftrument, though lefs fo than the former. It is blown with bellows, and hath a bafs like the Irifli pipe. This fpecies is different from all the reft, as it cannot play the natural notes, but hath F and C {harp. The loweft note of a good bag-pipe of this kind is uni¬ fon with C (harp on the tenor of a violin tuned con¬ cert-pitch ; and, as it hath but nine notes, the higheft is D in alt. From this peculiar conftruftion, the High¬ land and Lowland bag-pipes play two fpecies of muiic effentially different from one another, as each of them alfo is from every other fpecies of mufic in the world. Hence thefe two fpecies of bag-pipes deferve notice as curiofities; for the mufic which they play is accompa¬ nied wuth fuch peculiar ornaments, or what are intend¬ ed as fuch, as neither violin, or even organ, can imitate, but in a very imperfect manner. This kind of bag-pipe was formerly very much ufed in Scotland at weddings and other feftivals; be¬ ing indeed‘extremely well calculated for playing that peculiar fpecies of Scots mufic called reels. It has been often a matter of furprife how' this was poflible, as the inftrument has only a compafs of nine or ten notes at the utmoft, and which cannot be varied as in other inftruments. In this refpeft, however, it has a very great compafs, and will play an inconceivable variety of tunes. As its notes are naturally fo high, there is fcarce any one tune but what is naturally tranfpofed by it, fo that what would be a flat note on the key pro¬ per for the violin, may be a {harp one on the bag-pipe ; and though the latter cannot play any flat note, it may neverthelefs in this manner play tunes which on other inftruments wmuld be flat, to as great perfection as thefe inftruments themfelves. 4. The Small Pipe. This is remarkable for its fmall- nefs, the chanter not exceeding eight inches in length ; for which reafon, the holes are fo near each other, that it is with difficulty they can be clofed. This hath only eight notes, the lower end of the chanter being com¬ monly flopped. The reafon of this is, to prevent the flurring of all the notes, which is unavoidable in the other BAG BAG [ 329 ] Bag-pip'- other fpecies ; fo that in the hands of a bad player they *y—become the moft (hocking and unintelligible inftruments imaginable : but this, by having the lower hole clofed, and alfo by the peculiar way in which the notes are ex- preffed, plays all its tunes in the way called by the Ita¬ lians Jlaccato, and cannot (lur at all. It hath no fpecies of mulic peculiar to itfelf 5 and can play nothing which cannot be much better done upon other inftruments j though it is furpriftng what volubility fome performers on this inftrument will difplay, and howr much they will overcome the natural difadvantages of it. Some of this fpecies, inftead of having drones like the others, have their bafs parts confiding of a winding cavity in a kind of (hort cafe, and are tuned by opening thefe to a cer¬ tain degree by means of Aiding covers 5 from wdiich contrivance they are called Jhuttle-pipes. Befides thefe there are a variety of others, called Italian, German, Organ, &c. bag-pipes, which have nothing different in their conftruftion from thofe above deferibed, nor any good quality to recommend them. As to the origin of bag-pipe mufic, fome are of opi¬ nion that it is to be derived from the Danes j but Mr Pennant thinks differently, and gives the following rea- fons for deriving it from Italy. Voyage to “ Neither of thefe inftruments (the Highland and theHebndes, Lowland bag-pipes above deferibed) were the inven- V' 3°’ tion of the Danes, or, as is commonly fuppofed, of any of the northern nations ; for their ancient writers prove them to have been animated by the clangor tubarum, Notwithftanding they have had their foeck pipe long amongft them, as their old fongs prove, yet we cannot allow them the honour of inventing this melodious in¬ ftrument, but mult affert, that they borrowed it from the invaded Caledonians. We muft (till go farther, and deprive even that ancient race of the credit ; and de¬ rive its origin from the mild climate of Italy, perhaps from Greece. “ There is now in Rome a moft beautiful bas re¬ lievo, a Grecian fculpture of the higheft antiquity, of a bag-piper playing on his inftrument, exactly like a mo¬ dern Highlander. - The Greeks had their or inftrument, compofed of a pipe and blown-up (kin : the Romans in all probability borrowed it from them, and introduced it among their fwains, who (fill ufe it under the names of piva and cornu-mufa. “ That mafter .of mufic, Nero, ufed one ; and had not the empire been fo fuddenly deprived of that great artift, he would (as he gracioully declared his inten¬ tion) have treated the people with a concert, and among other curious inftruments, would have introdu¬ ced the utricularius or bag-pipe. Nero periihed ; but the figure of the inftrument is preferved on one of his coins, but highly improved by that great mafter : it has the bag and two of the vulgar pipes; but was blown with a bellows like an organ, and had on one fide a row of nine unequal pipes, refembling the fyrinx of the god Pan. The bag-pipe, in the unimproved tfate, is alfo reprefented in an ancient fculpture ; and appears to have had two long pipes or drones, and a Angle (hort pipe for the fingers. Tradition fays, that the kind played on by the mouth was introduced by the Danes ■, as theirs was wind-mufic, we will admit that they might have made improvement, but more we can¬ not allow ; they were (killed in the ufe of the trumpet j the Highlanders in the piohb, or bag-pipe, Vol. III. Part I, Non tuba in ufu illis, conjuncla at tibia in utrem Dat belliJignum, et marteni vocat horrida in arma Bae-pipe. *'—T 1 ’t',” * Aleli’lni The bag-pipe appears to have been an inftrument of great antiquity in Ireland, though it is uncertain whence they derived it. Mr Pennant, by means of an antique found at Richborough in Kent, has deter¬ mined that the bag-pipe was introduced at a very early period into Britain •, whence it is probable that both Irifti and Danes might borrow the inftrument from the Caledonians with whom they had fuch frequent inter- courfe. Ariftides Quintilianus informs us, that it prevailed in the highlands in very early ages ; and in¬ deed the genius of the people feems to render the opi¬ nion highly probable. The attachment of that people to their mufic called pibraebs is almoft incredible, and on fome occafions is (aid to have produced effe£ls little lefs marvellous than thole aferibed to the ancient mu¬ fic. At the battle of Quebec in /760, while the Bri- tifh troops were retreating in great diforder, the gene¬ ral complained to a field officer in Frazer’s regiment of the bad behaviour of his corps. “ Sir (faid he with fome warmth), you did very wrong in forbidding the pipers to play this morning : nothing encourages the Highlanders fo much in the day of action. Nay, even now they would be of ufe.”—“ Let them blow like the devil, then (replies the general_), if it will bring back the men.” The pipers were then ordered to play a favourite martial air 5 and the Highlanders, the mo¬ ment they heard the mufic, returned and formed with alacrity in the rear. In the late war in India, Sir Eyre Coote, aware of the attachment of the Highlanders to their favourite inftrument, gave them 50I. to buy a pair of bag-pipes after the battle of Porto Nuovo. Formerly there was a kind of college,in the idand of Skye, where the highland bag-pipe was taught; the teachers making ufe of pins (tuck into the ground in¬ ftead of mufical notes. This college, however, has been for fome time entirely diffolved, and the ufe of the High¬ land pipe become much lefs general than before. At laft a fociety of gentlemen, thinking it perhaps impo¬ litic to allow the ancient martial mufic of the country to decline, refolved to revive it by giving an annual prize to the belt performers on the inftrument. Thefe competitions were firft held at Falkirk, but for a good number of years at Edinburgh ; where the only fur- viving member of the ancient college of Skye is now profeJTor of bag-pipe mufic. The Lowland pipe, as has been already obferved, is an inftrument effentially different from the Highland pipe ; it was reformed, and the mufic improved bv George Mackie, who is faid to have attended the col¬ lege of Skye feven years. He had before been the belt performer on that inftrument in that part of the country where he lived : but, while attending the col¬ lege at Skye, he adapted the graces of the Highland mufic to the Lowland pipe. Upon his return, he was heard with aftoniffiment and admiration 5 but unluck¬ ily, not being able to commit his improvements to wri¬ ting, and indeed the nature of the inftrument fcarcely admitting of it, the knowledge of this kind of mufic hath continued to decay ever fince, and will probably loon wear out altogether. What contributes much to this is, that bag-pipers, not content with the natural nine notes which their inftrument can plav eafilv, ’■f t force Hopogr.Scot. & B A H Baguette force it to play tunes requiring liiglier notes, which B’haren ^^orders the whole inftrument in fuch a manner as to .'-I-'-L' ' / produce the moft horrid difcords •, and this practice brings, though undefervedly, the inftrument itfelf into contempt. BAGUETTE, in ArchiteBure, a fmall round mould¬ ing, lefs than an aftragal, and fo called from the refem- blance it bears to a ring. BAHAMA, or Lucaya, Islands, are the eafter- inqft of the Antilles, lying in the Atlantic ocean. They are fituated to the fouth of Carolina, between 22 and 2 7 degrees N. Lat. and 73 and 81 d’egrees W. Long. They extend along the coaft of Florida quite down to the ifle of Cuba, and are faid to be 500 in number, ferae of them only bare rocks ; but twelve of them are large, fertile, and in nothing different from the foil of Carolina : all are, however, uninhabited except Providence, which is 200 miles eaft of the Floridas ; though fome others are larger and more fertile, on which the Engliih have plantations. Between them and the continent of Florida is the gulf of Bahama, or Florida, through which the Spaniih galeons fail in their paffage to Europe. Thefe itlands are the firft fruits of Columbus’s dif- coveries 5 but they were not known to the Englifh till 1667, when Captain Seyle, being driven among them in his paffage to Carolina, gave his name to one of them j and being a fecond time driven upon it, gave it the name of Providence. The Engliih, obferving the advantageous fituation of thefe iflands for being a check on the French and Spaniards, attempted to let- tie them in the reign of Charles II. Some unlucky accidents prevented this fettlement from being of any advantage ; and the ifle of Providence became an har-. bour for the bucaniers or pirates, who for a long time infeiied the American navigation. This obliged the government in 1718 to fend out Captain Woodes Rogers wdth a fleet to .diflodge the pirates, and for making a fettlement. This the captain effedled 5 a fort was erefted, and an independent company was flationed in the ifland. Ever fince this laft fettlement thefe iflands have been improving, though they advance but flowly. In time of war, people gain confiderablv by the prizes condemned there ; and at all times by the wrecks, which are frequent in this labyrinth of rocks and {helves. The Spaniards and Americans captured thefe iflands during the lait war ; but they WTere retaken by a detachment from St Auguftine, A- pril 7. 1783. Cotton has been introduced into the Bahamas, where it is now fuccefsfully cultivated. The quantity .exported in 1792 was 5047 bales which amounted to 1,162,822 pounds. BAHAR, or Barr.e, in Commerce, weights ufed in feveral places in the Eafl Indies. There are two of thefe weights \ one the great ba- har, with which they weigh pepper, cloves, nutmegs, ginger, &c. and contains 550 pounds of Portugal, or about5?4lb. qoz. avoirdupois weight. With the little bahar, they weigh quickfilver, vermilion, ivory, filk, &x. It contains about 4371b. 90Z. avoirdupois weight. BAHAREN, an ifland in the Perfian gulf, lituated in E. Long. 50. o. N. Lat. 26. o. This ifland is chiefly remarkable for its pearl-fifhery, and has often changed its snafters. It fell wflth Ormus under the dominion of the Portuguefe, was again reftored to B A j Perfia by Hramas Khouli Kan j and after his death Bahi the confulion into which his empire was thrown, gave fl an opportunity to an enterprifmg and ambitious Arab , £ala' of taking poffeflion of the ifland, wdiere he ftill main¬ tains his authority. Baharen was famous for its pearl- filhery even at the time when pearls w^ere found at Ormus, Karek, Kaftiy, and other places in the Per¬ fian gulf: but it is now become of much greater con- fequence j all the other banks having been exhaufted, while this has fuffered no fenfible diminution. The time of fifhing begins in April, and ends in Oflober. It is confined to a trad! four or five leagues in breadth. The pearls taken at Baharen, though not fo white as thofe of Ceylon or Japan, are much larger than thofe of the former place, and more regularly fltaped than thofe of the latter. They have a yellowifh colour 5 but have alfo this good quality, that they preferve their golden hue, whereas the whiter kind lofe much of their luftre by keeping, efpecially in hot countries. The annual revenue from the Baharen pearl fifhery is com¬ puted at about 157,500!. The greateft part of the pearls that are uneven are carried to Conftantinople and other ports of Turkey, where the larger go to com* pole ornaments for head-dreffes, and the {mailer are ufed in embroideries. The perfect pearls muft be re- ferved for Surat, whence they are diftributed through all Indoftan. BA HI, a province of Lu^on or Manilla, one of the Philippine iflands in the Eaft Indies, belonging-to the Spaniards. It is remarkable for producing excellent betel, which the inhabitants, Spaniards as well as na¬ tives, perpetually chew from morning till night. It is alfo the place where moft of the Ihips are built. But the natives fuffer much from this work j feveral hun¬ dreds of them being conftantly employed in it, on the mountains, or at the port of Cavite. The king allows thefe labourers a piece-of-eight per month, with a fuf- ficient quantity of rice. The whole province contains about 6000 tributary natives. BAHIA, de todos los sanctos, a province of Brafil ih South America, belonging to the Portuguefe, and the richeft in the whole country 5 but unhappily the air and climate do not correfpond with other natu¬ ral advantages ; yet fo fertile is the province in fugar and other commercial articles, that the Portuguefe flock hither not only as it is the feat of affluence, but alfo of pleafure and grandeur. The capital, called St Salvador, or Cividad de Bahia, is populous, mag-' nificent, and beyond comparifon the moft gay and opu¬ lent city in Brafil. It Hands on a bay in S. Lat. 12. 11. is ftrong by nature, well fortified, and always de¬ fended by a numerous garrifon. It contains 12,000 or 14,000 Portuguefe, and about three times as many '• negroes, befides people of different nations who choofe to refide in that city. BAHIR, a Hebrew? term fignifylng famous or il- - lujlrious; but particularly ufed for a book of the Jew s,, ~ treating of the profound myfteries of the cabbala, be¬ ing the moft ancient of the Rabbinical w orks. BAHUS, a ftrong town of Sweden, and capital of a government of the fame name, feated on a rock in a fmall ifland, in E. Long. 11. 10. N. Lat. 57.52. BAJA, Eayjah, or Begia, a town of the king¬ dom of 'Funis in Africa, fuppofed to be the ancient Vacca of Salluft, and Opbidum Vcggenje of Pliny. It was 1 330 ] B A. I [3; Saj*, Was formerly, and ftill continues to be, a place of great trade, and the chief market of the kingdom for corn 3 of which the adjacent territories produce fuch abundance, that they can fupply more than the whole kingdom with it 3 and the Tutiifians fay, that if there was in the kingdom fuch another town as this for plenty of corn, it would become as cheap as fand. Here is alfp a great annual fair, to which the moft dilfant Arabian tribes refort with their families and flocks. Notwithflanding all this, however, the inhabitants are very poor, and great part of the land about the town remains uncul¬ tivated, through the cruel exablions of the government, and the frequent incurfions of the Arabs, who are very- powerful in thefe parts. The town ftands on the de¬ clivity of a hill on the road to Conflantina, about 10 leagues from the northern coaft, and 56 fouth-weft from Tunis3 and hath the convenience of being well watered. On the higheft part is a citadel that commands the Whole place, but is now of no great flrength. The walls were raifed out of the ruins of the ancient Vacca, and have fome ancient infcriptions. Baja, a populous town of Hungary, feated on the i Danube, in E. Long. 19. 50. N. Lat. 46. 40. • BAIhE, an ancient village of Campania in Italy, between the promontory of Mifenum and Puteoli, on the Sinus Baianus 3 famous for its natural hot baths, which ferved the wealthier Romans for the purpofes both of medicine and pleafure.-—The variety of thofe baths, the foftnefs of its climate, and the beauty of its landfcape, captivated the minds of opulent nobles, whofe paflion for bathing knew no bounds. Abun¬ dance of linen, and difufe of ointments, render the praftice lefs neceffary in modern life 3 but the ancients performed no exercife, engaged in no fludy, without previous ablutions, which at Rome required an enor¬ mous expence in aqueducts, doves, and attendants : a place therefore, where waters naturally heated to every degree of warmth bubbled fpontaneoufly out of the ground, in the pleafanteft of all fituations,* was fuch a treafure as could not be overlooked. Baiae wras this place in the higheft perfeflion 3 its eafy communication with Rome -was alfo a point of great weight. Hither at firlt retired for a temporary relaxation the mighty rulers of the world, to dfing anew their nerves and re¬ vive their fpirits, fatigued with bloody campaigns and civil conteds. Their habitations were fmall and moded : but foon increafing luxury added palace to palace witb fuch expedition and fumptuodty, that ground was wanting for the vad demand : enterprifing architefts, fupported by infinite w-ealth, carried their foundations into the fea, and drove that element back from its. Sivinburne'i ancient limits : it has fince taken ample revenge, and Sicily. recovered much more than it ever lod. From being a place of refort for a feafon, Baiae now grew- up to a permanent city : whoever found himfelf difqualified by age, or infirmity, for fudaihing any longer an a£five jjart on the political theatre 3 whoever, from an indo¬ lent difpofition, fought a place w-here the pleafures of a town were combined wfith the fweets of a rural life 3 whoever w-idied to withdraw from the dangerous neigh¬ bourhood of a court, and the baneful eye of inform¬ ers, docked hither to enjoy life untainted with fear and trouble. Such adluence of wealthy inhabitants rendered Bairn as much a miracle of art as it was be¬ fore of nature 3 its fplendour may be inferred from Its 1 J B A j innumerable ruins, heaps of marbles, mofaics, ducco, BajAof and other precious fragments of tade.—It flouridted ,, , in full glory down to the days of Theodoric the Goth 3 ; ' but the dedruftion of thefe enchanted palaces follow¬ ed quickly upon the irruption of the northern conque¬ rors, who overturned the Roman fydem, hacked and burnt all before them, and dedroyed or difperfed the whole race of nobility. Lofs of fortune left the Ro¬ mans neither the means, nor indeed the thought, of lup- porting fuch expenfive edablifhmcnts, which can only be enjoyed in perfection during peace and profperity. No looner had opulence withdrawn her hand, than the unbridled fea rudied back upon its old domain 3 moles and buttrefles were torn afunder and wadied away 3 whole promontories, with the proud towers that once crowned their brows, were undermined and tumbled headlong into the deep, where, many feet below the. furface, pavements of dreets, foundations of houfes, and mafies of walls, may dill be deferied. Internal commo¬ tions of the earth contributed alfo largely to this gene¬ ral devadation 3 mephitic vapours and dagnated waters have converted this favourite feat of health into the den of pedilence, at lead during the edival heats: yet Bala; in its ruined date, and dripped of all its ornaments, dill prefents many beautiful and driking fubjeCIs for the pencil. E. Long. 14. 45. N. Lat. 41. 6. BAJADOR, a cape on the wed coad of Africa, fouth of the Canary illands. \V. Long. 15. 20. N. Lat. 27. o. * BAIANUS SINUS, a bay fo called from Baia, (Suetonius) 3 Portus Baiarum, (Pliny) 3 which was enlarged by Augudus, by giving entrance to the fea into the Lacus Lucrinus, and Averni, ordering it to be called Portus Julius apud Baias, (Suetonius). We alfo read Baianus Lacus in Tacitus, which feme inter¬ pret the Lucrinus. The modern name is Gclfo di Poz- zuolo. From the highed point that forms the bay, a large cadle commands the road, where foreign diips of wyar ufually ride at anchor, the harbour of Naples ndt being fpacious enough for the reception of a fleet : here they enjoy good dicker, watering, and viftual- ling 3 but in dimmer rifk the health of their crew s, on account of the unwholefomnefs of the air. BAJAZET I. fultan of the Turks, a renowmed warrior but a tyrant, was conquered by Tamerlane, and expofed by him in an iron cage 3 the fate he had dedined (it is faid) for his adverfary if he had been the vi£lor. The iron cage, however, fo long and fo often re¬ peated as a moral leffon, has been rejected as a fable by modern w-riters, who fmile at the vulgar credulity. They appeal to the Perfian hidory of Sherefeddin Ali, of which a French verfion has been given, and from which Mr Gibbon has collesded the following more fpecious narrative of this memorable tranfadlicn. “ No fooner was Timour informed that the captive Ottoman was at the door of his tent, than he gracioufly depped forwards to receive him, feated him by his fide, and mingled with jud reproaches a foothing pity for his rank and misfortune. “ Alas ! (faid the emperor,) the decree of fate is now accomplidied by your owm fault: it is the web which you have woven, the thorns of the tree tvhich yourfelf have planted. I widied to fpare, and even to adid, the champion of the Mof- lems j you braved our threats, you defpifed our friend- T t .2 diip j Bajazet. B A I [ 332 ] B A I flilp ; you forced us to enter your kingdom with our invincible armies. Behold the event. Had you van- quifhed, I am not ignorant of the fate which you re- ferved for myfelf and my troops. But I dildain to retaliate : your life and honour are fecure ; and I Ihall exprefs my gratitude to God by my clemency to man.” The royal captive fhowed fome figns of repentance, accepted the humiliation of a robe of honour, and em¬ braced with tears his fon Moufa, who, at his requelf, was fought and found among the captives of the field. The Ottoman princes were lodged in a fplendid pavi¬ lion ; and the refpect of the guards could be furpafied only by their vigilance. On the arrival of the haram from Bourla, Timour reftored the queen Defpina and her daughter to their father and hufband ; but he pi- oafly required, that the Servian princefs, who had hi¬ therto been indulged in the profeflion of Chriftianity, Ihould embrace without delay the religion of the prophet. In the feaft of viftory, to which Baja¬ zet was invited, the Mogul emperor placed a crown on his head and a fceptre in his hand, with a folemn alTurance of reftoring him with an increafe of glory to the throne of his ancellors. But the effedt of this promife was difappointed by the fultan’s untimely death : amidft the care of the moll Ikilful phyficians, he expired of an apoplexy at Akfhehr, the Antioch of Pifidia, about nine months after his defeat. The vidfor dropped a tear over his grave ; his body, with royal pomp, was conveyed to the maufoleum which he had eredted at Bourfa ; and his fon Moufa, after re¬ ceiving a rich prefent of gold and jewels, of horfes and arms, was invefted by a patent in red ink with the kingdom of Anatolia. “ Such is the portrait of a generous conqueror, which has been extradled from his own memorials, and dedi¬ cated to his fon and grandfon, 19 years after his de- ceafe •, and, at a time when the truth was remember¬ ed by thoufands, a manifelt falfehood would have im¬ plied a fatire on his real conduft. On the other hand, of the harlh and ignominious treatment of Bajazet there is alfo a variety of evidence. The Turkilh an¬ nals in particular, wdwch have been confulted or tran- fcribed by Leunclavius, Pocock, and Cantemir, una- nimoufly deplore the captivity of the iron cage and fome credit may be allowed to national hiftorians, who cannot lligmatize the Tartar without uncovering the lhame of their king and country.” From thefe op- pofite premifes, Mr Gibbon thinks a fair and mode¬ rate conclufion may be deduced. He is fatisfied that Sherefeddin Alt has faithfully defcribed the firlt ollen- tatious interview7, in which the conqueror, whofe Spi¬ rits were harmonized by fuccefs, affefled the character of generofity. But his mind was infenfibly alienated by the unfeafonable arrogance of Bajazet ; the com¬ plaints of his enemies, the Anatolian princes, were juft and vehement; and Timour betrayed a defign of lead¬ ing his royal captive in triumph to Samarcand. An attempt to facilitate his efcape by digging a mine un¬ der the tent, provoked the Mogul emperor to impofe a harlher reftraint •, and in his perpetual marches, an iron cage on a waggon might be invented, not as a wanton infult, but as a rigorous precaution. Timour had read in fome fabulous hiftory a fimilar treatment of one of his predeceflfors, a king of Perfiaj and Ba¬ jazet w'as condemned to reprcfent the perfon and ex¬ Bail. piate the guilt of the Roman Ccefar. But the ftrength Baikat of his mind and body fainted under the trial, and his premature death might without injuftice be afcribed to, the feverity of Timour. He warred not, however, with the dead ; a tear and a fepulchre were all that he could bellow on a captive who was delivered from his power ; and if Moufa, the fon of Bajazet, was permitted to reign over the ruins of Bourfa, the greateft part of the province of Anatolia had been reftored by the con¬ queror to their law:ful fovereigns. BAIKAL, a great lake in Siberia, lying between 52 and 55 degrees of north latitude. It is reckoned to be 500 werfts in length ; but only 20 or 30 broad, and in fome places not above 15. It is environed on all fides by high mountains. In one part of it, which lies near the river Bargufian, it throws up an inflam¬ mable fulphureous liquid called maltha, which the people of the adjacent country burn in their lamps. There are likewife feveral fulphureous fprings near this lake. Its water at a diftance appears of a fea- green colour: it is frelh 5 and fo clear, that ob¬ jects may be feen in it feveral fathoms- deep. It doe* *iot begin to freeze till near the latter end of Decem¬ ber, and thaw's again about the beginning of May : from which time till September, a Ihip is feldom known to be wnecked on it j but by the high wfinds which then blow, many (hipwrecks happen. This lake is called by the neighbouring people Swiatoic More, or the Holy Lake ; and they imagine, that w hen ftorms happen on it, they will be preferved from all danger by complimenting it with the title of fea. When it is frozen over, people travel upon it in the road to China ; but they mull be very lharp food, otherwife they cannot ftand upon the ice, which is ex¬ ceedingly fmooth. Notwithftanding that the ice on this lake is fometimes two ells thick, there are fome open places in it to which tempeftuous winds wfill often drive thole w'ho are crofting it; in w hich cafe they are irre¬ coverably loft. The camels that pafs along have a particular kind of Ihoes lharp at bottom, and the oxen have fnarp irons driven through their hoofs, without which it would be impoflible for them to pafs. Here are plenty of large llurgeon and pike ; with many feals of the black, but none of the fpotted, kind. It corn- tains feveral iflands j and the borders are frequented by black fables and civet-cats. BAIL, ballium, (from the French bailler, which comes of the Greek /SasAAnv, and fignifies to deliver into hands), is ufed in our common law for the free¬ ing or fetting at liberty of one arrefted or imprifoned upon any aftion, either civil or criminal, on furety ta¬ ken for his appearance at a day and place certain. The reafon why it is called bail, is becaufe by this means the party reftrained is delivered into the hands of thofe that bind themfelves for his forthcoming, in order to a fafe-keeping or prote£Hon from prifon ; and the end of bail is to fatisfy the condemnation and coils, or render the defendant to prifon. With refpefl to bail in civil cafes, it is to be ob- ferved, that there is both common and fpecial bail. Common bail is an aftion of fmall concernment, be¬ ing called common, becaufe any fureties in that cafe are taken, whereas in caufes of great weight, as adlions upon bonds, or fpeciality, &c. w’here the debt amounts to io\. fpecial bail or furety muft be taken, fuch B A I l 333 1 B A I fuch as fubfidy men at lead, and they according to the value. The commitment of a perfon being only for fafe cuftody, wherever bail will anfwer the fame intention, it ought to be taken, as in mod of the inferior crimes ': but in felonies, and other offences of a capital nature, no bail can be a fecurity equivalent to the aciual cu- dody of the perfon. For what is there that a man may not be induced to forfeit to fave his own life ? and what fatisfaftion or indemnity is it to the public, to feize the effedfs of them who have bailed a murder¬ er, if the murderer himfelf be differed to efcape with impunity ? Upon a principle limilar to which, the A- thenian magidrates, when they took a folemn oath ne¬ ver to keep a citizen in bonds that could give three fureties of the fame quality with himfelf, did it with an exception to fuch as had embezzled the public mo¬ ney, or been guilty of treafonable practices. Bail may be taken either in court, or, in fome par¬ ticular cafes, by the (heriff or other magidrate ; but modly ufcd by the judices of the peace. To refufe or delay to bail any perfon bailable, is an offence againd the liberty of the fubjedt, in any magidrate, by the common law ; as well as by the datute Wedm. i. 3 Edw^I. c. 15. and the habeas corpus aft, 31 Car. II. c. 2. And, led the intention of the law fliould be frudrated by the judices requiring bail to a greater amount than the nature of the cafe demands, it is ex- prefsly declared by datute 1 W. and M. ft. 2. c. 1. that excedive bail ought not to be required 5 though what bail diall be called excejjive, mud be left to the courts, on confidering the circumftances of the cafe, to determine. And on the other hand, if the magi- ftrate takes infufficient bail he is liable to be fined, if the criminal doth not appear. In civil cafes, every defendant is bailable. But it is otherwife in Criminal matters. Regularly, in all offences, either againd the common law or aft of parliament, that are belowr felony, the offender ought to be admitted to bail unlefs it be prohibited by fome fpecial aft of par¬ liament.—By the ancient common law, before and fince the Conqued, all felonies were bailable, till mur¬ der was excepted by datute : fo that perfons might be admitted to bail almoft in every cafe. But the da¬ tute Weft. x. 3 Edw. I. c. 15. takes away the power of bailing in treafon, and in divers indances of felony. The datutes 23 Hen. VI. c. 9. and 1 and 2 Ph. and Mar. c. 13. gave farther regulations in this matter: and upon the W’hole we may colleft, that no judices of the peace can bail, 1. Upon an accufation of trea¬ fon : nor, 2. Of murder: nor 3. In cafe of manflaugh- ter, if the prifoner be clearly the flayer, and not bare¬ ly lufpefted to be fo ; or if any indiftment be found againft him ; nor, 4. Such as, being committed for fe¬ lony, have broken prifon; hecaufe it not only carries a prelumption of guilt, but is alfo fuperadding one fe¬ lony to another : 5. Perfons outlawed : 6. Such as have abjured the realm : 7. Perfons taken with the mainour, or in the faft of felony : 8. Perfons charged with ar- fon : 9. Excommunicated perfons, taken by writ de excommunicato capiendo : all which are clearly not ad- miffible to bail by the juftices. Others are of a du¬ bious nature ; as, 10. Thieves openly defamed and known : 11. Perfons charged y/ith other felonies, or manifed and enormous offences, not being of good fame : and, 12. Acceffories to felony, that labour under the fame wTant of reputation. Thefe feem to be in the difcretion of the judices, whether bailable or not. The lad clafs are fuch as mujl be bailed upon of¬ fering fufficient furety ; as, 13. Perfons of good fame, charged with a bare fufpicion of mandaughter, or other infamous homicide : 14. Such perlons being- charged wuth petit larceny or any felony, not before fpecified : or, 16. With being acceffory to any felony, Ladly, it is agreed, that the court of king’s bench (or any judge thereof in time of vacation) may bail for any crime whatfoever, be it treafon, murder, or any other offence, according to the circumftances of the cafe. And herein the wiidom of the law is very manifeft. To allow bail to be taken commonly for fuch enormous crimes, would greatly tend to elude the public juftice : and yet there are cafes, though they rarely happen, in which it would be hard and unjud to confine a man in prifon, though accufed even of the greateft offence. The law has therefore provided one court, and only one, which has a difcretionary power of bailing in any cafe : except only, even to this high jurifdiftion, and of courfe to all inferior ones, fuch perfons as are committed by either houfe of parlia¬ ment, fo long as the feflion lads 5 or fuch as are com¬ mitted for contempts by any of the king’s fuperior courts of juftice. See Law. Clerk of the Bails, is an officer belonging to the court of the king’s bench : he files the bail-pieces ta¬ ken in that court, and attends for that purpofe. Bail, or Bale, in the fea-language. The feamen call throwing the water by hand out of the ftffp’s or boat’s hold, bailing. They alfo call thofe hoops that bear up the tilt of a boat, its bails. BAILIE, in Scots Law, a judge anciently appoint¬ ed by the king over fuch lands not erefted into a re¬ gality as happened to fall to the crown by forfeiture or otherwife, now abolifhed. It is alfo the name of a magiftrate in royal boroughs, and of the judge appoint¬ ed by a baron over lands erefted into a barony. See Law. BAILIFF, (ballivus'), from the French word bay- liff, that is, priefeSlus provincice ; and as the names, fo the office itfelf wTas anfwerable to that of France j where there are eight parliaments, which are high courts from whence there lies no appeal, and within- the precinfts of the feveral parts of that kingdom which belong to each parliament there are feveral pro¬ vinces to which juftice is adminiftered by certain offi¬ cers called bailiffs : and in England there are feveral counties in wffiich juftice hath been adminiftered to the inhabitants by the officer who is now called foeriff or vifcount (one of which names defcends from the Saxons, the other from the Normans) j and though the ffieriff is not called bailiff, yet it is probable that w?as one of his names alfo, becaufe the county is often called bal- liva. And in the datute of Magna Charta, cap. 28. and 14 Ed. III. c. 9. the word bailiff feems to comprife as well ffieriffs as bailiffs of hundreds. As the realm is divided into counties, fo every county is divided in¬ to hundreds ; within which in ancient times the people had juftice miniftered to them by the officers of every hundred. But now the hundred courts, except certain franchifes, are fwallowed in the county-courts; and the bailiif’s- Water- bailiff ..H. Bailiwick. B A I [33 bailiff’s name and office is grown into contempt, they being generally officers to ferve writs, Sec. within their liberties, though, in other refpeSts, the name is dill in good efteem : for the chief magiftrates in divers towns are called bailiffs or bailies; and fometimes the perfons to whom the king’s cailles are committed are termed bailiffs, as the bailiff of Dover Cafle, &c. Of the ordinary bailiffs there are feveral forts, viz. fheriff’s bailiffs, bailiffs of liberties, &c. Sheriff’s bailiffs, or fherilf’s officers, are either bailiff’s of hundreds, or fpecial bailiffs. Bailiff's of hundreds are officers appointed over thofe refpeftive diitrifts by the iheriffs, to colleft fines therein ; to fummon ju¬ ries 5 to attend the judges and juftices at the affiles and quarter feffions *, and alfo to execute writs and procefs in the feveral hundreds. But as thefe are generally plain men, and not thoroughly Ikilful in this latter part of their office, that of ferving writs, and making ar- refts and executions, it is now ufual to join fpecial bai¬ liffs with thdm ; who are generally mean perfons em¬ ployed by the (heriffs on account only of their adroit- nefs and dexterity in hunting and feizing of their prey. Bailiffs of liberties are thofe bailiffs who are ap¬ pointed by every lord within his liberty, to execute procefs, and do fuch offices therein as the bailiff errant doth at large in the county 5 but bailiffs errant or iti¬ nerant, to go up and down the county to ferve procefs, are out of ufe. There are alfo bailiffs of forefts, and bailiffs of ma¬ nors, who direeff hufbandry, fell trees, gather rents, pay quit-rents, &c. IVater-BAiiiFr, an officer appointed in all port- towns, for the learching of fhips, gathering the toll for anchorage, &c. and arrefting perfons for debt, &c. on the water. BAILII, David, painter of perfpective views and portraits, was the fon of Peter Bailii, an artift of fome note 5 and was born at Leyden in 1584. From his father he learned to draw and effiffgo j but he was af- terrvards placed under the care of Adrian Verburg, and continued with him for fome time; and when hp quitted that mafter, he ftudied to much greater advan¬ tage with Cornelius Vandervoort, an excellent portrait- painter, and with him he fpent about fix years. As Vandervoort poffeffed many capital paintings of fome great mafters, Bailii, for his own improvement, copied them with critical care and obfervation j and particu¬ larly copied one perfpeffiive view of the infide of a church, originally painted by Stenwyck, which he fi- nifhed with fuch accuracy, that even Stenwyck him- felf could fcarce determine which was the original, or which the copy, when both were placed before him. He travelled through feveral parts of Italy to fee the wTorks of the celebrated mafters of that country, and for a few years refided at Rome j and abroad, as well as in his own country, the correffinefs of his drawing, and the delicate handling and finifhing of his piftures, procured him employment, admirers, and friends. In the latter part of his life he difeontinued painting, and only drew portraits on vellum with a pen, which he heightened with black lead, and gave them wonderful force and roundnefs. He died in 1638. BAILIWICK, that liberty which is exempted from the theriff of the county 5 over which liberty the lord thereof appoints his own bailiff, with the like power t 1 B A I Bailly. within his precinct as an under fheriff exercifes under Buil'ef the ftieriff of the county : Or it fignifies the precinffi of a bailiff, or the place within which his juriididtion ( is terminated. BAIL LET, Adrian, a very learned French wri¬ ter and critic, born in 1649 at t^Le vbLge of Neuville near Beauvais in Picardy. His parents were too poor to give him a proper education, which however he ob¬ tained by the favour of the bifliop of Beauvais, who aftenvards prefented him with a fmall vicarage. In 1680 he was appointed librarian to M. de Lamoignon, advocate-general to the parliament of Paris *, of whole library he made a copious index in 35 vols. folio, all Written with his own hand. Fie died in 1706, after Writing many works, the principal of which are, yf Hi- fory cf Holland from 1609, to the peace of Nimeguert in 1679, 4 vols 1 2mo ; Lives of the Saints, 3 vols fo¬ lio, which he profefl'ed to have purged from fables j Jugemens des Sravens, which he extended to 9 vols 1 2mo ; and The life of Des Cartes, 2 vols 410, which he abridged, and reduced to one vol. I 2mo. BAILLEUL, a town of France, in the depart¬ ment of the North, formerly very ftrong, but now without any fortifications. It has been ieveral times burnt by accident^ and contains now only about 500 houfes. E. Long. 2. 55. N. Lat. 40. 35. BAILLY, Jean Sylvain, a celebrated philofo- pher and artronomer, was born at Paris on the 15th September 1736. He was originally intended for the profeflion of painting, which his family had purfued for feveral generations, and he even had made fome progrefs in the art. But the bias of his mind leaned too much to literary purfuits, efpecially to poetry, and works of imagination, to permit him to give that ap¬ plication which is neceffary to fecure fucceis and emi¬ nence in any profeflion. The friends of Bailly, wrho had witijeffed the early dawm of his genius, faw that it was equally fitted to appear with advantage in the ftudy of polite litera¬ ture, or to fhine in the walks of fcience j and recom¬ mended the latter chiefly to his attention. His acquaintance with La Caille the celebrated geometer commenced, and this at once decided the objedt of his ftudies, which were now almoft entirely devoted to feientific inveftigations. The firft of his labours was the calculation of the comet which appeared in the year 1759. In January 1763, he was admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences 5 and in the fame year he publifhed a reduftion of the obfervations made by La Caille in 1760 and 1761 on the zodiacal ftars, an elaborate compilation, and of extenfive utility. His attention was afterwards direffied to the confideration. of the theory of Jupiter’s fatellites. La Grange, who now promifed to be the firft mathematician in Europe, was the formidable rival of Bailly in the competition for this prize queftion in 1764. The refults of his in¬ veftigations were colleffied into a treatife, wffiich alfo contained the hiftory of that part of aftronomy, and were publiflied in 1766. In 1771 appeared his in- terefting and important memoir on the Light of the fatellites, which was marked with a degree of preci- fion and accuracy, till that time altogether unknown in the obfervations of their eclipfes. The ftudies of Bailly wyere not entirely limited to the cultivation of abftradff fcience, or to profound phy- fical B A I [3 Sailly. Acal fpeculations; his genius fa one with equal luftre ■“"v in thofe departments of literature which require the rare talent of nice diferimination of chara&ers, and no common power of eloquence, to reach excellence. The eloges which he compofed for Charles V. Corneille, Leibnitz, Moliere, Cook, La Caille, and Greffet, were univerfally admired as valuable fpecimens of fine writ¬ ing, and added much to his reputation. The diftin- guilhed place of fecretary of the Academy of Sciences became vacant in 1771 ; and, fupported by the patron¬ age and influence of Buffon, he offered himfelf a candi¬ date. But here he was unfucccfsful. Condorcet, who was then riling into reputation, and was fupported by the aftive influence of D’Alembert, was prefer .*.d to the office. In the year 1775, he publiffied at Paris the firft -volume of the “ Hi tfory of Ancient Aftronomy.” The fecond volume of the fame work appeared in 1787. In 1779 he gave to the world his “ Hiftory of Modern Aftronomy,” from the foundation of the Alexandrian fchool to the prefent age. Thefe works are of inefti- mable value, diftinguiffied by animated defeription, lu¬ minous narration, and interefting detail. He alfo pu- blilhed a work entitled, “ Letters on the Origin of the Sciences, and of the People of Afia which was after¬ wards followed by another feries of “ Letters on the Atlantis of Plato, and the Ancient Hiftory of Afia,” as a continuation of the fame work. Thefe volumes were addreffed to Voltaire, with whom he had com¬ menced an ingenious correfpondence and difeuffion on this curious fubjeft. The coincidence of his opinions with thofe of Buffon in points refpefting fome of the favourite theories of the latter, brought him into an in¬ timate acquaintance and clofe friendlhip with that ce¬ lebrated naturalift, which, however, declined and was entirely diffolved, in confequence of the oppofition ■which Bailly made to the eledlion of the Abbe Maury Into the French Academy. Bailly h:..d been chofen fecretary of this academy in 1784 ; and in the follow¬ ing year he w-as admitted into the Academy of Infcrip- tions and Belles Lettres. This was the only inftance, fince the time of Fontenelle, of the fame perfon being at once a member of all the three academies. In the year 1784 he was nominated one of the com- miffion to inveftigate the nature of the animal magne- tifm of Mefmer, which was praflifed by Deflon; and he drew up an elegant report, which was prefented to the Academy of Sciences. This report, w-hich was foon afterwards tranflated into Engliffi, not only marked the acutenefs and difeernment of the author, and contained the moft fatisfaffory and decifive evidence with regard to its objedl, but may be held up as an excellent model of imitation for thofe who are engaged in fimilar in- veftigations. In developing the phyfical effedfs pro¬ duced by moral caufes, it is of the greateft value $ and it is particularly interefting wrhen we confider the poli¬ tical influence which caufes of this nature have impofed on the general opinions of iociety, and even on the def- ' tiny of nations. ^ Flitherto we have contemplated Bailly in the ftiades of retirement, and in the calm undifturbed retreats of philolophy, employing the energy of a vigorous and ■eomprehenfive mind in the profound refearches of phy- i-.cal truth : we are now to follow him in his political career, and behold him ftruggling with the adverfe in- 33 1 . B A I terefts of party faction, and contending with the un~ Fail bridled fury of a lawlefs mob, in defence of the rights of a people wffiofe minds- were not prepared to under- ftand, and w-hofe habits w-ere not yet formed to enjoy, the blefl'mgs of rational liberty. He was one of the firft and moft; zealous promoters of the revolution in IVance,—a revolution which not only aftonifhed and convulfed all Europe, but of w-hich the immediate con- fequences to themfelves, and to their country, were nei¬ ther forefeen por imagined by thofe who embarked in it, nor can its ultimate effedls even at the prefent pe¬ riod be appreciated or conjeflured,—a revolution which holds out an awful leffon to the leaders of popular fac¬ tion to culb and reprefs, rather than to excite and en¬ courage, that fpirit of tumult and diforder among a people thrown loofe from the neceffary reftraints of law-, w-hich burfts forth w-ith ungovernable fury, and- at laft involves all in one general ruin. In the part which he afled in this bloody ftruggle, Bailly has had the good fortune to be well fpoken of br oppofite par¬ ties. He has not been charged with want of integrity 1 or felfifli defigns in any part of his conduft; but actu¬ ated by a milguided zeal, and dazzled with the pro- fpeCt of freedom w-hich the warmth of imagination held out, he rafhly ftepped forward in a caufe which he efpoufed w-ith enthufiafm, and fupported with his utmoft exertions. But in that caufe he fell a facri- fice to the unrelenting fpirit of violence and party fac¬ tion which had been roufed, and which could neither be fubdued nor regulated. When the ftates-general of France w-ere affembled in 1789, he was elefted a deputy to the Tiers Etat, was afterwards chofen prefi- dent; and w hen the national affembly was conftituted, he continued in the chair, and was prefident at the time that the king’s proclamation w-as iffued ordering them to difperfe. During the ftruggle which took place betw-een the popular part of the affemblies and the court, Bailly w-as among the moft forward in af- ferting thofe popular rights which were then new in France 5 and he diftated the famous oath to the mem¬ bers of the Tiers Elat, “ to refill tyrants and tyranny, and never to feparate till they had obtained a free con- ftitution.” On the 14th of July follow-ing, the day on wdnch the Baftile w-as ftormed and taken by the people, he w-as appointed with univerfal confent, mayor of Paris. In this high office, he is allowed to have difeharged the arduous and difficult duties of it with great integrity, courage, and moderation. And while he held this confpicuous fituation, he w-as a powerful agent in promoting the various meafures by which the popular party prevailed over that of the court 5 and for this, and various other popular aClions, he obtained a high degree of favour among the people. But the tide of public opinion now fw-elled beyond all bounds j no reftraint could oppofe its violent courfe. The multi¬ tude, unfliackled by the fetters of defpotifm, fond of novelty, and with enthufiaftic and unfettled notions of freedom, daily panting for change, could bear no op¬ pofition. Bailly, who perhaps now faw when it w-as too late the general difpofition of the people to anar¬ chy, ftill wiffied the laws to be refpefted, and hoped by their vigorous execution to reftore and preferve tran¬ quillity. He ordered fome deputies from the military ■ N infurgents at Nancy to be arrefted, and he firmly oppo- fed the rafti proceedings of Marat and Plubert j he be¬ came - B A I [35 ■Bailly came a member of a lefs promifcuous club than that of . H the Jacobins •, and exerted himfelf drongly to perfuade Bailment. ^ p0pUiace to permit the king and royal family to depart to St Cloud. By thefe meafures, which were little relifhed by a frantic and lawlefs people, he loft their confidence and favour. But what finally deftroy- ed his popularity, w^as the tumultuous meeting of the populace on the 17th of July 1791, to demand the abolition of monarchy, when, being called by the na¬ tional affembly to difperfe the mob, who had affaulted the foldiery, he ordered the latter to fire, by which 40 perfons were killed and above 100 wounded. Thus become obnoxious to the people whom he had faithful¬ ly ferved, it was no longer defirable for him to hold his charge. He therefore refigned his office at the diflblution of the conftituent afiembly in the end of the year 1791. After this period he lived in retirement, having refumed his philofophical refearches. But the times of bloody profcription approached, and he muft fall a facrifice to the ferocious vengeance of the tyrant who now bore unlimited fway. He wms accordingly denounced as an enemy to the republic, apprehended and thrown into prifon. He was arraigned before a fanguinary tribunal, fummarily condemned to death as a confpirator, and was executed the day following, near the fpot where he had given the order for the mi¬ litary to fire on the people. On the day of execution, his fufferings, which he bore with the utmoft calmnefs and magnanimity, were ftudioufiy protracted. Jnftead of that fympathy and compaflion which even the worft and the loweft criminal often experiences when he is about to expiate his offences with his life, he was treat¬ ed by an incenfed and barbarous populace, with the tnoft ignominious indignity and cruelty. He wore the red fhirt, or badge of confpiracy, and w^as placed m a cart, with his hands tied behind his back. During the whole time of his progrefs to the place of execu¬ tion, the rain poured inceffantly on his h£ad. 1 he populace as he paffed threw mud at him, and cruelly infulted him with every kind of opprobrious language. It was found neceffary to remove the guillotine from fhe place where it was firft ere&ed to firmer ground. During this time he svas forced to get out of the cart, and walk round the field, to gratify more fully the im¬ placable and unrelenting malice of the mob. When he was afeending the platform, a fpeftator who was near him, in a tone of infult exclaimed, “ Bailly, you tremble “ Yes (be inftantly replied), but not with fear.” Thus perilhed Bailly in the 57th year of his age. In his perfon he was tall, and of a fedate but ftriking countenance. He poffeffed great firmnefs and decifion of charaCIer, but far removed from fullennefs or apa¬ thy. Few philofophers have been more diftinguilhed in fo many various departments of fcience and litera¬ ture, or have acquired fuch deferved reputation. In his public ftations, as well as in the retirement of do- meftic life, his integrity and difintereftednefs remained pure and untainted. In the time of his magiftracy he fpent part of his. fortune in relieving the wants of the poor. His wife, whom he married in 1787, furvived him. She was the widow of Raymond Gave, who had Been his intimate friend 25 years. BAILMENT, in Lew, is a delivery of goods in 1 6 ] B A 1 truft, upon a contraCI, expreffed or implied, that the Bailment truft fhall be faithfully executed on the part of the ll bailee. As if cloth be delivered, or (in our legal dia-, led) bailed, to a taylor to make a fuit of clothes, he has it upon an implied contraft to render it again when made, and that in a workmanly manner, If money or goods be delivered to a common carrier to convey from Oxford to London, or from Glafgow to Edin¬ burgh, &c. he is under a contraft in law to pay, or carry them to the perfon appointed. If a horfe or other goods be delivered to an innkeeper or his fer- vants, he is bound to keep them fafely and reftore them when his gueft leaves the houfe. If a man takes in a * arfe, or other cattle, to graze and departure in his grounds, which the law calls agijlrnent, he takes them upon an implied contrail to return them on de¬ mand to the owner. If a pawnbroker receives plate or jewels as a pledge or fecurity for the repayment of money lent thereon at a day certain, he has them upon an exprefs contrail or condition to reftore them if the pledger performs his part by redeeming them in due time \ for the due execution of which contrail, many ufeful regulations are made by ftatute 30 Geo. II. c. 24. And fo, if a landlord diftrains goods for rent, or a pa- rifti officer for taxes, thefe for a time are only a pledge in the hands of the diflrainers ; and they are bound by an implied contrail in law to reftore them on payment of the debt, duty and expences, before the time of fale; or when fold, to render back the overplus. If a friend delivers any thing to his friend to keep for him, the re¬ ceiver is bound to reftore it on demand : and it was for¬ merly held, that in the mean time he was anfwerable for any damage or lofs it might fuftain, whether by ac¬ cident or otherwife •, unlefs he exprefsly undertook to keep it only with the lame care as his own goods, and then he fliould not be anfwerable for theft or other ac¬ cidents, But now the law feems to be fettled on a much more rational footing *, that Inch a general bail¬ ment will not charge the bailee with any lofs, unlefs, it happens bv grofs neglc£l, which is conftrued to be an evidence of fraud : but if the bailee undertakes fpeci- ally to keep the goods fafely and fecurely, he is bound to aufwer all perils and damages that may befal them for want of the fame care with which a prudent man would keep his own. BAILO •, thus they ftyle at Conftantinople the am- baffador of the republic of Venice, who refides at the Porte. This minifter, befides the political charge, a£ls there the part of a conful of Venice. BAINBRIDGE, Dr John, an eminent phyfician and aftronomer, born at Afhby de la Zouche in Lei- cefterfhire, in 1582. He taught a grammar fchool for fome years, and pra&ifed phyfic, employing his leifure hours in aftronomy, which was his favourite rtudy : at length he removed to London, was admitted a fellorv of the college of phyficians, and raifed his chara&er by his defeription of the comet in 1618. The next year Sir Henry Savile appointed him his firft profeffor of aftronomy at Oxford *, and the mailers and fellows of Merton-colkge made him firft junior, and then fupe- rior, reader of Linacre’s le#ure. He died in 1643, having written many works, fome of which have never been publifhed : but the MSS. are preferved in the li¬ brary of Trinity-college, Dublin. BAIOLAO, { B A I [ 337 1 B A I ■Balocao EAIOCAO, a copper-coin, current at Rome, and I! throughout the whole date of the church, ten of which Baiting mahe ajulio, and a hundred a Roman crown. ^ BAIRAM, or Eeiram, a Turkifti word which fignifics a folemn feaft. The Mahometans have two Bairams, the Great and the Little. The Little Bairam is properly that held at the clofe of the faft Ramazan, beginning with the firffc full moon in the follow'ing month Shawal. This is called in Arabic Id al Fetz, or the Feajl of breaking the Faff; by European writers, the Turinjh EaJ/er, becaufe it fucceeds Ramazan, which is their Lent, more ulually the Great Bairam, becaufe obferved with great ceremony and rejoicing at Conftantinople, and through Turkey, for three days, and in Perfia for five or iix days, at lead by the com¬ mon people, to make themfelves amends for the mor¬ tification of the preceding month. The feaft com¬ mencing with the new moon, the Mahometans are very fcrupulous in obferving the time when the new moon commences ; to which purpofe, obfervers are fent to the tops of the highefl mountains, who the moment they fpy the appearance of a new moon, run to the city, and proclaim Muzhdaluk, “ welcome news as it is the fignal for beginning the feftivity.—The Great Bairam, is properly that held by the pilgrims at Mec¬ ca, commencing on the tenth of Dhu Ihajia, when the viftims are flain, and lading three days. This is called by the Arabs, Ida/ adha, that is, the feajl of facrifice, as being celebrated in memory of the facrifice of A- bram, whofe fon God redeemed with a great viftim. By European writers it is called the Lejffer Bairam, as being lefs taken notice of by the generality of the people wrho are not ftruck with it, becaufe the cere¬ monies it is obferved withal, are performed at Mecca, the only feene of the folemnity.—On the feaft of Bairam, after throwing little ftones, one after another, into the valley of Mina, they ufually kill one or more iheep, fome a goat, bullock, or even a camel ; and af¬ ter giving a part thereof to the poor, eat the reft wuth their friends. After this, they (have themfelves. The fecond is a day of reft. On the third, they fet out on their return home. BAIRUT. See Beeroot. BAIT, among fiftiermen, implies a fubftance pro¬ per to be faftened to a hook, in order to catch the dif¬ ferent forts of fifti. See Fishing. BAITING, the aft of fmaller or weaker beafts at¬ tacking and harafling greater and ftronger. In this fenfe we hear of the baiting of bulls or bears by ma- lliffs or bull-dogs with fliort nofes, that they may take the better hold. Utility is pled in juftification of bull-baiting. This animal is rarely killed without being firft baited $ the chafing and exercife whereof makes his fifth tenderer and more digeftible. In reality, it difpofes it for pu- trefaftion *, fo that, unlefs taken in time, baited fifth is foon loft. But a fpirit of barbarifm had the greateft: fiiare in fupporting the fport: bulls are kept on pur¬ pofe, and exhibited as Handing fpeftacles for the public entertainment. The poor beafts have not fair play : they are not only tied down to a flake, with a collar about their necks and a ftiort rope, which gives them not above four or five yards play •, but they are disarm¬ ed too, and the tips of their horns cut off*, or covered with leather, to prevent their hurting the dogs. In Vol. Ill, Part I. this fport, the chief aim of the dog is to catch the $ajn!n* bull by the nofe, and hold him down j to which end ^ ii he wall even creep on his belly: the bull’s aim, on the 3 ,e‘J contrary, is, with equal induftry, to defend his nofe ; in order to which, he thrufts it clofe to the ground, where his horns are alfo in readinefs to tofs the dog.— Bull-baiting was firft introduced into England as an amufement in the reign of King John, about 1209. BAJULUS, an ancient officer in the court of the Greek emperors. There were feveral degrees of bajuli; as, the grand bajulus, who was preceptor to the em¬ peror ; and the Ample bajuli, w’ho w'ere fub-preceptors. The word is derived from the Latin verb bajulare, “ to carry or bear a thing on the arms or on the flioul- ders and the origin of the office is thus traced by antiquaries. Children, and efpecially thofe of condi¬ tion, had anciently, befide their nurfe, a woman called gerula, as appears from feveral paffages of Tertullian$ when wTeaned, or ready to be weaned, they had men to carry them about and take care of them, who were called geruli and bajuli, a gerendo et baju/ando. Hence it is, that governors of princes and great lords were ftill denominated bajuli, and their charge or govern¬ ment bajulatio, even after their pupils were grown too big to be carried about. The word palled in the fame, fenfe into Greece. Bajulus is alfo ufed by Latin writers in the feveral other fenfes wffierein Bailiff is ufed among us. Bajulus was alfo the name of a conventual officer in the ancient monafteries,to whom belonged the charge of gathering and diftributing the money and legacies left for maffes and obits 5 whence he wTas alfo denomi¬ nated bajulus obituum novorutn. BAKAN, a large and handfome town of Alia in the Ea^t Indies, in the kingdom of Ava. E. Long. 98. o. N. Lat. 19. 33. BAKER, Sir Richard, author of the Chronicle of the Kings of England, was born at Sftfingherft, in Kent, about the year 1568. After going through the ufual courfe of academical learning at Hart-hall, in Oxford, he travelled into foreign parts j and upon his return home was created mafter of arts, and foon after, in 1603, received from King James I. the ho¬ nour of knighthood. In 1620, he was high fheriflF of Oxfordfhire ; but engaging to pay fome of the debts of his wife’s family, he wras reduced to poverty, and obliged to betake himfelf for ffielter to the Fleet prifon, where he compofed feveral books *, among w hich are, 1. Meditations and Difquifitions on the Lord’s Prayer. 2. Meditations, &c. on feveral of the Pfalms of David. 3. Meditations and Prayers upon the feven Days of the Week. 4. Cato Variegatus, or Cato’s Moral Diftichs varied, &c.—Mr Granger obfetves, that his Chroni- cle of the Kings of England w7as ever more efteemed by readers of a low^er clafs than by fuch as had a cri¬ tical knowledge of hiftory. The language of it was, in this reign, called polite; and it long maintained its ^ reputation, efpecially among country gentlemen. The author feems to have been fometimes more ftudious to pleafe than to inform, and with that view7 to have fa- crificed even chronology itfelf to method. In 1658, Edwrard Philips, nephew to Milton, publiftied a third edition of this work, with the addition of the reign of Charles I. It has been feveral times reprinted fince, and is now carried as low as the reign of George 1. U u Sir B A K [ 333 ] B A K Baker. Slr Richard alfo tranflated feveral works from the French and Italian ; and died very poor in the Fleet prifon, on the 18th of February 1645. Baker, Thomas, an eminent mathematician, was born at Ilton in Somerfetlhire about the year 1625, and entered at Magdalen hall, Oxon, in 1640 •, after which he was vicar of Bilhop’s-Nymmet, in Devon- ftiire, where he wrote The Geometrical Key, or the Gate of Equations unlocked ; by which he gained a confiderable reputation. A little before his death, the members of the Royal Society fent him fome mathe¬ matical queries, to which he returned fo fatisfa&ory an anfwer, that they prefented him a medal with an in- Icription full of honour and refpeft. He died at Bi- Ihop’s Nymmet on the 5th of June 1690. Baker, Thomas, a very ingenious and learned antiquary, defcended from a family ancient and well efteemed, diftinguiihed by its loyalty and affeclion for the crown, was born at Crook in 1636. Fie was edu¬ cated at the free fchool at Durham, and thence remo¬ ved to St John’s college Cambridge in 1674. Fie pro¬ ceeded B. A. 1677; M. A. 1681; was elefted fellow, March 1679-80 ; ordained deacon by Bilhop Compton of London, December 20. 168 5 ; prieil by Bilhop Bar- low of Lincoln, December 19. 1686. Dr VVatfon, tu¬ tor of the college, who was nominated, but not yet confecrated, bifliop of St David’s, offered to take him for his chaplain, which he declined, probably on the profpeft of a like olfer from Lord Crew bilhop of Dur¬ ham, which he foon after accepted. His lordlhip collated him to the reftory of Long-Newton in his diocefe, and the fame county, June 1687; and, as Dr Grey wras informed by fome of the bilhop’s family, intended to have given him that of Sedgefield, worth . 600I. or 700I. a-year, with a golden prebend, had he not incurred his difpleafure and left his family for refufing to read King James IL’s declaration for liber¬ ty of confcience. The bilhop, who difgraced him for this refufal, and was excepted out of King William’s pardon, took the oaths to that king, and kept his bi- ihopric till his death. Mr Baker religned Long-New¬ ton Auguft 1. 1690, refuling to take the oaths; and retired to his fellowfhip at St John’s, in w'hich he was prote£led till January 20. 1716-17, when, with one- and-twrenty others, he was dirpoffelTed of it. After the palling the Regiftering Aft I723> was defired to regifter his annuity of 40I. which the laft aft re¬ quired before it was amended and explained. Though this annuity, left him by his father for his fortune, with 20I. per annum out of his collieries by his elder brother from the day of his death Auguft 1699, for the remaining part of the leafe, which determined at Wbitfuntide 1722, wras now his whole fubliftence, he could not be prevailed on to fecure himfelf againft the aft. He retained a lively refentment of his depriva¬ tions ; and wurote himfelf in all his books, as well as in thofe which he gave to the college library, focius ejehias, and in fome ejeBus rcflor. He continued to re- ftde in the college as commoner-mafter till his death, which happened July 2. 1740, of a paralytic ftroke, being found on the floor of his chamber. In the af¬ ternoon of June 29, being alone in his chamber, he was ftruck with a flight apopleftic fit; which abating a little, he recovered his fenfes, and knew all about him, who were his nephew Burton, Drs Bedford and Hebcrden. He feemed perfeftly fatisfied and refigned; Baker, and w’hen Dr Bedford defired him to take fome medi-'" ■"v—■ cine then ordered, he declined it, faying, he would only take his ufual fuftenance, which his bed-maker knew the times and quantities of giving: he was thank¬ ful for the affeftion and care his friends Ihowed him ; but, hoping the time of his diflblution was at hand, W’ould by no means endeavour to retard it. His dil- order increafed, and the third day from this feizure he departed. Being appointed one of the executors of his elder brother’s will, by which a large fum w-as be¬ queathed to pious ufes, he prevailed on the other two executors, who were his other brother Francis and the Hon. Charles Montague, to lay out 13x0!. of the mo¬ ney upon an eftate to be fettled upon St John’s college for fix exhibitioners. Fie likewife gave the college 100I. for the confideration of 61. a year (then only legal intereft) for his life; and to the library feveral choice books, both printed and MS. medals, and coins; befides what he left to it by his will); which w'ere “ all fuch books, printed and MS. as he had, and were wanting there.” All that Mr Baker printed was, 1. “ Refleftions on Learning, Ihowing the inlufficiency thereof in its feveral particulars, in order to evince the ufefulnefs and neceffity of Revelation, Lend. lycg-io1* (wFich w^ent through eight editions : and Mr Bofwel, in his “ Method of Study,” ranks it among the Eng- lilh clafiics for purity of ftyle) ; and, 2. “ The pre¬ face to Biihop Filher’s Funeral Sermon for Margaret Countefs of Richmond and Derby, 1708 ; both with¬ out his name. Dr Grey had the original MS of both in his own hands. The latter piece is a fufficient fpe- cimen of the editor’s fldll in antiquities to make us regret that he did not live to publifli his “ Hiftory of St John’s College from the foundation of old St John’s houfeto the prefent time; with fome occafional and inci¬ dental account of the affairs of the univerfity, and of fuch private colleges as held communication or intercourfe with the old houfe or college: collected principally from MSS. and carried on through a fucceflion of mafters to the end of Bilhop Gunning’s mafterfhip, 1670.” The original, fit for the prefs, is among the Harleian MSS- N° 7028. His MS. colleftions relative to the hiftory and antiquities of the univerfity of Cambridge, amount¬ ing to 49 volumes in folio and three in quarto, are di¬ vided between the Britilh Mufeum and the public libra¬ ry at Cambridge; the former poffeffes 23 volumes, which he bequeathed to the earl of Oxford, his friend and patron ; the latter 16 in folio and three in quarto, which he bequeathed to the univerfity. Dr Knight ftyles him “ the greateft mafter of the antiquities of this our univerfity ;” and Hearne fays, Optandum ejl ut fua quoque colleiianta de antiquitatibus Cantabrtgien- Jibus juris facial publici Cl. Baker us, quippe qui erudi- tionc fumma judicioque acri et fubaclopo/leat. Mr Baker intended fomething like an Athena Cantabrigienfes, on the plan of the Athence Oxomenfes. Baker, Henry, an ingenious and diligent natu- ralift, was born in Fleet-ftreet London, either near the end of the laft, or very early in the beginning of the prefent, century. His father’s profeftion is not known ; but his mother w as, in her time, a midwife of great praftice. He was brought up under an emi¬ nent bookfeller, who preceded the elder Dodfley, to the bufinefs of a bookfellerin which, how ever, he ap¬ pears B A K [ 339 ] BAR Bakpr. pears not to have engaged at all after his apprentice- —* Ihip > or, if he did, it was foon relinquilhed by him : for though it was in his power to have drawn away all his mailer’s bell cullomers, he would not fet up again!! him. Mr Baker being of a philofophical turn of mind, and having diligently attended to the methods which might be practicable and ufeful in the cure of Hammering, and efpecially in teaching deaf and dumb perfons to Ipeak, he made this the employment of his life. In the profecution of fo valuable and difficult an undertaking, he was very fuccefsful 5 and feveral of Ills pupils, who are Hill living, bear tellimony to the ability and good effeft of his initruftions. He mar¬ ried Sophia, youngelt daughter of the famous Daniel Defoe, who brought him two fons, both of whom he furvived. On the 29th of January 1740 Mr Baker wTas eleCled a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries j and, on the 12th of March following, the fame ho¬ nour was conferred upon him by the Royal Society. In 1744, Sir Godfrey Copley’s gold medal was bellowT- ec upon him, for having, by his microfcopical experi¬ ments on the cryllallizations and configuration of fa- line particles, produced the moll extraordinary difco- very during that year. Having led a very ufeful and honourable life, he died at his apartments in the Strand on the 25th of November 1774, being then above 70 years of age. His wife had been dead fome time before ; and he only left one grandfon, William Baker, who was born February 17. 1763, and to whom, on his living to the age of 21, he bequeathed the bulk of his fortune, which he had acquired by his profeffion of teaching deaf and dumb perfons to fpeak. His furniture, printed books (but not MSS.), curiofities, and collections of every fort, he directed ffiould be fold, which was accordingly done. His fine collection of native and foreign foffils, petrifaClions, ffiells, corals, vegetables, ores, &c. with fome antiquities and other curiofities, were fold by auCtion March 13. 1775, and the nine following days. He wras buried, as he delired, in an unexpenlive manner, in the churchyard of St Mary-le-ltrand j within which church, on the fouth wall, he ordered a fmall tablet to be ereCted to his memory. “ An infcription for it (he faid) would probably be found among his papers if not, he hoped fome learned friend would write one agreeable to truth.” This friendly office, however, remains as yet to be performed. Mr Baker was a conltant and ufeful at¬ tendant at the meetings of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies, and in both was frequently chofen one of the council. He was peculiarly attentive to all the new improvements which were made in natural fcience, and very felicitous for the profecution of them. Se¬ veral of his communications are printed in the Philo¬ fophical TranfaCtions; and, befides the papers written by himfelf, he was the means, by his extenlive corre- Ipondence, of conveying to the fociety the intelli¬ gence and obfervations of other inquilitive and philo¬ fophical men, both at home and abroad. The Socie¬ ty for the encouragement of arts, manufactures, and commerce, is under lingular obligations to our worthy naturalift. As he was one of the earlielt members of it, fo he contributed in no fmall degree to its rife and cltabliihment. At its firlt inllitution he officiated for fome time gratis as fecretary. He was many years chairman of the committee of accounts j and he took an aClive part in the general deliberations of the fo- Baker, ciety. He drew up a fhort account of the original of t——y— this fociety, and of the concern he himfelf had in forming it; which was read before the fociety of anti¬ quaries, and would be a pleafing prefent to the public. Mr Baker was a poetical writer in the early part of his life. His Invocation of Health got abroad with¬ out his knowledge ; but was reprinted by himfelf in hjs Original Poe/ns, ferious and humorous, Part I. Bvo. 1725. Part II. came out in 1726. Among thefe poems are fome tales as nitty and as loofe as Prior’s. He was the author likewife of The Univerfe, a poem intended to reltrain the pride of man j which has been feveral times reprinted. His account of the water po¬ lype, which was originally publilhed in the Philolophi- cal TranfaCtions, was afterwards enlarged into a fepa- rate treatife, and hath gone through leveral editions. But this principal publications are, The Microfcope made Eafy, and Employment for the Microfcope. 1 he firlt of thefe, which was originally publiffied in 1742 or 1743, hath gone through fix editions. The fecond edition of the other, which, to fay the lealt of it, is equally pleafing and inltruCtive, appeared in 1764. Thefe treiatifes, and efpecially the latter, contain the molt curious and important of the obfervations and experiments wffiich Mr Baker either laid before the Royal Society or publiffied feparately. It has been faid of Mr Baker, that he was a philofopher in little things. If it was intended by this language to lelfen his reputation, there is no propriety in the Itricture. He was an intelligent, upright, and benevolent man, much refpeCted by thofe wffio knew him belt. His friends were the friends of fcience and virtue : and it will always be remembered by his contemporaries, that no one was more ready than himfelf to affilt thofe wfith whom he w as converfantin their various re- fearches, and endeavours for the advancement of know¬ ledge and the benefit of fociety. Baker, David-Erfkine, fon to the former, was a young man of genius and learning. Having been adopted by an uncle, wffio w^as a filk-throwlter in Spital- fields, he fucceeded him in the bufinefs 5 but wanted the prudence and attention wffiich are neceifary to fe- cure profperity in trade. He married the daughter of Mr Clendon, a reverend empiric. Like his father, he was both a philofopher and a poet j and wrote feveral occafional poems in the periodical collections, fome of which w ere much admired at the time ; but fo violent was his turn for dramatic performance, that he repeat¬ edly engaged with the lowelt Itrolling companies, in fpite of every effort of his father to reclaim him. The public was indebted to him for “ The Companion to the Play-houfe,” in two volumes, 1764, l2moj a work wffiich, though imperfeCt, had confiderable merit, and ffiow’ed that he poffeffed a very extenlive knowledge of our dramatic authors ; and wffiich has fince (under the title of “ Biographia Dramatica”) been confiderably improved by the attention of a gentleman in every re- fpeCt w7ell qualified for the undertaking. Baker, a perfon wffiofe occupation or bufinefs is to bake bread. See the articles Baking and Bread. The learned are in great doubt about the time when baking firit became a particular profeffion and bakers were introduced. It is however generally agreed, that they had their rife in the ealt, and paffed from Greece U u 2 to B A K Baker P Baking. [ 34° ] B A K to Italy after the war with Pyrrhus, about the year of Rome 5 83. Till which time every houfewife was her own baker *, for the word pijlor, which we find in Ro¬ man authors before that time, fignified a perfon who ground or pounded the grain in a mill or mortar to prepare it for baking, as Varro obferves. According to Athenaeus, the Cappadocians were the moft ap¬ plauded bakers, after them the Lydians, then the Phoenicians.—To the foreign bakers brought into Rome, were added a number of freed men, who were incorporated into a body, or, as they called it, a college ; from which neither they nor their children were al¬ lowed to withdraw. They held their effefts in com¬ mon, and could not difpofe of any part, of them. Each bake-houfe had a patronus, who had the fuperinten- dency thereof j and thefe patroni elected one out of their number each year, who had fuperintendence over all the reft, and the care of the college. Out of the body of the bakers every now and then one was ad¬ mitted among the fenators.—To preferve honour and honefty in the college of bakers, they were exprefsly pr-ohibited all alliance with comedians and gladiators 5 each had his ftrop or bake-houfe, and they were ditlri- buted into fourteen regions of the city. They were excufed from guardianfhips and other offices, which might divert them from their employment.—By our own ftatutes bakers are declared not to be handicrafts. No man for ufing the myfteries or fciences of baking, brewing, furgery, or writing, ffiall be interpreted a handicraft. The bakers were a brotherhood in Eng¬ land before the year 1155, in the reign of King Henry II. though the white bakers were not incorporated till 1407, by King Edward III. and the brown bakers not till 1621, in King James I.’s time. Their hall is in Harp-lane, Thames-ftreet; and their court-day on the firft Monday of the month.—They make the 19th company *, and confift of a warden, 4 mafters, 30 af- fiftants, and 140 men on the livery, befides the com¬ monalty.—The French had formerly a great baker, grand panetier de France, who had the fuperinten- dency of all the bakers of Paris. But fince the begin¬ ning of this century, they have been put under the jurifdiiftion of the lieutenant-general In iome provinces of France, the lord is the only baker in his 1'eigneury ; keeping a public oven, to which all the tenants are obliged to bring their bread. This right is called furnagium, or furnaticum, and makes part of the bannalite. BAKE WELL, a pretty large town of Derbyfhire in England, feated on the river Wye, on the north fide of the Peak. It has a confiderable trade in lead. W. Long. 2. 30. N. Lat. 55. 15. BAKING, the art of preparing bread, or reducing meals of any kind, whether fimple or compound, into bread. See the article Bread. The various forms of baking among us may be re¬ duced into two, the one for unleavened, the other for leavened bread. For the firft, the chief is manchet- baking ; and the procefs whereof is as follow's : The meal, ground and boulted, is put into a trough ; and to every buihel are poured in about three pints of warm He, with barm and fait to feafon it. This is kneaded well together with the hands through the brake ; or, for want thereof, with the feet, through a cloth j after which, having lain an hour to fwell, it is moulded into manchets ; which, fcorched in the middle, and pricked Baking, up at top, to give room to rife, are baked in the oven by a gentle fire—For the fecond, fometimes called cheat-bread baking, it is thus : Some leaven (favedfrom a former batch) filled with fait, laid up to lour, and at length difl'olved in water, is ftrained through a cloth into a hole made in the middle of the heap of meal in the trough 5 then it is worked w ith fome of the fiour into a moderate confiftence : this is covered up with meal, where it lies all night; and in the morning the whole heap is ftirred up, and mixed with a little warm water, barm, and fait, by which it is feafoned, foft- ened, and brought to an even leaven : it is then knead¬ ed, moulded, and baked, as before. Method oj raiftng a bujhel of flour with a teafpoonful of barm ; by James Stone, of Amport, in Hampjhire. —Suppofe you want to bake a buffiel of flour, and have but one tea-fpoonful of barm. Put your flour into your kneading-trough or trendle; then take about three quarters of a pint of warm water, and take the tea fpoonful of thick fteady barm and put it into the w’ater, ftir it until it is thoroughly mixed with the water : then make a hole in the middle of the flour large enough to contain two gallons of water 5 pour in your fmall quantity ; then take a flick about two feet long, (which you may keep for that purpofe), and ftir in fome of the flour, until it is as thick as you would make batter for a pudding j then ftrew fome of the dry flour over it, and go about your ufual bufinefs for about an hour : then take about a quart of warm water more, and pour in •, for in one hour you will find that fmall quantity railed fo, that it will break through the dry flour wffiich you (hook over it •, and when you have poured in the quart of warm w’ater, take your flick as before, and ftir in fome more flour, until it is as thick as before 5 then ffiake fome more dry flour over it, and leave it for two hours more, and then you will find it rife and break through the dry flour again j then you may add three quarts or a gallon of w'ater more, and ftir in the flour and make it as thick as at firft, and cover it wdth dry flour again j in about three or four hours more you may mix up your dough, and then cover it up warm •, and in four or five hours more you may put it into the oven, and you wall have as light bread as though you had put a pint of barm. It doe& not take above a quarter of an hour more time than the ufual way of baking, for there is no time loft but that of adding water three or four times. The author of this method allures us that he con- ftantly bakes this way in the morning about fix or feven o’clock, puts the flour out, and puts this fmall quan¬ tity of barm into the before-mentioned quantity of water, in an hour’s time forne more, in two hours more a greater quantity, about noon makes up the dough, and about fix in the evening it is put into the oven, and he has always good bread, never heavy nor bitter. When you find, he fays, your body of flour fpunged large enough, before you put in the reft of your water, you Ihould, with both your hands, mix that which is fpunged and the di'y flour altogether, and then add the remainder of wTarm water, and your dough will rife the better and eafier. The reafon he affigns why people make heavy bread is, not becaufe they have not barm enough, but be- caufe they do not know that barm is the fame to flour as % B A K [3 Sakou, as fire is to fuel \ that, as a fpark of fire will kindle a Balaam. iarge body by only blowing of it up, fo will a thimble- v full of barm, by adding of warm water, raife or fpung^ any body of flour *, for warm water gives frefh life to that which is before at work *, fo that the reafon of making bread heavy is, becaufe the body fpunged is not large enough, but was made up and put into the oven before it was ripe. In regard to the difference of feafons, he prefcribes, that in the fummer you flrould put your water blood- warm } and in wunter, in cold frofty weather, as warm as you can bear your hand in it without making it fmart j being fure you cover up your dough very warm in the winter, and your covering of it with dry dour every time you add warm water, will keep in the heat j when you have added fix or eight quarts of warm wa¬ ter, as before-mentioned, in fuch a gradual w-ay, you will find all the body of dour wdiich is mixed wdth the warm water, by virtue of that one tea-fpoonful of barm, brought into great agitation, waxing or fermenting •, for it is to the dour what the fpirit is to the body. It foon fills it with motion. BAKOU, or Baku, a towq of Perfia, in the pro¬ vince of Shirvan, fituated at the extremity of the gulf of Ghilan on the Cafpian fea. It is edeemed the mod commodious haven in this fea, as veffels may there ride fecurely at anchor in feven fathom water •, but the number of dioals, idands, and fand-banks, render the entrance in fome places extremely difficult and danger¬ ous, particularly to the Ruffians, who are not very ex¬ pert failors. Baku is a fortrefs furrounded with high brick wTalls ; its inhabitants, like thofe of Derbent, are Perfians, Tartars, and a few Armenian merchants. The principal articles of exportation which fupport the trade of this place are naphtha, and the fined rock fait, of both which there are mines on the ead fide of the bay. The inhabitants cultivate faffron and the cotton tree, but not to any confiderable advantage. The trade of Baku, though more valuable than that of Derbent, is dill inconfiderable, and chiedy carried on with Sha- makee, from whence it draws raw filk and filken duffs. A Ruffian conful is refident at this place. In 1777 Baku belonged to Melik-Mehmed, who was tributary to Feth Ali khan of Kuba : the latter poffeffed the whole province of Shirvan, and was the mod powerful prince, next to the khan of Ghilan, upon the coad of the Cafpian. Before we quit the province of Shirvan, it may not be improper to mention its capital, the in¬ land town of Shamakee, which i» only 66 miles from Baku, and fupplies that port with raw filk and filken duffs. It owed its former commercial importance to the filk which is cultivated in the neighbouring di- ftrict *, this rich produddion dill preferves the town from ruin ; though its traffic is greatly reduced by the ex¬ orbitant exactions of the khan of Kuba. Formerly the Ruffians had a faddory at this place } and it was alfo crowded with Turkiflr and Greek merchants ; but at prefent there are only a few Armenian and Indian traders. The inhabitants manufaddure filk and cotton duffs, but far inferior to thofe made at this place in the beginning of the prefent century. The filk of this province is exported into the interior part of Perfia, Turkey, Georgia* and Ruffia. E. Long. 51. 30. N. Lat. 40. 20. BALAAM, a prophet and diviner of the city of + i ] B A K Pethor upon the Euphrates, whofe praddices with Ba- Balaam, lak king of the Moabites are recorded in the book of 4 ' Numbers, chap. xxii. It is a quedion much debated among divines, whether Balaam was a true prophet of God, or no more than a magician or fortune-teller. The Jews indeed are generally of opinion, that he was a bufy and pretending adrologer, who, obferving when men were under a bad afpedd of the dars, pronounced a curfe upon them *, which fometimes coming to pafs, gained him in fome neighbouring nations a reputation in his rvay. Several of the ancient fathers fuppofe him to be no more than a common foothfayer, wh® under¬ took to tell future events, and difcover fecrets, and by no very judifiable arts. Origen wall needs have it, that he was no prophet, but only one of the devil’s forcerers, and that of him he went to inquire j but that. God was pleafed to prevent him, and put what anfwers he pleafed into his mouth. It cannot be denied, how¬ ever, that the fcripture expreffly calls him a prophet (Pet. ii. 5.) \ and therefore fome later writers have imagined that he had once been a good man and true prophet, till loving the wages of iniquity, and prodi- tuting the honour of his oHice to covetoufnefs, he apo- datized from God, and betaking hnnfelf to idolatrous praftices, fell under the delufion of the devil, of whom he learned all his magical enchantments, though at this jundfure, when the prefervation of his people was concerned, it might be conddent with God’s wifdom to appear to him, and vouchlafe his revelations. As to what paffed between him and his afs, when that ani¬ mal w’as miraculoufly enabled to fpeak to its mader, commentators are divided in their opinions concerning this fadl, whether it really and literally happened as Mofes relates it; or whether it be an allegory only, or the mere imagination or vifion of Balaam. This in¬ deed is fo wonderful an indance, that feveral of the Jewifh dodtors, who upon other occafions are fond enough of miracles, feem as if they would hardly be induced to affent to this. Philo, in his Life of Mofes, paffes it over in dlence 5 and Maimonides pretends that it happened to Balaam in a prophetic vifion only. But St Peter (2 Pet. ii. ib.Jfpeaks of this fadl as literal and certain, and fo all interpreters explain it. St Au- din, who underdands it exadlly according to the letter, finds nothing in the whole account moreTurprifing than the dupidity of Balaam, who heard his afs fpeak to him, and anfwered it as if he talked with a reafonable perfon. He is of opinion, that this diviner was accu- domed to prodigies like this, or that he wTas drangely blinded by his avarice not to be dopped by an event of fo extraordinary a nature. Le Clerc thinks, that Balaam might probably have imbibed the dodhine of tranfmigration of fouls, which was certainly very com¬ mon in the ead } and from thence he might be the lefs adonifhed at hearing a brute fpeak. And Dr Patrick thinks that Balaam was in fuch a rage and fury at the fuppofed perverfenefs of his bead crufhing his foot, that for the prefent he could think of nothing elfe j though the concifenefs of Mofes’s relation, who mud be pre¬ fumed to have omitted many circumdances, which if rightly known would dTpel this and many more diffi¬ culties that may be imagined in this traftfadlion, does certainly farnifh us with a better and more fatisfadlory anfwer. St Audin is of opinion, that God had not gi¬ ven the afs a reafonable foul j but permitted it to pro¬ nounce B A L [ 342 ] B A L Baiudan nounce certain words, in order to reprove the pro- winds as far as the ifland of Ceylon 5 and when the Balagnia Balagate covetoufnefs. Gregory of Nyffa feems to think rays of the fun are refleaed from thefe mountains, ' li Mountains, that the afs did not utter any word articulately or di- they feem to be all on fire. They make furprifmg al-, Balance. —V-—' flmaiy ; but that, having brayed as ufual, the diviner, terations in the leafons ; for on the north fide of Cape whofe practice it had been to draw prefages from the Comorin, it is winter in May, June, July, Auguff cries of beads and Tinging of birds, comprehended ea- and September, in which months it is fummer on the % afs’s meaning .by its noife ; Mofes, defigning to fouth fide of the cape $ on one fide there are continual ridicule this fujjerftitious art of augurs and foothfay- tempefts, thunder and lightning, while the other enioys ers, as if the afs really fpoke in words articulate. a conftant ferenity. When black clouds are gathered We muft own, fays Calmet, that this is a miraculous about the mountains, they are followed by hidden rain fact related by an infpired writer, whofe authority we which cauies the overflowing of the rivers, and choaks are not allowed to call in queftion in the lead particu- them up with fand, infomuch that they are unnavigable lar : but we diould dudy fuch ways of explaining it as for fome time afterwards. The buildings and clothes are mod conformable to reafon, and mod proper to folve of the inhabitants are fcarce fufficient to defend them the difficulties of it, without attacking the truth of the from the weather. They live upon rice, milk, roots nidory. Now it is very podible for God to make an afs and herbs, with very little meat; they have likewife a fpeak articulately ; it is indeed miraculous, and above fort of fmall arrack, but are never given to drunken- the ordinary faculty of this animal, but not againd the nefs ; nor do they import foreign vices, for thev never laws of nature. travel abroad. BALADAN, the fcripture name for a king of Ba¬ bylon (Ifa. xxxix. 1. 2 Kings xx. 12.), called by pro¬ fane authors Belefus or Belejis, NabonaJJar or Nany- brus. Baladan at fird was no more than governor of Babylon 5 but entering into a confederacy with Ar- baces governor of Media, and rebelling againd Sarda- napalus king of Aflyria, thefe two generals marched againd him with an army of 400,000 men, and were beat in three different battles. But the Ba&rians de- ferting the king, and coming over to Baladan and Ar- baces, the rebels attacked the enemy in the night, and made themfelves maders of his camp. After this mis¬ fortune, Sardanapalus retreated to Nineveh, and left the command of his army to his brother-in-law Sala- menes. The confpirators attacked Salamenes, and de¬ feated him in two great battles \ after which they laid liege to Nineveh. Sardanapalus fudained the fiege for three years ; but the Tigris, in the third year, over- flowing its banks, beat down 20 furlongs of the walls j whereupon the confpirators entered the city and took poffedion of it, after Sardanapalus had burnt himfelf and all his mod valuable effefts upon a funeral pile ereft- ed for that purpofe in his palace. Baladan was ac¬ knowledged king of Babylon as Arbaces was of Media. Berodach-baladan, who fent ambaffadors to Hezekiah (2 Kings xx.), was the fonof Baladan. BALA, a town of Merionethlhire in Wales. W. Long- 3- 37- N. Lat. 52. 54. BAL/ENA, or whale. See Cetology Index. BALAGATE, a province of the Mogul empire, and the larged of the three that compofe the kingdom of Dekkan. It has Kandifh and Barar to the north, I ellinga to the ead, Baglana with part of Guzerat to the wed, and Vidapour to the fouth. It is a fruit¬ ful and pleafant country, abounding with cotton and fugar. Here they have fheep without horns ; but fo drong, that when bridled and faddled they will carry boys of ten years of age. Its prefent capital is Au- rengabad, but formerly was Dowlet Abad j and from the latter the whole province is fometimes called Dow- let-Abad. Balagatf. Mountains, a chain of mountains which divides the coad of Malabar from that of Coromandel, running almod the whole length of the peninfula on this fide the Ganges. Some parts of them are covered with fine red earth, which is blown by the drong weft I BALAGNIA, a town of Mufcovy in the province of Little Novogorod, feated on the Wolga. E. Long. 45. 5. N. Lat. 50. 36. BALAGUER, a city of Catalonia in Spain, feated on the north bank of the river Segra, at the foot of a high mountain, on which there was formerly a fortrefs. E. Long. o. 48. N. Lat. 41. 38. BALAMBUAN, or Padambuan, a drong town of Afia, in the Indies, on the ead end of the idand of Java, and capital of a territory of the fame name. E. Long. 115. 30. S. Lat. 7. 50. BALANCE, or Balance, one of the fix fimple powers in mechanics, principally ufed in determining the equality or difference of weights in heavy bodies, and confequently their maffes or quantities of matter. The balance is of two kinds : the ancient and the modern. The ancient or Roman, called alfo they?a- tera Romana, or deel-yard, confids of a lever or beam, moveable on a centre, and fufpended near one of its extremities : the bodies to be weighed are applied on one fide of the centre j and their weight is diown by the divifion marked on the beam, where the weight, which is moveable along the lever, keeps the deel-yard in equilibria. This balance is dill frequently ufed in weighing heavy bodies. The modern balance now generally ufed confids of a lever or beam fufpended exactly in the middle, ha¬ ving fcales or bafons hung to each extremity. The lever, is called the jugum or beam; and the two moieties thereof on each fide the axis, the brachia or arms. The line on which the beam turns, or wdrich divides its brachia, is called the axis ; and when confidered with regard to the length of the brachia, is efteemed a point only, and called the centre of the balance ; the handle whereby it is held, or by wLich the whole ap¬ paratus is fufpended, is called trutina ; and the (lender part perpendicular to the beam, whereby either the equilibrium or preponderancy of bodies is indicated, is called the tongue of the balance. Thus in fig. 1. PL 84. ab is the beam, divided into two equal brachia or arms by the white fpot in the centre, which is the axis or centre of the balance, and c is the tongue. The trutina, on which the axis is fufpended, is not reprefented in this figure, in order to render the other parts more confpi- cuous. It follows, from what has been obferved, therefore, that Plate LXXXIV. B A L [ 343 ] B A L Balance, that in the Roman balance, the weight ufed for a coun- v terpoife is the fame, but the point of application varies *, in the common balance the counterpoife is various, and the point of application the fame. The principle on which each is founded, may be very eafily underlfood from the following obfervations, and the general pro¬ perties of the lever. See Lever. The beam A B (fig. 2.), is a lever of the firfl kind ; but inftead of reifing on a fulcrum, is fufpended by fomething faifened to its centre of motion: confequently the mechanifrn of the balance depends on the fame theorems as the lever. Hence as the quantity of matter in a known weight is to its dilfance from the centre of motion, fo is the di- fiance of the unknown weight to its quantity of mat¬ ter. Hence the nature and ufe of the fteel-yard is eafily known. Let AB (fig. 2.) reprefent an in- flrument of this kind ; a, the trutina, or handle on which the beam turns 5 a ring on which the balance may be fufpended on a nail or hook ; f, the hook on which the body to be weighed is hung *, c, a collar or guard by which the hook jfis faftened to the beam j g, a moveable collar ; a fwivel; z, the counterpoife. From w’hat has been faid it evidently follows, that if the body to be weighed be faftened to the hook f, and the whole fufpended by the ring k, the divifion on which the counterpoife is placed to maintain an equilibrium in the balance, will Ihow the weight of the body re¬ quired ; provided the weight of the counterpoife i be • known, and the large divifions, 1, 2, 3, &c. be equal to the diftance between the centre of the balance and the ferew which fallens the guard c to the fhorter arm of the balance. It will alfo be neceffary that the fteel- yard itfelf, with its whole apparatus, exclufive of the counterpoife, be in equilibria, when fufpended on the ring k. If the body to be weighed be heavier than the divifions on the longer arm will indicate, the balance is turned the lower fide upwards, and fufpended on the other ring b; by which means the divifions become Ihorter, becaufe the diftance between the trutina d, and the ferew on which the guard c moves, is lefs : the di¬ vifions in the figure on this fide extending to 17, W’hereas they extend only to 6 on the other. It wfill be unneceffary perhaps to obferve, that the fame pre¬ caution, wdth regard to the centre of gravity when the balance is fufpended, is alfo necefi'ary when this fide of the balance is ufed, as we before mentioned with re¬ gard to the other. We have already obferved, that in the common feales the two brachia or arms of the balance, e f e tr, fig. 3. are equal to each other, and confequently equal weights placed in the feales d, d, will be in equilibria when the balance is fufpended on its centre e, as in the figure, where the ring at the extremity of the trutina is hung on the tapering rod a b, fixed in the foot or bafis c. The DeceitfulBalakcf., or that which cheats by the inequality of its brachia, is founded on the fame prin¬ ciple as the fteel-yard. Let there be, for example, a balance fo conftru&ed, that both the brachia with their feales fhall equiponderate, but that the length of the one arm {hall be to that of the other as 10 to 9. In this cafe, a weight of nine pounds put into the longeft arm, will counterpoife one of ten pounds put into the fiiorter one : but the cheat is immediately difeovered by fhifting the weight from one fcale to the other $ in which cafe, the balance will no longer remain in equi¬ libria. fJJay-BALANCE, a very nice balance ufed in docima- ftical operations, to determine exadlly the weight of minute bodies; fee fig. 4. This balance fhould be made of the beft fteei, and of the hardeft kind j becaufe that metal is not fo eafily fpoiled wuth ruft as iron j and it is more apt than anv other to take a perfedl po« lift, which at the fame time prevents the ruft. The ftrudlure of the affayer.’s fcale is little different from that of common feales, otherwife than by its nicety and fmallnefs. The longer the beam of it is the more exadf may the weight of a body be found -r however, 10 or 12 inches are fufficient length. Let the thicknefs of it be fo little, that two drachms may hardly be hung at either of its extremities without its bending ; for the largeft weight put upon it feldom ex¬ ceeds one dram. The whole furface of this beam mull be altogether without ornaments, wftich only increafe the weight and gather duft, &c. The beam is fufpended in a fork, the twm legs of which are fteei fprings joined at top, but kept together below with a brafs pliant clafp, parallel, and twro lines and a half diftant from each other. This clafp being taken off, and the legs of the fork being ftretched out, the axis of the beam may be put into two holes made for that purpofe at the ends of the legs, or be taken away from them. Let a very (harp needle be fixed in the head of the fork, hand¬ ing perpendicularly downwurds, if the fork is fufpended, and fo long, as that it may almoft touch the top of the tongue of the beam put into the fork when in equi- librio. This needle is the mark of the equilibrium ; and that the artifts may be able to obferve this, the legs of the fork muft be broader in that place, and have an opening two or three lines w ide 5 this fork may be adorned at pleafure, provided the motion of the ba¬ lance is not hindered by fuch ornaments : then take two feales made of thin plate of filver, one inch and a half in diameter, hanging on three fmall fiik firings, almoft; as long as the beam, tied together at top, with a filver hook in form of an S, and hang them to the extremities of the beam : a fmaller filver dift or blued fteei, fome- what lefs than one inch in diameter, belongs to each ofthefe feales. You firft put into thefe difties, wdth a pair of pincers, the bodies to be weighed, or wdth a fpoon or a fmall (hovel, when they are pounded, and then you put them into the feales ; therefore the fmall difhes muft be perfe&ly equal in weight. We ufe them, that bodies may be more conveniently put into and taken out of the feales, and that thefe w hich are vaftly thin may not be bent or foiled, ar«l thence rendered falfe by wdping. This balance is fufpended on a moveable brafs or copper fupport, which confifts of a pedeftal, and of a column fet upon it about 20 inches high, at the top of which comes out at right angles an arm one inch long. At the extremity of this arm, put a fmall pul¬ ley three lines in diameter, another at the top of the column, and a third near the bottom of it} all which pulleys muft turn very eafily on their axes. At the di¬ ftance of one inch and a half below the upper arm, let another arm one inch and a half long come out of the column at right angles, having a hole through it twro lines long, a quarter of a line broad, and placed per¬ pendicularly Balan . B A L [ 344 ] B A L lance. penJxcularly below the pulley of the upper arm, to re- ■V" * ceive a fmall plate, one inch and a half long \ and of Fuch breadth ahd thicknefs, as that it may freely move up and down, and yet not have too much play within the hole. This plate mull alfo have a fmall hook at each extremity. And as Inch a balance will hardly Hand {fill in the open air, and becomes falfe when fpoiled with dull, it muft be put, together with its fupport, into a fmall cafe as reprefented in fig. 4. having glafles, a, a, <7, at top, and all round it, that you may fee what is within. Manner of ujing the A fay-Bulancs.—Pafs a filk firing over the three pulleys of the fupport, and tie it at it's upper extremity to the fmall hook introduced into the hole of the inferior arm •, then put the fup¬ port in the middle of the fmall cafe, and pafs the other extremity of the filk firing below, through a hole bo¬ red in the middle of the lower part of the frame, con¬ taining the window in,the fore part of the cafe, and fallen it to a fmall weight of a cubic form. Sufpend the fork of the balance on the inferior hook of the plate. By this means if you move backwards and forwards the weight faftened to the firing, placed upon the top of the drawer jutting out beyond the fore-part of the cafe, the balance wfithin is either lifted up or let down. But you mull put the bodies to be weigh¬ ed, and the weights themfelves, into the fmall filver difhes j and thefe, when loaded, into the fcales, through the fide-windows, which mult be opened for that pur- pofe. When any thing is to be added to or taken out of them, you do it with the fmall pincers; or, if it is powder, with the fmall fhovel or fpoon : but you mull let the balance down every time any thing is to be ad¬ ded or taken away, that the fcales may reft upon the bottom of the cafe *, and fhut the windows before the balance is lifted up again, efpecially if the air is not perfectly calm. Hydrofatic Balance, an inftrument contrived to determine accurately the fpecific gravity of both folid and fluid bodies. It is conftrufted in various forms j bi t we fhall content ourfelves here with defcribing that which appears of all others the moft accurate. VCG (fig. 5.) is the Hand or pillar of this hydro- ftatic balance, which is to be fixed in a table. From the top A hangs, by two filk firings, the horizontal bar BB, from which it is fufpended by a ring 2, the fine beam of a balance b ; which is prevented from de¬ fending too low on either fide by the gently fpringing piece t xy fixed on the fupport M. The harnefs is annulated at 0, to fhow diftinftly the perpendicular pofition of the exasaen, by the fmall pointed index fix¬ ed above it. The firings by which the balance is fufpended, paf- fing over twm pulleys, one on each fide the piece at A, go down to the bottom on the other fide, and are hung over the hook at v ; which hook, by means of a fcrew P, is moveable about one inch and a quar¬ ter, backward and forward, and therefore the balance may be raifed or deprelfed fo much. But if a greater elevation or depreflion be required, the Aiding piece S, which carries the fcrew P, is readily moved to any part of the fquare brafs rod VK, and fixed by means of a fcrew. The motion of the balance being thus adjufted, 2 the reft of the apparatus is as follows. HH is a fmall Balance, board, fixed upon the piece D, under the fcales d and v'~~“ e, and is moveable up and down in a low flit in the pillar above C, and fafiened at any part by a fcrew be¬ hind. From the point in the middle oP the bottom of each fcale hangs, by a fine hook, a brafs wire ad and a c. Thefe pafs through two holes m m in the table. To the ware 27 2/ is fufpended a curious cylindric wire r s, perforated at each end for that purpofe : this wire r s is covered with paper, graduated by equal di- vifions, and is about five inches long. In the corner of the board at E, is fixed a brafs tube, on which a round wire /> / is fo adapted as to move neither too tight nor too free, by its flat head I. Upon the lower part of this moves another tube which has fufficient friftion to make it remain in any pofition required : to this is fixed an index T, mo¬ ving horizontally when the wire h / is turned about, and therefore may be eafily fet to the graduated wire r s. To the lower end of the wire rs hangs a weight L $ and to that a wire p n, with a fmall brafs ball g about one-fourth of an inch diameter. On the other fide, to the wire a c, hangs a large gl^fs bubble R, by a horfe-hair. Let us fir ft fuppofe the weight L taken aw'ay, and the ware p n fufpended from S : and, on the other fide, let the bubble R be taken aw'ay, and the weight F, fufpended at c, in its room. This weight F we • fuppofe to be fufficient to keep the feveral parts hang¬ ing to the other fcale in equilibrium j at the fame time that the middle point of the wire /> 22 is at the furface of the water in the vefffcl N. The wire p n is to be of fuch a fize, that the length of one inch fhall weigh four grains. Now it is evident, fince brafs is eight times heavier than w7ater, that for every inch the wire finks in the wrater it wall become half a grain lighter, and half a grain heavier for every inch it rifes out of the water: confequently, by, finking two inches below the mid¬ dle point, or rifing two inches above it, the wire wrill become one grain lighter or heavier. Therefore, if, when the middle point is at the furface of the wa¬ ter in equilibrium, the index T be fet to the middle point 27 of the graduated wire r s, and the diftance on each fide ar and as contains 100 equal parts : then,if in weighing bodies the weight is required to the hun¬ dredth part of a grain, it may be eafily had by pro¬ ceeding in the following manner. Let the body to be weighed be placed in the fcale d. Put the weight X in the fcale e ; and let this be fo determined, that one grain more {hall be too much, and one grain lefs too little. Then the balance be¬ ing moved gently up or down, by the fcrew P, till the equilibrium be nicely ffiown at 0 ; if the index T be at the middle point a of the wire r s, it ffiow7s that the weights put into the fcale e are juft equal to the weight of the body. By this method we find the abfolute wreight of the body •, the relative weight is found by weighing it hydroftatically in water, as folio wrs. Inftead of putting the body into the fcale e, as be¬ fore, let it hang with the wreight F, at the hook c, by a horfe-hair, as at R, fuppofing the veflel O of water were aw'ay. The equilibrium being then made, the index T Handing between a and r, at the 36 divi- B A L Balaya Balancer fl0n, fhows the weight of the body put in to be , 1095-3^ grains* -As it thus hangs, let it be immerfed — ^ the water of the veffel O, and it will become much lighter . the fcale e will defcend till the beam of the balance relt. on the lupport z. Then fuppofe 100 grains put into the fcale d reftore the equilibrium precifely, fo that the index T Hand at the 36 divi- lion above a; it is evident that the weight of an equal bulk of water would, in this cafe, be exactly 100 grains. After a like manner this balance may be applied to iiud the fpecific gravity of liquids, as is ealy to con¬ ceive from what has been faid. Balance of Trade. That which is commonly meant by the balance of trade, is the equal importing of fo¬ reign commodities with the exporting of the native. And n is reckoned that nation has the advantage in the balance of trade, which exports more of the native commodities, and imports lefs of the foreign. The reaton of this is, that, if the native commodities be of a greater value than are imported, the balance of that account muft be made up in bullion or money j and the nation grows fo much richer, as the balance'of that ac¬ count amounts to. ■o alance of a Clock, or Watch) is that part wrhich re¬ gulates the beats. See CiocK-Makinq. Balance-FIJ}}. See Squalus, Ichthyology In¬ dex. . BALANCER, in the hiftory of infers, a ftyle, or oblong body, ending in a protuberance or head, found under each wing of the two-winged flies ; thefe, it is fuppofed, ferve to poife the body of the fly. B ALANCING, among Seamen, the contra&ing a fail into a narrower compafs, in a Ilorm, by retrench¬ ing, ot- folding up a part of it at one corner : this me¬ thod is ufed in contradiftindlion to reefing, which is common to all the principal fails 5 whereas balancing is peculiar to few, fuch as the mizen of a (hip, and the main fail of thofe velfels wherein it is extended by a boom. ^ See Boom and Reef.—The balance of the mizen is thus performed : the mizen yard is lowered a little, then a fmall portion of the fail is rolled up at the peek or upper corner, and faftened to the yard about one-fifth inward from the outer end or yard-arm to¬ ward the mall. See Mizen.—A boom main-fail is balanced, after all its reefs are taken in, by rolling up a fimilar portion of the hindmoft or aftmoft lower cor¬ ner called the c/W, and faftening it flrongly to the boom, having previoufly wrapped a piece of old canvafs round the part (which is done in both cafes) to pre¬ vent the fail from being fretted by the cord which fa¬ llens it. BAL ANUS, the trivial name of a fpecies of lepas. See Lepas, Conchology Index. BALAUSTINES, in Botany. See Punica, Bo¬ tany Index. BALAYAN, a province of the illand of Manilla in the Eaft Indies, belonging to the Spaniards.—It lies next to the city of Manilla, and extends along the coaft on the eaft fide of the illand, a little beyond the bay of Batangas. There were formerly gold mines in it, but they have been long fince abandoned. It is in¬ habited by about 2500 tributary Indians, and abounds in cotton, rice, and palm-trees. The province is well Vgl. III. Part I, [ 345 1 B A L cultivated ; and the Spaniards, generally fpeaking, have Balbaflrc, country-houfes in it. Balbec. BALBASTRO, an epifcopal town of Spain, in the v kingdom of Arragon, and capital of a diftridt of the fame name. E. Long. o. 20. N. Lat. 41. 50. B ALBEC, a city of Afia, in Syria, anciently called IleliofioliS) and by the Arabians The 'wonder of Syria. It is fituated at the foot of Anti-Lebanon, precifely on the laft rifing ground wdrere the mountain termi¬ nates in the plain. As we arrive from the fouth we difcover the city only at the diftance of a league and a half,, behind a hedge of trees, over the verdant tops of which appears a white edging of domes and mi¬ narets. After an hour’s journey we reach thefe trees, which are very fine walnuts 5 and foon after, crofting fonie ill cultivated gardens, by winding paths, arrive at the entrance of the city. We there perceive a ruin¬ ed wall, flanked rvith fquare towers, which afcends the declivity to the right, and traces the precindfs of the ancient city. This wall, which is only ten or twelve feet high, permits us to have a view of thofe void fpaces and heaps of ruins which are the invariable ap¬ pendage of every Turkilh city; but what principally attracts our attention is a large edifice on the left, w'hich, by its lofty w^alls and rich columns, manifeftly appears to be one of thofe temples which antiquity has left for our admiration. Thefe ruins, which are fome of the moft beautiful and beft preferved of any in Afia, merit a particular defcription. To give a juft idea of them, we muft fuppofe our- felves defcending from the interior of the town. Af¬ ter having crofied the rubbifh and huts w ith which it is filled, we.arrive at a vacant place wdiich appears to have been a fquare 5 there, in front, towards the weft, we perceive a grand ruin, which confifts of two pavi¬ lions ornamented with pilafters, joined at their bottom angle by a wall 160 feet in length. This front com¬ mands the open country from a fort of terrace, on the edge of which we diftinguifh with difficulty the bafes of twelve columns, which formerly extended from one pavilion to the other, and formed a portico. The principal gate is obftrufted by heaps of ftones ; but, that obftacle furmounted, we enter an empty fpace, which is a hexagonal court of 180 feet diameter. This court is ftrewed with broken columns, mutilated capi¬ tals, and the remains of pilafters, entablatures, and cor¬ nices ; around it is a row of ruined edifices, which dif- play all the ornaments of the richeft architefture. At the. end of this court, oppofite the w^eft, is an outlet, which formerly was a gate, through which wre per¬ ceive a ftill more extenfive range of ruins, whofe mag¬ nificence ftrongly excites curiofity. To have a full profpeft of thefe, we muft afcend a fiope, up which were the fteps to this gate ; and we then arrive at the entrance of a fquare court, much more fpacious than the former, being 350 feet wide and 336 in length. The eye is firft attrafted by the end of this court, where fix enormous and majeftic columns render the fcene aftoniftiingly grand and pi&urefque. Another objetft not lefs interefting is a fecond range of columns to the left, wrhich appear to have been part of the pe- riftyle of a temple j but before w'e pafs thither, W'e cannot refufe particular attention to the edifices which enclofe this court on each fide. They form a fort of X x gallery < B A L Balbec. [ 346 ] B A L gallery rvlilch contains various chambers, feven of ^ which may be reckoned in each of the principal wings, viz. two in a femicircle and live in an oblong fquare. The bottom of thefe apartments ftill retains pediments of niches and tabernacles, the fupporters of which are deftroyed. On the fide of the court they are open, and prel'ent only four and fix columns totally deftroy¬ ed. It is not eafy to conceive the ufe of thefe apart¬ ments j but this does not diminilh our admiration at the beauty of their pilafters and the richnefs of the frize of the entablature. Neither is it poftible to avoid re¬ marking the lingular eftedl which refults from the mix¬ ture of the garlands, the large foliage of the capitals, and the fculpture of wnld plants with which they are everywhere ornamented. In traverfing the length of the court, we find in the middle a little fquare efpla- nade, where w^as a pavilion, of w7hich nothing remains but the foundation. At length w?e arrive at the foot of the fix columns •, and then firft conceive all the boldnefs of their elevation and the richnefs of their workmanlhip. Their ftiafts are 21 feet eight inches in circumference and 58 high ; fo that the total height, including the entablature, is from 71 to 72 feet. The fight of this fuperb ruin, thus folitary and unaccom¬ panied, at lirft ftrikes us with aftoniftnnent j but, on a more attentive examination, we difcover a feries of foundations, wTich mark an oblong fquare of 268 feet in length and 146 wide, and which, it feems probable, was the periftyle of a grand temple, the primary pur- pofe of this w’hole ftrudlure. It prefented to the great court, that is to the eaft, a front of ten columns, with 19 on each fide, which, with the other fix, make in all 54. The ground on which it flood was an oblong fquare, on a level with this court, but narrower than it, fo that th'ere w7as only a terrace of 27 feet nude round the colonnade ; the efplanade this produces fronts the open country tow’ard the w7eft, by a Hoping wall of about 30 feet. This defcent, as you approach the city, becomes lefs' fteep, fo that the foundation of the pavilion is on a level with the termination of the hill 5 whence it is evi¬ dent that the w'hole ground of the courts has been ar¬ tificially railed. Such wTas the former ftate of this edi¬ fice ; but the fouthern fide of the grand temple wras af¬ terwards blocked up to build a fmaller one, the peri¬ ftyle and walls of which are ftill remaining. This temple, fituated fomewhat lower than the other, pre- fents a fide of 13 columns by eight in front (in all 34), wThich are likewufe of the Corinthian order; their ftvafts are 1 <; feet eight inches in circumference, and 44 in height. The building they furround is an oblong fquare, the front of wdiich, turned towards the eaft, is out of the line of the left wfing of the great court. To reach it you muft crofs trunks of columns, heaps of ftone, and a ruinous wall by which it is now hid. After furmounting thefe obftacles you arrive at the gate, where you may furvey the enclofure which wras once the habitation of a god ; but inftead of the aw?- ful fcene of a proftrate people and facrifices offered by a multitude of priefts, the fky is feen through the open roof, which lets in light to fliow a chaos of ruins covered with dull and weeds. The walls, formerly enriched with all the ornaments of the Co¬ rinthian order, now prefent nothing but pediments of niches and tabernacles, of which almoft all the fup¬ porters are fallen to the ground. Between thefe niches is a range of fluted pilafters, whofe capitals fupport a Balbec. broken entablature ; but what remains of it difplays a rich frize of foliage refting on the heads of fatyrs, horfes, bulls, &c. Over this entablature wTas the an¬ cient roof, which wTas 57 feet wide and 110 in length. The walls wrhich fupported it are 31 feet high, and without a window. It is impoflible to form any idea of the ornaments of this roof, except from the frag¬ ments lying on the ground ; but it could not have been richer than the gallery of the periftyle : the principal remaining parts contain tablets in the form of lozen¬ ges, on which are reprefented Jupiter feated on his eagle ; Leda careffed by the fwan ; Diana wdth her bow and crefcent ; and feveral bufts w’hich feem to be figures of emperors and empreffes. It would lead us too far to enter more minutely into the defcription of this aftonifhing edifice. The lovers of the arts will find it defcribed with the greateft truth and accuracy in a work publifhed at London in 1757, under the title of Ruins of Balbec. This wrork, compiled by Mr Ro¬ bert Wood, the wmrld owes to the attention and libe¬ rality of Mr Dawkins, who in 1751 vifited Balbec and Palmyra. But feveral changes, however, have taken place fince their journey ; for example, they found nine large columns ftanding, and in 1784 Mr Volney found but fix. They reckoned 29 at the leffer temple, but there now remain but 20 ; the others have been overthrown by the earthquake of 1759. It has likewfife fo ftiaken the walls of the leffer temple, that the ftone of the fofht, or crofs ftone at the top of the gate, has flid between the twTo adjoining ones, and defcended eight inches; by which means the body of the bird fculptured on that ftone is fufpended, detached from its wings and the two garlands which hung from its beak, and terminated in two genii. Nature alone has not effefted this devaftation ; the Turks have had their ftiare in the deftnnftion of the columns. Their motive is to procure the iron cramps, which ferve to join the feveral blocks of which each column is com- pofed. Thefe cramps anfwer fo well the end intend¬ ed, that feveral of the columns are not even disjointed by their fall ; one, among others, as Mr Wood ob- ferves, has penetrated a ftone of the temple w7all with¬ out giving way ; nothing can furpafs the workmanftiip of thefe columns; they are joined without any cement, yet there is not room for the blade of a knife between their interftices. After fo many ages, they in gene¬ ral ftill retain their original wrhiteneis. But what is ftill more afloniftring, is the enormous ftones which compofe the Hoping wall. To the weft the fecond layer is formed of ftones which are from 28 to 35 feet long, by about nine in height. Over this layer, at the°north-weft angle, there are three ftones which alone occupy a fpace of I75v feet; 5 the firft 58 feet feven inches, the fecond 58 feet it, and the third exaftly 58 feet; and each of thefe is 12 feet thick. Thefe ftones are of a white granite, with large Ihining flakes like gypfum ; there is a quarry of this kind of ftone under the whole city and in the adjacent moun¬ tain, which is open in feveral places, and among others on the right, as we approach the city. There is ftill lying there a ftone, hewm on three fides, wdiich is 69 feet two inches long, 12 feet 10 inches broad, and 13 feet three in thicknefs. By what means could the ancieuts move thefe enormous maffes ? This is doubt- lefs B A L [ 347 1 Iklbec. lets a problem in mechanics curious to refolve. The of this inhabitants of Balbec have a very commodious manner of explaining it, by fuppofing thefe edifices to have been conflrudled by Djenoun, or genii, who obeyed the orders of King Solomon 5 adding, that the motive of fuch immenfe works was to conceal in fubterraneous caverns vaft treafures, which ftiil remain there. To difcover thefe, many have defcended into the vaults which range under the whole edifice : but the inutility of their refearches, added to the oppreffions and ex¬ tortions of the governors, who have made their fup- pofed difcoveries a pretext, have at length diiheartened them ; but they imagine the Europeans would be more fuccefsful, nor would it be poffible to perfuade them but that we are poffeffed of the magic art of deflroy- ing talifmans. It is in vain to oppofe reafon to igno¬ rance and prejudice : and it would be no lefs ridicu¬ lous to attempt to prove to them that Solomon never wras acquainted with the Corinthian order, which was only in ufe under the Roman-emperors. But their tradition on the fubjedt of this prince may fuggeft three important obfervations. ' Firft, That all tradition re¬ lative to high antiquity is as falfe among the Orientals as the Europeans. With them, as with us, fadls which happened 100 years before, when not preferved in writing, are altered, mutilated, or forgotten. To ex¬ pert information from them with refpedt to events in the time of David or Alexander, wmuld be as abfurd as to make inquiries of the Flemilh peafants concern¬ ing Clovis or Charlemagne. Secondly, That through¬ out Syria, the Mahometans, as well as the Jews and Chriftians, attribute every great work to Solomon : not that the memory of hifn ftiPl remains by tradition in thofe countries, but from certain palfages in the Old Teftament j which, with the gofpel, is the fource of almoft all their tradition, as thefe are the only hiftori- cal books read or known ; but as their expounders are very ignorant, their applications of what they are told are generally very remote from truth. By an error of this kind they pretend Balbec is the houfe of the forejl of Lebanon built by Solomon : nor do they approach nearer probability, when they attribute to that king the well of Tyre and the buildings of Palmyra. Thirdly, That the belief in hidden treafures has been confirmed by difcoveries which have been really made from time to time. It is not many years fince a fmall coffer wras found at Hebron full of gold and filver medals, with an ancient Arabic book on medicine. In the country of the Drufes an individual difcovered likewife, fome time fince, a jar with gold coin in the form of a cre- fcent •, but as the chiefs and governors claim a right to thefe difcoveries, and ruin thofe wTho have made them, under pretext of obliging them to make reftoration, thofe who find any thing endeavour carefully to con¬ ceal it \ they fecretly melt the antique coins, nay fre¬ quently bury them again in the fame place where they found them, flom the fame fears which caufed their firft concealment, and w’hich prove the fame tyranny formerly exifted in thefe countries. When we confider the extraordinary magnificence of the temple of Balbec, we cannot but be aftonilhed at the filence of the Greek and Roman authors. Mr Wood, who has carefully examined all the ancient wri¬ ters, has found no mention of it except in a fragment of John of Antioch, who attributes the conftrublion B A L edifice to Antoninus Pius. The infcriptions which remain corroborate this opinion, wdiich perfedl- ly accounts for the conftant ufe of the Corinthian or-' der, fince that order wTas not in general ufe before the third age of Rome ; but we ought by no means to al¬ lege as an additional proof the bird fculptured over the gate ; for if his crooked beak, large claw?s, and - the caduceus he bears, give him the appearance of an eagle, the tuft of feathers on his head, like that of certain pigeons, proves that he is not the Roman eagle ; befides that the fame bird is found in the temple of Palmyra ; and is therefore evidently an Oriental eagle, confecrated to the fun, who was the divinity adored in both thefe temples. His worlhip exifted at Balbec in the moft remote antiquity. His ftatue, which refem- bled that of Ofiris, had been tranfported there from the Heliopolis of Egypt, and the ceremonies with which he was w'orfhipped there have been defcribed by Macrobius, in his curious wmrk entitled Saturnalia, Mr Wood fuppofes with reafon, that the name of Bal¬ bec, which in Syriac fignifies City of Bal, or of the fun, originated in this worftiip. The Greeks, by nam¬ ing it Heliopolis, have in this inftance only given a li¬ teral tranflation of the oriental word : a practice to which they have not always adhered. We are igno¬ rant of the ftate of this city in remote antiquity ; but it is to be prefumed, that its fituation on the road from Tyre to Palmyra, gave it fome part of the com¬ merce of thefe opulent capitals. Under the Romans, in the time of Auguftus, it is mentioned as a garrifon town : and there is ftiil remaining, on the wall of the fouthern gate, on the right, as we enter, an infcription which proves the truth of this, the words kenturia prim a, in Greek characters, being very legible. One hundred and forty years after, Antoninus built there the prefent temple, inftead of the ancient one, which was doubtlefs falling into ruins : but Chriftianity hav¬ ing gained the afcendency under Conftantine, the mo ¬ dern temple was neglebted, and afterwards converted into a church 5 a wall of which is now remaining, that hid the fandtuary of the idols. It continued thus un¬ til the invafion of the Arabs, when it is probable they envied the Chriftians fo beautiful a building. The church being lefs frequented fell to decay ; wars fuc- ceeded ; and it was converted into a place of defence ; battlements were built on the wall which furrounded it, on the pavilions and at the angles which ftiil fub- fift } and from that time, the temple, expofed to the fate of war, fell rapidly to ruin. The ftate of the city is not lefs deplorable. The wretched government of the emirs of the houfe of Harfoufhe had already greatly impaired it, and the earthquake of 1759 com¬ pleted its deftrublion. The wars of the Emir Youfef and Djezzar have rendered it ftiil more deferted and ruinous. Of 5000 inhabitants, at which number they were eftimated in I75I> no1: *200 are now remaining j and all thefe poor, without induftry or commerce, and cultivating nothing but a little cotton, fome maize, and water-melons. BALBINUS, Decimus Co emus, the Roman em¬ peror, being chofen by the fenate in 237, was mafla- cred by the foldiers, who had a diffike to fuch empe¬ rors as were eledled only by the fenators. This prince was eloquent, and wrote pretty good verfes. BALBOA, Vasco Nugnes de, a Caftilian j a X x 2 celebrated Balbec, Balboa. B A L [ 348 ] B A L £albus celebrated navigator, and one of tire firft difcoverers Baldnef' Sout^ America. He was beheaded by the Spanifh __a c ‘lc ^ governor of St Mary, through jealoufy of his growing reputation, in 15x7, aged 42. BALBUS, Lucius Cornelius Theofhanes, was born at Cadiz, and diftinguiihed himfelf by his va¬ lour in the war carried on by the Romans in Spain againft Sertorius and the Lufitanians, on which ac¬ count Pompey gave him the privileges of a Roman ci¬ tizen. He was conful in the 714th year of Rome, and was the firft foreigner on whom that dignity rvas con¬ ferred. He was the friend of Pompey, Caefar, Craffus, and Cicero.—-There were many other illuftrious Ro¬ mans of the name of Balbtis. BALCONY, in ArchiteBure, a proje&ure in the front of a houfe, or other building, fupported by pil¬ lars or confoles, and encompaffed with a baluffrade. BALDACHIN, or Baldaojiin, in Architetfure, a building in form of a canopy, lupported by pillars, and frequently ufed as a covering to infulated altars. Some alfo ufe the term baldachin for the Ihell over a door. BALDINUCCI, Philip, of Florence 5 a connoif- feur in the polite arts, and the continuator of Vafari’s Lives of the Painters. He died in 1696, aged 72. BALDIVIA, or Valdivia, a fea port town of Chili, in America, belonging to the Spaniards. It is lituated between the rivers Callaculles and Portero, where they fall into the South fea. W. Long. 80. 5. S. Lat. 40. 5. It -was built in 1551 by the Spanilh general Baldivia, from whom it takes its name. We may judge of its importance from the fum granted annually by the king for maintaining the garrifon and keeping the fortifications in repair, being no lefs than 300,000 pieces of eight. It is defended by four ftrong cartles, mounting 100 pieces of fine brafs cannon. Notwith(landing which, however, as the garrifon is compofed moflly of tranfported criminals, on whom no dependence can be placed, and generally ill fupplied with ammunition, &c. it could make but a poor de¬ fence. In 1643 it was eafily taken by the Dutch, who would probably have maintained their conqueft again!! all the powder of the Spanifh viceroy, had they not been obliged to relinquifh it through ficknefs and famine. The inhabitants of Baldivia amount to about 2000. The trade is lefs confiderable than formerly, becaufe the gold mines in the neighbourhood are fliut up : yet feveral large (hips are employed in the trade between this port and that of Lima, which confifls of gold, corn, hides, and fait provifions, which are exchanged for flaves, fugar, chocolate, and European commodi¬ ties and manufaflures. . BALDNESS, a defeat of hair, chiefly on the finci- put. It differs from alopecia, area, ophiajis, and tinea, as thefe all arife from fome vice in the nutritious hu¬ mour ; baldnefs, from the defeat of it. When the eye¬ lids fhed their hair, it is called a ptilojis. Among the caufes of baldnefs, immoderate venery is reputed one of the chief; old age ufually brings it on of courfe. Some will have the proximate caufe of baldnefs to be the drynefs of the brain, and its fhrinking from the cranium j it having been obfgrved, that in bald per- fons there is always a vacuity or empty fpace between the Ikull and the brain.—Calvus, bald-pate, was a fre¬ quent term of reproach among the Romans j among whom this defe£l was in great difcredit. Hence di¬ vers arts to conceal it, as falfe hair, a galericulus con¬ trived on purpofe. The later Romans, however, feem to have been reconciled to baldnefs 5 for we find a- mong them a kind of officers, or fervants, called gla- bratores or glabrarii, whofe bufinefs was to take off the hair from all parts, even from the head. In an ancient infcription, there is mention of one Diophan- tus, TI, CzESARIS, ornator glabr, that is, Or- nator Glabrarius. BALDOC, a town of Hertfordfhire, in England, chiefly noted for its trading in malt. W. Long. o. 10. N. Lat. 51.55. BALDOCK, Ralph de, biffiop of London in the reigns of Edward I. and II. was educated at Merton- college, in Oxford 5 became dean of St Paul’s 5 was- afterwards promoted to the fee of London \ and at laft was made lord high chancellor of England. He had a very amiable charafter both for morals and learning; and wrote Hijloria Anglica, or a Hiilory of the Britifli Affairs down to his own time ; and, A Colledtion of the Statutes and Conflitutions of the church of St Paul. Bilhop Baldock died at Stepney, July 24. 13I3- BALDWIN, archbifhop of Canterbury, was born of obfcure parents at Exeter, where, in the early part of his life, he taught a grammar fchool ; after which he took orders, and was made archdeacon of Exeter ; but he refigned that dignity, and became a Ciftertian monk in the monaftery of Ford in Devonfiiire, of which in a few7 years he was made abbot. In the year 1180, he w7as confecrated biffiop of Worcefler. In n8/j,he was promoted to the. fee of Canterbury by Pope Lu¬ cius III. and by his fucceffor Urban III. was appoint¬ ed legate for that diocefe. He laid the foundation of a church and monaftery in honour of Thomas Becket, at Hackington, near Canterbury, for fecular priefts ; but, being oppofed by the monks of Canterbury and the pope, was obliged to defift. In 1190 he crowned King Richard I. at Weftminfter ; and loon after fol¬ lowed that prince to the holy land, wdrere he died at the fiege of Ptolemais. Giraldus Cambrenfis, who ac¬ companied him in this expedition, fays, he was of a mild difpofition, and of great abftinence. He w rote various tradls on religious fubje&s, w hich were colled!- ed and publifhed by Bertrand Tiffier in 1662. BALE, John, bifhop of Offory in Ireland, was born at Cove, near Dunwich in Suffolk, in the year 149^. At 12 years of age he was entered in the mo¬ naftery of Carmelites at Norwich, and w7as thence fent to Jefus college in Oxford. He was educated a Ro¬ man catholic, but w7as converted to the Proteftant re¬ ligion by Thomas Lord Wentworth. On the death of Lord Cromwell, favourite of Henry VIII. who pro- tedfed him from the perfecutions of the Romifh cler¬ gy, he was obliged to retire into the Low Countries, where he continued eight years. Soon after the ac- ceflion of Edward VI. he was recalled ; and being firft prefented to the living of Biftiop’s Stocke in Hamp- fhire, in 1552, he w7as nominated to the fee of Offory. During his refidence in Ireland he w7as remarkably af- fiduous in propagating the Proteftant dodlrines ; but to very little purpofe, and frequently at the hazard of his life! Once, in particular, they murdered five of his domeftics, \yho were xnaking hay in a meadow near B A L [ 349 ] B A L Balboa his houfe ; P.nd would probably have done the fame by II him, if the fovereign of Kilkenny had not come to his Baleares. a{^^ance with too horfe and 300 foot. On the accef- "v '— fion of Queen Mary, the tide of oppofition became fo powerful, that, to avoid affaffination, he embarked for Holland, but was very unfortunate in his efcape. Firft he was taken by a Dutch man of war, and robbed by the captain of all his effefts. Then, being forced by ftrefs of weather into St Ive’s in Cornwall, he was con¬ fined on fufpicion of trcafon. Being, however, relea¬ fed after a few days confinement, the ihip anchored in Dover road,, where he was again feized on a falfe ac- cufation. After his arrival in Idol]and, he was kept prifoner for three weeks, and at length obtained his liberty on paving 30I. From Holland he travelled to Bafd in Switzerland, where he continued till Queen Elizabeth afcended the throne. After his return to England, he was in 1560 made prebendary of Canter¬ bury, probably not choofing to return to his former flock of wolves. He died in November 1563, at Can¬ terbury, in the 68th year of his age. He was fo fe- vere a writer againft the church of Rome, that his books are particularly prohibited in the expurgatory index publilhed at Madrid, in folio, in the year 1667. He is the earlieft dramatic writer in the Englifh lan¬ guage, or at leaft author of the firft pieces of that kind that we find in print. Of his writings in that tvay no fewer than 21 have been enumerated ; only three of them, however, have been feen in print, viz. 1. God’s Promifes, an interlude •, 2, St John Baptift, an inter¬ lude j 3. Concerning the Laws, of Nature corrupted : the firft of which has been reprinted by Dodfley in the firft volume of his colleflion of old plays, and the only copy extant of the laft is preferved in St Sepulchre’s library in Dublin. As to the reft, they are mentioned by himfelf as his own, in his account of the writers of Britain before mentioned. He alfo tranflated the tra¬ gedies of Pammachius. His other works are very nu¬ merous ; but the chief is his catalogue of Britilh Au¬ thors : a book of fome merit, as it contains fome in¬ formation which is not elfewhere to be found ; but he has deftroyed his credit by his intemperate Billingf- gate abufe of all thofe who differed from him in reli¬ gion. The authentic part of his work is tranfcribed from Leland. The title of it is, Illujlrium Majoris Britannice fcriptorum catalogus, a Japheto fanEiiJJimi Noa Jilio ad an. Dom. 1557. Bale, in Commerce. Any goods packed up in cloth, and corded round very tight, in order to keep them from breaking, or preferve them from the wea¬ ther, is called a bale.—A bale of cotton yarn is from 300 to 400 weight; of raw filk, is from 100 to 400 ; of lockram or dowlas, either three, three and a half, or four pieces. BjLE-Govds, among the Englilh merchants, are all fuch as are imported or exported in bales ; but the French give that name to certain hardwares and other forts of merchandife which come to Paris, and are commonly made by bad workmen of indifferent materials. BALEARES insult, or the Balearic Ijlands. The appellation is commonly derived from B«;.Asalls preferved in a folid form, but wrould be continual- - . ly moift. Therefore, in the martial ball there is a good deal of the cream of tartar and filings of iron not combined together, by which its folidity is pre¬ ferved. Mercurial Balls, in Pharmacy, are an amalgam of mercury and tin, iufflciently folid to be moulded, and to preferve a given form. The method of making them is by adding mercury to melted tin, and pouring the fluid mafs into a round hollow mould. Thefe balls are employed to purify water, in which they are boiled ; for which purpofe travellers often carry fome along wuth them. Nothing, however, can be more pernicious than fuch a practice, Ihould the water contain any ni¬ trous acid, which it very often does. Balls of Silk-worms and Spiders, are little cafes or cones of filk, wherein thofe infedls depofite their eggs. Spiders are extremely tender of their balls, wuiich they carry about wuth them, adhering to the papillae about their anus. Grew mentions balls or bags of a fpecies of filk-worms in Virginia as big as hens eggs, and con¬ taining each four aurelias. Zoologifts fpeak of a fort of balls of hair covered over with a fmooth ftiining coat or {hell, found in the ftomachs of oxen, cowrs, calves, horfes, fheep, and goats. See the article Bezoar. Balls of Fire, in Meteorology. See Fire, Balls °f- . . . Balls, in FleElncity, are twro pieces of cork, or pith of elder, nicely turned in a lathe to the fize of a fmall pea, and fufpended by fine linen threads j intended as eleftrometers, and of excellent ufe to difeover fmall degrees of eleflricity, to obferve the changes of it from pofitive to negative, and vice verfa; and to eftimate the force of a {hock before the difeharge, fo that the operator fhould always be able to tell very nearly be¬ fore the difeharge, by knowung how high he has charged his jars, what the explofion will be. Fire-BALLS, are bags of canvas filled with gun¬ powder, fulphur, faltpetre, pitch, &c. to be thrown by the foldiers, or out of mortars, in order to fire the houfes incommoding trenches, advanced polls, or the like.— The Greeks had divers kinds of fire-balls, or flv^o/Sohoi XiSei-, one kind called, more particularly, truvlx^iu, or erx.v1xXthi, made of wood, fometimes a foot or even a cubit long ; their heads being armed with fpikes of iron, beneath which were hemp, pitch, and other combuftibles, which being fet on fire, they were call among the enemy. The preparations of fire-balls, among the moderns, confift of feveral operations, viz. making the bag, preparing the compofition, tying, and, laftly, dipping the ball. 1. The bags for this purpofe are either oval or round. 2. The compofition wherewith fire-balls are filled is various: To ten pounds of meal-gunpowder add two of faltpetre, one of fulphur, and one of colophony ; or to fix pounds of gunpow'der, add four of faltpetre, four of fulphur, one of powdered glafs, half a pound of antimony, as much camphor, an ounce of fal-ammoniac, and four of common fait, all pulverifed. Sometimes they even fill fire-balls with hand grenades. 3. For tying the fire¬ balls, they prepare tw'O iron rings, one fitted round the aperture, B A L [ 353 1 B A L Light-Balls aperture, where the ball is to be lighted, the other W ter near ^ts bafe. A cord is tied to thefe rings in fuch a Balls, manner, as that the feveral turns reprelent femicircles t ■■ ■ t ■ 1 of the fphere cutting the globe through the poles : over the cords, extended according to the length of the ball, others are tied, cutting the former at right angles, and parallel to each other, making a knot at each interfec- tion : laftly, after putting in a leaden bullet, the reft of the fpace is filled with tow or paper. 4. Thus com¬ pleted, the fire-ball remains to be dipped in a compofi- tion of melted pitch four pounds, colophony two, and linfeed oil or oil of turpentine two ; after dipping, they cover it round with tow, and dip again, till it be brought to the juft diameter required. Light-BALis, are fuch as diffufe an intenfe light around ; or they are balls which, being call out of the hand or a mortar, burn for feme time, and illuminate the adjacent parts. 1. Luminous or light-balls for the hand arc made of ground porvder, faltpetre, brimftone, camphor, and borax, all fprinkled with oil, and moulded into a mals with fuet ; and this is wrap¬ ped up in tow, with a Iheet of llrong paper over it. To fire it, they make a hole into it with a bodkin, in¬ to which they put fome priming that will burn (low. Its ufe is to be call into any works they would difeover in the night-time. 2. For the larger light-balls, or thofe to be thrown to a greater diftance, they melt equal quantities of fulphur, turpentine, and pitch ) and therein dip an earthen or ftone ball, of a diameter much lefs than that of the mortar out of which the fire¬ ball is to be call : then rolling it in gunpowder, and rovering it round with gauze, they dip it again, and repeat the reft till it come to fit the cavity of the mortar: laftly, they fprinkle it around with gun¬ powder. This, being once kindled, will ftrongly il¬ luminate all around the place where it is thrown, and give opportunity to examine the ftate and condition thereof. Smoke or Detrk-BALis, thofe which fill the air with fmoke, and thus darken a place to prevent difeoveries. To prepare a darkening ball, make an oval or fpheri- cal bag ; melt rofin over the coals, and add an equal part of faltpetre not purified, alfo of fulphur, and a fifth part of charcoal. The whole being well incorpo¬ rated, put in tow firft {bred, and fill the bags with -this compofition, and dip it after the fame manner as a fire-ball. Stink-BALLS, thofe which yield a great ftench where fired to annoy the enemy. Their preparation is thus : Melt ten pounds of pitch, fix of rofin, twenty of falt- 'petre, eight of gunpowder, and four of colophony 5 to "thefe add two of charcoal, fix of horfe-hoofs cut fmall, three of afafoetida, one of ftinking-faracen, and any other offenfive ingredients. The reft as in the former. Sky-BAiLS, thofe caft on high out of mortars, and which, when arrived at their height, burfting like rockets, afford a fpeftacle of decoration. Sky-balls are made of a wooden ftiell, filled with various compofi- tions, particularly that of the ftars of rockets. Thefe are fometimes intermixed with crackers and other com- buflibles, making rains of fire, &c. ]Voter-BALi.$, thofe which fwim and burn a confi- derable time in the water, and at length burft therein. Thefe are made in a wooden fiiell, the cavity of which V01. III. Part I. is filled with refined faltpetre, fulphur, faw-duft boiled Land-Ealh in wrater of faltpetre, and dried ; to rvhich fometimes II other ingredients are added, as iron filings, Greek . , pitch, amber dull, powdered glafs, and camphor. The ingredients are to be ground, mixed up, and moiftened with linfeed oil, nut oil, olive oil, hempfeed oil, or pe¬ trol. At the bottom is placed an iron coffin, filled with whole gunpowder, that the ball may at laft burft with a greater noife : and, laftly, the ball is by the ad¬ dition of lead or otherwife, made of the fame fpecific gravity with water. Land-BALLS are thofe which, being thrown out of a mortar, fall to the ground, burn, and burft there. The ingredients are much the lame as in the watei'-ba/Is, only the fpecific gravity is not attended to. BALLAGHAN, a town of Ireland, in the county of Sligo, and province of Connaught. W. Long. 9. 50, N. Lat. 53. 48. BALL AN, a towm of France, in the diocefe of Mons, feated on the river Orne. E. Long. o. 26. N. Lat. 48. 10. BALLAD, a kind of fong, adapted to the capa¬ city of the lower clafs of people ; who, being mightily taken with this fpecies of poetry, are thereby not a little influenced in the condudl of their lives. Hence wo find, that feditious and defigning men never fail to fpread ballads among the people, with a view to gain them over to their fide. BALLAST, any heavy matter, as ftone, gravel, iron, &c. throwm into the hold of a ffiip, in order to make her fink a proper depth in the water, that ffie may be capable of carrying a fufficient quantity of fail without overfetting. There is often great difference in the proportion of ballaft required to prepare (hips of equal burden for a voyage *, the quantity being always more or lefs ac¬ cording to the ffiarpnefs or flatiiefs of the fhip’s bottom, which feamen call the fioor. The knowledge of ballafting a fhip with propriety, is certainly an article that deferves the attention of the fkilful mariner : for although it is knowrn, that fhips in general will not carry a fufficient quantity of fail till they are laden fo deep that the furface of the water will nearly glance on the extreme breadth amidffiips, yet there is more than this general knowledge required j fince, if flie has a great weight of heavy ballaft, as lead, iron, &c. in the bottom, it will place the centre of gravity too low in the hold ; and although this will enable her to carry a great fail, ffie will neverthelefs fail very heavily, and run the rifk of being difmafted by her violent rolling. To ballaft a ffiip, therefore, is the art of difpofing thofe materials fo that fhe may be duly poifed, and maintain a proper equilibrium on the water, fo as nei¬ ther to be X.oo /Jijjf nor too crank, qualities equally per¬ nicious : as in the firft, although the ftiip may be fitted to carry a great fail, yet her velocity will not be pro- portionably increafed j whilft her mafts are more en¬ dangered by her hidden jerks and exceffive labouring : and in the laft, fhe will be incapable of carrying fail, without the rifk of overfetting. StiJJhefs, in ballafting, is occafioned by difpofing a great quantity of heavy bailaft, as lead, iron, &c. in the bottom, which naturally places the centre of gravity very near the keel j and that being the centre about Y y which B A L jr 354 1 B A L Eallan- wliicli tlie vibrations are made, the lower it is placed, Ba°enden t^le more vi°lent will be the motion of rolling. . ‘' Cranknefs, on the other hand, is occafioned by ha¬ ving too little ballad, or by difpolxng the fhip’s lading fo as to raife the centre of gravity too high, which alfo endangers the mall in carrying fail wThen it blows hard: for when the mails lofe their perpendicular height, they drain on the Ihrouds in the nature of a lever, which in- creafes as the fine of their obliquity ; and a Ihip that lofes her malts is in great danger of being loll. The whole art of ballalting, therefore, confilts in placing the centre of the gravity to correfpond with the trim and fhape of the velfel, fo as neither to be too high nor too low j neither too far forward nor too far aft, and to lade the Ihip fo deep, that the furface of the water may nearly rife to the extreme breadth amidlhips •, and thus Ihe will be enabled to carry a good fail, incline but little, and ply well to the windward. Ships are faid to be in ballaji when they have no other loading. Mailers of veffels are obliged to declare the quantity of ballall they bear, and to unload it at certain places. They are prohibited unloading their ballall in havens, roads, &c. the negleft of which has ruined many excellent ports.—Ships and veffels taking in ballalt in the river Thames are to pay fo much a ton to Trinity-houfe, Deptford \ who {hall employ bal- laftmen, and regulate them j and their lighters to be marked, &c. on pain of 10I. BALLATOONS, large heavy luggage-boats ufed for carrying wood by the river from Ailracan and the Cafpian fea to Mofcow. Thefe will carry from too to 200 tons, and have from looto 120 men employed to rowr and tow them along. BALLENDEN, Sir John, a Scotifh poet, in the reign of James V. of Scotland, was defcended from ,an ancient family in that kingdom. His father, Mr .Thomas Ballenden of Auchinoul, was dire<5lor to the chancery in the year 1540, and clerk regiller in 1541. sWhere our poet wTas educated, we are not informed ; but from one of his poems we learn, that in his youth he had fome employment at the court of King James V. and that he wTas in great favour with that prince. Ha¬ ving taken orders, and being created do£lor of divinity, at the Sorbonne, he was made canon of Rofs, and arch¬ deacon of Moray. He likewnfe obtained the place of clerk-regiller, but was afterwards deprived of that em¬ ployment by the fa&ions of the times •, however, in the fucceeding reign of Mary, he recovered that office, and was one of the lords of feffion. Being a zealous papill, he, in conjunflion with Dr Laing, was extremely affiduous in retarding the progrefs of the reformation j till at lait, finding the oppofition too powerful, he quit¬ ted Scotland, and went to Rome, where he died in the year 1550. He is generally elleemed one of the bell Scotilh poets of that age. His works are, 1. The hijlory and chronicles of Scotland of llecdor Boris (Boe¬ thius), tranflatcd by Mr John Ballenden, Edinb. 1 >36. 1 his is not a mere tranllation, Ballenden having cor- re&ed feveral millakes of his author, and made large additions. It is in folio, and black letter. 2. Cofmo- graphy to the hi/lory of Scotland, writh a poetical poem. 3. A defer iption of Albany, 4. Tranfation cf Booth iuBs defeription of Scotland. 5. Epiftles to King James V. Bale fays he had feen thefe letters. 6. Several poems in Carmichael’s colleclion of Scottilh poems 5 befides Ballet many others in manufeript, in private libraries in Scot- II land. 7. Virtue and Vyce, a poem addreffed to King a lt^lirr‘. James V. BALLET, Balet, or Balletto, a kind of dra¬ matic poem, reprefenting lome fabulous a£lion or fub- jeft divided into feveral entries j wherein feveral per- fons appear, and recite things under the name of fome deity, or other illullrious charafrer. Ballet is more particularly ufed for a kind of comic dance, confiding of a feries of feveral airs of different kinds of movements, which together reprefent fome fub- je<5l or aftion. They are performed chiefly by malks reprefenting fylvans, tritons, nymphs, Ihepherds, and the like j and confill of three parts, the entry, figure, and the retreat. The word is of Greek origin, formed from /ZctXXuy, jacere, to call, throw, or tofs •, whence alfo in wwiters of the middle age, we find ballationcs for faltationes, dancings 5 and ba/lare for faltare, to dance. BALLIAGE, or Bailiage, in Co?nmerce, a fmall duty paid to the city of London by aliens, and even denizens, for certain commodities exported by them. BALLICONNEL, a town of Ireland in the coun¬ ty of Cavan, and province of Ulller. W. Long. 7. 45. N. Lat. 54. 6. BALLISHANNON, a large town of Ireland, in the county of Donegal, or Tyrconnel, with a good ha¬ ven. W. Long. 8. 25. N. Lat. 54. 25. BALLISTA, a machine ufed by the ancients for {hooting darts 5 it refembled in fome meafure our crofs- bow. The word is Latin, fignifying acrofs-bow; and is derived from the Greek, PccXXu, to fh'oot, or throve. Vegetius informs us, that the ballilla difeharged darts with fuch rapidity and violence, that nothing could refill their force : and Athenaeus adds, that Agi- llratus made one of little more than two leet in length which {hot darts 500 paces. In Plate LXXXIV. is reprefented the ballilla ufed in fieges, according to the chevalier Folard : 2, 2, the bale of the ballilla ; 3, 4, upright beams j 5, 6, tranfverfe beams ; 7, 7, the two capitals in the upper tranfverfe beam, (the lower tranfverfe beam has alfo two fimilar capitals, which cannot be feen in this tranfverfe figure) $ 9, 9, two polls or fupports for lirengthening the tranl- verfe beams', 10, 10, two Ikains of cords failened to the capitals ; ix, 11, twm arms inferted between the two Hands, or parts of the Ikains ; 1 2, a cord failened to the two arms ; 13, darts which are Ihot by the bal¬ lilla ; 14, 14, curves in the upright beams, and in the concavity of which culhions are failened, in order to break the force of the arms which llrike againll.them with great force when the dart is difeharged ; 16, the arbor of the machine, in which a groove or canal per- feclly ftraight is formed, and in which the darts are placed in order to their being {hot by the ballilla *, 17, the nut of the trigger *, 18, the roll or windlafs, about which the cord is wound j 19, a hook, by which the cord is drawn towards the centre, and the ballilla cock¬ ed •, 20, a llage or table on which the arbor is in part fullained. BALLISTEUM, or Ballistr^a, in antiquity, a military fong or dance ufed on occafions of vidlory. Vopifcus has preferved the balijleum fung in honour of Aurelian, who, in the Sarmatian war, was faid to have B A L f 35S ] B A L SUlliftie, Walloon. liat'e killed 48 of the enemy in one day ivith his o^vn hand. Mille, mille, mille mille, mills^ mille decolla- virhus : Unus homo mille, mille, mille, mille deco/lavit; mille, mille, mille vivdt, qui mille, mille occidit. Tan- turn vini hahet nemo, quantum fudit fanguinis. The lame writer fubjoins another popular fong of the fame kind: Mille Francos, mille Sarmatas, femel occidimus ; nii/le, mille, mille, mille, mille, Perfas queer;mus. It took the denomination ballijleum from the Greek /3xX>.a), jacio, or ja Bo, to call or tofs* on account of the mo¬ tions ufed in this dance, which was attended with great elevations and fwingings of the hands. I he halliflcea Were a kind of popular ballads, compofed by poets of the lower dafs, without much regard to the laws of metre. BALLISTIC pendulum, an ingenious machine invented by Benjamin Robins, for afeertaining the velo¬ city of military projectiles, and confequently the force of fired gun-powder. It confiits of a large block of wood, annexed to the end of a ftrong iron Item, having a crofs Heel axis at the other end, placed horizontally, about which the whole vibrates together like the pendu¬ lum of a clock. The machine being at reft, a piece of ordnance is pointed ftraight towards the wooden block, or ball of this pendulum, and then difeharged : the confequence is this the ball difeharged from the gun ftrikes and enters the block, and caufes the pen¬ dulum to vibrate more or lefs according to the velocity of the projeCtile, or the force of the blow; and by ob- ferving the extent of the vibration, the force of that blow becomes known, or the greatelt velocity with Which the block is moved out of its place, and confe- quently the velocity of the projeCtile itfelf which ftruck the blow and urged the pendulum. Hutton's Mathe- mat. DiB. BALLOON, or Ballou, in a general fenfe, fig- nifies any fpherical hollow body, of whatever matter it be compofed, or for whatever purpofes it be defigned. Thus, with chemifts, balloon denotes a round ihort- iiecked veflel, ufed to receive what is diftilled by means of fire ; in archite&ure, a round globe on the top of a pillar 5 and among engineers, a kind of bomb made of pa'fteboard, and played off, in fire-works, either in the air or on the water, in imitation of a real bomb. Air-BAVLOou. See Aerostation. Balloon alfo denotes a kind of game fomething refembling tennis. The balloon is played in the open field, with a great round ball of double leather blown up with wind, and thus driven to and fro with the ftrength of a man’s arm, fortified with a brace of wood. Balloon, or Balloen, is more particularly ufed among voyagers for the ftate-barges of Siam. The balloons are a kind of brigantine, managed with oars, of very odd figures, as ferpents, fea-horfes, See. but by their fharpnefs and number of oars, of incredible iwiftnefs. The balloons are faid to be made of a fingle piece of timber, of uncommonTength •, they are railed high, and much decorated with carving at head and flern : fome are gilt over, and carry 120 or even 150 rowers on each fide. The oars are either plated over with filver, or gilt, or radiated with gold ; and the come or canopy in the middle, where the company is placed, is ornamented with fome rich fluff, and furnifhed with a balluftrade of ivory, or other coftly matter, en¬ riched with gilding. The edges of the balloon juft touch the water, but the extremities rife with a fweep Baffmm to a great height. Some are adorned writh variety of ^ ^ N ^ figures, made of pieces of mother-of-pearl in.laid : the . ‘ _ richer fort, inftead of a dome, carry a kind of fteeple in the middle \ fo that, confidering the ffendernefs of the vefiel, which is ufually 100 or 1 20 feet long, and fcarce fix broad, the height of the two ends, and of the fteeple with the load of decorations, it is a kind of miracle they are not overfet. Balloon, in the French paper-trade, is a term for a quantity of paper, containing 24 reams. Balloon, Ballon, or Ballot, in the French glafs trade, fignifies a certain quantity of^glafs-plates, fmaller or greater according to their quality. The ballon of white glafs contains 25 bundles, of fix plates per bundle; but the ballon of coloured glafs is only of t2\ bundles, and of three plates to a bundle. BALLOTA, white horehound. See Botany Index. BALLOTADE, in the Manege, the leap of a horfe between two pillars, or upon a ftraight line, made wuth juftnefs of time, with the aid of the hand and the calves of the legs: and in fuch a manner, that when his fore-feet are in the air, he fhows nothing but the fhoes of his hinder-feet without yerking out. BALLOTING, a method of voting at elections, &.c. by means of little balls ufually of different colours, by the French called ballots i which are put into a box privately. BALLS, or Ballets, in Heraldry, a frequent bear¬ ing in coats of arms, ufually denominated, according to their colour, bezantes, plates, hurts, &c. BALLUSTER, a fmall kind of pillar ufed for balluftrades. BALLUSTRADE, a feries or rowr of ballufters, joined by a rail; ferving as well for a reft to the elbows as for a fence or enclofure to balconies, altars, ftaircafes, &c. See Architecture, N° 74. BALM. See Melissa, Botany Index. Balm, or Balsam. See Balsam. Balm of Gilead. See Amyris, Botany Index. BALNAVES, Henry, a Scottifh Proteftant divine, born in the fhire of Fife, in the reign of James V. and educated at the univerfity of St Andrew’s. He went afterwrards to France in order to finifh his ftudies; and returning to Scotland, was admitted into the fa¬ mily of the earl of Arran, who at that time governed the kingdom : but in the year 1542 the earl difmifled him for having embraced the Proteftant religion. In 1564, he joined, fays Mackenzie, the murderers of Cardinal Beaton ; for which he was declared a traitor, and excommunicated. Whilft that party w7ere be- fieged in the caftle of St Andrew’s, they fent Balnaves to England, w7ho returned with a confiderable fupply of provifions and money ; but being at laft obliged to furrender to the French, he> was fent with the reft of the garrifon to France. He returned to Scotland, about the year 1559 ; and having joined the Congre¬ gation, he was appointed one of the commiftioners to treat with the duke of Norfolk on the part of Queen Elizabeth. In 1563 he was made one of the lords of feflion, and appointed by the general affembly, with other learned men, to revife the Book of Difcipline. Knox, his cotemporary, and fellow-labourer, gives him. the character of a very learned and pious divine. -He Y y 2 died s B A L [ 356 ] B A L Balnearii died at Edinburgh in the year 1579' wrote> 0 1. AT7-eatife concerning Jujli/ication. Edinb. 1550, timCM'a 3vo> 2. si Catcchifni, or ConfeJJton of Faith. Edmb, 1584, 8vo. BALNEARII servi, in antiquity, fervants or at¬ tendants belonging to the baths. Some were appoint¬ ed to heat them, called fornicatores ; others were de¬ nominated capfarii, who kept the clothes of thole that went into them ; others alliptce, whofe care it wras to pull off the hair \ others un£iuani, who anointed and perfumed the body. BALMEARIUS FUR, in antiquity, a kind of thief who praftifed ftealingthe clothes of perfons in the baths j fometimes alfo called fur balnearutn. The crime of thofe thieves was a kind of facrilege', for the hot baths were facred : hence they were more feverely punifhed than common thieves who Hole out of private houfes. The latter w^ere acquitted wuth paying double the value of the thing ftolen j whereas the former were punifhed with death. BALNEUM, a term ufed by chemifts to fignify a veffel filled with fome matter, as land, water, or the like, in which another is placed that requires a more gentle heat than the naked fire. BALSA, an ancient town of Lufitania, in the Ager Cunaeusj now Favira, capital of Algarva. BALSAM, or Native Balsam, an oily, refinous, liquid fubftance, flowing either ipontaneoufly, or by means of incifion, from certain plants. There are a great variety of balfams, generally denominated from the fubftances from which they are obtained \ and which are explained under their names as they occur. BALSAMICS. Balfamica is a Latin word wEich fignifies mitigating. The term balfamic is a very lax one ; it includes medicines of very different qualities, Motherly s as emollients, detergents, refloratives, &c. but in me- Med. DiSi. dicines of all thefe kinds there feems to be this requi- fite in them, viz. that they be foft, yielding, and ad- hefive, alfo that by their fmallnefs they have a ready difpofition to motion. Medicines of this tribe are generally required for complaints whofe feat is in the vifcera; and as they cannot be conveyed there but by the common road of the circulation, it follows, that no great effects can be expefted from them but by their long continuation. Hoffman calls by the name of bal- farnics thofe medicines which are hot and acrid, alfo the natural balfams, gums, &c. by which the vital heat is increafed. BALSORA. See Bassora. BALTAGI, among the Turks, porters, and hewr- ers of wood, in the court of the grand fignior j who alfo mount on horfeback w’hen the emperor rides out. Part of them alfo, who, for that purpofe, muff be ca- ilrated, keep wratch at the gates of the firft and fecond courts of the feraglio. The firft are called capigi, and their commander capigi pafcha. BALTIC sea, a great gulf furrounded by Swe¬ den, Ruflia, Courland, Pruflia, Pomerania, and Den¬ mark. The king of Denmark levies a tax at Elfineur on every (hip that enters the Baltic fea. It is remark¬ able that this fea neither ebbs nor flows, and there is alwrays a current lets through the Sound into the ocean. It is generally frozen over three or four months in the year. Yellow amber is found in plenty on this coaft. BALTIMORA, xn Botany. See Botany Index. BALTIMORE, a town of Ireland in the county Baltimore of Corke, and province of Munfter, with the title of a II barony. It is feated on a headland which runs into the , ^'^yur' , fea, five miles north-call of Cape Clear. W. Long. 9. y " 10. N. Lat. 51. 15. Baltimore, county and town of, Maryland in America. Baltimore Bird. See Oriolus, Ornithology Index. BALTZAR, Thomas, a native of Lubec, was an eminent mufical compofer, and efteemed the fineft per¬ former on the violin of his time. He came into Eng¬ land in the year 1658, and lived about two years in the houfe of Sir Anthony Cope of Hanwel in Oxford- flflre. He w as the great competitor of Davis Mell, who, though a clockmaker by trade, tvas, till Baltzar came hither, allowed to be the finelt performer on the violin in England •, and after his arrival he divided w ith . him the public applaufe, it being agreed that Mell ex¬ celled in the finenefs of his tone and the fweetnefs of his manner, and Baltzar in the power of execution and command of the inffrument. Moreover, it is faid of the latter, that he firft taught the Englilh the praftice of Ihifting, and the ufe of the upper part of the finger¬ board. Baltzar was given to intemperance, and is faid to have Ihortened his days by exceflive drinking : he was buried in Weftminiiier-abbey on the 27th day of July 1663. BALUCLAVO, or Jambol, a fea-port town of Crimea on the Black fea, where they build (hips for the grand fignior. E. Long. 35. 15. N. Lat. 44. 50. BALUZE, Stephen, a French writer, born ii* 1651, and fome time librarian to M. Colbert. In 1693 he obtained a penfion, with the poll of diredlor of the Royal College, for writing the lives of the popes of Avignon ; both which advantages he foon loft in the fluftuation of court parties. M. Baluze is much more noted for collefting ancient MSS. and illuftrating them by notes, than famed for his owm compofitions. BALYUR, or Baliur, a fea-port of Africa in the kingdom of Dancali, about 14 hours journey weft from Babel-Mandel. It is remarkable only for being the landing place of the Abyflmian patriarch Alphonfus Mendez, with his Jefuits and Portuguefe, on April 3d 1724. The king, who had received orders from the Abyflinian emperor to give them a proper reception, defpatched his fon to meet them and condudt them to him. The royal palace they found to confift of about half a dozen of tents, and a fcore of huts, fenced about with a thorn hedge, and ftiaded by fome wild kinds of trees. Near the palace was a river, which was then quite dried up, and no water to be found but what was digged for in the channel. The hall of audience w’as only a large tent about a mufket-lhot from the reft. At the upper end wTas a kind of throne made of ftones and clay, covered wuth a carpet, and twro velvet cu- (hions. At the other end was his raajefty’s horfe, with the faddle and other accoutrements hanging on one fide ; it being the cuftom of this country for the mafter and horfe to lie together, w’hether king or fubjeft. A- round the hall were about 50 young men fitting crofs- legged ; and when the Portuguefe ambaffadors were admitted, they wrere made to fit down in the fame po- fture. Soon after came the king preceded by fome of his domeftics, one having an earthen pitcher full of hydromel. BAM Balzac, hydromel, another a cup made of porcelain, a third carrying a cocoa-fhell full of tobacco, and a fourth v bringing a hlver tobacco-pipe with fome fire. Next to them was the king, dreffed in a light filk fluff, having on his head a turban, from the rims of which hung a parcel of rings nicely wrought, which dangled before his face. He had in his hand a fliort kind of javelin, and was followed by all the chief officers of his court and houfehold. The refpedl paid him at his coming in was by Handing on their feet, and fquatting down again twice, after which they went forward to kifs his hand. BALZAC, John Lewis Guez de, born at An- gouleme in 1595. Voltaire allows him the merit of having given numbers and harmony to the French prole, but cenfures his llyle as fomewhat bombaff. 7 he critics of his own time gave him no little difquiet; and he gave them no little advantage over him by his Tal¬ lies of vanity, and fome particular propofitions which were a little dangerous. M. Balzac, getting rid of thefe difputes by his moderation, fettled at his country- feat •, refined his flyle and genius ; and got by his let¬ ters and other writings which he publifhed from time to time, the reputation of being the fir ft writer in France. He was at length drawn from his retirement By the hopes of making his fortune under Cardinal Richlieu, who had formerly courted his friendthip j but in a few years he retired again, difgufted with the fla- vhh dependence of a court life. All he obtained from the court was a penfion of 2000 livres, with the titles of counfellor of Hate and hiftoriographer of France. He died in 1654; and was buried in the hofpital of Notre Dame des Anges, to which he bequeathed I 2,000 livres. He left an eftate of 100 franks per annum, for a gold medal to be beftowed every two years for the beft difcourfe on fome moral fubje£L Be- * fides his letters he wrote a work called Oeuvres Diver- fes, i. e. on various fubje£ls •, The Prince 5 The Chri- ftian Socrates, &c. and many other pieces j all of which have been publilhed in two vols folio. BAMBA, a province of the kingdom of Congo in Africa.—It is fituated between the rivers of Ambrifi and Lofe •, the laft of which parts it from Pemba on the eaft, as the Ambrift does from the province of Sog- no on the north. Along the fea-coaft it extends it- felf northward to the river Lelunda *, and on the fouth to that of Danda, which parts it from the kingdom of Angola. The governors of this province bear the ti¬ tle of dukes, and are always fome of the princes of the royal family. They are as defpotic and arbitrary as if they were really kings, notwithftanding the care and pains their monarchs have taken to keep them within due bounds. The foil of this province is very fertile 5 and would produce all the neceffaries of life in great plenty, were the inhabitants but induftrious in its cul¬ tivation. The fea-coafts produce a vail quantity of fait, which could be purified with little trouble, and would yield an extraordinary revenue if the duties were duly paid ; but thefe the governors find means to fink moftly into their own coffers.—Here is alfo the fifhery of the zimbis, or little fea-fnail, whofe ihell is the cur- vent coin not only in this and the neighbouring king¬ doms, but alfo in the moft diftant parts of Africa. Here are alfo laid to be mines of gold, diver, quickfilver, f 357 1 BAM copper, tin, and iron ; but none except the iron mines Bamberg, are allowed to be worked. Earoboccic, BAMBERG, a large bandfome town of Franconia ' y in Germany, and capital of a biftiopric of the lame name. It was formerly imperial, but is now fubjeft to the bilhop. The country about it produces plenty of corn, fruits, and liquorice. It has an univerfity, founded in 1585 j and is fituated at the confluence oi the rivers Main and Reidnitz. E. Long. 10. 15. N. Lat. 50. to. Bamberg, a town of Bohemia, fituated at the foot of a mountain. E. Long. 16. 5c. N. Lat. 49. $3. BAMBOCCIO, a celebrated painter of converfa- tions, landfcapes, cattle, &c. was born at Laeren, near Narden, in 1613. His name was Peter an Laer } but in Italy they gave him the name of Bamboccio, on account of the uncommon Ihape of his body, the lower part being one third part longer than the upper, and his neck fo fhoit that it was buried between his' {boulders. He had, however, an ample amends for the unfeemlinefs of his limbs, in the fuperior beauties of his mind : he was endowed with an extenfive genius j and, indeed, had an univerfal tafte for every part of painting. He refided at Rome for fixteen years fuc- ceflively } every day ftudying to improve himfelf by thofe beautiful models which were continually open to his obfervation, and by the lovely fcenery in the envi¬ rons of that city. He was held in the higheft efteem by all ranks of men, as well as by thofe of his own profeflion ; not only on account of his extraordinary abilities, but alfo for the amiable qualities of his mind. He ftudied nature inceffantly *, obferving with a cu¬ rious exa£lnefs every effe6l of light on different objects, at different hours of the day j and whatfoever incident afforded pleafure to his imagination, his memory for ever perfeftly retained. His ftyle of painting is fweet and true j and his touch delicate, with great tranfparency of colouring. His figures are always of a fmall fize, well proportioned, and corredlly defigned $ and al¬ though his fubjefts are taken but from the lower kind of nature, fuch as plunderings, playing at bowls, inns, farrier fhops, cattle, or converfations ; yet whatever he painted was fo excellently defigned, fo happily exe¬ cuted, and fo highly finifhed, that his manner was a- dopted by many of the Italian painters of his time. His works are ftill univerfally admired, and he is juft- ly ranked among the firft clafs of the eminent mailers. His hand was as quick as his imagination, fo that he rarely made {ketches or defigns for any of his works j he only marked the fubjecl with a crayon on the can¬ vas, and finiftied it without more delay. His memory was amazing : for whatever objeifts he faw, if he con- fidered them with any intention to infert them in his compofitions, the idea of them was fo ftrongly impref- fed on his mind, that he could reprefent them with as much truth as if they were placed before his eyes. Sandrart obferves, that although painters who are ac~ cuftomed to a fmall fize are frequently inaccurate in the difpofition of the different parts of their fubje6l, feeming content if the whole appears natural; yet Bam- boccio was as minutely exa6l in having his figures, trees, grounds, and diftances, determined with the ut- moft precifion and perfpedftive truth, as the bell ma¬ ilers ufually are in pi&ures of the largeft fize j which \i BAM [ 353 ] BA M Eamboe, is one circumllance that caufes the eye to be fo agree- Bam- ably deluded by the paintings of Bamboccio. In the tr,., v-:_ ‘ latter part of his life, he was feverely tormented with an allhmatic complaint, which he endured with much impatience 5 and it is reported, that as the diforder leemed to him unfupportable, he threw himfelf into a canal to Ihorten his mifery, and was drowned. His death happened in 1673. BAMBOE, in Botany, the trivial name of a fpe- cies of arundo. See Arundo, Botany Index. BAMBOK-Habit; a Chinefe contrivance by which a perfon who cannot fwim may ealily keep himfelf above w'ater. The following account of it is from a letter to the author of the Seaman's Pnefervative. “ In the year 1730, I was paffenger in a Ihip from Batavia to China, burden about 400 tons, called the Pridae, Francifco Xavier commander, freighted by Englilh, Chinefe, and Portuguefe. Near the coaft of China we met one of thofe ftorms called a tuftoon (tau-fong), or a great wdnd, which carried away all our mails, bow fprit, and rudder ; and in our hold we had fix feet of water, expedling every moment the ihip would founder.—We confequently were confulting our prefer- vation : the Engliih and Portuguefe flood in their ihirts only, ready to be thrown off; but the Chinefe mer¬ chants came upon deck, not in a cork-jacket, but I wall call it a bamboe-habit, w;hich had lain ready in their chefts againft fuch dangers ; and it was thus con- itrufted ; four bamboes, two before and two behind their bodies, were placed horizontally, and projefled about 28 inches. Thefe wTere croffed on each fide by two others, and the whole properly fecured, leaving a fpace for their body ; fo that they had only to put it over their heads, and tie the fame fecurely, which wras done in two minutes, and wTe were fatisfied they could not poflibly fink.” The fhape is here fubjoined. BAMBOROUGH, an inconfiderable village in Northumberland, on the fea coaft, 14 miles north of Alnwick, was once a royal borough, and fent two members to parliament ‘ it even gave name to a large tradl extending fouthward, which was called Bam- boroughjlnre. It had alfo three religious foundations 5 a houfe of friars preachers founded by Henry III. a cell of canons regular of St Auftin, and an hofpital. Its very ancient caftle ftands on an almoft perpendicu¬ lar rock clofe to the fea, and acceflible only on the fouth-eaft fide, on a fpot where, according to the mon- kiih hiftorians, there flood the caftle or palace of the kings of Northumberland ; built, as it is laid, by King Ida, who began his reign about the year 5 $9. Part .of the prefent ruins are by fome fuppoled to be the re¬ gains of King Ida’s work. The ancient name of this 2 place was, it is faid, Bebbanborough; which name Cam- Sarti* den, from the authority of Bede, imagines borrowed borough, from Bebba, Ida’s queen ; but the author of the addi-^^ir”^ tions to that writer is of a contrary opinion, as in the Saxon copy it is called Cynclicanberg, or the “ roval manfion.” According to Florilegus, King Ida at firft fenced it only with a wooden enclofure, but afterwards furrounded it with a wall. It is thus deferibed by Roger Ploveden, who wrote in the year 1192 : “ Bebba is a very ftrong city, but not exceeding large ; containing not more than two or three acres of ground. It has but one hollowr entrance into it, which is admirably railed by fteps. On the top of the hill ftands a fair- church ; and in the weftern point is a well curi- oufly adorned, and of fweat clean water.” This caflle was befieged anno 642 by Penda, the Pagan king of the Mercians, who, as the ftory goes, attempted to burn it: for which purpofe he laid vaft quantities of wood under the w-alls, and fet fire to it as foon as the wind was favourable ; but no fooner was it kindled, than by the prayers of St Adian, the wind changed and carried the flames into his camp, fo that he was obliged to raife the fiege. In 710, King Ofred, on the death of Alfred his father, took flicker in this caftle with Bri- thric his tutor or guardian ; one Edulph having feized the crown, by whom, with his partisans, they wrre unfuccefsfully befieged. Brithric made fo gallant a defence, that the fiege wras turned into a blockade, which gave the loyal iubjefts time to arm in defence of their young king. On their marching hither to his relief, Edulph fled ; but was followed, taken, and put to death by Brithric, wrho thereby fecurely feated Of¬ red on the throne, w-hen this caftle became his palace. In the reign of Egbert, Kenulph bilhop of Lindisfarne wras confined here 30 years from 750 to 780. In 933, it was plundered and totally ruined by the Danes ; but being of great importance in defending the northern parts againft the continual incurfions of the Scots, it was foon after repaired, and made a place of confider- able ftrength. It is faid to have been in good repair at the time of the Conqueft, w-hen it w-as probably put into the cuftody of fome trufty Norman, and had in all likelihood fome additions made to its works ; and this is the more probable* as the prefent area, contained within its w-alls, meafures upw-ards of 80 acres, inftead of three, as when deferibed by Hoveden. About the year 1095 it was in poffeflion of Robert de Mow-bray earl of Northumberland, who engaging infome treafon- able praftices againft William Rufus, that king laid fiege to it, and obliged it to furrender. In the next reign it was intrufted by Henry I. to Euftace Fitz-John, who was difpoffefl'ed of it and his othej employments by King Stephen, that king being jealous of his attachment to Maud, daughter of Henry I. Irritated at this, Fitz- John delivered the caftle of Alnw-ick to David king of Scotland, and brought to his aid all the forces he could raife ; he was, however, afterw-ard reconciled to King Stephen, and held the manors of Burg and Knareiborough in Yorklhire, but never recovered the government of this caftle. In the 16th of Henry II. fome great repairs feem to have been done here, as in Madox’s hiftory of the ex¬ chequer, under the article of Amercements, it appears one William, fon of Waldef, was fined five marks for refufing his afliftance in the king’s w-orks at Baenburg caftle. Bam- borough. BAM t 35 cafilc. Its keep is fuppofed to have been the work of this reign. Edward I. (limmoned Baliol to meet him here 1296; and on his refufal invaded Scotland and took him pri- foner. Edward II. fheltered Gavefton here I310- It was taken by the Yorkifts after the battle of Hexham. In the reign of Elizabeth Sir John Forefter, warden of the marches, was governor of it, and made a knight banneret after the battle of Muffelburgh j and his grandfon John obtained a grant of both caflle and ma¬ nor from James I. His defcendant Thomas forfeited it in 1715 but his maternal uncle Nathaniel Crew bilhop of Durham purchafed and bequeathed them to unconfined charitable ufes. The ruins are Hill con- fiderable j but many of them are now filled with land, caught up by the winds which rage here with great violence, and carried to very diftant places. 1 he re¬ mains of a great hall are very fingular j it had been warmed by two fire-places of a vail fize, and from the top of every window ran a flue like that of a chimney, which reached the fummits of the battlements. I hefe flues feem defigned as fo many fupernumerary chimneys to give vent to the fmoke that the immenfe fires of thofe hofpitable times filled the rooms with ; for halls fmoky, but filled with good cheer, were in thofe days thought no inconvenience. In the year I757» t-Ile truftees for Lord Crew’s charity began the repairs of the keep or great tower ; the direction and manage¬ ment being committed to Dr Sharp archdeacon of Durham, one of their number j who has made a moil judicious and humane application of his lordihip’s ge¬ nerous bequeil. The walls are from 9 to 12 feet thick. The upper parts of the building have been formed into granaries 5 whence, in times of fcarcity, corn is fold to the indigent without any diilinftion at four ihillings per bufhel. A hall and fome fmall apartments are re- ferved by the Doctor, who frequently refides here to fee that this noble plan is properly executed.—Among the variety of diilrefled who find relief from the judi¬ cious difpofition of this charity, are the mariners navi¬ gating this dangerous coaft, lor whofe benefit a con- llant watch is kept on the top of the tower ; from whence fignals are given to the filhermen of Holy Ifland when any flop is difcovered in diftrefs, thefe fifliermen by theit fituation being able to put off their boats when none from the land can get over the break¬ ers. The fignals are fo regulated as to point out the particular place where the diftreffed vefiel lies. Be- fides which, in every great fform, two men on hoife- back patrole the adjacent coal! from fun-fet to fun-rife, who, in cafe of any fhipwreck, are to give immediate jiotice at the callle. Premiums are likewife paid for the earliefl information of any fuch misfortune. By thefe means the lives of many feamen have been, and will be, preferved, who would otherwife have periflied for want of timely afliftance. Nor does this benevo¬ lent arrangement flop here. The fhipwrecked mariner finds an hofpitable reception in this caftle; and is here maintained for a week or longer, as circumftances may require. Here, likewife, are ftore-houfes for depofit- ing the goods which may be faved 5 inftruments and tackle for weighing and raifing the funken and ftrand- ed veffels; and, to complete the whole, at the expence of this fund, the laft offices are decently performed to the bodies of fuch drowned Tailors as are caff on ftiore, 9 j BAM BAMBUCK, a country of Africa, of which the Batnbuck, following account is given by the Abbe Raynal, on , BalTllh , the credit of a modern traveller whom he does not name. “ In the interior part of Africa, under the 12th or 13th degree of north latitude, there is (fays a modern traveller) a pretty large country, known by the name of Bambuch. It is not fubjetff to a particular king j but governed by village lords, called farms. Thefe hereditary and independent chiefs are all ob¬ liged to unite for the defence of the ftate, when it is either attacked as a community, or only in one of its branches. “ The territory of this ariftocratical ftate is dry and barren. It produces neither maize, rice, nor pulfe. The infupportable heat it is fubjedt to, proceeds^ in part from its being furrounded by high mountains, which prevent the wind from refreffiing the air. The climate is as unwholefome as it is difagreeable : va ¬ pours, which continually iflue from the bowels of a foil replete with minerals, render this country unfit to live in, efpecially to ftrangers. “ It is gold that hath made this miferable country an objedt worthy of notice ; gold, which in the eyes of , the covetous man feems to compenfate for all the evils of nature, though in reality it increafes them all. This metal is fo common in this country, that it is found almoft indifcriminately everywhere. To obtain it, fometimes it is fufficient to fcrape the furface of the earth, which is clayilh, light, and mixed with fand. When the mine is very rich,, it is digged only to the depth of a few feet, and never deeper; though it has- been obferved, that the lower it was digged, the more gold the foil afforded. The miners are too indolent to purfue a toil which conftantly becomes more tedious, and too ignorant to perceive the inconveniences it, would be attended with. Their negligence and theit* folly are in this inftance fo extraordinary, that in waffl¬ ing the gold, in order to feparate it from the earth, they only preferve the larger pieces: the light parts pafs away with the water, which flows down an in¬ clined plane. “ The inhabitants of Bambuck do not work thefe mines at all times, nor are they at liberty to dp it when they pleafe. They are obliged to wait till pri¬ vate or public wants determine the farims to grant this permiffion. When it is proclaimed, all who are able to avail themfelves of this advantage meet at the ap¬ pointed place. When their work is finiihed, a divifion is made. Half of the gold goes to the lord, and the remainder is equally diftributed among the labourers. Thofe who want gold at any other time than that of the general digging, fearch for it in the beds of the n* vers, where it is very common. “ The French and Englilh have fucceffively been defirous of appropriating to themfelves thefe real or imaginary riches. Some thought they could reach this country by the Niger, others by the Salum. Far from having fucceeded in their attempts of becoming mailers of this country, they have not yet afeertained its ex- iftence. The unfuccefsfulnefs of paft efforts hath re¬ doubled the aftivity of fanguine minds j fenfible and judicious merchants have chofen to limit themfelves to a commerce much more important, which is that ot fiaves.” BAILIFF, a (hire of Scotland; comprehending past : of BAM [ 360 ] BamfF. of Buchan, with the diftrifts of Strathdevron, Boyn, Parifh. ""“Y’—"• Enzie, Strathaven, and Balvenie, extends 32 miles from eaft to weft, and 13 in breadth from north to Forglen fouth. On the fouth, it is feparated from part of Bu* Garnrie chan by the river Ugie ; on the eaft it is watered by Grange the Devron and the German ocean ; on the weft it is Inveraven bounded by the Spey and the county of Murray 5 on 15 Inverkiethnle the louth-weft, it borders on Badenoch and the Braes Keith of Mar •, and on the north, it is confined by the Mur- Kirkmichael ray Frith. The face of the country is agreeably di- Marnoch verfified with hill and dale, not without woods, wTell Mortlich watered with rivers, and exhibiting many feats and 20 Ordiquhill plantations. The air is pure and keen, the climate Rathven healthy, and the foil fertile, producing plentiful crops Rothiemay of corn. The diftrift of Buchan, extending north- 23 St Fergus wards from the river Ugie to the fea, and wTeftwfard as far as Devron, comprehending a trafl of 20 miles in length and nine in breadth, is more free from hills and mountains than any other diftridt of the fame ex¬ tent in the kingdom of Scotland. It is inhabited chief¬ ly by Lowlanders, and gives the title of earl to the family of Erfkine ; of which family, how’ever, Erlkine of Mar is the chief. The county of Bamff abounds with the neceffaries and comforts of life. The pafture- grounds yield fheep, cattle, and horfes: the arable lands produce plenty of corn •, while the rivers and fea fupply great quantities of fifti. Various minerals have been found in different parts of the (hire ; and a piece of amber, as large as a horfe, was once caft afhore on the beach. In the mountainous diftrift of Balvenie on the weftern fide of the fhire, watered by the Spey, there is a noted rock, which produces hones and whet- ftones fufficient to fupply the whole ifland. Here are alfo veins of alum ftone, and fprings of alum water. Strathallan, another diftrift to the north-eaft of Bal¬ venie, abounds with fuch plenty of limeftone, that .the inhabitants ufe it as common ftone in building their houfes ; and moreover burn a great quantity of it into lime, which they fell to good advantage in the village of Keith, on the river Devron. Along this whole coaft, there are ancient Danifh monuments, fuch as cairns, tumuli, and huge ftones (landing ere£t. In Strathaven, a hilly country, lying along the limpid river Aven, which falls into the Spey, wTe meet with Gordon caftle, belonging to the duke of Gordon, the moft princely edifice in the north of Scotland, confid¬ ing of noble apartments magnificently finifhed, and environed with fine gardens and parks w’ell ftored writh fallow-deer. The fame nobleman poffeffes feveral other feats in this county. The following is the population of the different pa- rifties of this county at two different periods: BAM Population in *755- 607 2083 1797 2464 2683 1288 <*894 2374 666 2898 1190 1271 Population iu 179°—1798. 600 2000 1572 2244 460 3°57 1276 i960 ipjg 51-7 3524 1125 j 240 BamfT II BanuyaUi 36>521 38»487 36^2I Increafe, 1966 Tarifh* 1 Aberlour Alva Bamff Bellie 5 Boharm Botriphnie Boyndie Cullen Delkford 10 Fordyce Population in I7S5- 1010 1161 3000 1730 835 953 994 900 940 3212 Population in 1790—1798. 920 1070 35*0 1919 1294 630 1260 1214 7S2 3425 Bamff, the capital of the (hire of that name in Scotland, is pleafantly fituated on the fide of a hill, at the mouth of the river Devron. It has feveral ftreetsj of which that with the towm-houfe in it, adorned with a new fpire, is very handfome. This place was ere£l- ed into a borough by virtue of a charter from Robert II. dated October 7. 1372, endowing it with the fame privileges, and putting it on the fame footing, with the burgh of Aberdeen ; but tradition fays it was founded in the reign of Malcolm Canmore. It gives title of baron to a branch of the Ogilvie family. The harbour is very bad, as the entrance at the mouth of the Devron is very uncertain, being often flopped by the (hifting of the fands, wrhich are continually changing in great ftorms *, the pier is therefore placed on the outfide. Much falmon is exported from hence. About Troop- head fome kelp is made j and the adventurers pay the lord of the manor 50I. per annum for the liberty of collefting the materials. Near the town is a moft magnificent feat lately built by the earl of Fife. It lies in a beautiful plain wafhed by the Devron, the lofty banks of which, clothed with wTood on the oppo- fite fide, afford a delightful contraft to the foft vale be¬ neath. W. Long. 2. 5. N. Lat. 57. 40. BAMIER, the name of a plant common in Egypt. It produces a pyramidal hufk, with feveral compart¬ ments, of the colour of a lemon, and filled with mufky feeds. This hulk dreffed with meat is a wholefome food, and has a very agreeable flavour. The Egyp¬ tians make great ufe of it in their ragouts. BAMIYAN, a city of Afia, fituated in the pro¬ vince of Zableftan, 10 days journey from Balkh, and eight from Gazna. It is remarkable only for its dreadful cataftrophe when taken by Jenghiz Khan in 1221. At that time the city belonged to Sultan Jalal- lodin, the laft of the famous Mahmud Gazni’s race. Jenghiz Khan was at that time about to attack Gazna, that prince’s capital; but was flopped by the garrifon of Gazna, which he had hoped would give him no trouble. In this, however, he was difappointed. The people had for a long time expefled an attack j and had therefore ruined the country for five or fix leagues round, while the peafants bad carried away the ftones, and every thing that could be of ufe to the befiegers. Accordingly, BAN [ 361 ] ' - BAN •BamotK- Accordingly, Jenghiz Khan having ere&ed wooden Basil towers, and planted his engines upon them, was in a j,J|)c (liort time obliged to give over his attacks till millftones , ' , and other materials could be brought from a great di- ftance. The walls of the city were very ftrong, fo that the engines of the Moguls made but little impreflion ; and the garrifon making frequent and furious fallies, cut off whole fquadrons of their enemies, and frequent¬ ly overthrew their towers and engines. This exceed¬ ingly chagrined jenghiz Khan j who one day returning from a fruitlefs attack, and hearing of the defeat of one of his generals by Jalallodin, fwore to be revenged on Bamiyan. This fury colt the life of one of his grandchildren ) who expofmg himfelf too much, to pleafe his grandfather, was flain with an arrow._At lali, however, by the numberlefs multitude of the Mo¬ guls, who continued the attacks without intermiffion, the city was taken, after its walls had been ruined in many places, and the braved: foldiers and officers of the garrifon flain in its defence. The mother of the young prince who had been killed entering with the troops, and more deferving the name of a fiend than a woman, caufed the throats of all the inhabitants to be cut, without excepting one. She even gave orders to rip up the bellies of all the women with child, that not an infant might be left alive. In fhort, to gratify the rage of this inhuman monfter, the buildings were all levelled with the ground ; the cattle, and every living creature, deftroyed •, infomuch that the hardened Moguls them- felves gave this place the name of Mauba/ig, which in their language fignifies the unfortunate city. A ftrong caftle has fince been built out of its ruins. BAMOTH-baal, in Ancient Geography, one of the towns of the tribe of Reuben, which feems alfo to have had a temple of Baal on an eminence ; lying •eaftwards, and not far from the river Arnon, and the territory of Moab. Jerome calls it Bamoth, a city of the Amorites, beyond Jordan, in the poflefTion of the fons of Reuben. Whether the fame with that men¬ tioned Numb. xxi. is doubtful, from the difagreement of interpreters •, and yet we may admit it to be the place of encampment of the Ifraelites, and of Balaam’s firlt ftation, or where he had the firfl view of the rear of the people. B AMPTON, a town of Devonfhire, fituated in a bottom furrounded with high hills. W. Long. 4. 25. N. Lat. 51. 5. BAN, or Bans. See Bank. Ban, in Commerce, a fort of fine fmooth muflin, which the Englilh import from the Eaft Indies. The piece is almoft a yard broad, and runs about 20 yards and a half. BANANA tree, a fpecies of the mufa or plan¬ tain. See Musa, Botany Index. BANARES, or Benares, a handfome town of Afia, in the dominions of the Great Mogul, greatly celebrated for its fanftity, and being the univerfity of the Indian Bramins. It is feated on the north fide of the river Ganges, in E. Long. 82. 30. N. Lat. 26. 20. See Observatory. BANBURY, a town of Oxfordlhire in England,, fituated on the river Charwell, in W. Long. 1. 20. N. Lat. 52. o. It fends one member to parliament. BANC, or Benca, in Law, denotes a tribunal, or Voi. III. Part I, judgment-feat; hence king's banc is the fame with the Banc? court of kinfs bench, and common banc with that of „ K common pleas. , BANCI jus, or the privilege of having a bench, was anciently only allowed to the king’s judges, qui fummam adminiftrant jufitiam. Inferior courts, as courts-baron, hundred courts, &c. were not allowed that prerogative ; and even at this day the hundred- court at Freibridge in Norfolk is held under an oak at Gey-wood ; and that of Woolfry in Herefordftiire, under an oak near Aftiton in that county, called Hundred oak. BANCA, an ifland of Afia in the Eaft Indies, be¬ tween Sumatra and Borneo 5 from the firft of which it is feparated only by a narrow channel. This ifiand is famous on account of its tin mines. The prince of the illand, who is alfo pofleffor of the territory of Palam- bang on the river of the fame name in Sumatra, where he has his conftant refidence, had a contraft with the Dutch by wdiofe troops his authority and independence are preferved, for the tin which he compels his fub- jefls to deliver to him at a low price. Their profit it is faid, was not lefs than 150,000!. annually. In con- fequence of the perfection which the miners had arrived at in the redudtion of the ore, the tin of this illand was preferred to the tin from Europe at the Canton mar¬ ket. E. Long. 105. 10. N. Lat. 13. 25. BANCALIS, a fea-port town on the eaft coaft of the illand of Sumatra, where the Dutch have a fettle- ment. E. Long. 99. 7. N. Lat. 1.5. BANCK, Pete*. Vander, an engraver of confider- able repute, was born at Paris, and received his in- ftrudtions in the art from the celebrated Francois de Poilly. He came over into England with Gafcar the painter, about the year 1674 j and married the lifter of a gentleman of eftate in Hertfordlhire, named Fo- refter. He was a laborious artift : but the pay he re¬ ceived for his plates being by no means adequate to the time he bellowed upon them, he was reduced to want; and, retiring from bufinefs, fought an afylum in the. houfe of his brother-in-law. He died at Brad- field, and was buried in the church there, in 1674 ; leaving his widow in pofieffion of the chief part of his plates, which he difpofed of to Brown, a print- feller, to great advantage, and left -an eafy fortune.—• His chief employment was engraving of portraits *, and, according to Virtue’s account of this artift publilhed by the Hon. Mr Walpole, he was the firft in England who engraved them on fo large a feale. But even their novelty, it feems, added to their merit, could not fuf- ficiently recommend them to fupport the artift. Like many of Poilly’s difciples,' his great merit, according to Mr Strutt, confifts in the laboured neatnefs and management of the mechanical part of the art. Free¬ dom, harmony, and chaftenefs of outline, are by no means the charadferiftic of his prints. However, though they cannot rank with the fuperior produdlions of Edelink or Nantueil, &c. they have their lhare of me¬ rit j and doubtlefs will be always efteemed in England, as preferving the beft refemblance of many eminent perfons who were living at that time. BANCO, an Italian word which fignifies bank. It is commonly ufed to fignify the bank of Venice. BANCOCK, a town of-the kingdom of Siam in Z z Afiaj Bard Bandajre. B A* N [36 Afia, with a fort, which was once in the poffeflion of the French, but they were driven from it in 1688. E. Long. iox. 5. N. Lat. 13. 25. BAND, in a general fenle, fome fmall narrow7 li¬ gament, wherewith any thing is bound, tied, or fa¬ ttened. Band, in Architecture, a general name for any flat low member, or moulding, that is broad but not very deep. Band of Soldiers, in Military Affairs, thofe who fight under the fame flag or enfigm Band of Benf oners, a company of 120 gentlemen, who receive a yearly allowance of tool, for attending on his majefty on folemn occafions. Band is alfo the denomination of a military order in Spain, inftituted by Alphonfirs XI. king of Caftile, for the younger fons of the nobility ; who, before their ad- miflion, mutt ferve 10 years at leaft, either in the army or at court 5 and are bound to take up arms for the ca¬ tholic faith againft the infidels. Band, in Surgery. See Bandage. BANDA islands, the general name of five iflands in the Eaft Indies, belonging to the Dutch. Two of them are uncultivated, and almolf entirely uninhabited j the other three claim the diftindlion of being the only iflands in the world that produce the nutmeg. If we except this valuable fpice, the iflands of Banda, like all the Moluccas, are barren to a dreadful degree. What they produce in fuperfluities they w7ant in necef- faries. The land will not bring forth any kind of corn ; and the pith of the fago ferves the natives of the coun¬ try inflead of bread. As this food is not fufficient for the Europeans who fettle in the Moluccas, they are allowed to fetch pro- vifions from Java, Macaffar, or the extremely fertile ifland of Bali. The company itfelf carries fome mer- chandife to Banda. , This is the only fettlement in the Eaft Indies that •can be confidered as an European colony 5 becaufe it is the only one where the Europeans are proprietors of lands. The company finding that the inhabitants of Banda were favage, cruel, and treacherous, becaufe they w7ere impatient under their yoke, refolved to ex¬ terminate them. Their poffeflions w7ere divided among the white people, who got flaves from fome of the neigh¬ bouring iflands to cultivate the lands. Thefe white people are for the moft part Creoles, or malecontents who have quitted the fervice of the country. In the fmall ifland of Rofinging, there are likewufe feveral ban¬ ditti, whom the law7s have branded with difgrace ; and young men of abandoned principles, whofe families wanted to get rid of them : fo that Banda is called the inland of correBion. The climate is fo unhealthy, that thefe unhappy men live but a ftiort time. It is on ac¬ count of the lofs of fo great a number of hands, that attempts have been made to transfer the culture of the nutmeg to Amboyna ; and the company were likewife probably influenced by two other ftrong motives of in¬ tercity as their trade would be carried on with lefs ex¬ pence and greater fafety. But the experiments that have been made have proved unfuccefsful, and matters Yemain in their former ftate. BANDAGE, in Surgery, a fillet, roller, or fwath, tjfed in drelfmg and binding up wounds, reftraining 2 ] BAN dangerous hemorrhagies, and in joining fra&ured and Barulaker diflocated bones. || BANDALEER, or Bandeleer, in Military Af . ^an^lt:th _ fairs, a large leathern belt, thrown over the right ' fhoulder, and hanging under the left arm •, worn by the ancient mufqueteers, both for the fuftaining of their fire-arms, and for the carriage of their mulket charges, which being put up in little wooden cafes, coated with leather, were hung, to the number of twelve, to each bandaleer. BANDELET, or Bandlet, in Archite&ure, any little band, or flat moulding, as that which crowns the Doric architrave. BANDER Congo, a fmall fea-port town in Afia, - feated on the Perfian gulf. E. Long. 54. 10. N. Lat,. 19. o. t BANDERET, a general, or one of the comman¬ ders in chief of the forces.—This appellation Is given to the principal commanders of the troops of the canton of Bern in Switzerland, where there are four banderets, who command all the forces of that canton. BANDEROLE, a little flag, in form of a guidon, extended more in length than in breadth, ufed to be hung out on the mafts of veffels, &c. BANDITTI, from the Italian bandito; perfons proferibed, or, as we call it, outlawed : fometimes denominated bSnniti or fo7'is banniti. It is alio a denomination given to highwaymen or robbers who in fell the roads in troops, efpecially in Italy, France, and Sicily. Mr Brydone, ih his Tour through Sicily, informs us, that in the eaftern part, called ValDenioni, from the devils that are fuppofed to inhabit Mount i£tna, it has ever been found altogether impraclicable to extirpate the banditti; there being numberlefs ca¬ verns and fubterraneous palfages round that mountain, where no troops could poffibly purfue them : be- fideS, they are known to be perfeftly determined and refolute, never failing to take a dreadful revenge on all who have offended them. Hence the prince of Villa Franca has embraced it, not only as the fafeft, but likewife as the wifeft and moft political fcheme, to be¬ come their declared patron and proteftor: and fuch of them as think proper to leave their mountains and forefts, though perhaps only for a time, are fure to meet with good encouragement and a certain protec¬ tion in his fervice, where they enjoy the moft un¬ bounded confidence, which, in no inftance, they have ever yet been found to make an improper or a diftioneft ufe of. They are clothed in the prince’s livery, yel¬ low and green, with filver lace ; and wear likewife a badge of their honourable order, which entitles them to univerfal fear and refpeft from the people. In fome circumftances, thefe banditti are the moft refpedftable people of the ifland, and have by much the high eft and moft romantic notions of what they call their point of honour. However criminal they may be with regard to fociety in general; yet, with refpeft to one another, and to every perfon to whom they have once profeffed it, they have ever maintained the moft unftiaken fidelity. The magiftrates have of¬ ten been obliged to protefl them, and pay them court, as they are known to be perfeftly determined and defperate, and fo extremely vindictive, that they will certainly put any perfon to death that has ever given BAN [ 363 ] BAN Band ora given them juft caufe of provocation. On the other II hand, it never was known that any perfon who had Bangor, ^ hjmfe]f under their protedlion, and ftiowed that he had confidence in them, had caufe to repent of it, or was injured by any of them in the moft minute trifle j but, on the contrary, they will protect him from im- pofitions of every kind, and fcorn to go halves with the landlord, like moft other conduftors and tra¬ velling fervants, and will defend him with their lives if there is occafion. Thofe of their number who have thus enlifted themfelves in the fervice of fociety, are known and refpected by the other banditti all over the illand and the perfons of thofe they accompany are ever held facred. For thefe reafons, moft travellers choofe to hire a couple of them from town to town j and mav thus travel over the whole ifland in fafety. * BANDORA, the capital of the illand of Salfet, on the weft coaft of the peninfula on this fide the Ganges. It is feparated from the illand of Bombay by a narrow channel, and fubjefl to the Portuguefe. E. Long. 72. 30. N. Lat. 19. o. BANDORE, the name of a mufical inftrument with firings, refembling a lute, and faid to be invent¬ ed in the fourth year of Queen Elizabeth, by John Rofe, a citizen of London. BANDY-legs, from the French bander, ‘ to bend,’ a diftortion of the legs, when they turn either inward or outward on either fide; arifing from fome defedl in the birth, or imprudence in the nurfe, endeavour¬ ing to make a child Hand or wralk before his legs were ftrong enough or fuftain the weight of his body. See Valgus. BANE (from the Saxon bana, a murderer), figni- fies deftru&ion or overthrow. Thus, “ I will be the bane of fuch a man,” is a common faying. So, when a perfon receives a mortal injury by any thing, we fay, “ it was his bane p’ and he who is the caufe of ano¬ ther man’s death, is faid to be le bane, i. e. a malefac¬ tor. BANFF. SeeBAMFF. BANGHIR, a town of Ireland, in King’s county in the province of Leinfter, feated on the river Shannon. W. Long. 8. 5. N. Lat. 53. 10. BANGLE ears, an imperfe6tion in a horfe, reme¬ died in the following manner. Place his ears in fuch a manner as you would have them Hand bind them ivith two little boards fo fail that they cannot ftir, and then clip away all the empty wrinkled Ikin clofe by the head. BANGIUS, Thomas, a Danilh divine, and an elegant Latin writer on the origin of languages and a variety other fubjedds. He died in 1661. BANGOR, an epifcopal city of Caernarvonlhire in North Wales. In ancient times it was fo confiderable, that it was called Bangor the Great, and defended by a ftrong caftle *, but it is now a very mean place •, the principal buildings being the cathedral, the bifhop’s palace, and free fchool. The fee is of very great antiquity, and its founder unknown. The church is dedicated to St Daniel, who was biihop here about the year $16 •, but for near 500 years afterwards, there is no certainty of the names of his fucceiTors. Owen Gdendower greatly defaced the cathedral church *, but Biihop Dean repaired it again. This fee met a ftill more cruel ravager than Owen Glendower, in the per¬ fon of Biihop Bulkeley ; who not only alienated many Bangor, of the lands belonging to it, but even fold the bells of ^ai1gue- the church. This diocefe.contains the whole of Caer- narvonihire except three parilhes, the Ihire of Anglefey, and part of the Ihires of Denbigh, Merioneth, and Montgomery ; in which are 107 parilhes, whereof 36 are impropriated. It has three archdeaconries, viz. Ban¬ gor, Anglefey, and Merioneth j of which the two firft are commonly annexed to the bilhopric for its better fupport. This fee is valued in the king’s books at 131I. 16s. 4d. and is computed to be worth annually 1200I. The tenths of the clergy are 15xl. 14s. q^d. To the cathedral there belong a biihop, a dean, an archdeacon, a treafurer, and two prebendaries, endow¬ ed j a precentor, a chancellor, and three canons, not endowed ; three vicars choral, an orgapift, lay-clerks, chorifters, and two officers. W. Long. 4. 10. N. Lat. S3- 2°- ' . Bangor, a town of Ireland, in the county of Down and province of Ulfter. It is feated on the fouth Ihore of the bay of Garrick Fergus, oppofite to the town of that name ; and fends two members to parliament, W. Long. 6. N. Lat. 54. 42. BANGUE, a fpecies of opiate, in great ufe through¬ out the call:, for drowning cares and infpiring joy—- This by the Perfians is called beng; by the Arabs, ejjrar, corruptly ajferal, and ajjarth ; by the Turks, bengitie, and vulgarly called majlach; by the Euro¬ pean naturalifis, bangue or bang.—It is the leaf of a kind of wild hemp, growing in the countries of the Levant •, it differs little, either as to leaf or feed, from our hemp, except in fize. Some have miftaken it for a fpecies of althaea. There are divers manners of preparing it, in different countries. Olearius defcribes the metlqod ufed in Per- fia. Mr Sale tells us, that, among the Arabs, the leaf is made into pills, or conferves. But the moft diftindl account is that given by Alexander Maurocordato, counfellor and phyfician of the Ottoman Porte, in a letter to Wedelius. According to this author, bangue is made of the leaves of wild hemp, dried in the ffiade, then ground to powder ; put into a pot wherein butter has been kept •, fet in an oven till it begin to terrify ; then taken out, and pulverized again *, thus to be ufed occafionally, as much at a time as tvill lie on the point of a knife. Such is the Turkiih bangue.—The effefts of this drug are, To confound the underftanding fet the imagination loofe ; induce a kind of folly and for- getfulnefs, wherein all cares are left, and joy and gaiety take place thereof. Bangue, in reality, is a fucceda- neum to wine, and obtains in thofe countries wrhere Mahometanifm is eftablilhed •, which prohibiting the ufe of that liquor abfolutely, the poor muffelmans are forced to have recourfe to fuccedanea, to roufe their fpirits. The principal are opium and this bangue. As to the opinion among Europeans, that the Turks prepare themfelves for {rattle by a dofe of bangue, which roufes their courage, and drives them, with eagernefs, to certain death ; Dr Maurocordato affures . us, that it is a popular error ; the Turks think they are then going affuredly to receive the crown of mar¬ tyrdom •, and w'ould not, for any confideration, lofe the merit of it, which they would do, by eating the * bangue, as being held unlawful by their apoftle, among other things which intoxicate. Z z 2 BANIALUCH. BAN Bamaluch Banians Diftcv. Relig. Ba- *iian. BANIALUCH, or Bagnaluch, a city of Euro¬ pean Turkey, the capital of Bofnia, upon the frontiers . of Dalmatia, near the river Setina. E. Long. 18. 2C. N. Lat. 44. 20. , BANIaN-tree. See Ficus, Botany Index. BANIANS, a religious left in the empire of the Mogul, who believe a metempfychofis ; and will there¬ fore eat no living creature, nor kill even noxious ani¬ mals, but endeavour to releafe them when in the hands of others—The name of Banian is ufed with fome diverfity, which has occafioned much confufion, and many miftakes. Sometimes it is taken in a lefs proper fenfe, and extended to all the idolaters of India, as contradiftinguilhed from the Mahometans : in which fenfe, Banians includes the Bramins and other calls. Banians, in a more proper fenfe, is reftrained to a pe¬ culiar call, or tribe, of Indians, whofe office or pro- feffion is trade and merchandife : in which fenfe, Ba¬ nians Hand contradillinguifhed from Bramins, Cattery, and Wyfe, the three other calls into which the Indians are divided. The four calls are abfolutely feparate as to occupation, relation, marriage, &c. though all of the fame religion; which is more properly denominated the religion of the Bramins, who make the eccleliaflical tribe, than of the Banians, who make the mercantile. The proper Banians are called, in the JloaJler, or book of their law, by the name of Shuddery ; under which are comprehended all who live after the manner of merchants, or that deal and tranfaft for others, as bro¬ kers } exclulive of the mechanics, or artificers, who make another call, called Wyfe. Thefe Banians have no peculiar feft or religion, unlefs it be, that two of the eight general precepts given by their legillator Brama to the Indian nation, are, on account of the profeffion of the Banians, fuppofed more immediately to relate to them, viz. thofe which enjoin veracity in their word and dealings, and avoiding all praftices of circumvention in buying and felling. Some of the Banians, quitting their profeffion, and retiring from the world, commence religious, affume a peculiar habit, and devote themfelves more immediately to God, under the denomination oiVertea. Thefe, though they do not hereby change their cad, are commonly reckoned as bramins of a more devout kind •, much as monks in the Romilh church, though frequently not in orders, are reputed as a more facred order than the regular clergy. The name Banian imports as much, in the Bramin lan¬ guage (wherein their law is written), as a people in¬ nocent and harmlefs 5 void of all guile ; fo gentle, that they cannot endure to fee either a fly or a worm injured j and who, when flruck, will patiently bear it, without refilling or returning the blow.—Their mien and *appearance is defcribed by Lord *, in terms a little precife, but very fignificant: “ A people prefented themfelves to my eyes clothed in linen garments; fome- what low defcending ; of a geflure and garb, as I may fay, maidenly, and well nigh effeminate ; of a counte¬ nance fhy and fomewhat eifranged.^ Gemelli Careri divides the Banians into 22 tribes, all diifinft, and not allowed to marry with each other. Lord affures us they are divided into 82 caffs or tribes, correfpondent to the caffs or divifions of the Bramins or priefts, un¬ der whofe difcipline'they are as to religious matters; though the generality of the Banians choofe to be un- [ 364 1 BAN der the direftion of the two Bramin tribes, the Vifal- nagranaugers and Vulnagranaugers. The Banians are the great faftors, by whom moft ^ of the trade of India is managed ; in this refpeft, ' comparable to the Jews and Armenians, and not be¬ hind either, in point of ikill and experience, in what¬ ever relates to commerce. Nothing is bought but by their mediation. They feem to claim a kind of jus divinum to the adminiftration of the traffic of the na¬ tion, grounded on their facred books, as the Bramins do that of religion. They are difperfed, for this purpofe, through all parts of Afia, and abound in Perfia, particularly at Ifpahan and Gombroon, where many of them are extremely rich, yet not above aft- ing as brokers* where a penny is to be got. The chief agents of the Englifh, Dutch, and French Eall India Companies, are of this nation ; they are faithful, and are generally trufted with the cafh of thofe companies in their keeping. They aft alfo as bankers, and can give bills of exchange for moft cities in the Eaft In¬ dies. Their form of contraft in buying and felling is remarkable; being done without words, in the pro- foundeft filence, only by touching each other’s fingers : the buyer loofing his pamerin or girdle, fpreads it on his knee, and both he and the feller having their hands underneath, by the intercourfe of the fingers, mark the price of pounds, fhillings, &c. demanded, offered, and at length agreed on. When the feller takes the buyer’s whole hand, it denotes a thoufand ; and, as many times as he fqueezes it, as many thou¬ fand pagods, or rupees, according to the fpecies in queftion, are demanded : when he only takes the five fingers, it denotes five hundred ; and when only one, one hundred : taking only half a finger, to the fecond joint, denotes fifty ; the fmall end of the finger, to the firll joint, ftands for ten. BANIE, Anthony, licentiate in laws, member of the academy of infcriptions and belles lettres, and ec- clefiaftic of the diocefe of Clermont in Auvergne ; died in November 1741, aged 69. He is principally cele¬ brated for his tranflation of the Metamorphofes of Ovid, with hirtorical remarks and explanations; which was publifhed in 1732, at Amfterdam, in folio, finely orna¬ mented with copperplates, by Picart ; and reprinted at Paris 1738, in two vols 4to : and for his Mythology, or Fables of the Ancients, explained by hiftory ; a work full of the moft important information, which was tranflated into Englifh, and printed at London in 1741, in 4 vols 8vo. BANISHMENT, exile, among us is of two kinds : the one voluntary, and upon oath ; the other by com- pulfion, for fome offence or crime. The former pro¬ perly called abjuration, is norv ceafed ; the latter is chiefly enjoined by judgment of parliament. Yet out¬ lawing and tranfportation may alfo be confidered as fpecies of exile. BANISTER, John, a phyfician and furgeon in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was educated at Oxford, where, fays Anthony Wood, he ftudied logicals for a time ; but afterwards applied himfelf folely to phyfic and furgery. In 1573 he took the degree of bachelor of phyfic ; and, obtaining a licenfe from the univer- fity to praftife, fettled at Nottingham, where he lived' many years in great repute, and wrote feveral medical treatifes- Blnie 1! Banifter. BAN [ 365 ] BAN Bank. I. Compa¬ ny-banks. Bank of England ; its eita- bliihinent, Banffteria treatifes. His works were collected and publilhed in 1633, 4to. BANISTERIA. See Botany Index. BANK, in Commerce, a common repofitory, where many perfons agree to keep their money, to be al¬ ways ready at their call or direction : or, certain fo- cieties or communities, who take the charge of other people’s money, either to improve it, or to keep it fecure. The firft inftitution of banks was in Italy, where the Lombard Jews kept benches in the market-places for the exchange of money and bills} and banco being the Italian name for bench, banks took their title from this word. Banks are of two principal kinds. 1. One fort is either public, confiding of a company of moneyed men, who being duly eftablilhed, and incorporated by the laws of their country, agree to depofite a confiderable fund, or joint ftock, to be employed for the ufe of the fpciety, as in lending money upon good fecurity, buying and felling bullion, difcounting bills of exchange, &.C.: or private, i. e. fet up by private perfons, or partner- (hips, who deal in the fame way as the former upon their own fingle ftock and credit. The greateft bank of circulation in Europe is the Bank of England. The company was incorporated by Duinmenr, parliament in the fifth and fixth years of King William regulation’s, and Queen Mary, by the name of The Governors and import ance, Company of the Bank of England: in confideration of 8w:* the loan of 1,200,000!. granted to the government; for which the fubfcribers received almoft 8 per cent. By this charter, the company are not to borrow under their common feal, unlefs by adt of parliament ; they are not to trade, or fuffer any perfon in truft for them to trade, in any goods or merchandife ; but they may deal in bills of exchange, in buying or felling bullion, and foreign gold and filver coin, &c. By an aft of parliament palled in the 8th and 9th years of William III. they were empowered to enlarge their capital ftock to 2,201,171!. 10s. It was then alfo enafted, that bank-ftock fhould be a perfonal, and not a real eftate ; that no contraft either in word or writ¬ ing for buying or felling bank-ftock, ftiould be good in law, unlefs regiftered in the books of the bank within 7 days, and the ftock transferred in 14 days; and that it {hall be felony, without benefit of clergy, to counter¬ feit the common feal of the bank, or any fealed bank- bill, or any bank-note, or to alter or erafe fuch bills or notes. By another aft paffed in the 7th of Queen Anne, the company were empowered to augment their capital to 4,402,343!. and they then advanced 400,000 more to the government; and in I7I4» advanced another loan of 1,500,000!. In the third year of the reign of King George I. the intereft of their capital ftock was reduced to 5 per cent, when the bank agreed to deliver up as many ex¬ chequer bills as amounted to 2,000,000!. and to ac¬ cept an annuity of ico,oool. and it was declared lawr- ful for the bank to call from their members,, in propor¬ tion to their interefts in the capital ftock, fuch fums of money as in a general court ftiould be round neceffary. If any member ftiould negleft to pay his ftiare of the moneys fo called for, at the time appointed by notice in the London Gazette, and fixed upon the Royal Ex¬ change, it fhould be lawful for the bank, not only to flop the dividend of fuch member, and to apply it to- ^ wards payment of the money in queftion, but alfo to flop the transfers of the fhare of fuch defaulter, and to charge him with an intereft of 5 p£t' cent. per annum, for the money fo omitted to be paid ; and ii tne prin¬ cipal and intereft ftiould be three months unpaid, the bank (hould then have power to fell fo much of the ftock belonging to the defaulter as would fatisfy the fame. After this, the bank reduced the intereft of the 2,000,cool, lent to the government, from 5 to 4 per cent, and purchafed feveral other annuities, which were afterwards redeemed by the government, and the na¬ tional debt due to the bank reduced to i,6oc,oool. But in 1742, the company engaged to fupply the go¬ vernment with i,6oo,oool. at 3 per cent, which is now called the 3 per cent, annuities; fo that the govern¬ ment was now indebted to the company 3,200,000!. the one half carrying 4, and the other 3 per cent. In the(year 1746, the company agreed that the fum of 986,800!. due to them in the exchequer bills unfa- tisfied, on the duties for licenfes to fell fpirituous li¬ quors by retail, ftiould be cancelled, and in lieu thereof to accept of an annuity of 39,442!. the intereft of that fum at 4 per cent. The company alfo agreed to advance the further fum of i,ooo,oool. into the exche¬ quer, upon the credit of the duties arifing by the malt and land tax at 4 per cent, for exchequer bills to be blued for that purpofe ; in confideration of which, the company wrere enabled to augment their capital with 986,800!. the intereft of which, as well as that of the other annuities, was reduced to 34 per cent, till the 25th of December 1757, and from that time to carry- only 3 per cent. And in order to enable them to circulate the faid. exchequer bills, they eftabliihed what is now called bank circulation. The nature of wrhich may be under- ftood from what follows. The company of the bank are obliged to keep caftr fufficient not only to anfwer the common, but alfo any extraordinary demand that may be made upon them 5 and whatever money they have by them, over and a- bove the fum fuppofed neceflary for thefe purpofes, they employ in what may be called the trade of the company, that is to fay, in difcounting bills of exchange, in buy¬ ing of gold and filver, and in government fecurities, &c. But when the bank entered into the above-men¬ tioned contraft, as they did not keep unemployed a larger fum of money than what they deemed neceffary to anfwer their ordinary and extraordinary demands, they could not conveniently take out of their current caflr fo large a fum as a million, with which they were obliged to furnifh the government, wuthout either lei- fening that fum they employed in difcounting, buying gold and filver, &c. (which would have been very dif- advantageous to them), or inventing fome method that fhould anfwer all the purpofes of keeping the million in caftr. The method which they chofe, and which, fully anfwers their end, w'as as follows : They opened a fubfeription, which they renew an¬ nually, for a million of money; wherein the fubfcribers advance 10 per cent, and enter into a contraft to pay the remainder, or any part thereof, whenever the bank {hall call upon them, under penalty of forfeiting the 10 per cent, fo advanced; in confideration of which, the bank pays the fubfcribers 4 per cent, intereft foe. th-5 Bank. Bfmk. BAN [ 366 the money paid in, and ^ per cent, for the whole fum they agree to furnifh j and in cafe a call fhall be made upon them for the whole, or any part thereof, the banl^ further agrees to pay them at the rate of 5 per cent, per annum for fuch fum till they repay it, which they are under an obligation to do at the end of the year. By this means the bank obtains all the purpofes of keeping a million of money by them ; and though the fubfcribers, if no call is made upon them (which is in general the cafe), receive per cent, for the money they advance, yet the company gains the fum of 2^,$00 per annum by the contra# j as will appear by the following account : The bank receives from the government for the advance of a million - £% 30,000 The bank pays the fubfcribers who advance loo,oool. and engage to pay (when called for) 900,000!. more 6,500 The clear gain to the bank thereof is 23,500 This is the ftate of the cafe, provided the company fhould make no call on the fubfcribers; which they will be very unwilling to do, becaufe it would not on¬ ly lefifen their profit, but affe# the public credit in ge¬ neral. ' Bank-flock may not improperly be called a trading finch, fince with this they deal very largely in foreign gold and filver, in difcounting bills of exchange, &c. Befides wdrich, they are allowed by the government very confiderable fums annually for the management of the annuities paid at their office. All which advan¬ tages render a (hare in their flock very valuable $ though it is not equal in value to the Eafl India flock. The company make dividends of the profits half year¬ ly, of which notice is publicly given ; when thofe who have occafion for their money may readily receive it j but private perfons, if they judge convenient, are per¬ mitted to continue their funds, and to have their inte- refl added to the principal. This company is under the direction of a governor, deputy-governor, and 24 diredlors, who are annually elefted by the general court, in the fame manner as in the Eafl India Company. Thirteen, or more, com- pofe a court of direftors for managing the affairs of the company. The officers of this company are very nu¬ merous. The ftability of the bank of England is equal to that of the Britiffi government. All that it has advanced to the public muff be loll before its creditors can fu- llain any lofs. No other banking company in England can be eflablifhed by a# of parliament, or can confifl of more than fix members. It ads, not only as an or¬ dinary bank, but (as we have already feen) as a great engine of ftate \ receiving and paying the greater part of the annuities which are due to the creditors of the public ; circulating exchequer bills ; and advancing to government the annual amount of the land and malt taxes, which are frequently not paid up till fome years thereafter. It likewife has, upon feveral different oc- cafions, fupported the credit of the principal houfes, not only in England, but of Hamburgh and Holland. Upon one occafion it is faid to have advanced for this purpofe, in one wTeek, about 600,000b a great part of it in bullion. 1 ] BAN . In Scotland there are two public banks, both at E- Bank, dinburgh, I he one, called doe Bank of Scotland, was "v ' eflablifhed by ad of parliament in 1695 •, the other. ?cotch called The^Royal Bank, by royal charter in 1727. blk^f5* Within thefe 30 years there have alfo been ereded private, private banking companies in almoft every confiderable town, and even in fome villages. Hence the bufinefs of the country is almoft entirely carried on by paper- currency, L e.by the notes of thofe different banking companies > with which purchafes and payments of all kinds are commonly made. Silver very feldom appears, except in the change of a twenty-fhilling bank-note, and gold ftili feldomer. But though the condud of all thofe different companies has not been unexceptionable, and has accordingly required an ad of parliament to regulate it ; the country, notwithftanding, has evident¬ ly derived great beneift from their trade. It has been afferted, that the trade of the city of Glafgow doubled in about 15 years after the firft eredion of the banks there ; and that the trade of Scotland has more than quadrupled fince the firft eredion of the two public banks at Edinburgh. Whether the trade, either of Scotland in general, or of the city-of Glafgow' in par¬ ticular, has really increafed in fo great a proportion, during fo ffiort a period, w’e do not pretend to know'. If either of them has increafed in this proportion, it feems to be an effed too great to be accounted for by the foie operation of this caufe. That the trade and induftry of Scotland, however, have increafed very con- fiderably during this period, and that the banks have contributed a good deal to this increafe, cannot be doubted. The value of the filver money which circulated in Smith's Scotland before the Union in 1707, and wffiich imme- Wealth vf diately after it was brought into the bank of Scotland Nations, in order to be recoined, amounted to 411,117I. 10s. pd. J?* Sterling. No account has been got of the gold coin : ll' but it appears from the ancient accounts of the mint of Scotland, that the value of the gold annually coined fomewhat exceeded that of the filver. There were a good many people too upon this occafion, who, from a diffidence of repayment, did not bring their filver into the bank of Scotland j and there was, befides, fome Englifh coin, wffiich was not called in. The whole va¬ lue of the gold and filver, therefore, which circulated in Scotland before the Union, cannot be eftimated at lefs than a million Serling. It feems to have confti- tuted alrnofl the wffiole circulation of that country ; for though the circulation of the bank of Scotland, which had then no rival, W'as confiderable, it feems to have made but a very fmall part of the whole. In the prefent times, the whole circulation of Scotland cannot be eftimated at lefs than two millions, of which that part which confifts of gold and filver molt probably does not amount to half a million. But though the cir¬ culating gold and filver of Scotland have fuffered fo great a diminution during this period, its real riches and profperity do not appear to have fuffered any. Its agriculture, raanufadures, and trade, on the contrary, the annual produce of its land and labour, have evi¬ dently been augmented. It is chiefty by difcounting bills of exchange, that Difcount- is, by advancing money upon them before they are ir]£ Qf due, that the greater part of banks and bankers iffue bilis’ their promiffory notes. They dedud ahvays upon what¬ ever Bank- BAN [ 367 ] ever fum they advance, the legal intereft till the bill BAN Bank. Cafh-ac counts. Advan- (hall become due. The payment of the bill, when it becomes due, replaces to the bank the value of what had been advanced, together with a clear profit of the intereff. The banker, who advances to the merchant whofe bill he difcounts not gold and filver, but his own promiffbry notes, has the advantage of being able to difcount to a greater amount, by the whole value of his promiffbry notes, which he finds by experience are commonly in circulation. He is thereby enabled to make his clear gain of intereft on fo much larger a fum. The commerce of Scotland, which at prefent is not very great, was ftill more inconfiderable when the two firft banking companies wrere eftablifhed *, and thofe companies wmuld have had but little trade, had they confined their bufmefs to the difcounting of bills of ex¬ change. They invented, therefore, another method of iffuing their promiflbry notes, by granting what they called, ca/h-accounts; that is, by giving credit to the extent of a certain fum ( 2000I. or 3000I. for exam¬ ple), to -any individual wrho could procure two perfons of undoubted credit and good landed eftate to become furety for him, that whatever money fhould be advan¬ ced to him within the fum for wdlich the credit had been given fhould be repaid upon demand, together with the legal intereft. Credits of this kind are com¬ monly granted by banks and bankers in all different parts of the world. But the eafy terms on w?hich the Scots banking companies accept of repayment are pe¬ culiar to them, and have perhaps been the principal thefS *r0m cau^e’ l^le great tr«de of thofe companies and of the benefit which the country has received from it. Whoever has a credit of this kind with one of thofe companies, and borrows icool. upon it, for example, may repay this fum piecemeal, by 20I. and 30I. at a time, the company difcounting a proportionable part of the intereft of the great fum from the day on which each of thofe fmall fums is paid in, till the whole be in this manner repaid. All merchants, therefore, and almoft all men of bufinefs, find it convenient to keep fuch cafh-accounts with them ; and are thereby inte- eanks, and refted to promote the trade of thofe companies, by rea¬ dily receiving their notes in all payments, and by en¬ couraging all thofe with wdiom they have any influ¬ ence to do the fame. The banks, when their cufto- mers apply to them for money, generally advance it to them in their owrn promiffbry notes. Thefe the mer¬ chants pay away to the manufadlurers for goods, the manufadlurers to the farmers for materials and provi- fions, the farmers to their landlords for rent, the land¬ lords repay them to the merchants for the convenien¬ ces and luxuries with which they fupply them, and the merchants again return them to the banks in order to balance their cafh-accounts, or to replace what they may have borrowed of them; and thus almoft the wdiole money-bufinefs of the country is tranfadfed by means of them. Hence the great trade of thofe com¬ panies. By means of thofe cafh-accounts, every merchant can, without imprudence, carry on a greater trade than he otherwife could do. If there are two mer¬ chants, one in London and the other in Edinburgh, w7ho employ equal flocks in the fame branch of trade, the Edinburgh merchant can, without imprudence, to the to the country- carry on a greater trade, and give employment to a greater number of people, than the London merchant. ' "v The, London merchant muft always keep by him a con- fiderable fum of money, either in his own coffers, or in thofe of his banker (who gives him no intereft for it), in order to anfwer the demands continually coming upon him for payment of the goods which he purchafes upon credit. Let the ordinary amount of this fum be fuppofed 500I. The value of the goods in his ware- houfe muft always be lefs by 500!. than it would have been, had he not been obliged to keep fuch a fum un¬ employed. Let us fujipofe that he generally difpofes of his wdiole flock upon hand, or of goods to the va¬ lue of his whole flock upon hand, once in the year. By being obliged to keep fuch a great fum unemploy¬ ed, he muft fell in a year 5C0I. worth lefs goods than , he might otherwife have done. His annual profits muft be lefs by all that he could have made by the fale of 500I. wTortb more goods j and the number of people employed in preparing his goods for the market, muft be lefs by all thofe that 500I. more flock could have employed. The merchant in Edinburgh, on the other hand, keeps no money unemployed for anfwering fuch occafional demands. When they actually come upon him, he fatisfies them from his cafh-account with the bank, and gradually replaces the fum borrowed with the money or paper which comes in from the occafion¬ al fales of his goods. With the fame flock, there¬ fore, he can, without imprudence, have at all times in his warehoufe a larger quantity of goods than the London merchant; and can thereby both make a greater profit himfelf, and give conftant employment to a greater number of induftrxous people who pre¬ pare thofe goods for the market. Hence the great benefit which the country has derived from this trade. The late multiplication of banking companies in both parts of the united kingdom, an event by which many people have been much alarmed, inftead of di- minifhing, increafes the fecurity of the public. It obliges all of them to be more circumfpeft in their con- 'du£t, and, by not extending their currency beyond its due proportion to their cafh, to guard themfelves a- gainft thofe malicious runs which the rivalfhip of fo many competitors is always ready to bring upon them. It reftrains the circulation of each particular company within a narrower circle, and reduces their circulating notes to a fmaller number. By dividing the whole circulation into a greater number of parts, the failure of any one company, an accident w-hich, in the courfe of things, muft fometimes happen, becomes of lefs con- fequence to the public. This free competition too obliges all bankers to be more liberal in their dealings with their cuftomers, left their rivals fhould carry them away. In general, if any branch of trade, or any di- vifion of labour, be advantageous to the public, the freer and more general the competition, it will always be the more fo. See further, the article Paper- money. 2. The other kind of banks confift of fuch as are H. Banks c-f inftituted w’holly on the public account, and ait called Banks of Depojit; the nature of which not being gene¬ rally underflood, the following particular explanation may not be unacceptable. The currency of a great ftate, fuch as Britain, ge¬ nerally BAN t 36S ] BAN Bank, nerally confifts almoft entirely of its own coin. Should ' this currency, therefore, be at any time worn, dipt, or ^Width of ot:herwife degraded below its flandard value, the Hate NationsJ ky a reformation of its coin can effefhially re-eftablifir Book IV. its currency. But the currency of a fmall Hate, fuch chap. iii. as Genoa or Hamburgh, can feldom conlift altogether in its own coin, but mull be made up, in a great mea- fur'e, of the coins of all the neighbouring Hates with which its inhabitants have a continual intercourfe. Such a Hate, therefore, by reforming its coin, will not always be able to reform its currency. If foreign bills of exchange are paid in this currency, the uncertain value of any fum, of what is in its own nature fo un¬ certain, muH render the exchange always very much againH fuch a Hate, its currency being, in all foreign Hates, necelTarily valued even below what it is w^orth. In order to remedy the inconvenience to which this difadvantageous exchange muH have fubjeded their merchants, fuch fmall Hates, when they began to at¬ tend to the intereH of trade, have frequently enabled, that foreign bills of exchange of a certain Value fliould be paid, not in common currency, but by an order up¬ on, or by a transfer in, the books of a certain bank, eHablifhed upon the credit and under the prote£Hon of the Hate ; this bank being always obliged to pay, in good and true money, exaftly according to the fland¬ ard of the Hate. The banks of Venice, Genoa, Am- fterdam, Hamburgh, and Nuremberg, feem to have been all originally eHablilhed with this view, though Home of them may have afterwards been made fubfer- vient to other purpofes. The money of Rich banks, being better than the common currency of the coun¬ try, neceffarily bore an agio, wdiich wras greater or fmaller, according as the currency was fuppofed to be more or lefs degraded below the flandard of the Hate. The agio of the bank of Hamburgh, for example, which is faid to be commonly about 14 per cetit. is the fuppofed difference between the good flandard mo¬ ney of the ftate, and the dipt, worn, and diminifhed currency poured into it from all the neighbouring dates. Before 1609, the great quantity of dipt and worn foreign coin, wdich the extenfive trade of Amfterdam brought from all parts of Europe, reduced the value of its currency about 9 per cent, below that of good mo¬ ney frefh from the mint. Such money no fooner ap¬ peared, that it was melted down or carried away, as it always is in fuch circumftances. The merchants, with plenty of currency, could not always find a fuffi- cient quantity of good money to pay their bills of ex¬ change ; and the value of thofe bills, in fpite of feve- ral regulations which wrere made to prevent it, became lT1{t in a great meafure uncertain. In order to remedy dam one thefe inconveniences, a bank w’as eftabliflied in 1609 of the moft under the guarantee of the city. The bank received famous. both foreign coin, and the light and worn coin of the Its inftitu- country, at its real and intrinfic value in the good lation^uti" ftandard money of the country, deducing only fo much lit/, Sec. as was neceffary for defraying the expence of coinage, and other neceffary expence of management. For the value which remained after this fmall dedudlion was made, it gave a credit in its books. This credit was called bank-money ; wdiich, as it reprefented money ex¬ actly according to the ftandard of the mint, was always of the fame real value, and intrinfically worth more 2 than current money. It was at the fame time enabled, Bank, that all bills drawn upon or negociated at Amflerdam ““ v““ of the value of 600 guilders and upwards fliould be paid in bank-money, which at once took away all uncer¬ tainty in the value of thofe bills. Every merchant, in confequence of this regulation, was obliged to keep an account with the bank in order to pay his foreign bills of exchange, which neceffarily occafioned a certain de¬ mand for bank-money. Bank-money, over and above both its intrinfic fu- periority to currency, and the additional value which this demand neceffarily gives it, has likewife fome other advantages. It is fecure from fire, robbery, and other accidents 5 the city of Amflerdam is bound for it j it can be paid aw'ay by a Ample transfer, without the trouble of counting, or the rifle of tranfporting it. from one place to another. In confequence of thofe different advantages, it feems from the beginning to have borne an agio ; and it is generally believed that all the money originally depolited in the bank was al¬ lowed to remain there, nobody caring to demand pay¬ ment of a debt which he could fell for a premium in the market. Befides, this money could not be brought from thofe coffers, as it will appear by and by, with¬ out previouily paying for the keeping. Thofe depofits of coin, or which the bank wras bound to reftore in coin, Conflituted the original capital of the bank, or the whole value of wdrat w’as reprefented by wrhat is called bank money. At prefent they are fup¬ pofed to conffitute but a very fmall part of it. In or¬ der to facilitate the trade in bullion, the bank has been for thefe many years in the pradHce of giving credit in its books upon depofits of gold and filver bul¬ lion. This credit is generally about 5 per cent, below the mint pfice of fuch bullion. The bank grants at the fame time what is called a recipice or receipt, en¬ titling the perfon wdro makes the depofit, or the bear¬ er, to take out the bullion again at any time within fix months, upon re-.transferring to the bank a quan¬ tity of bank-money equal to that for which credit had been given in its books when the depofit was made, and upon paying ^ per cent, for the keeping if the depofit was in filver, and i per cent, if it was in gold \ but at the fame time declaring, that in default of fuch pay¬ ment, and upon the expiration of this term, the depo- fit fhould belong to the bank at the price at which it had been received, or for which credit had been given in the transfer books. What is thus paid for the keep¬ ing of the depofit may be confidered as a fort of ware- houfe-rent; and why this warehoufe-rent fliould be fo much dearer for gold than for filver, feveral different reafons have been afligned. The finenefs of gold, it has been faid, is more difficult to be" afeertained than that of filver. Frauds are more eafily pra&ifed, and occafion a greater lofs in the more precious metal. Silver, befides, being the ftandard metal, the ftate, it has been faid, wuffies to encourage more the making of depofits of filver than thofe of gold. Depofits of bullion are moft commonly made when the price is fomewhat lower than ordinary 5 and they are taken out again when it happens to rife. In Hol¬ land the market price of bullion is generally above the mint price, for the fame reafon that it was fo in Eng¬ land before the late reformation of the gold coin. The differenee is faid to be commonly from about fix to fixteen BAN [ 369 1 BAN fixteen ftivers upon the mark, or eight ounces of filver of eleven parts fine and one part alloy. The bank- price, or the credit which the bank gives for depofits of luch filver (when made in foreign coin, of which the finenefs is well known and afcertained, fuch as Mexico dollars), is 22 gilders the mark ; the mint-price is about 23 gilders , and the market-price is from 23 gilders fix ifivers to 23 gilders 16 ftivers, or from 2 to 3 per cent. above the mint-price. The proportions between the bank-price, the mint-price, and the market-price, of gold bullion, are nearly the fame. A perfon can gene¬ rally fell his receipt for the difference between the jnint- price of bullion and the market-price. A receipt for bullion is almoft always worth fomething and it very feldom happens, therefore, that anybody buffers his re¬ ceipt to expire, or allows-his bullion to fall to the bank at the price at which it had been received, either by not taking it out before the end of the fix months, or by neglecting to pay the or 1 per cent, in order to obtain a new receipt for another fix months. This, however, though it feldom happens, is faid to happen fometimes, and more frequently with regard to gold than with regard to filver, on account of the higher warehoufe-rent which is paid for the keeping of the more precious metal. ' The perfon who by making a depofit of bullion ob¬ tains both a bank-credit and a receipt, pays his bills of exchange as they become due with his bank-credit; and either fells or keeps his receipt, according as he judges that the price of bullion is likely to rife or to fall. The receipt and the bank-credit feldom keep long together, and there is no occafion that they Ihould. The perfon who has a receipt, and who wants to take out bullion, finds always plenty of bank-credits, or bank-money, to buy at the ordinary price ; and the perfon who has bank-money, and wants to take out bullion, finds re¬ ceipts always in equal abundance. The owners of bank-credits and the holders of re¬ ceipts conftitute twro different forts of creditors againft the bank. The holder of a receipt cannot draw out the bullion for which it is granted, without re-afiigning to the bank a fum of bank-money equal to the price at which the bullion had been received. If he has no bank-money of his own, he muft purchafe it of thofe who have it. The owner of bank-money cannot draw out bullion without producing to the bank receipts for the quantity w'hich he wants. If he has none of his own, he muft buy them of thofe who have them. The holder of a receipt, when he purchafes bank-money, purchafes the power of taking out a quantity of bul¬ lion, of which the mint-price is 5 per cent, above the bank-price. The agio of 5 per cent, therefore, which he commonly pays for it, is paid, not for an imagina¬ ry, but for a real value. The owner of bank-money, when he purchafes a receipt, purchafes the power of taking out a quantity of bullion, of which the market- price is commonly from 2 to 3 per cent, above the mint- price. The price which he pays for it, therefore, is paid likewife for a real value. The price of the re¬ ceipt, and the price of the bank-money, compound or -make up between them the full value or price of the bullion. Upon depofits of the coin current in the country, the bank grants receipts likewife as well as bank-credits; tint thofe receipts are frequently of no value, and will Vol. III. Part I. bring no price in the market. Upon ducatoons, for Ear.k. example, which in the currency pafs for three gilders ”v three ftivers each, the bank gives a credit of three gil¬ ders only, or 5 per cent, below their current Value. It grants a receipt likewife entitling the bearer to take out the number of ducatoons depofited at any time within fix months, upon paying \ per cent, for the keeping. This receipt will frequently bring no price in the market. Three gilders bank-money generally fell in the market for three gilders three ftivers, the full value of the ducatoons if they were taken out of the bank ; and before they can be taken outj -J- per cent. muft; be paid for the keeping, which would be mere lofs to the holder of the receipt. If the agio of the bank, however, Ihould at any time fall to 3 per cent. fuch receipts might bring fome price in the market, and might fell for 1-^ per cent. But the agio of the bank being now7 generally about 5 per cent, fuch receipts are frequently allowed to expire, or, as they exprefs it, to fall to the bank. The 5 per cent, which the bank gains, when depofits either of coin or bul¬ lion are allowed to fall to it, may be confidered as the warehoufe rent for the perpetual keeping of fuch de¬ pofits. The fum of bank-money for which the receipts are expired muft be very confiderable. It muft compre¬ hend the w'hole original capital of the bank, which, it is generally fuppofed, has been allowed to remain there from the time it rvas firft depofited, nobody caring either to renew- his receipt or to take out his depofit, as, for the reafons already afligned, neither the one nor the other could be done without lofs. But whatever may be the amount of this fum, the propor¬ tion which it bears to the whole mafs of bank-money is fuppofed to be very fmall. The bank of Amfterdam has for thefe many years paft been the great warehoufe ef Europe for bullion, for which the receipts are very fcldom allowed to expire, or, as they exprefs it, to fall to the bank. The far greater part of the bank-money, or of the credits upon the books of the bank, is fup¬ pofed to have been created, for thefe many years paft, by fuch depofits which the dealers in bullion are con¬ tinually both making and withdrawing. No demand can be made upon the bank but by means of a recipice or receipt. The fmaller mafs of bank- money, for W'hich the receipts are expired, is mixed and confounded with the much greater mafs for w'hich they are ftill in force ; fo that, though there may be a confiderable fum of bank-money for rvhich there are no receipts, there is no fpecific fum or portion of it W'hich may not at any time be demanded by one. The bank cannot be debtor to two perfons for the fame thing ; and the owmer of bank-money who has no receipt cannot demand payment of the bank till he buys one. In ordinary and quiet times, he can find no difficulty in getting one to buy at the market- price, w'hich generally correfponds with the price at what he can fell the coin or bullion it entitles him to take out of the bank. It might be otherwdfe during a public calamity : an invafion, for example, fuch as that of the French in 1672. The owners of bank-money being then all eager to draw it out of the bank, in order to have it in their own keeping, the demand for receipts might raife their price to an exorbitant height. The holders of them 3 A might BAN Bank- might form extravagant expectations, and inftead of 2 or 5 per cent, demand half the bank-money for which credit had been given upon the depolits that the re¬ ceipts had refpe&ively been granted for. The enemy, informed of the conftitution of the bank, might even buy them up in order to prevent the carrying away of the treafure. In fuch emergencies, the bank, it is fup- pofed, would break through its ordinary rule of making payment only to the holders of receipts. The holders of receipts, who had no bank-money, muft have recei¬ ved within 2 or 3 per cent, of the value of the depofit for which their refpeCtive receipts had been granted. The bank, therefore, it is faid, would in this cafe make no fcruple of paying, either with money or bullion, the full value of what the owmers of bank-money who could get no receipts were credited for in its books j paying at the fame time 2 or 3 per cent, to fuch holders of re¬ ceipts as had no bank-money, that being the whole value which in this ftate of things could iuftly be fup- pofed due to them. Even in ordinary and quiet times it is the interefl of the holders of receipts to deprefs the agio, in order ei¬ ther to buy bank-money (and confequently the bullion W’hich their receipts w'ould then enable them to take out of the bank) fo much cheaper, or to fell their re¬ ceipts to thofe who have bank-money, and wTho w*ant to take out bullion, fo much dearer} the price of a re¬ ceipt being generally equal to the difference between the market-price of bank money and that of the coin or bullion for which the receipt had been granted. It is the intereft of the owners of bank-money, on the contrary, to raife the agio, in order either to fell their bank-money fo much dearer, or to buy a receipt fo much cheaper. To prevent the flock-jobbing tricks which thofe oppofite interefls might fometimes occa- fion, the bank has of late years come to a refolution to fell at all times bank-money for currency, at 5 per cent. agio, and to buy it again at 4 per cent, agio. In con- lequence of this refolution, the agio can never either rife above $ or fink below 4 per cen*. and the propor¬ tion between the market-price of the bank and that of current money is kept at all times very near to the pro¬ portion betw’een their intrinfic values. Before this re¬ folution wras taken, the market-price of money ufed fometimes to rife fo high as 9 per cent, agio, and fome¬ times to fink fo low as par, according as oppofite in¬ terefls happened to influence the market. The bank of Amflerdam profeffes to lend out no part of what is depo/ited with it, but, for every gilder for which it gives credit in its books, to keep in’ its repo- htories the value of a gilder either in money or bullion. That it keeps in its repofitories all the money or bullion for which there are receipts in force, for which it is at all times liable to be called upon, and which, in reality, is continually going from it and returning to it again, cannot well be doubted. But whether it does fo like- wife with regard to that part of its capital for which the receipts are long ago expired, for which in ordi¬ nary and quiet times it cannot be called upon, and ■which in reality is very likely to remain wuth it for ever, or as long as the States of the United Provinces fubfift, may appear perhaps more uncertain. At Am¬ flerdam, however, no part of faith is better eftablifhed, than that for every gilder circulated as bank-money there is a correfpondent gilder in gold and filver to be [ 37° 3 BAN found in the treafure of the bank. The city is gua¬ rantee that it fhould be fo. The bank is under the di- reftion of the four reigning burgomafters, who are changed every year. Each new fet of burgomafters vi- ftts the treafure, compares it with the books, receives it upon oath, and delivers it over, with the fame awful folemnity, to the fet which fucceeds it; and in that fo- ber and religious country oaths are not yet difregarded. A rotation of this kind feems alone a fufficient fecurity againil any praflices which cannot be avowed. Amidil all the revolutions which faflion has ever occafioned in the government of Amllerdam, the prevailing party has at no time accufed their predeceffors of infidelity in the adminiftration of the bank. No accufation could have affected more deeply the reputation and fortune of the difgraced party ; and if fuch an accufation could have been fupported, we may be affured that it would have been brought. In 1672, when the French king was at Utrecht, the bank of Amfterdam paid fo readi¬ ly as left no doubt of the fidelity with which it had obferved its engagements. Some of the pieces which were then brought from its repofttories appeared to have been fcorched with the fire which happened in the town-houfe foon after the bank was eftablifh¬ ed. Thofe pieces, therefore, muft have lain there from that time. What may be the amount of the treafure in the bank is a queftion winch has long employed the fpecu- lations of the curious. Nothing but conje£lure can be offered concerning it. It is generally reckoned, that there are about 2000 people who keep accounts with the bank; and allowing them to have, one with another, the value of 1500I. lying upon their refpe£live ac¬ counts (a very large allowance), the whole quantity of bank-money, and confequently of treafure in the bank, will amount to 3,000,000!. or, at 11 gilders the pound Sterling, 33,000,000 of gilders ; a great fum, and fuf¬ ficient to carry on a very extenfive circulation, but vaftly below the extravagant ideas which fome people have formed of this treafure. The city of Amfterdam derives a confiderable revenue from the bank, Befides what may be called the ware- houfe rent above-mentioned, each perfon, upon firft; opening an account with the bank, pays a fee of 10 gil¬ ders ; and for every new account, 3 gilders 3 ftivers j for every transfer, 2 ftivers; and if the transfer is for lefs than 300 gilders, 6 ftivers ; in order to difcourage the multiplicity of fmall tranfaftions. The perfon who neglects to balance his accounts twice in the year for¬ feits 25 gilders.. The perfon who orders a transfer for more than is upon his account, is obliged to pay 3 per cent, for the fum overdrawn, and his order is fet afide into the bargain. The bank is fuppofed, too, to make a confiderable profit by the fale of the foreign coin or bullion which fometimes falls to it by the expiring of receipts, and which is always kept till it can be fold with advantage. It makes a profit likewife by felling bank-money at 5 per cent, agio, and buying it in at 4. Thefe different emoluments amount to a good deal more than what is neceffaryfor paying the falaries of officers, and defraying the expence of management. What is paid for the keeping of bullion upon receipts, is alone fuppofed to amount to a neat annual revenue of be¬ tween 150,000 and 200,000 gilders. Public utility, howeverj and not revenue, was the original object of this Bank. BAN [ 371 ] BAN Banker this inllitution. Its objeft was to relieve the merchants it from the inconvenience of a difadvantageous exchange. Bankrupt., revenue which has arifen from it was unforefeen, and may be confidered as accidental. Bank, in fea affairs, denotes an elevation of the ground or bottom of the fea, fo as fometimes to fur- mount the furface of the water, or at lead to leave the water fo (hallow as ufually not to allow a veffel to re¬ main afloat over it.—In this fenfe, bank amounts to much the fame as flat, flioal, &c. There are banks of fand, and others of (tone, called alfo /helves, or rocks. In the North fea they alfo fpeak of banks of ice, which are large pieces of that matter floating. BANKER, a perfon who traffics and negociates in moneys who receives and remits money from place to place by commiflion from correfpondents, or by means of bills or letters of exchange, &c. The ancient bankers were called argentarii, and num- mularii; by the Greeks, and «g- yv^ag.oifiot. Their chief bufinefs was to put out the money of private perfons to intereft ; they had their boards and benches, for this purpofe, in all the markets and public places, where they took in the money from •fome to lend it to others. BANKING, the making of banks to oppofe the force of the fea, rivers, or the like, and fecure the land from being overflowed thereby. With refpetl to the water which is to be kept out, this is called banking; with refpeft to the land, which is hereby to be de¬ fended, imbanking. Banking is alfo applied to the keeping a bank, or the employment of a banker. Banking, in this fenfe, •fignifies the trading in money, or remitting it from place to place, by means of bills of exchange. This anfwers to what the French call faire la banque. In France, every body is allowed to bank, whether mer¬ chant or not*, even foreigners are indulged in this kind of traffic. In Italy, banking does not derogate from nobility, efpecially in the republican ftates *, whence it is, that moft of the younger fons of great families en¬ gage in it. In reality, it was the nobility of Venice and Genoa, that, for a long time, were the chief bankers in the other countries of Europe. BANKISH, a province of the Mogul’s dominions, in the north part of the Hither India, lying fouth- weft of the province of Caffimere. BANKRUPT, (bancus ruptus), is fo called, be- caufe, when the bank or flock is broken or exhaufled, the owner is faid to be a bankrupt. And this word bankrupt is derived from the French banqueroute, which fignifies a breaking or failing in the world : banque in French is as much as tnenfa in Latin, and route is the fame as vejligiutn ; and this term is faid to have been taken originally from the Roman menfarii, which were let in public places j and when a tradefman flipped away, with an intention to deceive his creditors, he left only fome vejiigia or figns of his table or Ihop behind him. But a bankrupt with us, from the feveral defcriptions given of him in our ftatute-law, may be defined “ a trader, who fecretes himfelf, or does certain other a£ls Bankrupt, tending to defraud his creditors.” For the better un- v-~-y—^ derftanding of this article, it will be proper to confi- der, j. Who may become a bankrupt. 2. What obis make a bankrupt. 3. The proceedings on a commif- fion of bankruptcy: and, 4. In what manner an eftate in goods and chattels may be transferred by bankrupt¬ cy.—But of thefe, the two laft being treated under the article Commission of Bankruptcy, the two firft only be¬ long to this place. i. A bankrupt was formerly confidered merely in the light of a criminal or offender ; and in this fpirit we are told by Sir Edward Coke, that we have fetched as w’ell the name, as the wickednefs, of bankrupts from foreign nations. But at prefent the laws of bank¬ ruptcy are confidered as laws calculated for the benefit of trade, and founded on the principles of humanity as wTell as juftice ; and to that end they confer fome pri¬ vileges not only on the creditors, but alfo on the bank¬ rupt or debtor himfelf. On the creditors ; by com¬ pelling the bankrupt to give up all his eft’ecls to their ufe, without any fraudulent concealment : on the debt¬ or, by exempting him from the rigour of the general law, whereby his perfon might be confined at the dil- cretion of his creditor, though in reality he has nothing to fatisfy the debt \ whereas the law of bankrupts, ta¬ king into confideration the hidden and unavoidable ac¬ cidents to which men in trade are liable, has given them the liberty of their perfons, and fome pecuniary emoluments, upon condition they furrender up their whole eftate to be divided among their creditors. In this refpeft our legiflature feems to have attended to the example of the Roman law. We mean not the Blactf. terrible lawr of the twelve tables, whereby the creditors Comm. II. might cut the debtor’s body into pieces, and each of472- &■"* them take his proportionable ftiare : if indeed that law, de debitore in partes fecando, is to be underftood in fo very butcherly a light; wdiich many learned men have with reafon doubted. Nor do w;e mean thofe lefs in¬ human law's (if they may be called fo, as their meaning is indifputably certain), of imprifoning the debtor’s perfon in chains 5 fubjedling him to ftripes and hard labour, at the mercy of his rigid creditor ; and fome¬ times felling him, his wife, and children, to perpetual foreign flavery trans Tiberim (a) : an oppreflion which produced fo many popular infurreflions, and feceffions to the mans facer. But we mean the law’ of ceflion, in¬ troduced by the Chriftian emperors ; whereby, if a debtor ceded or yielded up all his fortune to his cre¬ ditors, he was fecured from being dragged to a gaol, “ omni quoque corporali cruciatu femoto.'n For, as the emperor juftly obferves, “ inhuinanum erat fpoliatum fortunis fuis in folidum damnariy Thus far was juft and reafonable : but as the departing from one ex¬ treme is apt to produce its oppofite, we find it after¬ wards enadled, that if the debtor by any unforefeen accident was reduced to low circumftances, and would fw'ear that he had not fufticient left to pay his debts, he ihould not be compelled to cede or give up even that 3 A 2 which (a) In Pegu, and the adjacent countries in the Eaft Indies, the creditor is entitled to difpofe of the debtor himfelf, and likcw’ife of his wife and children ; infomuch, that he may even violate with impunity the chaftity of the debtor’s wife; but then, by fo doing, the debt is underftood to be difeharged. BAN [ 372 Bankrupt, which he had in his pofleflion ; a law which, under a £ajpe notJon 0f humanity, feems to be fertile of perjury, injuftice, and abfurdity. The laws of England, more wifely, have fleered in the middle between both extremes : providing at once againll the inhumanity of the creditor, who is not fuf fered to confine an honeft bankrupt after his effe&s are delivered up ; and at the fame time taking care that all his juft debts fhall be paid, fo far as the effefts will extend. But ftill they are cautious of encouraging prodigality and extravagance by this indulgence to debtors : and therefore they allow the benefit of the laws of bankruptcy to none but aflual traders 5 fince that fet of men are, generally fpeaking, the only per- fons liable to accidental Ioffes, and to an inability of paying their debts, without any fault of their own. If perfons in other fituations of life run in debt without the power of payment, they muff take the confequence of their own indifcretion, even though they meet with fudden accidents that may reduce their fortunes : for the law holds it to be an unjuftifiable praftice, for any perfon but a trader to encumber himfelf with debts of any confiderable value. If a gentleman, or one in a liberal profeffion, at the time of contracting his debts, has a iufficient fund to pay them, the delay of pav- ment is a fpecies of difhonefty, and a temporary inju¬ ftice to his creditor : and if, at fuch time, he has not fufficient fund, the difhonefty and injuftice is the great¬ er. He cannot therefore murmur, if he fuffers the pu- nifhment which he has voluntarily drawn upon himfelf. But in mercantile tranfaClions the cafe is far otherwife. Trade cannot be carried on without mutual credit on both fides ; the contracting of debts is therefore here not only ju.ftifiable but neceflary. And if, by acci¬ dental calamities, as by the lofs of a ftiip in a tempeft, the failure of brother-traders, or by the non-payment of perfons out of trade, a merchant or trader becomes incapable of difcharging his own debts, it is his mif- fortune and not his fault. To the misfortunes therefore of debtors, the law has given a compaffionate remedy, but denied it to their faults : fince, at the fame time that it provides for the fecurity of commerce, by en- aCling that every confiderable trader may be declared a bankrupt, for the benefit of his creditors as well as himfelf, it has alfo, to difcourage extravagance, decla¬ red that no one lhall be capable of being made a bank¬ rupt, but only a trader •, nor capable of receiving the full benefit of the ftatutes, but only an induftrious tra¬ der. In the interpretation of the feveral ftatutes made f 34 Hen. concerning Engliih bankrupts f, it hath been held, VIII. c. 4. that buying only, or felling only, will not qualify a 13 Eh-z. c. man to he a bankrupt; but it muft be both buying and felling, and alfo getting a livelihood by it : as, by exercifing the calling of a merchant, a grocer, a mer¬ cer, or, in one general word, a chapman, who is one that buys and fells any thing. But no handicraft oc¬ cupation (where nothing is bought or fold, and there¬ fore an extenfive credit, for the ftock in trade, is not necefiary to be had) will make a man a regular bank¬ rupt ; as that of a hufbandman, a gardener, and the like, who are paid for their work and labour. Alfo an innkeeper cannot, as fuch, be a bankrupt : for his gain or livelihood does not arife from buying and fell¬ ing in the way of merchandife, but greatly from the BAN 21 'Jac. £. 19. 5 Gen. II. W 3°- ufe of his rooms and furniture, his attendance, and the Bankrupt. like •, and though he may buy corn and victuals, to —y- fell again at a profit, yet that no more makes him a trader, than a fchoolmafter or other perfon is, that keeps a boarding-houfe, and makes confiderable gains by buying and felling what he fpends in the houfe, and fuch a one is clearly not within the ftatutes. But where perfons buy goods, and make them up into faleable commodities, as Ihoemakers, fmiths, and the like 5 here, though part of the gain is by bodily la¬ bour, and not by buying and felling, yet they are within the ftatutes of bankrupts j for the labour is only in melioration of the commodity, and rendering it more fit for fale. 2. To learn what the a£ts of bankruptcy are which render a man a bankrupt, we murt confult the feveral ftatutes, and the refolutions formed by the courts thereon. Among thefe may therefore be reckoned, 1. Departing from the realm, whereby a man with¬ draws himfelf from the jurifdiftion and coercion of the law, with an intent to defraud his creditors. 2. De¬ parting from his own houfe, with an intent to fecrete himfelf and avoid his creditors. 3. Keeping in his own houfe, privately (except for juft and necefiary caufe), fo as not to be feen or fpoken with by his cre¬ ditors 5 which is likewife conftrued to be an intention to defraud his creditors, by avoiding the procefs of the law. 4. Procuring or fufferiug himfelf willingly to be arrefted, or outlawed, or imprifoned, without juft and lawful caufe ; which is likewife deemed an attempt to defraud his creditors. 5. Procuring his money, goods, chattels, and effects, to be attached or fequeftrated by any legal procefs 5 which is another plain and diredt endeavour to difappoint his creditors of their fecurity. 6. Making any fraudulent conveyance to a friend, or fecret truftee, of his lands, tenements, goods, or chat¬ tels : which is an ad! of the fame fufpicious nature with the laid. 7. Procuring any protedlion, not being him¬ felf privileged by parliament, in order to fcreen his perfon from arrefts ; which alfo is an endeavour to elude thejuftice of the law. 8. Endeavouring, or de- firing, by any petition to the king, or bill exhibited in any of the king’s courts again!! any creditors, to com¬ pel them to take lefs than their juft debts •, or to pro- craftinate the time of payment, originally contradled for ; which are an acknowledgment of either his po¬ verty or his knavery. 9. Lying in prifon for two months, or more, upon arreft or other detention for debt, without finding bail, in order to obtain his li¬ berty. For the inability to procure bail argues a ftrong deficiency in his credit, owing either to his fufpedled poverty, or ill charadler ; and his negled! to do it, if able, can arife only from a fraudulent intention : in either of which cafes, it is high time for his creditors to look to themfelves, and compel a diftribution of his effedls. 10. Efcaping from prifon after an arreft for a juft debt of 100I. or upwards. For no man would break prifon, that was able and defirous to procure bail ; which brings it within the reafon of the laft cafe, ix. Neglecting to make fatisfaftion for any juft debt to the amount of icol. within two months after fer- vice of legal procefs, for fuch debt, upon any trader having privilege of parliament. Thefe are the feveral a£ts of bankruptcy exprefsly defined by the ftatutes relating to this article j which being BAN . C 37 Banks, being fo numerous, and tbe whole law of bankrupts —being an innovation on the common law, our courts of juftice have been tender of extending or multiplying acts of bankruptcy by any conftruction or implication. And therefore Sir John Holt held, that a man’s re¬ moving his goods privately to prevent their being fei- zed in execution, wras no act of bankruptcy. For the Itatutes mention only fraudulent gifts to third perfons, and procuring them to be feized by {ham procefs, in order to defraud creditors : but this, though a pal¬ pable fraud, yet, falling within neither of thofe cafes, cannot be adjudged an a£t of bankruptcy. So alfo it has been determined exprefsly, that a banker’s flop¬ ping or refufing payment is no aft of bankruptcy : for it is not within the defcription of any of the flatutes 5 and there may be good reafons for his fo doing, as fufpicion of forgery, and the like : and if, in confe- quence of fuch refufal, he is arrefted, and puts in bail, {till it is no aft of bankruptcy 5 but if he goes to pri- fon, and lies there two months, then, and not before, is he become a bankrupt. As to the confequences refulting from the unhappy fituation of a bankrupt, fee the article Commission of Bankruptcy. BANKS, John, a dramatic writer, was bred to the law, and belonged to the fociety of Gray’s Inn \ but this profefTion not fuiting his natural difpofition, he quitted it for the fervice of the mufes. Here, how¬ ever, he found his rewards by no means adequate to his deferts. His emoluments at the belt were preca¬ rious, and the various fucceffes of his pieces too feel¬ ingly convinced him of the error in his choice. This, however, did not prevent him from purfuing with cheerfulnefs the path he had taken 5 his thirft of fame, and warmth of poetic enthufiafm, alleviating to his imagination many dilagreeable circumftancesinto which indigence, the too frequent attendant on poetical pur- fuits, frequently threw him. His turn was entirely to tragedy •, his merit in ■which is of a peculiar kind. For at the fame time that his language muft be confef- fed to be extremely unpoetical, and his numbers un¬ couth and unharmonious 5 nay, even his charafters ve¬ ry far from being ftrongly marked or diltinguifhed, and his epifodes extremely irregular : yet it is impof- fible to avoid being deeply aftefted at the reprefenta- tion, and even at the reading, of his tragic pieces. This is owing in the general to a happy choice of his fubjefts ; which are all borrowed from hiftory, either real or romantic •, and indeed the moft of them from circumltances in the annals of our own country, wThich, not only from their being familiar to our continual re¬ collection, but even from their having fome degree of relation to ourfelves, we are apt to receive with a kind of partial prepoitettion, and a pre-determination to be pleafed. He has conftantly chofen as the bafis of his plays fuch tales as were in themfelves and their well- known cataftrophes moft truly adapted to the purpofes of the drama. He has indeed but little varied from the ftriftnefs of hiftorical faCts *, yet he feems to have made it his conltant rule to keep the fcene perpetually alive, and never fuffer his characters to droop. His verfe is not poetry, but profe run mad. Yet will the falfe gem fometimes approach fo near in glitter to the true one, at lead in the eyes of all but real connoiffeurs (and how fmall a part of an audience are to be ranked 3 ] BAN in this clafs it will need no ghoft to inform us,) that bombaft will frequently pafs for the true fublime ; and where it is rendered the vehicle of incidents in ih.em- felves affeCting, and in which the heart is apt to inte- reft itfelf, it will perhaps be found to have a ftronger power on the human pallions than even that property to which it is in reality no more than a bare fucceda- neum. And from thefe principles it is that wTe mult account for IVIr Banks’s writings having in the gene¬ ral drawm more tears from, and excited more terror in, even judicious audiences, than thofe of much more cor¬ rect and more truly poetical authors. The tragedies he has left behind him are, 1. Albion Queens. 2. Cyrus the Great. 3. DeftruCtion of Troy. 4. Innocent U- furper. 5. Itland Queens. This is only the Albion Queens altered. 6. Rival Kings. 7. Virtue Betray¬ ed. 8. Unhappy Favourite. The Albion Queens was rejeCted by the managers in 1684 j but was aCted by Queen Anne’s command in 1706, with great applaufe, and has been feveral times revived. The Unhappy Favourite continued till very lately a flock tragedy at the theatres; but gives way at prefent to the latter tragedies from the fame ftory, by Jones and Brooke..— Neither the time of the birth, nor that of the death, of this author, are afcertained. His remains, howe¬ ver, lie interred in the church of St James’s, Weft- minfter. BANKS’S ISLAND, a fmall ifland in the South fea, difcovered' by Captain Cook in 1770, in S. Lat. 53. 32. W. Long. 186. 30. It is of a circular figure, and about 24 leagues in compafs r it is fufficiently high to be feen at the diftance of 1 2 or 15 leagues ; and the land has a broken irregular furface, with the appear¬ ance of barrennefs rather than fertility. It is, how^- ever, inhabited j as fome ftraggiing favages were ob- ferved upon it. BANKSIA. See Botany Index. BANN, or Ban (from the Brit, ban, i. e. clamour), is a proclamation or public notice ; any public fum- rnons or ediCt, whereby a thing is commanded or for¬ bidden. It is a word ordinary among the feudifts y and there is both hanus and banttm, which fignify twro feveral things.—The word banns is particularly ufed in England in publifhing matrimonial contrails ; v-hich is done in the church before marriage, to the end that if any perfons can fpeak againlt the intention of the parties, either in refpeit of kindred, precontract, or for other juft caufe, they may take their exception in time, before the marriage is confummated } and in the canon law, Ban rue funt proclamationes fponfi et fponfr in eccle/iis fierifo/ita. But there may be a faculty or licenfe for the marriage, and then this ceremony is omitted : and minifters are not to celebrate matrimony between any penons without a licenfe, except the banns have been firit publifhed three feveral times, up¬ on pain of fufpenfion, &c. Can, 62. The ufe of matrimonial banns is faid to have been firit introduced in the Gallican church, though fome- thing like it obtained even in the primitive times j and it is this that Tertullian is fuppofed to mean hx trinun dina promu/gatio. The council of Lateran firft ex¬ tended, and made the ufage general. By the ordi¬ nance of Blois, no perfon could validly contract mar¬ riage, without a preceding proclamation of three banns y nor could any perfon whatever be difpenfed with, ex- cent Bark? Bann. BAN ^ann. Banner cept for the two laft. But the French themfelves have abated much of this feverity ; and only minors are now under an abfolute neceffity of fubmitting to the forma¬ lity of banns. For majors, or thofe of age, after pub¬ lication of the firft banns, the two latter are eafily bought off. Bank, is alfo ufed to denote profcription or banifh- xnent for a crime proved ; becaufe anciently publilh- ed by found of trumpet; or, as Voffius thinks, be¬ caufe thofe who did not appear at the above-mentioned fummons, were punifiled by profcription. Hence, to put a prince under the bann cf the empire, is to declare him diverted of all his dignities. The fentence only denotes an interdift of all intercourfe, and offices of humanity, with the offender; the form of which feems taken from that of the Romans, who baniihed perfons by forbidding them the ufe of fire and water. _Sometimes alfo cities are put under the imperial bann j that is, ftripped of their rights and privileges. Bann alfo denotes a pecuniary mulct, or penalty, laid on a delinquent for offending againft a bann. Bann, or Bann us, a title anciently given to the governor or viceroy of Croatia, Dalmatia, and Scla- vonia. Epifcopal Bann (Bannus Epifcopalis), a mul£t paid to. the bilhop by thofe guilty of facrilege and other crimes. Bann is alfo ufed for a folemn anathema, or ex- communication attended with curies, &c. In this ienfe w'e read of papal banns, &c. Bann, in Military Affairs, a proclamation made in the army by beat of drum, found of trumpet, &c. requiring the ftridt obfervance of difcipline, either for the declaring a new officer, or puniffiing an offender. BANNER denotes either a fquare flag, or the principal ftandard belonging to a prince. We find a multiplicity of opinions concerning the etymology of the wmrd banner ; fome deriving it from the Latin bandum, “ a band or flag j” others from the Word bann, “ to fummons the vaffals to appear in arms j5’ others again from the German ban, “ a field or tene¬ ment,” becaufe landed men alone wrere allowed a ban¬ ner : and, finally, there are fome who think it is a cor¬ ruption of panniere, from pannus, “ cloth,” becaufe banners wxre originally made of cloth. 'The Banner of France, was the largeft and richeft of all the flags borne by the ancient kings in their great military expeditions. St Martin’s cap wTas in ufe 600 years as the banner of France ; it was made of tafiety, painted with the image of that faint, and laid one or two days on his tomb to prepare it for ufe. About the year 1100 came in a more pompous apparatus. The banner royal w'as fattened to the top of a matt, or fome tall tree, planted on a fcaffold, borne on a car¬ riage drawn by oxen, covered with velvet houfings, de¬ corated with devices or cyphers of the prince reigning. At the foot of the tree wras a prieft, who faid mafs early every morning. Ten knights mounted guard on the fcaffold night and day, and as many trumpets at the foot of the tree never cealed flouriffiing, to animate the troops. This cumberfome machine, the mode of which ■was brought from Italy, continued in ufe about 130 years. Its port was in the centre of the army. And here it was that the chief feats were performed, to car¬ ry off and defend the royal banner $ for there was no I [ 374 1 BAN vi&ory witnout it, nor was any army reputed vanquifn- Bannerets, ed till they had loft this banner. w ERETS, aj-j ancient order of knights, or feudal lords; who, poffeffing feveral large fbes/led their vaffals to battle under their own flag or banner when fummoned thereto by the king. The word feems formed from banner, “ a fquare flag ;” or from band, which anciently denoted a flag.—Bannerets are alio called in ancient w riters mHites vexiUiferi, and ve- xillaru bannerarii, bannarii, banderifei, &c. Anciently there were two kinds of knights, great and littlei the firft whereof were called bannerets, the fecond bachelors; the firft composed the upper, the fecond the middle, nobility. The banneret was a dignity allowed to march un¬ der his own flag, v- hzreas, xhe bachelarius eques ioMow - ed that of another, i o be qualified for a banneret, one muft be a gentleman of family, and muft have a power to raife to certain number of armed men, with eftate enough to fubfift at Jeaft 28 or 30 men. This muft have been very confiderable in thofe days ; be¬ caufe each man, befides his fervant, had two horfemen to wait on him armed, the one with a crofs-bow, the other wuth a bow and hatchet. As he was not allow¬ ed to be a baron who had not above 13 knights fees, fo he was not admitted to be a banneret if he had lefs than 10. Banneret, according to Spelman, was a middle or¬ der between a baron and a Ample knight; called fome- times alfo vexillarius minor, to diftmguilh him from the greater, that is, from the baron, to whom alone pro¬ perly belonged theyW vexilli, or privilege of the fquare flag. Hence the banneret w’as alfo called banncrettus, quaff baro minor $ a word frequently ufed by Englilh waiters in the fame fenfe as banneret wTas by the French, though neither of them occur before the time of Ed¬ ward II. Some will have bannerets to have originally been perlons who had fome portion of a barony affigned them ; and enjoyed it under the title of baro proximus, and that with the fame prerogatives as the baron him- felf. Some, again, find the origin of bannerets in France, others in Brittany, others in England. Thefe laft attribute the inftitution of bannerets to Conan, lieutenant of Maximus, who commanded the Roman legions in England under the empire of Gratian in 383. This general, fay they, revolting, divided England into 40cantons, and in theiecantonsdiftributed 40 knights; to whom he gave a power of affembling, on occafion, under their feveral banners, as many of the effe&ive men as were found in their refpe&ive diftri&s: whence they are called bannerets. However this be, it appears from Froiflart, &c. that anciently fuch of the military men as were rich enough to raife and fubfift a company of armed men, and had a right to do fo, were called bannerets. Not, however, that thefe qualifications rendered them knights, but only bannerets ; the appel¬ lation of hnight being only added thereto, becaufe they were Ample knights before. Bannerets were fecond to none but knights of the garter. They were reputed the next degree below the nobility; and were allowed to bear arms with fup. porters, which none elfe may under the degree of a baron. In France, it is faid, the dignity was heredi¬ tary ; but in England it died with the perfon that gained Bannefet II Banquet¬ ing. BAN The order dwindled on the [ 375 inftitution of gained it baronets by King James I. and at length became ex¬ tinct. The laft perfon created banneret was Sir John Smith, made fo after Edghill fight, for refcuing the ftandard of King Charles I. The form of the banneret’s creation was this. On a day of battle, the candidate prefented his flag to the king or general *, who, cutting oft the train or fldrt thereof, and making it a fquare, returned it again, the proper banner of bannerets j who are hence fometimes called hntghts of the fquare fag. Tnere feem to have been bannerets created either in a different manner, or by others than the fovereign-, fince Kmg James, in the patents of baronets, gives them precedence to all knights bannerets, except fuch as are created by the king him- felf in the field j which implies, either that there are fome of this order created out of the field, or by infe¬ rior perfons. Banneret is alfo the name of an officer or magi- ftrate of Rome towards the dole of the 14th century. —The people of that city, and throughout the terri¬ tory of the church, during the difputes of the anti¬ popes, had formed a kind of republican government j where the whole power was lodged in the hands of a magiftrate called fenator, and twelve heads of quarters called bannerets, by reafon of the banners which each raifed in his diftrid. BANNOCK, a kind of oat-cake, baked in the em¬ bers, or on a ftone placed before the fire. It is common in the northern parts of this kingdom. B ANNUM, in Law, fignifies the utmoft bounds of a manor or town. BANQUET, a feaft or entertainment where people regale themfelves with pleafant foods or fruits. Banquet, in the Manege, that fmall part of the branch of a bridle that is under the eye 5 wffiich being rounded like a fmall rod, gathers and joins the extre¬ mities of the bit to the branch, in fuch a manner that the banquet is not feen, but covered by the cope, or that part of the bit that is next the branch. Banquet-Line, an imaginary line drawm, in making a bit, along the banquet, and prolonged up or down, to adjuft the defigned force or weaknefs of the branch, in order to make it ftiff or eafy. Banquet, or Banquette, in Tortifcation, a little foot-bank, or elevation of earth, forming a path which runs along the infide of a parapet, upon which the mulketeers get up, in order to difeover the counter- fcarp, or to fire on the enemy, in the moat or in the covert-wTay. BANQUETING room or house. See Saloon. The ancient Romans flipped in the atrium, or vefti- bule, of their houfes *, but, in after-times, magnificent faloons, or banqueting-rooms, were built, for the more commodious and fplendid entertainment of their guefts. Lucullus had feveral of thefe, each diftinguiftied by the name of fome god ; and there was a particular rate of expence appropriated to each. Plutarch relates with what magnificence he entertained Cicero and Pompey, who went with defign to flirprife him, by only telling a flave who waited, that the cloth ffiould be laid in the Apollo. The emperor Claudius, among others, had a fplendid banqueting-room named iV/ercwry. But every thing of this kind was outdone by the luftre of that celebrated banqueting-houfe of Nero, called domtts au- ] BAN which, by the circular motion of its partitions Bambckie and ceilings, imitated the revolution of the heavens, and reprefented the different feafons of the year, which 1 changed at every fervice, and fhowered dowm flowers, effences, and perfumes, on the guefts. BANSTICKLE. See Gasterosteus, Ichthyo¬ logy Index. BANTAM, a town of the ifland of Java, in the Eaft Indies, fituated in E. Long. 105. 16. S. Lat. 6. 20. It is the capital of a kingdom of the fame name, with a harbour and caftle ; but the harbour is now fo choked up that it is inacceffible to veffels oi any great burden. It is divided into two towns fepa- rated by a river, and one of them inhabited by the Chiuefe. Bantam once enjoyed a flouriffiing trade. It was a great mart for pepper and other fpicesj but this trade, as well as the power of its fovereign, had fallen to decay. For its hiftory, &c. fee Java. Bantam-worr, a kind of painted or carved work*; refembling that of Japan, only more gaudy. There are twTo forts of Bantam, as well as of Japan wmrk. As, in the latter, fome are flat, lying even with the black, and others high and emboffed ; fo, in Bantam-work, fome are flat and others in-cut, or carved into the wood, as we find in many large fereens: with this difference, that the Japan artifts work chiefly in gold and other metals ; and thofe of Bantam gene¬ rally in colours, with a fmall fprinkling of gold here and there : for the flat Bantam-work is done in co¬ lours, mixed with gum-water, proper for the thing de¬ figned to be imitated. For the carved, or in-cut kind, the method of performing it is thus deferibed by an in¬ genious artift : I. The wmod is to be primed with whiting and fize, fo often till the primer lie near a quarter of an inch thick $ then it is to be water-plain¬ ed, e. rubbed wdth a fine wet cjoth, and, fome time after, rubbed very fmooth, the blacks laid on, varniftied up with a good body, and poliffied well, though with a gentle hand. This done, the defign is to be traced out with vermilion and gum-water, exaflly in the manner wherein it is intended to be cut; the figures, trees, buildings, &c. in their due proportion : then the graver is applied, with other tools, of proper flrapes, differing according to the workman’s fancy : with thefe he cuts deep or fhallow7, as is found convenient, but never deeper than the whiting lies, the wood being never to feel the edge 'of the inftrument. Lines, or parts of the black, are ftill to be left for the draperies, and other outlines, and for the diftinflion of one thing from another; the rule being to cut where the white is, and leave the black untouched. The carving being finilhed, then take to the pencil, with which the colours are laid into the cut-work : after this, the gold is to be laid in thofe places which the defign requires $ for which purpofe, a ftrong thick gum-arabic water is taken and laid with a pencil on the work •, and, while this remains wet, leaf-gold is cut writh a iharp fmooth edged knife, in little pieces, ffiaped to the bignefs and figure of the places where they are to be laid. Thefe being taken up with a little cotton, they daub them with the fame clofe to the gum-water, which affords a rich lurtre. The work thus finiffied, they clear up the black with oil, taking care not to touch the colours. The European workmen ordinarily ufe brafs-duft, which is lefs bright and beautiful, & .BANTRY, Various names given to baptifm. BAP . t 3 BAN fR if, a town of Ireland, in the county of Cork, and province of Manlier. It is feated on a bay of the fame name, in W. Long. 9. ij. N. Lat. S1- So- BAOBAB, the name given by Profper Alpinus to the African calabalh-tree, fince called Adansonia. See Botany bidc-x. BAP I’lSM, in matters of religion, the ceremony of walking ; or a facrament, by which a perfon is ini¬ tiated into the Chriftian church.—The word is formed from the Greek of /ZxTtiu to dip or wa/h. Bap¬ tifm is known, in ecclelialfical writers, by divers other names and titles. Sometimes it is called palingencjia, or laver of regeneration ; fometimes fa/us, or life and falvatwn ; lometimes o-'fccyis, fignaculum Domini, and Binghams ftgnaculum fidei, or the feat of faith ; fometimes abfo- (Jrig. AWi/Tutely myjiemum, and facr amentum ; fometimes the fa¬ crament of faith; fometimes viaticum, from its being adminiilered to departing perfons j fometimes facerdo- tiumlaici, or the laypriejihood, becaufe allowed, in cafes of neceility, to be conferred by laymen : fometimes it is called the great circumci/ion, becaufe it was imagined to lucceed in the room of circumcifion, and to be a feal of the Chriilian covenant, as that was the feal of the cove¬ nant made with Abraham: fo, in regard that baptifm had Chrill for its author, and not man, it was anciently known by the name of Aaga* and Kv^ix, the gift of the Lord: fometimes it was fimply called au^ov, without any other addition, by way of eminence, becaufe it was both a gratuitous and lingular gift of Chrilt : in refe¬ rence to the making men complete members of Chrilt’s body, the church, it had the name of TsAs by prayer, confecrated the water for that ufe. Tertullian fays, “ any waters may be applied to that ufe : but then God muft: be firft invo- cated ; and then the Holy Ghoft prefently comes down from heaven, and moves upon them, and fanblifies them.” The waters being confecrated, the perfon was baptized “ in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghoft:;” by which, “ dedication of him to the bleffed Trinity, the perfon (fays Clemens Alexan- drinus) is delivered from the corrupt trinity, the devil, the world, and the flefti.” In performing the ceremony of baptifm, the ufual cuftom (except in clinical cafes, 3 B or I ■ B A P . I 3 Baptifin. or where there was fcarcity of water), was to immerfe v u' * and dip the whole body. 1'hus St Barnabas, defcrib- ing a baptized perfon, fays, “ We go down into the water full of fin and filth, but wt afcend bearing fruit in our hearts.” And this praftice of immerfing the whole body was fo general, that we find no exceptions made in refpeft either to the tendernefs of infants, or the balhfulnefs of the other fex, unlefs in cafe of fick- nefs or other difability. But to prevent any indecency, men and women were baptized apart. To which end, either the baptifteries wrere divided into two apart¬ ments, one for the men, the ether for the w’omen, as Bingham has obferved 5 or the men wyere baptized at one time and the women at another, as is Ihown by Voffius, from the f)rdo Romanus, Gregory’s Sacramen- tarium, &c. Add, that there was anciently an order of deaconeffes, one part of rvhofe bufinefs w’as to aflifi: at the baptifm of wmmen. The precautions, however, rather indicate a fcrupulous attention to delicacy, than imply any indecency in the circumftance of immerfion itfelf. From the candidates being immerfed, there is at Jeaft no reafon to infer that they were naked : The prefent Baptifts never baptize naked, though they al¬ ways immerfe. After immerfion, followed the unftion; by which (fays St Cyril) wTas fignified that they were now cut oil from the wild olive, and were ingrafted in¬ to Chrilt, the true olive tree j or elfe to Ihow' that they were now to be champions for the gofpel, and xvere anointed thereto, as the old athletae were againft their folemn games. With this anointing was joined the fign of the crofs, made upon the forehead of the perfon baptized ; which being done, he had a w'hite garment given him, to denote his being walhed from the defile¬ ments of fin, or in allufion to that of the apoftle, “ As many as are baptized in Chrift have put on Chrift.” From this cuftom the feaft of Pentecoft, which rvas one of the annual feafons of baptifm, came to be called IVhitfunday, i. e. White-funday. Tills garment was afterwards laid up in the church, that it might be an evidence againft inch perfons as violated or denied that faith which they had owned in baptifm.—When the baptifm was performed, the perfon baptized, according to Juftin Martyr, “ was received into the number of the faithful, who then fent up their public prayers to God, for all men, for themlelves, and for thofe who had been baptized.” The ordinary minifters, who had the right of ad- miniftering this facrament, that is, of applying the water to the body,'and pronouncing the formula, rvere prelbytefs or bilhops ; though on extraordinary occa- fions laymen were admitted to perform the fame. Modern to the prefent form of adminiftering baptifm, forms; in the the church of Rome ufes the following. When a church of child is to be baptized, the perfons who bring it wait for the prieft at the door of the church, who comes thither in his furplice and purple Hole, attended by his clerks. He begins with queftioning the god¬ fathers, whether they promife, in the child’s name, to live and die in the true catholic and apoftolic faith, and what name they would give the child. Then follows an exhortation to the fponfors •, after which the prieft, calling the child by its name, alks it as follows : What doji ih< u demand of the church? The godfather an- fwers, Fternal life. The prieft goes on : If you are de- frous of obtaining eternal life, keep G odd commandments, Rome. 78 ] BAP thou /halt love the Lord thy God, &c. After which he Eaptifm, breathes three times in the child’s face', faying, Come—y——^ out of this child, thou evil fpint, and make room for the Holy Ghofl. Ibis faid, he makes the fign of the crofs on the child’s forehead and breaft, faying, Receive the fgn of the crofs on thy forehead, and in thy heart. Then taking off his cap, he repeats a thort prayer-, and laying his hand gently on the child’s head, repeats a fecond prayer : which ended, he bleffes fome fait; and putting a little of it into the child’s mouth, pronounces theie wrords, Receive the fait of wifdom. All this is per¬ formed at the church-door. The prieft, with the god¬ fathers and god-mothers, coming into the church, and advancing towards the font, repeat the apoftles-creed and the Lord’s-prayer. Being come to the font, the prieft exorcifes the evil fpirit again 5 and taking a little of his own fpittle, with the thumb of his right-hand, rubs it on the child’s ears and noftrils, repeating, as he touches the right ear, the fame word (Ephatha, be thou opened) which our Saviour made ule of to the man born deaf and dumb. Laftly, they-pull off its Iwaddling- clothes, or ftrip it below the Ihoulders, during which the prieft prepares the oils, &c. The fponfors then hold the child direftly over the font, obferving to turn it due eaft and weft : whereupon the prieft alks the child, Whether he renounces the devil and all his works? and the godlather having anfwered in the affirmative, the prieft anoints the child between the Ihoulders in the form of a crofs. Then taking fome of the confecrated water, he pours part of it thrice on the child’s head, at each perfufion calling on one of the Perfons of the Holy Trinity. The prieft concludes the ceremony of baptilm with an exhortation The Romilh church al¬ lows midwives, in cales of danger, to baptize a child before it comes entirely out of its mother’s womb : # where it is to be obferved, that ieme part of the body of the child muft appear before it can be baptized, and that it is baptized on the part which firft appears : if it be the head, it is not neceffary to rebaptize the child ; but if only a foot or hand appears, it is neceffary to repeat baptifm. A ftillborn child thus baptized may be buried in confecrated ground. The Greek church differs from the Romifh, as to in the the rite of baptifm, chiefly in performing it by immer- Greek fion, or plunging the infant all over in the water. church. The forms of adminiftering baptifm among us being too well known to require a particular delcription, rve form in the lhall only mention one or two of the more material dif- 'fturgy of ferences between the form, as it flood in the firft litur- gy of King Edward, and that in the Englilh Com¬ mon Prayer Book at prefent. Firft, the form of con- fecrating the water did not make a part of the office, in King Edward’s liturgy, as it does in the prefent, becaufe the water in the font was changed, and confe¬ crated, but once a month. The form likewife itfelf w-as fomething different from that now ufed ; and was introduced w-ith a fhort prayer, that Jsfus Chriji, upon whom {when he was baptized) the Holy Ghof came down in the hkenefs of a dove, would fend down the fame Holy Spirit, to fanclify the fountain of baptifm; which prayer was afterw-ards left out, at the fecond review.—By King Edward’s firft book, the minifter is to dip the child in the water thrice 5 firft, dipping the right-fide ; fecondly, the left ; the third time, dipping the face to¬ ward the foot. This trine immerfion was a very an, cient BAP [ 379 1 B A P Saptifm. fcient prai^ice in the Chriftian church, and ufed in ho- v rJ nour 0f t|1£ pjQly Trinity j though fome later writers fay, it was done to reprefent the death, burial, and rer furre£tion, of Chrift, together with his three days con¬ tinuance in the grave. Afterwards, the Arians ma¬ king an ill ufe of it, by perfuading the people that it Was ufed to denote that the three Perfons in the Tri¬ nity were three diftinft fubftances, the orthodox left it off, and ufed only one fingle immerfion. By the iirft common-prayer of King Edward, after the child was baptized, the godfathers and godmothers Were to lay their hands upon it, and the minifter was to put on him the white veftment commonly called the vbryfome, and to fay, “ Take this white vefture, as a token oi the innocency, which, by God’s grace, in this holy facrament of baptifm, is given unto thee } and for a hgn, whereby thou art admonilhed, fo long as thou liveft, to give thyfelf to innocence of living, that after this tranlitory life thou may eft be partaker of the life everlafting. Amen.” As foon as he had pro¬ nounced thefe words, he w^as to anoint the infant on the head, faying, “ Almighty God, the father of our Lord Jefus Chrift, who hath regenerated thee by wa¬ ter and the Holy Ghoft, and hath given unto thee re- miftion of all thy fins ; may he vouchfafe to anoint thee with the unftion of his Ploly Spirit, and bring thee to the inheritance of everlafting life. Amen.” This was tnanifeftly done in imitation of the praftice of the pri¬ mitive church. The cuftom of fprinkling children, inftead of dip¬ ping them in the font, wdrich at firft was allowed in Gale of the wreaknefs or ficknefs of the infant, has i’o far prevailed, that immerfion is at length quite exclu¬ ded. What principally tended to confirm the praflice of affufion or fprinkling, was, that feveral of our Pro- teftant divines, Hying into Germany and Switzerland during the bloody reign of Queen Mary, and returning home when Queen Elizabeth came to the crown, brought back with them a great zeal for the Proteftant churches beyond fea, -where they had been dickered and received j and having obferved, that at Geneva and fome other places, baptifm ivas adminiftered by fprinkling, they thought they could not do the church of England a greater piece of fervice than by intro¬ ducing a praftice dictated by fo great an oracle as Cal¬ vin. 'Phis, together with the coldnefs of our northern climate, was what contributed to banifh entirely the praftice of dipping infants in the font. Notions Many different notions have been entertained con- concerning cerning the effects of baptifm, which it would be end- the eftetts ]efs j-0 enumerate.—The Remonftrants and Socinians reduce baptifm to a mere fign of divine grace. The Romanifts, on the contrary, exalt its power; hold¬ ing, that all fin is entirely taken away by it; that it abfolutely Confers the grace of juftification, and con- fequently grace ex opere operato. Some alfo fpeak of an indelible chara£fer impreffed on the foul by it, call¬ ed charaBer dominicusy and charaBer regius : but this is held, by others, a mere chimera ; for that the fpi- litual charafter, conferred in regeneration, may eafily be effaced by mortal fins. Dodwell maintained, that it is by baptifm the foul is made immortal j fo that thofe who die without it will not rife again. It muft be added, he reftrains this effefl ,to epifcopal baptifm alone. From the effefls ordinarily afcribed to bap- of baptifm. tifm, even by ancient writers, it fhould feem, that the Baptlfnt* ceremony is as much of heathen as Jewifh origin ; fince Chriftians do not reftrain the ufe of it, like the Jews, to the admiffion of new-members into the church, but hold, with the heathens, a virtue in it for remit¬ ting and waffling away fins. The Bramins are ftill faid to baptize with this latter view, at certain fea- fons, in the river Ganges ; to the waters tvhereof they have annexed a cleanfing or famftifying quality ; and hence it is that they flock from all parts, even of Tar¬ tary, driven by the expectation of their being cafed of their load of fins. But, in this point, many Chri¬ ftians feem to have gone beyond the folly of the hea» thens. It wTas only the fmaller fins of infirmity which thefe latter held to be expiable by wafliing ; for crimes of a blacker dye, they allowed no water could efface them, no purgation could difcharge them. The Chri- ftian doCtrine of a total remiflion of fins by baptifm could not fail, therefore, to fcandalize many among the heathens, and furniflied Julian an occallon of fati- rifing Chriftianity itfelf: “ Whoever (fays he) is guilty of rapes, murders, facrilege, or any abominable crime, let him be walked wuth wTater, and he wall become pure and holy.” In the ancient church, baptifm was frequently con- ferx*ed on Jews by violence : but the church itfelf never feems to have allowed of force on this occafion. By a canon of the fourth council of Toledo, it is exprefs- ly forbid to baptize any againft their wills. That which looks moft like force in this cafe, allowed by law, were two orders of Juftinian j one of which ap¬ points the heathens, and the other Samaritans, to be baptized, with their wives and children and fervants, under pain of confifcation. By the ancient laws, bap¬ tifm was not to be conferred on image-makers, ftage- players, gladiators, auriga or public drivers, magi¬ cians, or even ftrolling beggars, till they quitted fuch profeffions. Slaves w'ere not allowed the privilege of baptifm without the teftimony and confent of their Bingham, mafters 5 excepting the flaves of Jews, Heathens, and QriS' Ecd> heretics ; who were not only admitted to baptifm, but, 1 ‘j cg‘ S* in confequence thereof, had their freedom. Voflius^ ix."§ 17 has a learned and elaborate work De Baptif?7io, where¬ in he accurately difcuffes all the queftions concerning baptifm according to the doftrine of the ancients. Baptism by Fire, fpoken of by St John the Baptift, has occafioned much conjecfure. The generality of the fathers held, that believers, before they enter paradife, are to p&fs through a certain fire, which is to purify them from all pollutions "remaining on them unexpia¬ ted. Others, with St Bafil, underftand it of the fire "of hell; others, of that of tribulation and temptation. Others, with St Chryfoftom, will have it denote an abundance of graces. Others fuppofe it to mean the defcent of the Holy Ghoft on the apoftles, in form of fiery tongues. Laftly, others maintain, that the wrord Jire here is an interpolation ; and that we are only to read the text, He that [hall come after me will baptise you with the Holy Ghojl. In reality, it is not found in divers manufcript copies of St Matthew. The ancient Selucians and Hermians, underftand- ing the paflage literally, maintained, that material fire was neceffary in the adminiftration of baptifm. But we do not find how or to what part of the body they applied it, or whether they were fatisfied with obliging 3 B 2 the bap [ 380 ] BAP Eaptifm Solemn Baptifm. tlie perfon baptized to pafs through the fire. Valenti¬ nus rebaptized all who had received water-baptilm, and conferred on them the baptifm of fire. Bis docuit tingi, traduBoque corporcJJamma. Tkrtull. Cann. contr. Marc. 1. t. Heracleon, cited by Clemens Alexandrinus, fays, that fome applied a red-hot iron to the ears of the perfon baptized, as if to imprefs fome mark upon him. Baptism of the Dead, a cuftom which anciently pre¬ vailed among fome people in Africa, of giving baptifm to the dead. The third council of Carthage fpeaks of it as a thing that ignorant Chrillians were fond of. Gregory Nazianzen alfo takes notice of the fame fuper- llitious opinion prevailing among fome who delayed to be baptized. In his addrefs to this kind of men, he a Iks, whether they flayed to be. baptized after death ? Philaftrius alfo notes it as the general error of the Montanifts or Cataphrygians, that they baptized men after death. The pra&ice feems to be grounded on a vain opinion, that, when men had negledfed to receive baptifm in their life-time, fome compenfation might be made for this default by receiving it after death. Baptifm of the Dead was alfo a fort of vicarious bap¬ tifm, formerly in ufe, wdren a perfon dying without baptifm, another was baptized in his ftead. St Chryfofiom tells us, this was praflifed among the Marcionites with a great deal of ridiculous cere¬ mony ; which he thus defcribcs: After any catechu¬ men wras dead, they hid a living man under the bed of the deceafed ; then coming to the dead man, they afked him, whether he would receive baptifm j and he ma¬ king no anfwer, the other anfwered for him, and faid, he Would be baptized in his Head : and fo they bapti¬ zed the living for the dead. Epiphanius allures us, the like was alfo practifed among the Corinthians. This praftice they pretended to found on the Apoftle’s authority ; alleging that text of St Paul for it, If the dead rife not at all, what Jhall they do who are baptized for the dead ? A text which has given occafion to a great variety of different fyftems and explications. Voflius enumerates no lefs than nine different opinions among learned divines concerning the fenfe of the phrafe, being baptized for the dead. St Ambrofe and Walafred Strabo feem clearly of opinion, that the apolfle had refpedl to fuch a cuftom then in being 5 and feveral moderns have given into the fame opinion, as Baronius, Jof. Scaliger, Juftellus, and Grotius. Several among the Roman Catholics, as Bellarmin, Salmeron, Menochius, and a number of fchoolmen, underftand it of the baptifm of tears, and penance, and prayers, which the living undergo for the dead 5 and thus allege it as a proof of the belief of purgatory in St Paul’s days. Hypothetical Baptism, that formerly adminiftered in certain doubtful cafes, w ith this formula : If thou art baptized, 1 do not rebaptize ; if thou art not, I baptize thee in the name of the Father, &c. This fort of bap¬ tifm, enjoined by fome ancient conftitutions of the Englilh church, is now fallen into difufe. Solemn Baptism, that conferred at ftated feafons ; fuch, in the ancient church, were the Pafchal baptifm. and that at Whitfuntide. This is fometimes alfo called general baptifm. Lay Baptism, we find to have been permitted by both the Common-prayer Books of King Edward and that of Queen Elizabeth, when an infant is in imme¬ diate danger of death, and a lawful minifter cannot be bad. I his w*as founded upon the miftaken notion of the impoliibility of falvation without the facrament of baptifm : but afterwards, when they came to have clearer notions of the facraments, it w>as u^animouiiy refolved in a convocation, held in the year 1575, that even private baptiim, in a cafe of nccefllty, was only to be adminiftered by a lawful minifter. Baptism is alfo applied, abufively, to certain cere¬ monies ufed in giving names to things inanimate. The ancients knew nothing of the cuftom of giving baptifm to inanimate things, as bells, fhips, and the like, by a fuperftitious confecration of them. The firft notice we have of this is in the Capitulars of Charles the Great, where it is only mentioned to be cenfured ; but, afterwards, it crept into the Roman offices by de¬ grees. Baronius carries its antiquity no higher than the year 968, when the greateft bell of the church of Lateran was chriftened by Pope John III. At laft it grew to that fuperftitious height, as to be thought pro¬ per to be complained of in the Centum Gravamina of the German nation, drawn up in the public diet of the empire held at Nuremberg anno 158x5 where (after having deferibed the ceremony of baptizing a bell, w ith godfathers, who make refponfes as in baptifm, and give it a name, and clothe it with a new garment as Chriftians were ufed to be clothed, and all this to make it capable of driving aw^ay tempefts and devils) they conclude againft it, as not only a fuperftitious pra&ice, but contrary to the Chriftian religion, and a mere fe- duflion of the fimple people. Bapti sm, in the fea language, a ceremony in long voyages on board merchant ffiips, praftifed both on perfons and veffels who pafs the tropic or line for the firft time. The baptizing the veffels is fimple, and confifts only in waffiing them throughout with fea-w a- ter 5 that of the paffengers is more myfterious. The oldeft of the crew, that has paft the tropic or line, comes wfith his face blacked, a grotefque cap on his head, and fome fea-book in his hand, followed by the reft of the Teamen dreffed like himfelf, each having fome kitchen utenfil in his hand, with drums beating 5 he places himfelf on a feat on the deck, at the foot of the mainmaft. At the tribunal of this mock magi- ftrate, each paffenger not yet initiated, {wears he will take care the fame ceremony be obferved, whenever he is in the like circumftances : Then, by giving a little money by way of gratification, he is difeharged with a little fprinkling. of water 5 othenvife he is heartily drenched with ftreams of water poured upon him 5 and the ftiip boys are enclofed in a cage, and ducked at dif- cretiou.— The feamen, on the baptizing a ftup, pretend to a right of cutting off the beak-head unlefs redeem¬ ed by the captain. BAPTISMAL, fomething belonging to baptifm 5 thus we fay baptifmal vow, prefents, &c. Baptismal Vow or Covenant, a profeffion of obedi¬ ence to the lawTs of Chrift, which perfons in the an¬ cient church made before baptifm. It was an indif- penfable Lay Bap- tifin Baptifmal Vow. BAP Baptifts. Baptifmal penfable part of the obligation on catechumens, before Frefents t]ley were admitted to the ceremony of regeneration. 11 it was made* by turning to the call j for what myftical reafons, is not well agreed on. Baptismal Prefents are in ufe in Germany, made by the fponfors to the infant, confifting of money, plate, or even fometimes fiefs of lands j which by the laws of the country are to be kept for the child till ot age, the parents having only the truft, not the right, of difpofing of them. An anonymous author has pub- lithed a difcourfe exprefs on this occafion, entitled, De pecunia lujlrica. - . a BAPTIST, John Monnoyer, a painter ot tiowers and fruit, was born at Lille in 1635, and educated at Antwerp, where he perfeaed himielf in the knowledge of his art, and in his firft years was intended for a painter of hiftory : but having foon obferved. that his genius more ftrongly inclined him to the painting ot flowers, he applied his talents to thofe fubjefts, and in that ftyle became one of the greateft mailers. His pictures are not fo exquifitely fimlhed as thole of Van Huyfum, but his compofition and colouring are in a bolder ftyle. His flowers have generally a remarkable freedom and loofenefs, as well in the dilpofition as in the penciling *, together with a tone of colouring that is lively, admirable, and nature itfelf. The difpofition of his obiedts is furprifingly elegant and beautiful; and in that refpedl his compofitions are eafily known and as eafily diftinguilhed from the performances of others. He died in rbyq.—He left a fon, Anthony vvho paint¬ ed flowers in the fame ftyle and manner, and had great m BAPTISTS, in EcclejlajllcalHijlory, (from I baptise) ; a denomination of Chriftians, diftinguilhed from other Chriftians by their particular opinions re- fpecting the mode and the fubjeHs of baptifm. Inftead of adminiftering the ordinance by fprmkbng or pouring water, they maintain that it ought to be adminiftered only by immerfion. Such they mfift, is the meaning of the word J fo that a command to baptize is a command to immerfe. Thus it was un- derftood by thofe who firft adminiftered it. John the Baptift and the apoftles of Chrift, adminiftered it in Iordan and other rivers and places where there was much water. Both the adminiftrators and the fubjeHs are defcribed as going down into, and coming up again out of, the water} and the baptized are faid to be bu¬ ried in baptifm, and to be railed again : which lan¬ guage could not, they fay, be properly adopted on fuopofition of the ordinance being adminiftered m any other manner than by immerfion. Thus alfo, they at- firm, it was in general adminiftered in the primitive church. Thus it is now adminiftered in the Ruffian and Greek church : and thus it is, at this day, dire He d to be adminiftered in the church of England, to all who are thought capable of fubmitting to it m this manner. With regard to the fubjefls of baptifm, the Baptifts fay, that this ordinance ought not to be admi¬ niftered to children or infants at all, nor to grown up perfons in general; but to adults only of a certain elm- rafter and defeription. Our Saviour’s commiffion to his apoftles, by which Chriftian baptifm was inftitu- ted, is to go and teach all nations, baptizing them : that is, fay they, not to baptize all they meet with 5 but firft to inftruft them—to teach all nations, or to 381 1 BAP preach the gofpel to every creature—and whoever re- Baptifts, ceives it, him to baptize in the name of the Father, ,r“*“ and of the Son, and of the -Holy Ghoft. To fuch perfons, and to fuch only, baptifm appears to have been adminiftered by the apoftles, and the immediate dif- ciples of Chrift. They are defcribed as repenting of their fins, as believing in Chrift, and as having gladly received the word. Without thefe qualifications, Pe¬ ter acquaints thofe who were converted by his fermon, that he could not have admitted them to baptiim, Philips holds the fame language in his difcourfe with the eunuch-, and Paul treats Lydia, the jailor, and others, in the fame manner. Without thefe qualifica¬ tions, Chriftians in general think it wrong to admit perfons to the Lord’s fupper 5 and, for the fame rea¬ fons, without thefe qualifications, at leaft a profefiion of them, the Baptifts think it wrong to admit any to. baptifm. Wherefore they withhold it, not only from the impenitently vicious and profane, and from infi¬ dels who have no faith -, but alfo from infants and chil¬ dren, who have no knowledge, and are incapable of every aftion civil and religious. They further infill, that all pofitive inftitutions depend entirely upon the will and declaration of the inftitutor 5 and therefore, that reafoning by analogy from abrogated Jewifti rites is to be rejefted, and the exprefs commands of Chrift refpefting the mode and fubjefts of baptifm ought to be our only rule. The Baptifts in England form one of the denomina¬ tions of Proteftant Diffenters. They feparate from the eftablifhment for the fame reafons as their brethren ®f the other denominations do 5 and from additional mo¬ tives derived from their particular tenets refpefting baptifm. The conftitution of their churches, and their modes of wyrftnp, are congregational or independent : in the exercife of which they are protefted, in com¬ mon with other diffenters, by the aft of toleration. Before this aft, they were liable to pains and penalties as nonconformifts, and often for their peculiar fenti- ments as Baptifts. A proclamation was iffued out a gain ft them, and fome of them were burnt in Smith- field in 153S. They bore a confiderable fhare in the perfecutions of the laft and of the preceding centuries; and, as it Ihould feem, in thofe of fome centuries be¬ fore • for there were feveral among the Lollards and the followers of Wickliff, who difapproved of infant- baptifm. There were many of this perfuafion among the Proteftants and reformers abroad. In Holland, Germany, and the North, they went by the names of Anabaptists, and Mennonites 5 .and, in Pied¬ mont and the fouth, they were found aniong the Al- bigenses and Waldenses. See tne hiftones of the Reformation, and the above articles in this Diftion- ary. . . . - The Baptijls fubfift under two denominations, viz. the Particular or Calviniftical, and the General or Ar- , minian. The former is by far the moft numerous. Some of both denominations allow of mixed communion, viz. of perfons who have been fprinkled in their in¬ fancy, and therefore unbaptized in the view of the Baptifts ; others difallow it; and fome of them ob- ferve the feventh day of the wreek as the Sabbatu, ap¬ prehending the law that enjoined it not to have been repealed by Chrift or his apoftles. But a difference of opinion refpefting thefe and other matters, is not A R f 1 BAR i^aptiftery peculiar to tlie Baptids : it is common to all Chri- II Ilians, and to all bodies of men who think and iudp-e , Ey; , for themfelves. S BAPTISTERY, in ecclefiaftical writers, a place in which the ceremony of baptifm is performed. In the ancient church it was one of the exedrae or buildings diltinct from the church itfelf: and confided of a pdrch or anti-room where the perfons to be bap¬ tized made their confeffion of faith, and an inner room where the ceremony of baptifm was performed. Thus it continued till the fixth century, when the baptide- ries began to be taken into the chutch-porch, and af¬ terwards into the church itfelf. The ancient baptideries were commonly called r/ioix, photijleria, q. d. places of illumination } an ap¬ pellation fometinles given to baptifm. Or they might have the name for another reafon, becaufe they were the places of an illumination, or indruftion, preceding baptifm : for here the catechumens feem to have been trained up, and indrufted in the fird rudiments of the Chridian faith. Thofe baptideries were anciently very capacious ; becaufe, as Dr Cave obferves, the dated times of bap¬ tifm returning but feldom, there were ufually great multitudes to be baptized at the fame time : and then the manner of baptizing, by immerfion, or dipping under water, made it neceffary to have a large font likewife. In Venantius Fortunatus, it is called aula b apt if mat is, the large hall of baptifm ; which ■was in¬ deed fo capacious, that we fometimes read of councils meeting and fitting therein. This hall, or chapel, was always kept Oiut during Lent, and the door feal- ed up with the bidrop’s feal, not to be opened till Maunday-Thurfday. The baptillery was always reputed a facred place. In the Roman order, wre find the ceremonies ufed in the confecration of the baptideries : they were to be built of a round figure, and didinguilhed with the image of St John the Baptid 5 over the bafon or font was a figure of a dove in gold or filver, to reprelent the Holy Ghod. The name bapti/lery is fometimes alfo given to a kind of chapel in a large church, which ferved for the fame office. It is an obfervation of fome learned men, that anciently there was but one baptidery in a city, and that at the bifhop’s church 5 and that afterwards they were fet up in pariffi churches, with the fpecial allowance however of the bilhop. BAR, in a general fenfe, denotes a dender piece of wood or iron, for keeping things clofe together. Bar, in courts of judice, an enclofure made with a drong partition of timber, where the counfel are pla¬ ced to plead caufes. It is alio applied to the benches where the lawyers or advocates are feated, becaufe an¬ ciently there was a bar to feparate the pleaders from the attorneys and others. Hence our lawyers who are called to the bar, or licenfed to plead, are termed bar¬ riers, an appellation equivalent to licentiate in other countries. Bar, or Barr, (Latin barra, and in French barre), in a legal fenfe, is a plea or peremptory exception of a defendant, fufficient to deitroy the plaintiff’s a6Hon. And it is divided into bar to common intendment, and bar fpecial; bar temporary, and perpetual. Bar to a common intendment is an ordinary or general bar, which 2 ufually difaoleth ihe declaration of the plaintiff} bar Ipecial is that which is more than ordinary, and falls out upon fome fpecial circumftance of the fadl as to the cafe in hand. Bar temporary is fuch a bar as is good for the pyefent, but may afterwards fail ; and bar perpetual is that which overthrows the a&ion of the plaintiff for ever. Bar, in Heraldry, an ordinary in form of the fefs but much lefs. See Heraldry. Bar,, in the Manege, the higheft part of that place of a horfe’s mouth fituated between the grinders and tuffies, fo that the part of the mouth which lies under and at the fide of the bars retains the name of the gum. A horfe with fenfible bars has a fine light mouth, with an even and firm appui. See Appui. To Bar. a Vein, in Farriery, is an operation per¬ formed upon the veins of the legs of a horfe and other parts, with intent to flop the malignant humours. It is done by opening the Ikin above it, difengagincr it, and tying it both above and below, and fluking be¬ tween the twm ligatures. Bar, In Mufic, a ftroke drawn perpendicularly a- crois the lines of a piece of mufic, including between each two a certain quantity or meafure of time, which is farious as the time of the mufic is either triple or common. In common time, between each two bars is included the meafure of four crotchets 5 in triple, three. The principal ufe of bars is to regulate the beating of time in a concert. The ufe of bars is not to be traced higher than the time wdien the Engliih tranflation of Adrian le Roy’s book on the Tablature was publiflied, viz. the year 1574; and it was fome time after that before the ufe of bars became general. To come nearer to the point, Barnard’s cathedral mu¬ fic, printed in 1641, is without bars •, but bars are to be found throughout in the Ayres and Dialogues of Henry Lawes publiffied in 1653 ; from whence it may be conjeftured that we owe to Lawes this improve¬ ment. Bar, in Hydrography, denotes a bank of fand, or other matter, whereby the mouth of a river is in a manner choked up. 'The term bar is alfo ufed for a ftrong beam where¬ with the entrance of a harbour is fecured : this is more commonly called boom. Bar of a tavern or coffeehoufe, the place where the waiters attend to anfwer the calls -of the cuftomers. Bar, among printers, denotes a piece of iron with a w’ooden handle, whereby the ferew of the prefs is turned in printing. See Printing. Bars of Iron, are made of the metal of the fows and pigs as they come from the furnace. Thefe pafs through two forges called the finery and the chaufery ; where, undergoing five feveral heats, they are formed into bars. Bar, a very flrong city of Podolia in Poland, upon the river Kiow. E. Long. 28. 30. N. Lat. 50. 6. Bar, formerly a duchy of France, now the depart¬ ment of Meufe, is bounded on the eaft by Lorrain, on the north by Luxembourg, on the weft by Cham¬ pagne, on the fouth by part of the fame country, and by Franche Compte. It is croffed by the river Meufe from north to fouth, and watered by feveral other rivers, which render it very fertile. It was divided into four balliages,' viz. Baffilyni, Bar, St Michael, and BAR [ 333 ] BAR JJouel's De fenp tine ‘Travels through Si- eily, &C. and Clermont. The chief towns are Bar-le-duc, Cler¬ mont, St Michael, Longuey, Pont a Mouflbn, and Stenay. In 1736, it was given to Staniilaus then king of Poland. BAR-le-duc, the capital of the late duchy of Bar, in the department of Meufe, is feated on the declivity of a hill. It is divided into the higher and lower town : the lower is watered by the rivulet Orney, which a- bounds with excellent trouts. The wines are excel¬ lent, and not inferior to thofe of Champagne. E. Long- 5- 30> N- Lat- 48-,35- BAR-le-Mont, a town of the French Netherlands, in Hainault, lituated on the river Sombre. E. Long. 3. 4c. N. Lat. 50. 10. Bar fur Aube, an ancient town of France, in the department of Aube, feated at the foot of a mountain. It is much celebrated for excellent wanes. E. Long. 4. 50. N. Lat. 48. 14. ' B 4R fur Seine, a town of France, in the duchy of Burgundy, nowr in the department of Aube, feated be- tween a mountain which covers it on the weft, and the river Seine which runs on the eaft. E. Long. 4. 30. N. Lat. 48. 5. BAR-Mafer, among miners, the perfon w'ho keeps the gauge, or dilh, for meafuring the ore. BARA, in Ancient Geography, a final! ifland in the Adriatic, oppoftte to Brundufium : the Pharos of Me¬ la. Alfo a frith or arm of the fea of Britannia Se- cunda (Ptolemy) ; fuppofed to be the Murray frith. Bara, one of the Hebrides or Weftern iftands of Scotland. It is a fmall rock, only a quarter of a mile in circumference, being part of a chain called the Long If and, the whole clufter appearing at low w7ater as one ifland. Bara is altogether barren ; but abounds with great numbers of fea-fowd, luch as folan geefe, guillamotes, puffins, &c. Bara, the name of a feftival celebrated with much magnificence at Meffina, and reprefenting the affump- tion of the Virgin. The bara, though ufed as the general denomination of this feftival, fignifies more particularly a vaft machine 50 feet high, at the top of which a young girl of 14, reprefenting the Virgin, Hands upon the hand of an image of Jefus Chrift. Round him turn vertically, in a circle, 12 little chil¬ dren which reprefent the feraphims 5 below them, in another circle, which turns horizontally, are 12 more reprefenting the cherubims : below thefe a fun turns vertically, with a child at the extremity of each of the four principal radii of his circle, wrho afeend and de- feend with his rotation, yet ftill ftand upright. Be¬ low the fun is the loweft circle, about feven feet from the ground, in which 1 2 boys turn horizontally with¬ out interruption •, thefe are intended for the twrelve apoftles, who are fuppofed to furround tl\p tomb of the Virgin at the moment when Ihe afeends into- hea¬ ven. This complication of fuperftitious whirligigs may have already nearly turned the ftomachs of fome of our readers, or at leaft rendered them fqueamilh. But think of the poor little cherubims, feraphims, and apo- files, who are twirled about in this proceflion ! for, fays Mr Houel “ fome of them fall afleep, many of them vomit, and fevenil do ftill worfe but thefe unfeemly effufions are no drawback upon the edification of the people *, and nothing is more coxnmon than to fee fa¬ thers and mothers foliciting writh ardour for their boys Ba. RA. LIP. and girls the pious diftinhlion of puking at the bara. This machine is not drawn by affes or mules, but by a multitude of rebuff: monks. BARABINZIANS, a tribe of Tartars, living on both fides of the river Irtis. They feem to derive their name from the Barabaian delert, whole lakes fupply them abundantly with filh, on which and their cattle they chiefly fubfift. They have plenty of game and ■wild-fowl of every kind, particularly ducks and puf¬ fins. Moft of them are heathens, but Mahometaniim daily gains ground among them. Some of them pay tribute to the emprefs of Ruffia, and others to the Khan Taifha. • BARACOA, a town in the north-eaft part of the ifland of Cuba. W. Long. 76. 10. N. Lat. 21. 5. BARALIPTON, among logicians, a term deno¬ ting the firft indirect mode of the firft figure of fyllogilm. A fyllogifm in baralipton, is wdren the two firft propo- fitions are general, and the third particular, the mid¬ dle term being the fubje6t in the firft propolition and the predicate in the fecond. The following is of this kind : Every evil ought to be feared ; Every violent paflion is an evil y Therefore fomething that ought to be fear¬ ed is a violent paflion. BARALLOTS, in Church Hiflory, a fe£t of here¬ tics at Bologna in Italy, who had all things in common, even their wives and children. Their facility in com¬ plying with all manner of debauchery made them get . the name obedientes, “ compliers.” BARANCA de malambo, & town of TerraFirma in America, with a bilhop’s fee and a good haven. It is a place of great trade, and is feated on the river Magdaline. W. Long. 75. 30. N. Lat. 11. 10. BARANGI, officers among the Greeks of the lowTer empire. Cujas calls them in Latin proteBores, and others give them the name offecurigeri. It was their bufinefs to keep the keys of the city gates, where the emperor refided. BARANWAHR, a town of Lower Hungary, in a county of the fame name, taken by the emperor of Germany from the Turks in 16S4. It is feated be¬ tween Buda and Belgrade, in E. Long. 10. 5. N. Lat. 46. o. BARATHRUM, in Antiquity, a deep dark pit at Athens, into which condemned perfons were caft head¬ long. It had (harp fpikes at the top, that no man might efcape out y and others at the bottom, to pierce and torment fuch as were caft in. Its depth and ca- pacioufnefs made it to be applied proverbially to a co¬ vetous peribn : to a glutton, called Barathro by the Romans (Lucretius, Horace), and Barathrum in the fame fenfe (Horace) } and for a common proftitute (Plautus). BARATIERE, Philip, a moft extraordinary in- ftance of the early and rapid exertion of mental facul¬ ties. This furprifing genius was the fon of Francis Ba- ratiere, minifter of the French church at Schwobach near Nuremberg, where he was born Jan. 10th 1721. The French was his mother tongue, together with fome- words of High Dutch y but by means of his father infenfibly talking Latin to him, it became as familiar to him as the reft : fo that, wfftheut knowing the rules of grammar, he at four years of age talked French to hio mother^. Barabin- zians II Baratiere. Baratiere Baratz. BAR [ 384 mother, Latin to his father, High Dutch to the maid or neighbouring children ; and all this without mixing or confounding the refpeddive languages. About the middle of his fifth year he acquired Greek in like man¬ ner ; fo that in x 5 months he perfectly uuderftood all the Greek books in the Old and New Teftament, which he readily tranilated into Latin. When he was five years and eight months old, he entered upon He¬ brew ; and in three years time was fo expert in the He¬ brew text, that from a bible without points, he could give the fcnfe of the original in Latin or French ; or tranflate extempore the Latin or French verfions into Hebrew, almoft word for word ; and had all the He¬ brew pfalms by heart. He compofed at this time a di&ionary of rare and difficult Hebrew words, with critical remarks and philological obfervations, in about 400 pages in 4to-j and, about his tenth year, amufed himfeif for twelve months with the Rabbinical wri¬ ters. With thefe he intermixed a knowledge of the Chaldaic, Syriac, and Arabic j and acquired a talle for divinity and 'ecclcfiaftical antiquity, by ftudying the Greek fathers, and councils of the firft four ages of the church. In the midft of thefe occupations, a pair of globes coming into his poffeffion, he could in 8 or 10 days time refolve all the problems on them ; and in about three months, in Jan. 1735, devifed his pro- jeft for the difcovery of the longitude, which he com¬ municated to the Royal Society at London and the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin. In June 17 31, he was matriculated in the univerfity of Alftorf; and^ at the clofe of the year 1732, he was prefented by his fa¬ ther at the meeting of the reformed churches of the circle of Franconia ; who, aftonifhed at his wonderful talents, admitted him to affift in the deliberations of the fynod ; and to preferve the memory of fo fingular an event, it was ordered to be regilfered in their adls. £734i .th6 margrave of Brandenburgh Anfpach granted this young fcholar the ufe of whatever books he wanted from the Anfpach library, together with a penfion of 50 florins, which he enjoyed three years ; and his father receiving a call to the French church at Stetin in Pomerania, young Baratiere was, on the jour¬ ney, admitted matter of arts, with univerfal applaufe, at the univerfity of Hall ; at Berlin he was honoured with feveral converfations with the king of Pruffia, and was received into the Royal Academy. Towards the clofe of his life he acquired a tafte for medals, infcrip- tions, and antiquities ; metaphyfical inquiries, and ex¬ perimental philofophy, intervening occafionally between thefe ftudies. He wrote feveral elfays and diflerta- tionsj made aftronomical remarks, and laborious calcu¬ lations ; took great pains toward a hiftory of the he- refies of the anti-trinitarians, and of the 30 years war in Germany : his laft publication, which appeared in 1740, was on the fucceffion of the bilhops of Rome. The final work he engaged in, and for which he had gathered large materials, was Inquiries concerning the Egyptian Antiquities. Bqt the fubftance of this bla¬ zing meteor was now almoft exhaufted: he was always weak and fickly ; and died O&ober ?. 1740, aged 19 years 8 months and 16 days. He publilhed 11 different pieces, and left 29 manufcripts on various fubje&s, the contents of which may be feen in his life written by M. Formey profefibr of philofophy at Berlin. Rx^RATZ, Turkish, letters-patent granted by 1 Barb ] BAR the Turkifli emperors to the Greek patriarch, blfhops, &c. for the exercife of their ecclefiaftical funaions. 11 This Barat%' gives the bifhops full power and autho-Earbiidoe^ rity to eftabljfti and depofe the inferior clergy, and all ' other religious perfons j to grant licenfes formarriapes, and iffue out divorces; to colle6! the revenues belong¬ ing to the churches ; to receive the pious legacies be¬ queathed to them j in fhort, to enjoy all the privileges and advantages belonging to their high ftation : and all this (as it is expreffed in the baratz itfelf) “ ac¬ cording to the vain and idle ceremonies of the Chri- ftlRns.” BARB, or Barbe, a horfe brought from Barbary, See Equus, Mammalia Iriitx. BARBA, in Botany, a fpecies of pules, or down, with which the furface of fome plants is covered. The term was invented by Linnaeus; and by its application in the Species Plant arum, feems to fignify a tuft or bunch of ftrong hairs terminating the leaves. Mefemhryanthe- tnum barbatum furnifhes an example. 1 he w’ord is alfo often ufed in compofition with fome other, to form the trivial names of feveral plants, as barb a joins, barba capree, Stc. BARBACAN, or Barbican, an outer defence or fortification to a city or cattle, ufed efpecially as a fence t to the city or walls; alfo an aperture made in the wall of a fortrefs, to fire through upon the enemy. See Castle. Barbacan is alfo ufed to denote a fort at the en¬ trance of a bridge, or the outlet of a city, having a double wall with towers. BARBADOES, the moft eafterly of all the Carib- bee itlands, lubjtil to Great Britain, and, according to the beft geographers, lying between 590 50' and 6o° 2' of weft longitude, and between 120 56' and 130 16' uf north latitude. Its extent is not certainly known : the moft general opinion is, that it i§ 25 miles from north to fouth, and 15 from eaft to wreft ; but thefe menfu- rations are fubjeft to fo many difficulties and uncer¬ tainties, that it will perhaps convey a more adequate idea of this ifland to tell the reader that in reality it does not contain above 107,000 acres. The climate is hot, but not unwholefome, the heat being qualified by fea-breezes ; and a temperate regimen renders this ifland as fafe to live in as any climate fouth of Great Britain ; and, according to the opinion of many, as even Great Britain itfelf. This ifland has on its eaft fide two ft reams that are called rivers, and in the middle is faid to have a bituminous fpring which fends forth a liquor like tar, and ferves for the fame ufes as pitch or lamp-oil. The ifland abounds in wells of good w;ater, and has feveral refervoirs for rain-wrater. Some parts of the foil are faid to be hollowed into caves, fome of them capable of containing 300 people. Thefe are imagined to have been the lurking-places of runaway negroes, but may as probably be natural excavations. The wmods that formerly grew upon the ifland have been all cut down, and the ground converted into fugar plantations. When thofe plantations vrere firft formed, the foil was prodigioufly fertile, but has fince been worn out, infomuch, that about the year 1730, the planters were obliged to raife cattle for the fake of their dung, by which means the profit of their planta¬ tions was reduced to lefs than a tenth of its ufual value. Notwithftanding the fmallnefs of Barbadoes, its foil is different 4 * BAR [ 385 1 BAR BarlaJoes. different; being in fome places Tandy and light, and others rich, and in others fpongy j but all of it is culti¬ vated according to its proper nature, fo that the ifiand prefents to the eye the molt beautiful appearance that can be imagined. Oranges and lemons grow in Bar- badoes in great plenty, and in their utmolt perfection. The lemon juice here has a peculiar fragrancy. I he citrons of Barbadoes afford the belt drams and fweet- meats of any in the world, the Barbadoes ladies excel¬ ling in the art of preferving the rind of the citron fruit. The juice of the limes, or dwarf lemons, is the molt agreeable Touring we know, and great quantities of it have of late been imported into Britain and Ire¬ land. The pine apple is alfo a native ot Barbadoes, and grows there to much greater perfection than it can . be made to do in Europe by any artificial means. A. vaft number of different trees peculiar to the climate are alfo found to flourilh in Barbadoes in great perfection j fuch as the aloe, mangrove, calabath, cedar, cotton, maitich, &c. Here likewife are produced fome fenfi- tive plants, with a good deal of garden ftufi, which is common in other places. In fhort, a native of the fineft, the richeft, and molt diverfified country in Europe, can hardly form an idea of the variety of delicious and at the fame time nutritive vegetable productions with which this ifiand abounds. When Barbadoes was firft difcovered by the Englilh, few or no quadrupeds were found upon it, except hogs, which had been left there by the Portuguefe. For con¬ venience of carriage to the fea fide, fome of the planters at firft procured camels j which undoubtedly would in all refpeCts have been preferable to horfes for their fu- gar and other works ; but the nature of the climate difagreeing with that animal, it was found impoflible to preferve the breed. They then applied for horfes to Old and Nerv England: from the former they had thofe that were fit for Ihow and draught •, from the latter thofe that were proper for mounting their mi¬ litia, and for the faddle. They had likewife fome of an inferior breed from Curaffao, and other fettle- ments. They are reported to have had their firft breed of black cattle from Bonavifta and the ifie of Mayo j they now breed upon the ifland, and often do the work of horfes. Their affes are very fer- viceable in carrying burdens to and from the planta¬ tions. The hogs of Barbadoes are finer eating than thofe of Britain, but the fexv ftieep they have are not near fo good. They likewife have goats, which when young are excellent food. Racoons and monkeys are alfo found here in great abundance. A variety of birds are produced on Barbadoes, of which the humming bird is the moft remarkable. Wild fowl do not often frequent this ifiand : but fometimes teal are found near their ponds. A bird which they call the man of 'tvar, is faid to meet (hips at 20 leagues from land, and their return is, to the inhabitants, a fure fign of the arrival of thefe (hips. When the wind blows from the fouth and fouth-weft, they have flocks of curlews, plovers, fnipes, wild pigeons, and wild ducks. The wild pi¬ geons are very fat and plentiful at fuch Teafons, and rather larger than thofe of England. The tame pi¬ geons, pullets, ducks, and poultry of all kinds, that are bred at Barbadoes, have alfo a fine flavour, and are accounted more delicious than thofe of Europe. 'I heir rabbits are fcarce; they have no hares $ and if they Vol. III. Part I. have deer of any kind, they are kept as curiofities. Barbactoes. The infe&s of Barbadoes are not venomous, nor do ei-1 ^ ther their fnakes or fcorpions ever fling. 1 he mu- fkettoes are troublelome, and bite, but are more tole¬ rable in Barbadoes than on the continent. Various other infefts are found on the ifland, fome of which are troublefome, but in no greater degree than thole that are produced by every warm fummer in England, Barbadoes is well fupplied with fifh 5 and iome caught in the fea furrounding it are almoft peculiar to itlelf j fuch as the parrot-filh, Inappers, grey cavallos, terbums, and coney-filh. The mullets, lobiters, and crabs, caught here are excellent j and the green turtle is per¬ haps the greateil delicacy that ancient or modern lux¬ ury can boaft of. At Barbadoes this delicious fhell- fifh feldom fells for lefs than a flailing a pound, and often for more. There is found in this ifiand a kind of land crab which eats herbs wherever it can find them, and (belters itfelf in houfes and hollows of trees. According to report, they are a fhell-fifh of paffage , for in March they travel to the fea in great numbers. See Cancer. The inhabitants may be reduced to three claffes j viz. the mafters, the white lervants, and the blacks. The former are either Englifh, Scots, or Irifh : but the great encouragement given by government to the peopling of this and other Weft Indian iflands, induced fome Dutch, French, Portuguefe, and Jews, to fettle among them with their eftates ; by which, after a cer¬ tain time, they acquire the rights of naturalization in Great Britain. The white fervants, whether by cove¬ nant or purchafe, lead more eafy lives than the day- labourers in England 5 and when they come to be over- feers, their wages and other allowances are confiderable. As to the treatment of the negro Haves in this and the other iflands, that falls to be fpoken of under the articles Negro, Slave, West-Indies j which fee. The manners of the white inhabitants, in general, are the fame as in moft polite towns and countries in Eu¬ rope. The capital of the ifland is called Bridge-Town; fee that article. As the hiftory of this ifland furnifhes no very remark¬ able events, the following fliort hints concerning it may fuffice. When the Englifh, fome time after the year 1625, firft landed here, they found it the moft favage and deftitute place they had hitherto vifited. It had not the leaft appearance of ever having been peopled even by fava. es. There -was no kind of beads of pafture or of prey, no fruit, no herb, no root fit tor fupport- ing the life of man. Yet as the climate was fo good, and the foil appeared fertile, fome gentlemen of fmall fortune in England refolved to become adventurers thither. The trees were fo large, and of a wood fo hard and ftubborn, that it was with great difficulty they could clear as much ground as was necefiary for their fubfiftence. By unremitting perfeverance, however, they brought it to yield them a tolerable fupport 5 and they found that cotton and indigo agreed well with the foil 5 and that tobacco, which was beginning to come into repute in England, anfwered tolerably. Thefe profpe&s, together with the ftorm between the king and parliament, which was beginning to break out* in England, induced many new adventurers to tranfport themfelves into this ifland. And what is ex- 3 C tremely BAR [ Barhadces tremely remarkable, fo great was the xncreafe of people ||r in Barbadoes, 25 years after its fir ft fettlement, that BarbarolTa. 111 1 ^5° ^ contained more than 50,000 whites, and a much greater number of negro and Indian flaves. The latter they acquired by means not at all to their ho- nour : for they feized upon all thofe unhappy men, without any pretence, in the neighbouring iflands, and carried them into flavery ; a pra&ice which has ren¬ dered the Caribbee Indians irreconcilable to us ever fince. They had begun a little before this to cultivate fugar, which foon rendered them extremely wealthy. The number of ftaves, therefore, was ftill augmented ; and in 1676 it is fuppofed that their number amount¬ ed to 100,000, which, together with 50,000 wdiites, make 150,000 on this fmall ipot: a degree of popu¬ lation unknown in Holland, in China, or any other part of the world moft renowned for numbers. At this time Barbadoes employed 400 fail of ftiips, one with ■another of 150 tons, in their trade. 1 heir annual ex¬ ports, in fugar, indigo, ginger, cotton, and citron- water, were above 350,000b and their circulating cafh at home was 2oo,oool. Such was the increale of population, trade, and wealth, in the courfe of t;o years. But fince that time this illand has been much on the decline ; which is to be attributed partly to the growth ol the French fugar colonies, and partly to our own eftabhlhments in the neighbouring ifles. Their numbers at prefent are faid to be 20,000 whites and ico.ooo Haves. Their commerce confifts of the fame articles as formerly, though they deal in them to lefs extent. BARBADOF.s-Tar, a mineral fluid of the nature of the thicker fluid bitumens, of a naufeous bitterifli tafte, very ftrong and difagreeable fmell, found in many parts America trickling down the fides of the mountains, and fometimes floating on the furface of the waters. It has been greatly recommended in coughs and other diforders of the breaft and lungs. BARBARA, among Logicians, the firft mode of the firft figure of fyllogifm's. A fyllogifm in barbara is one whereof all the propofitions are univerfal and affirmative ; the middle term being the fubjedb of the firft propofition, and attribute in the fecond. TLxamp. Bar. Every wicked man is miferable 5 Ba. All tyrants are wicked men ; Ra. Therefore all tyrants are miferable. BARBARIAN, a name given by the ancient Greeks and Romans to all who were not of their own country, or w’ere not initiated in their language, man¬ ners,- and cuftoms. In this fenfe, the word fignified with them no more than foreigner ; not fignitying, as among us, a wild, rude, or uncivilized perfon. BARBARISM, in a general fenfe, a rudenefs of language or behaviour. Barbarism, in Grammar, an offence againft the pu¬ rity of ftyle or language ; or an ungrammatical way of fpeaking or writing, contrary to the true idiom of any particular language. BARBAROUS A, Aruch, and Hayradin, two famous corfairs, the Ions of a potter in the iiie of JLef- bos 5 who, turning pirates, carried on their depreda¬ tions with fuch fucceis and conduft, that they w^ere foon pofleffed of 1 2 galleys befides fmaller veflels. Of this fleet Aruth the elder brother, called Barbarojfa 386 ] BAR from the rednefs of his beard, was admiral, and Hay- Barbaroili radm the iecond in command : they called themfelves II th e friends of thefea, and the enemies of all -who failed Farbarus- upon it; and their names became terrible from the ftraits of Dardanelles to thofe of Gibraltar. With Inch a power they wanted an eftabliftiment 5 and the oppor¬ tunity of fettling themfelves offered in 1516, by the inconfiderate application of Eutemi king of Algiers to them for afliftance againft the Spaniards. Aruch, lea¬ ving his brother to command the fleet, carried 50C0 men to Algiers, where he was received as their deli¬ verer } and iecretly murdering 'the prince he came to aid, caufed himfelf to be proclaimed king in his Head, I o this ufurpation he added the conqueft of Treme- cen \ when his exploits and piracies induced the em¬ peror Charles V. to furnifti the marquis de Gomarez governor of Oran with troops to fupprefs him ; by whom he was defeated and killed near Trepaecen. His brother Hayradin, known alfo by the name of Barba- roffa, affumed the fceptre at Algiers with the fame abi¬ lities, and with better fortune j for the Spaniards, fuf- ficiently employed in Europe, giving him no dilturb- ance he regulated the interior police of his kingdom wdth great prudence, carried on his naval operations wdth vigour, and extended his conquells on the conti¬ nent of Africa. He put his dominions under the pro- teftion of the Grand Signior, Solyman the Magnifi¬ cent 5 and obtained the command of the Turkifh fleet. With fo powerful a protedor, he acquired the king¬ dom of Tunis in a manner limilar to that by which his brother gained Algiers. Since the time of the Barba- rollas, Algiers has been underftood to be dependent on the Porte 5 but this dependence is now’ little more than merely nominal. BARBARUS, Francis, a noble Venetian, was a man of great fame in the 15th century, not only for learning, but likewile for a fkilful addrefs in the ma¬ nagement of public affairs. He is author of a book De Re Uxona, and fome fpeeches. Barbarus, Hertnolaus, grandfon of the preceding, one of the moft learned men in the 15th century. The public employments he wus intrufted with early, did not prevent him from cultivating polite learning with great application. As he was very Ikilful in the Greek, he undertook the moft difficult tranflaticns, and began with a famous paraphrafe upon Ariftotle. He then attempted Diofcorides, whole text be correded, gave a tranflation of him, and added a commentary. But of all his works, there is none which has gained him fa much reputation as that which he made upon Pliny 3 he correded in him above yoco paffages, and occa- fionally reftored 300 in Pcmponius Mela. Pope In¬ nocent VIII. to whom he wTas ambaffador, conferred the partriarchate of Aquileia upon him. He was fo imprudent as to accept of it without waiting for the confent of his fuperiors; though he could not be ig¬ norant that the republic of Venice had made laws to foibid all the minifters they fent to the court of Rome to accept any benefice. His fuperiors were inflexible j and not being able to gain any thing upon them either by his flattery or his father’s intereft, the father died of grief, and the fon foon followed him. Barbarus, Daniel, of the fame family with the preceding, was patriarch of Aquileia, and famous for his learning. He was ambaffador from Venice to Eng¬ land ) 2 Whence named. BAR _ l 3 ftivhary. land j and was one of tKe fathers of the council of Trent, where he afted with great zeal for the interefl of the pope. He wrote, i. A commentary upon Vitruvius. '1. Catena Grtecorum Patrilm in rjuinquaginta Pfaltnos Latine vcrfa. 3. La Pratica della Perfpeciha. He died in 1569, at 41 years of age. BAR B ARY, a kingdom of Africa, including the Rates of Algiers, Morocco, Tripoli, and Tunis; (fee thofe articles). This country contains almoft the whole 1 6f what the Romans polTeiTed of the continent of A- JiKtent,See. fnCa? excepting Egypt. It ftretches itfelf in length from call to weft, beginning at the fouthern limits of Egypt, to the ftraits of Gibraltar full 35 degrees of longitude j and from thence to Santa Cruz, the utmoft weftern edge of it, about fix more, in all 41 degrees; fo that the utmoft length of Barbary from eaft to weft is computed at above 759 German leagues. On the fouth, indeed, it is confined within much narrower bounds, extending no farther than from 27 to 35v de¬ grees of north latitude ; fo that its utmoft breadth from north to fouth, does not exceed 128 German miles. More particularly, Barbary begins on the weft of the famed Mount Atlas, called by the Arabs Ay Duacal, cr Al Duacal, enclofing the ancient kingdoms of Suez and Dela, now provinces of Morocco ; thence ftretch- ing north-eaftward along the Atlantic to the pillars of Hercules at Cape Finifterre, then along the coaft of the Mediterranean, it is at laft bounded by the city of A- lexandria in Egypt. Concerning the origin of the name Barbary, there are many conjedtures. According to fome, the Ro¬ mans, after they had conquered this large country, gave it that name out of contempt and dillike t» the barbarous manners of the natives, according to their cuftom of calling all other people but themfelves Bar¬ barians. Marmol on the contrary, derives the word Barbary from Berber, a name which the Arabs gave to its ancient inhabitants, and which they retain to this day in many parts of the country, efpecially along the great ridge of the mountains of Atlas; and which name was given them on account of the barrennefs of their country. According to Leo Africanus, the name of Barbary was given by the Arabs on account of the ftrange language of the natives, which appeared to them more like a murmur or grumbling of fome brute animals than articulate founds. Others, however, de¬ rive it from the Arabic word bar, fignifying a defert, twice repeated ; which wras given by one Ifric, or A- fricus, a king of Arabia, from whom the whole conti¬ nent of Africa is pretended to have taken its name. According to them, this king being driven out of his own dominions, and clofely purfued by his enemies, fome of his retinue called out to him Bar, Bar ; that is, 70 the defert, To the defert ; from which the country was afterwards called Barbary. Among the Romans this country was divided into the provinces of Mauritania, Africa Propria, &c. and they continued abfolute mafters of it from the time of Julius Cmfar till the year of Chrift 428. At that time Bonifacius the Roman governor of thefe provinces, having through the treachery of TEtius been forced to revolt, called in to his afliftance Genferic king of the Vandals^ Vandals, who had been fome time fettled in Spain. The terms offered, according to Procopius, were, that Genferic ftiould have two thirds, and Bonifacius one Subjedt to the Ro- 4 Bonitacius g; ] BAR third, of Africa, provided they could maintain ttiem- Barbary* ( felves againft the Roman power; and to accomplilh this they were to afllft each other to the utmoft.—This pro- pofal was inftantly complied with; and Genleric fet fail from Spain in May 428, with an army of 80,000 men, " according to fome, or only 24,000 according to o~ thers, together with their wives, children, and all their effects. In the mean time, however, the emprefs P!a- cidia having difeovered the true caufe of Bonifacius’s revolt, wrote a moft kind and obliging letter to him, in which fire affured him of her favour and proteftion. for the future, exhorting him to return to his duty, and exert his ufual zeal for the welfare of the empire, by- driving out the Barbarians whom the malice of his* enemies had obliged him to call in for his own fatety and prefervation*. ^ 5 Bonifacius readily complied with this requeft, and Rndeavourt offered the Vandals confiderable fums if they would tu,jyto^_ retire out of Africa and return to Spaim But Genfe-them ric, already mafter of the greateft part of the country, to return, firft returned a fcoffing anfwer, and then, falling unex- peftedly on him, cut moft >of his men to pieces, and obliged Bonifatius himfelf to fiy to Hippo, which place he invefted in May 430. The fiege lafted till the month of July the following year; when the Vandals were forced, by a famine that began to rage in their camp, to drop the enterprife, and retire. Soon after, Bonifacius having received two reinforcements, one from Rome, and the other, under the conduft of the celebrated Afpar, from Gonftantinople, a refolution was taken by the Roman generals to offer the enemy 4 battle. The Vandals readily accepting the challenge, Romans a bloody engagement enfued, in which the Romans were^^*^ utterly defeated, a prodigious number of them taken, ^;ng 0f tj,e and the reft obliged to Ihelter themfelves among the Vandals, rocks and mountains. Afpar, who commanded the eaftern troops, efcaped with difficulty to Conftanti- nople, and Bonifacius was recalled to Italy. Upon their departure, the Vandals overran all Africa, com¬ mitting everywhere the moft terrible ravages ; which ftruck the inhabitants of Hippo with fuch terror, that they abandoned their city, which wras firft plundered, and then fet on fire by the vi&orious enemy ; fo that Cirtha and Carthage were now the only ftrong places poffeffed by the Romans. 7 In 435, Genferic, probably being afraid of an at-Peaceco!R tack by the united forces of the eaftern and weftern empires, concluded a peace with the Romans, whojais< yielded to him part of Numidia, the province of Pro- conlularis, and lij^ewife Byzancene; for which, accord¬ ing to Profper, he was to pay a yearly tribute to the emperor of the eaft. Genferic delivered up his foil Hunneric by way of hoftage ; but fo great was the confidence which the Romans placed in this Barbarian, that fome time after they fent him back his fon. Of this they foon had reafon to repent; for in 439, the Romans being engaged in a -war with the Goths in -5 Gaul, Genferic laid hold of that opportunity to feize Genfenc's upon the city of Carthage; by which he confiderablytreachery“ enlarged his African dominionSi Valentir.ian, the Ro¬ man emperor, however, maintained as long as he lived the two Mauritanias, with Tripolitana, Tingitana, and that part of Numidia where Cirtha flood. On the taking of Carthage, Genferic made it the feat of his empire; and in 440 made a defeent on the 3 C 2 ifland BAR [ 388 ] 15 A Barbary. i{land of Sicily, where he ravaged the open country, were fufficienf for expelling the 9 -Makes himfelf ma¬ tter of all the Roman provinces. rs Defeated by Ricimer and Majo- rianus. II Genferic defeats the eaftern em¬ peror’s fleet. and even laid fiege to Palermo. Not being able, how¬ ever, to reduce that place, he foon returned to Africa with an imrnenfe booty and a vaft number of captives. Being now become-formidable to both empires, Theo- dofius emperor of the eaft refolved to affift Valentinian againft fo potverful an enemy. Accordingly, he fitted out a fleet confifting of 1100 large Ihips 5 and putting on Board of it the flower of his army, under the con- du6t of Arcovindas, Anfllus, and’ Germanus, he or¬ dered them to land in Africa, and, joining the weftern forces there, to drive Genferic out of the countries he had feized. But Genferic in the meantime pretending a defire to be reconciled with both empires, amufed the Roman general with propolals of peace, till the feafon for adlion was over ; and, next year, Theodo- flus being obliged to recal his forces to oppofe the Huns, Valentinian found it neceflary to conclude a peace with the Vandals; and this he could obtain on no other terms than yielding to them the quiet polfef- iion of the countries thev had feized. So powerful was Genferic now become, or rather fo low was the Roman empire by this time reduced, that in 4 ,5 he took and plundered the city of Rome itfelf, as is fully related under the article Rome ; and, after his return to Africa, made himfelf mailer of the remaining countries held by the Romans in that part of the world. Hereupon Avitus, who had fucceeded Valentinian in the empire, defpatched ambafladors to Genferic, putting him in mind of the treaty he had concluded with the empire in 442 ; and threatening, if he did not obferve the articles at that time agreed up¬ on, to make xvar upon him not only with his own for¬ ces, but with thofe of his allies the Veligoths, wdro were ready to pafs over into Africa. To this Genferic was fo far from paying anyr regard, that he immediate¬ ly put to fea with a fleet of 60 Drips ; but being at¬ tacked by the Roman fleet under Ricimer, he was ut¬ terly defeated, and forced to fly back into Africa : he returned, howTever, foon after with a more powerful fleet, committing great ravages on the coaft of Italy ; but in a fecond expedition he was not attended with fo good fuccefs ; the Romans falling unexpectedly upon his men while bufied in plundering the country, put great numbers of them to the fword, and among the reft the brother-in-law of Genferic himfelf. Not con¬ tent with this fmall advantage, Majorianus, at that time emperor, refolved to pafs over into Africa, and attempt the recovery of that country. For this pur- pofe he made great preparations ; but his fleet being lurprifed and defeated by the Vandals, through the treachery, it is faid, of fome of his commanders, the enterprife mifcarried. Notwithftanding this misfortune, however, Majo¬ rianus perflfted in his refolution j and would in all like¬ lihood have accomplilhed his purpofe, had not he him¬ felf been murdered foon after by Ricimer. After his death, Genferic committed what ravages he pleafed in the poor remains of the weftern empire, and even made defcents on Peloponnefus and the iftands belonging to the emperor of Conftantinople. To revenge this affront, Leo made vaft preparations for the invafion of Africa, infomuch, that, according to Procopius, he laid out 130,000 pounds weight of gold in the equipment of his army and navy. The forces employed on this occafion R _ Vandals, had they Barbary. been much more powerful than they were j but the v-w command being given to Bafilifcus a covetous and am¬ bitious man, the fleet was utterly defeated through his treachery, and all the vaft preparations came to nothino-. By this laft defeat the pow er of the Vandals in Africa was fully eftablilhed, and Genferic made himfelf mafter of Sicily, as well as of all the other iilands between Italy and Africa, without oppofition from the weftern emperors, wTofe power was entirely taken awray in the year 476. . _ I3 Thus was the Vandalic monarchy in Barbary found-Kingdom of ed by Genferic, between the years 428 and 468. If wethcVan£laIs take a view' of that prince’s government in his new do-^°un^e^' minions, it prefents no very agreeable profpett. Being 2^4^ himfelf an abfolute barbarian in the ftrifteft fenfe of the and tyran- word, and an utter ftranger to every ufeful art, he didny of Gen- not fail to ftiow his owm prowefs by the deftrudlion of161'*0, all the monuments of Roman greatnefs which were fo numerous in the country he had conquered. Accord- ingly, inftead of improving his country, he laid it wafte, by demoliftiing all the ftately ftru&ures both public and private, and all other valuable and fump- tuous works with which thofe proud conquerors had adorned this part of their dominions. So that, what¬ ever monuments the Romans had been at fuch an im- menfe expence to erecl, in order to eternize their own glory, the barbarous Vandals wTere now at no leis pains to reduce into heaps of ruins. Befldes this kind of devaftations, Genferic made his dominions a fcene of blood and flaughter, by perfecuting the orthodox Chriftians j being himfelf, as well as moft of his coun¬ trymen, a zealous Arian 5 and for this his long reign is chiefly remarkable. He died in 477, after a reign of Co years j and W’as fucceeded by his fon Hun- neric. The new king proved yet a greater tyrant than hisHunnerica father, perfecuting the orthodox with the utmoft fury;bloody ty- and, during his flrort reign of feven years and a half,rant' deftroyed more of them than Genferic had done in all 15 his lifetime. He is faid to have died in the fame man- terr^e ner as the herefiarch Arius*; before which time his'^j^^ ficfti had been rotting upon his bones, and crawling with worms, fo that he looked more like a dead car- cafe than a living man. Concerning his fucceffors Gu- tamund, Thrafamund, and Hilderic, we find nothing remarkable, except that they fometimes perfecuted, and fometimes were favourable to, the orthodox ; and by his favour for them the laft king was ruined. For, having unadvifedly publifhed, in the beginning of his reign, a manifefto, wherein he repealed all the adls of his predeceffors againft the orthodox, a rebellion was the immediate confequence. At the head of the mal-Hilderic contents was one Gilimer, or Gildemar, a prince of^eP°^e^ the blood-royal, who by degrees became fo powerful,Gliimer* as to depofe Hilderic in the feventh year of his reign ; after w hich he caufed the unhappy monarch, with all his family, to be clofely confined, and was himfelf crowned king of the Vandals at Carthage. Gilimer proved a greater tyrant than any that had gone before him. He not only cruelly perfecuted the orthodox, but horribly oppreffed all the reft, fo that he was held in univerfal abhorrence and deteftation when the Greek emperor Juftinian proje£led an invafion Belifarius of Africa, This expedition of Juftinian’s is faid toinvarle5 have Africa; defeats the Vandals; BAR [ 389 ] Barbary. have been occafioned by an apparition of Ltetus an mafters of this country v—African bilbop, who had been murdered iome time be¬ fore, but now commanded the emperor to attempt the recovery of Africa, and afl'ured him of fuccefs. Ac¬ cordingly, this, or fome other motive, prevailed upon Juftinian fo far, that, notwithftanding 'his being at that time engaged in a war with Perfia, he fent a powerful fleet and army to Africa, under the command of the celebrated general Belifarius, who was for that reafon recalled from Perfia. So much was Gilimer, all this time, taken up with his own pleafures, or with opprefling his fubje&s, that he knew little or nothing of the formidable prepara¬ tions that'were making againft him. On the arrival of Belifarius, however, he was conftrained to put himfelf into a pofture of defence. The management of his army he committed to his two brothers Gundimer and Gelamund, who accordingly attacked the Romans at ,8 the head of a numerous force. The engagement was long and bloody ; but at laft the Vandals were defeated, and the two princes flain. Gilimer, grown defperate at this news, fallied out at the head of his corps de re- ferve, with full purpofe to renew the attack with the utmoft vigour ; but by his own indiferetion loft a fair opportunity of defeating the Romans. For no fooner did they perceive Gilimer haftening after them at the head of a frefh army, than they betook themfelves to flight; and the greateft part w-ere difperfed in fuch a manner, that, had the king followed them clofe, they muft have been totally cut off. Inftead of this, hovv- cver, ftumbling unfortunately on the body of one of his flain brothers, the fight of it made him lofe all thoughts about the enemy •, and inftead of purfuing them, he fpent part of his time in idle lamentations, and part in burying the corpfe with fuitable pomp and dignity. By this means Belilarius had an opportunity of rally¬ ing his men 5 which he did fo effectually, that, coming unexpedfedly upon Gilimer, he eafily gained a new and complete viftory over him. This defeat wTas fallowed by the lofs of Carthage, which the barbarians had been at no pains to put into a pofture of defence. After which Gilimer, having in vain endeavoured to obtain afliftance from the Moors and Goths, wTa$ obliged to recal his brother I zafon from Sardinia. The meeting between the two brothers w'as very mournful $ but they foon came to a refolution of making one defperate attempt to regain the loft king¬ dom, or at leaft recover their captives out of the hands of the enemy. The confequence of his refolution was another engagement, in which Tzafon was killed with 800 of his choiceft men, w'hile the Romans loft no more than 50 ; after which Belifarius moving fudden- ly forward at the head of all his army, fell upon the camp of the Vandals. This Gilimer wras no fooner ap- prifed of, than, without flaying to give any more orders to the reft of his army, hefted towards Numidia in the utmoft confternation. His flight was not immediate¬ ly known among his troops ; but when it was, fuch an univerfal confufion enfued, that they abandoned their camp to the Romans, who had now nothing to do but *0 plunder it j and not content with this, they maffacred and puts all the men found in it, carrying away the women cap- sm end to tiVes> iwJn Thus a total end was put to the power of the Van- dais ’in Barbary, and the Romans once, more became 19 takes Car¬ thage; BAR The Vandal inhabitants were Barbary. permitted to remain as they were, on condition of ex- changing the herefy of Arius for the orthodox faith. As for Gilimer, he fled with the utmoft expedition to Medamus, a town fituated on the top of the Pappuan mountain, and almoft inacceflible by reafon of its height and ruggednefs. The fiege of this place was committed to Pharas, an ofticer of great experience, who having ftmt up all avenues to the town, the un- 2T happy Gilimer wras reduced to the greateft ftraits for GilimerV want of provifions. Pharas being foon apprized of the extreme di- diftrefs he was in, wrote him a moft friendly and pa-*1^5- thetic letter, earneftly exhorting him to put an end to the diftrefs of himfelf and his friends by a furrender. This Gilimer declined •, but at the fame time concluded his an fiver with a moft fubmiflive requeft, that Pharas would fo far pity his great diftrefs as to fend him a loaf of bread, a fponge, and a lute. This ftrange requeft greatly furprifed Pharas ; but at laft it was explained by the meflenger, who told him that the king had not tafted any baked bread ftnee his arrival on that moun¬ tain, and earneftly longed to eat a morfel of it before- he died : the fponge he wanted to allay a tumour that was fallen on one of his eyes ; and the lute, on v.’hich he had learned to play, was to afiifthimin fetting fome elegiac verfes he had compofed on the fubjeft of his misfortunes to a fuitable tune. At this mournful re¬ port Pharas could not reftrain from tears, and imme¬ diately defpatched tbe meffenger with the things he wanted. Gilimer had fpent near three winter months on the fummit of this inhofpitable mountain, his mifery har¬ dening him ftill more againft the thoughts of furren¬ dering, when a melancholy feene in his own family at once reconciled him to it. This was a bloody ftruggle between two boys, one of them his fifter’s fon, about a flat bit of dough, laid on the coals ; which the one feized upon, burning hot as it was, and clapped it in¬ to his mouth ; but the other by dint of blows forced it out, and eat it from him. This quarrel, which might have ended fatally had not Gilimer interpofed, made fo deep an impreflion upon him, that he immediately def¬ patched a meffenger to Pharas, acquainting him that he was willing to furrender himfelf and all his effedls upon the conditions he had offered, as foon as he was affured that they were embraced by Belifarius. Pha¬ ras loft no time to get them ratified and fent back tw him ; after which he was conducted to Belilarius, who gave him a very kind reception. Gilimer was after¬ wards brought before Juftinian in gold chains, whom he befought in the moft fubmiffive manner to fpare his „ ? life. This was readily granted by the emperor ; who Kindly alfo allowed him a handfome yearly penfion to live up-treated by on as a private gentleman. But his mind and heart were too much unfettled and broken to enjoy the fvveets of a private ftate ; fo that Gilimer, oppreffed with grief, died in the year 534, the firft of his captivity, and five years after he had been raifed to the throne. Barbary being thus again reduced under the power of the Romans, its hiftory falls to be taken notice of under that of Rome. In the caliphate of Omar, thisBarb2a^y country was reduced by tbe Saracens, as we have al- fhbdued by- ready related under the article Arabia. It continued the-Sara- fubjefl to the caliphs of Arabia and Bagdad till the reign of Harun AI Rafchid, who having appointed_I- brahinr B A R Barbary. 24 Principal city of the Aglabites founded. 25 Habfeafah invades .■Egypt. brahim Ebn Aglab governor of tire weftern parts of bis empire, that prefect: took tlie opportunity, fir ft of affuming greater powers to himfelf than had been granted by the caliph, and then erefting a princi¬ pality altogether independent of the caliphs. The race of Aglab continued to enjoy their new principa¬ lity peaceably till the year of the Hegira 297 or 298, during which time they made feveral defcents on the illand of Sicily, and conquered part of it. About this time, however, one Obeidallah rebelled againft the houfe of Aglab, and allumed the title of caliph of Kairwan (the ancient Cyrene, and refidence of the Aglabite princes). To give the greater weight to his pretenfions he alio took the furname of A1 Mohdi, or A1 Mahedi, the direflor. According to fome, allb, he pretended to be defcended in a right line from Ali Ebn Abu Taleb, and Fatema the daughter of Mahomet} for which reafon, fay they, the Arabs called him and his defcendants Fatemites. He likewife encouraged him- lelf and his followers by a traditional prophecy of Ma¬ homet, that at the end of 300 years the fun fhould rife Driven out out of the Weft. Having at length driven the Agla- dfthe fir-ft1 ^teS where they became known by the Patemite nam.e of Magrebians, he extended his dominions in caliph. Africa and Sicily, making Kairwan the place of his 26 refidence. Hu general In the 300th year of the Hegira, Habbafah, one of A1 Mbhdi’s generals, overthrew the caliph A1 Mokh- tader’s forces in the neighbourhood of Barca, and made himfelf mafter of that city. After which he re^ duced. Alexandria itfelf} and was making great pro- grels in the conquert of the whole country, when Al- Mokhtader defpatched againft him his two generals Fakin and A1 Kafem, with an army of 100,000 mem Habbafah being informed that the caliph’s troops w^ere in motion, advanced at the head of his army to give them battle, and at laft came up with them in an illand called by the Arabs Ard Al Khamjin. Here he at¬ tacked them with incredible bravery, notwithftanding their force was much fuperior to his} but the approach of night obliged both generals to found a retreat. The aftion therefore was by no means decifive, though extremely bloody, the caliph’s generals having loft 20,000, and Habbafah 10,000. The latter, however, durft not renew the fight next morning } but ftole off in the night, and returned home, fo that Al Mokhta- der in effeft gained a victory. In the 302d year of the Hegira, however, Habbafah returned, poffeffed himfelf of. Alexandria a fecond time, defeated a body of the caliph’s forces, and killed 7000 of them upon the fpot. What further progrefs he made at that time we are not certainly told } but in the 307th year of the Hegira,. Abul Kafern, fon to the Fatemite ca¬ liph Al Mohdi, again entered Egypt with an army of 100,000 men. At firft he met with extraordinary fuc- cefs, and overran a confiderable part of that fine coun¬ try. He made himfelf mafter of Alexandria, Al Tay- um, Ai Baknafa, and the ifle of Al Afhmaryin, pene¬ trating even to Al Jizah, where the caliph’s army un¬ der the command of Mimes was ported in order to op- pofe him. In this country he found means to main¬ tain himfelf till the 308th year of the Hegira. This year, however, he was entirely defeated by Munes, who made himfelf mafter of all his baggage, as well as of the plunder he had acquired} and this blow ob- [ 39° ] bar 37 As does al fo his Ion Abul Ka- feiB, 28 who is ut¬ terly de¬ feated by Munes. liged him to fly to Kairwan with the {battered remains Barbary, of his army, where he remained without making any ' w—- further attempt on Egypt. Al Mohdi reigned 24 years} and was fucceeded by his Ion Abul Kafem above-mentioned, who then took the furname A/. Kayem Mohdi. During his rei-n we read .of nothing remarkable, except the revolt of one Vezid Ebn Condat, a man of mean extraction, but who, having been, raifed to the dignity of chancellor, 20 found means to raife fuch a ftrong party, that the caliph Rebellion was obliged to ihut himfelf up in the caftle of Mohedia.ofYe^- ezid, being tken at the head of a powerful army, foon reduced the capital of Kairwan, the cities of Al Rakkada and Tunis, and feveral other fortreffes. He was no lefs fuccefsful in defeating a confiderable num¬ ber of troops which Al Kayem had raifed and fent againft him } after which he clofely befieged the caliph himfelf in the caftle where he had fhut himfelf up. The fiege continued feven months' during which time the place was reduced to fuch ftraits, that the caliph muft either have ftirrendered it or been ftarved, when death put an end to his anxiety in the I 2th year of his reign, and 334th of the Hegira. ' 20 Al Kayem was fucceeded by his fon "iftimael, who Al Manfu* immediately took upon himfelf the title of A/ Manfur. ca]iPh' 1 his caliph thought proper to conceal the death of his father, till he had made the preparations neceffary for 1 educing the rebels. In this he was fo fuccefsful that he obliged Yezid to raife the fiege of Mohedia the fame year } and in the following gave him two great over¬ throws, obliging him to {hut himfelf up in the fortrefs of Kothama, or Cutama, where he befieged him in his turn. Yezid defended the place a long time with de- fperate bravery } but finding the garrifon at laft obliged to capitulate, he made fliift to efcape privately. ^Al Manfur immediately defpatched a body of forces in pur- fuit of him 5 who overtook, and brought him back in fetters } but not till after a vigorous defence, in which Yezid received feveral dangerous wounds, of which he ,r died in prifon. After his. death, Al Manfur caufed his Deiiih of body, to .be flayed, and his {kin fluffed and expofed toYezid* public view. Of Al Manfur’s exploits in Sicily an ac¬ count is given under that article. Nothing farther re¬ markable happened in his African dominions } and he died after a reign of feven years and 16 days, in the 341ft: of the Hegira. Al Manfur was fucceeded by his fon Abu Zammin A1 Moez Moad, who affumed the furname of Al Moe% Ledinil- Ledinillali lab. He proved a very warlike prince, and maintained caliPh* a bloody conteft with Abdalrahman, caliph of Anda- lufia } for a particular account of which fee the article Spain. In the 347th year of the Hegira, beginning March 25th, 958, Al Moez fent a powerful army to the weftern extremity of Africa, under the command of Abul Hafan Jawhar, one of his Haves, whom he had advanced to the dignity of vizir. Jawhar firft ad¬ vanced to a city called Tahart, which he befieged for fome time ineffe&ually. From thence he marched to Fez, and made proper difpofitions for attacking that> city. But finding that Ahmed Ebn Beer, the emir of the place, was refolved to defend it to the laft, he thought proper to abandon the enterprife. However, having trayerfed all the tra& between that capital and the Atlantic ocean, he again fat down before Fez, and took it by ftornl the following year, But 34 and trans- ment to that coun¬ try. BAR [ 39 Barbary. But the greatefl atchievement performed by this caliph was his conqueit of Egypt, and the removal of the caliphate to that country. This conqueit, though long projected, he did not attempt till the year of the Hegira 358. Having then made all neceil'ary prepa¬ rations for it, he committed the care of that expedition to a faithful and experienced general called Giafary or Jaafar; but in the mean time, this enterprii'e did not divert A1 Moez from the care of his other conquefts, particularly thofe of Sicily and Sardinia : to the laft of which he failed in the year of the Hegira 361, con¬ tinuing a whole year in it, and leaving the care of his African dominions to an experienced officer named Yu/ef Ben Zeiri. He failed thence the following year for Tripoli in Barbary, where he had not llaid long before he received the agreeable news that his general had made himfelf mailer of Alexandria. He loft no time, but immediately embarked for it, leaving the government of his old African dominions in the hands of his trufty fervant Yufef above-mentioned, and arri¬ ving fafely at that port was received with all the de- monftrations of joy. Here he began to lay the founda- fers the feattions of his new Egyptian dynafty, which was to put a of govern- final end to the old one of Kairwan after it had con¬ tinued about 65 years. A1 Moez prelerved all his old dominions of Kair- wan or Africa Proper. But the ambition or avarice of the governors whom he appointed fuffered them to run quickly to a ftiameful decay j particularly the new and opulent metropolis of Mohedia, on which immenfe fums had been laviihed, as well as labour and care, fo as to render it not only one of the richeft and ftate- lieft, but one of the ftrongeft, cities in the world : fo that we may truly fay, the wealth and fplendor of this once famed, though ffiort-lived ftate, took their final leave of it with the departure of the caliph A1 Moez, feeing the whole maritime tra£l from the Egyptian confines to the ftraits of Gibraltar hath fince become the neft of the moft odious piratical crew that can be imagined. Under the article Algiers we have given a ffiort account of the erection of a new kingdom in Barbary by Texefien *, which, however, is there no farther con¬ tinued than is neceffary for the proper underftanding the hiftory of that country. A general hiftory might here be given of the whole country of Barbary j but as that would neceffarily occafton repetitions under the articles Morocco^ Tripoli, Tunis, See. we muft refer to thofe articles for the hiftorical part, as well as for an account of the climate, inhabitants, &c. BARBATELLI, Bernardino, otherwife called Tochetti, a painter of hiftory, fruit, animals, and flowers, was born at Florence in 1542. He was the difciple of Ridclfo Ghirlandaio at Florence 3 from whofe fchool he went to Rome, and ftudied there with fuch uncom¬ mon affiduity, that he was frequently fo abftradted, and fo abfolutely engroiTed by the objects of his con¬ templations, as to forget the neceffary refreffiments of fleep and food. He was excellent for painting every fpecies of animals, fruit, or flowers 3 and in thofe fubjefts not only imitated, but equalled nature. His touch was free, light and delicate, and the colouring of his obje&s inexpreffibly true 3 and, beftde his me¬ rit in this moft ufual ftyle of painting, the hiftori- calYubjects which he deftgped from facred or profane He died Barbe I!. Baibermo, 1 ] BAR authors were much efteemed and admired, in 1612. BARBE, or Barb. See Barb. Barbe in the military art. To fire in barbe, means to fire the cannon over the parapet, inftead of firing through the embrafures 3 in which -cafe, the parapet muft not be above three feet and a half high. Barbe, or Barde, is an old word, denoting the armour of the horfes of the ancient knights and foldiers, who were accoutred at all points. It is faid to have been an armour of iron and leather, wherewith the neck, breaft, and fhoulders of the horfe were covered. Barbe, a town of Bifcay in Mexico, near which are rich filver mines. W. Long. 109. 55. N. Lat. 26. o. BARBED, in a general fenfe, bearded like a fifti- hook fet with barbs 3 alfo ffiaved or trimmed. Barbed and Crejled, in Heraldry, an appellation given to the combs and gills of a cock, when parti¬ cularized for being of a different tinfture from the body. A barbed crofs, is a crofs the extremities whereof are like the barbed irons ufed for ftriking fiftr. BARBEL, in Ichthyology. See Cyprinus. BARBELICOTyE, an ancient feet of Gnoftics, fpoken of by Theodoret. Their doctrines were ab- furd, and their ceremonies too abominable to be re¬ peated. BARBER, one who makes a trade of {having or trimming the beards of other men for money. An¬ ciently a lute or viol, or fome fuch mufical inftrument,. was part of the furniture of a barber’s (hop, which was ufed then to be frequented by peribns above the ordi¬ nary level of the people, who reforted to the barber ei¬ ther for the cure of wounds, or to undergo fome chi-. rurgical operation, or, as it wras then called, to be trimmed, a word that fignified either ihaviag or cutting and curling the hair 3 thefe, together with letting blood, were the ancient occupations of the barber- furgeon. As to the other important, branch of iurgery, the fetting of fractured limbs, that was pradlifed by another clafs of men called bone-fetters, of whom there are hardly any now remaining. The mufical inftru- ments in his (hop were for the entertainment of wait¬ ing cuftomers 3 and anfwrered the. end of a newfpaper, with which at this day thofe who wait for their turn at the barber’s amufe themfelves. For the origin of the barber’s^>0/?, fee the article Appellation. BARBERINI, Francis, one of the moft excellent poets of his age, was born at Barberino, in Tufcany, in the year 1264. As his mother was of Florence, he. fettled in that city 3 where his profeffion of the law, but efpecially the beauty of his poetry, raifed him a very confiderable character. The greateft part of his works are loft 3 but that which is entitled the Precepts of Love, which is a moral poem calculated in inftruCt thofe in their duty who have a regard for glory, virtue, and eternity, has had a better fate. It was publiftied at Rome, adorned with beautiful figures, in 1640, by Frederic Ubaldini 3 he prefixed the author’s life 3 and, as there are in the poem many words which are grown obfolete, he added a gloffary to explain them, which illuftrates, the fenfe by the authority of cotemporary poets. BARBERINO, a town of Tufcany 14 Italy, fi- tviaUdJ BAR [ 392 ] BAR Barberry tuated at tlie foot of the Apennine mountains, in E. Barbieri. Lon^ I2' N’ Lat- 43- 40- ^ _r BARBERRY. See Berberis, Botany Index. BARBESUL in Ancient Geography, a town and ri¬ ver of Baetica, and a colony in the refort of the Conventus Gaditanus in Spain : now Morbe/la in Gre¬ nada. BARBET in Natural HiJIory, a name given by M. Reaumur, and other of the French writers, to a peculiar fpecies of the worms which feed on the puce- ronsor aphides. See Aphis, Entomology Index.- BARBETS, the name of the inhabitants of feveral valleys in Piedmont, particularly thofe of Lucern, An- grona, Perufa, and St Martin. BARBEYRAC, John, was born in Befiers in Lower Languedoc in 1674. H-e was made profeflbr of law and hiftory at Laufanne in 1710 : which he en¬ joyed for feven years, and during that time wras three times re£lor : in 1,717, he was profeffor of public and private law at Groningen, He tranilated into French the twro celebrated works of Puffendorf, his Law of Nature and Nations, and his Duties of a Man and a Citizen ; to both which he wrote excellent notes, and to the former an introductory preface. He tranflated alfo Grotius’s treatife De Jure Belli ac Pads, with large and excellent notes'; and feveral of Tillotfon’s fermons. He wrote a work entitled Traite de Jen, 2 vols. 8vo. BARBEZIEUH, a town of Saintonge in France, with the title of a marquifate. It hath a manufacture of linen cloth ; and lies in W. Long. o. 5. N. Lat. 45. 23- BARBICAN, or Barbacan. See Barbacan. BARBIERI, Giovanni Francesco, otherwife called Guercino da Cento, an eminent hiftorical painter, was born at Cento, a village not far from Bologna, in 1590. At firft he was the difciple of Benedetto Gen- »ari; but he afterwards ftudied for fome time in the fchool of the Caracci, though he did not adopt the manner of that famous academy. He feemed to pre¬ fer the flyle of Caravaggio to that of Guido or Alba- no, imagining it impoflible to imitate nature truly, without the atTiftance of ftrong lights and llrong Iha- dows ; and from that principle, his light was admitted into his painting room from above. In effeCt, by the oppofition of his ftrong lights and Ihadows, he gave fuch force to his pictures, that few, except thole of Caravaggio, can Hand near them, and not feem feeble in their effeCt: however, that manner is cenfured as not being like nature, becaufe it makes objeCls appear as if they were feen by candle-light, or by the bright- nefs of a fun-beam, which alone canjuftify the deep- nefs of his fhadowing. The principal attention of Guer¬ cino feems to have been fixed on arriving at perfec¬ tion in colouring ; he faw the aftonifhing effects pro¬ duced by the colouring of the celebrated Venetian mailers; and obferved, that notwithftanding any im¬ perfections in regard to grace, correClnefs, or elegance, the works of thefe mailers were the objeCls of univerfal admiration. From which obfervation, he feems to have devoted his whole ftudy to excel in colouring ; as if he were convinced, that few are qualified to difcern the elevation of thought, which conftitutes the excel¬ lence of a compofition ; few may be touched with the grandeur or beauty of the defign, or perhaps have a ca- I pacity to examine even the correftnefs of any part of a painting ; and yet every eye, and even every imperfeft judge of a picture, may be fenfibly alledted by the force and beauty of the colouring. His taffe of defign was natural, eafy, and often grand, but without any extraordinary lhare of elevation, correftnefs, or ele¬ gance. The airs of his heads often want dignity, and his local colours want truth. However, there is great union and harmony in his colours, although his carna¬ tions are not very frelh ; and in all his works there is a porwerful and expreflive imitation of life, which will for ever render them eitimable. Towards the decline of his life, he obferved that the clearer and brighter llyle of Guido and Albano had attracted the admira¬ tion of all Europe ; and therefore he altered his man¬ ner, even againlt his own judgment. But he apologized for that conduct, by declaring, that in his former time he painted for fame, and to pleafe the judicious; and he now painted to pleafe the igncrant, and enrich him- felf. He died in 1666.—The molt capital performance of Guercino, is the hiltory of S. Petronilla, which is confidered as one of the ornaments of St Peter’s at Rome. Barbieri, Paolo Antonio, da Cento, painter of Hill life and animals, was the brother of Guercino, and born at Cento in 1596. He chofe for his fubjefts fruit, flowers, infects, and animals ; which he painted after nature with a lively tint of colour, great tender- nefs of pencil, and a ffrong character of truth and life. He died in 1640. BARBITOS, or Barbiton, an ancient inffrument of mufic, mounted w-ith three, others fay feven, firings} much ufed by Sappho and Alcaeus, whence it is alfo denominated Lejboum. BARBLES, or Barbs, in Farriery, the knots or fuperfluous flelh that grow up in the channels of a horfe’s mouth ; that is, in the intervals that feparate the bars, and lie under the tongue. Thefe, w'hich are alfo Called harbes, obtain in black cattle as well as horfes, and obftruft their eating. For the cure, they caff the beaft, take out his tongue, and clip off the barbies wuth a pair of fciffars, or cut them with a (harp knife } others choofe to burn them off with a hot iron. BARBOUR, John, archdeacon of Aberdeen, was efteemed an excellent poet in the reign of David I. He wrote the hiftory of Robert the Bruce, in an heroic poem, which is ftill extant, and which contains many fa£ts and anecdotes omitted by other hiftorians. The lateft edition of this book is that of Glafgow, 8vo. printed in the year 1672. It is entitled, “ The adls and life of the moft victorious conqueror Robert Bruce king of Scotland ; wherein alfo are contained the mar¬ tial deeds of the valiant princes Edward Bruce, Sir James Dowglafs, Earl Thomas Randel, Walter Stew¬ ard, and fundry others.” In one paffage, he calls it a romance ; but that word was then of good reputation : every body knows that the ‘ Romant of romants’ has been innocently applied to true hiftory, as well as the ‘ Ballad of ballads’ to a facred fong. BARBUDA, one of the Britifti Caribbee iflands, about 20 miles long and 1 2 broad. It is low land, but fruitful and pretty populous.’ The inhabitants employ themfelves in hufbandry, and find always a ready mar¬ ket for their corn and cattle in the fugar iflands. Bar¬ buda is the properly of the Codrington family, who have Barbieri I! Barbuda. i BAR [ 393 1 BAR Barca, have great numbers of negroes here as well as in Bar- "■’■v—1—' badoes. It lies in W. Long. 6l. 3. N. Lat. 18. 5. BARCA, a large country of Africa, lying on the coafl: of the Mediterranean fea, between the kingdoms of Egypt and Tripoli, extending itfelf in length from , eaft to well from the 39th to the 46th degree of call longitude, and in breadth from north to fouth about 30 leagues, as is generally fuppofed. It is for the moll part, efpecially in the middle, a dry fandy defert : on which account the Arabs call it Sahart, or Ceyart Barka, that is, the delert or road of whirlwinds or hurricanes. It labours almoft everywhere under a great fcarcity of water } and except in tne neighbour¬ hood of towns and villages, where the ground produces fome fmall quantities of grain, fuch as millet and fome maize, the reft is in a manner quite barren and uncul¬ tivated, or, to fpeak more properly, uncultivable : and even of that fmall quantity which thofe few .fpots pro¬ duce, the poor inhabitants are obliged to exchange fome part with their indigent neighbours, for dates, fheep, and camels, which they ftand in greater need of than they, by reafon of their great fcarcity of grafs and other proper food *, for want of which, thofe that are brought to them feldom thrive or live long. In this country ftood the famed temple of Jupiter Ammon $ and notwithftanding the pleafantnefs of the fpot where it ftood, this part of the country is faid to have been the moft dangerous of any, being furrounded with fuch quick and burning fands as are Very detrimental to tra¬ vellers ; not only as they fink under their feet, but be¬ ing light, and heated by the rays of the fun, are eafily raifed by every breath of wind j which, if it chance to be in their faces, almoft burns their eyes out, and ftiffies them for want of breath j or if vehement, often over¬ whelms whole caravans. Againft this temple Cambyfes king of Perfia defpatched an army of 50,000 men. They fet out from Thebes in Upper Egypt, and under the conduft of proper guides reached the city of Oafis feven dayf journey from that place : but what was their fate afterwards is uncertain •, for they never returned either to Egypt or to their own country. The Am- monians informed Herodotus, that, after the army had entered the fandy defert which lies beyond Oafis, a violent wind began to blow from, the fouth at the time of their dinner, and raifed the fand to fuch a de¬ gree, that the whole army was overwhelmed and bu¬ ried alive. • 1 Concerning the government or cbmmerce of this country we know nothing certain. Moft probably the maritime towns are under the prote&ion of the Porte : but whether under the balhaw of Egypt or. Tripoli, or whether they have formed themfelves into independent ftates like thofe of Algiers and Tunis, we cannot fay 5 only we are told that the inhabitants of the maritime towns are more civilized than thofe that dwell in the inland parts. The firft profefs Mahometanifm, and have imbibed fome notions of humanity and juftice •, whilft the latter, who have neither religion nor any fign of worfhip among them, are altogether favage and brutifh. They are a fort of Arabs, and like them live entirely upon theft and plunder. By them this traft, which before was a continued defert, was firft inhabited. At their firft coming in, they fettled themfelves in one of the heft places of the country •, but as they multi¬ plied, and had frequent wars with one another, the Vol. III. Part I. ftrongeft drove the weakeft out of the beft fpots, and Barcaiun, fent them to wander in the defert parts, where they live ; ^—,, in the moft miferable manner, their country hardly af¬ fording one fingle neceffary of life. Hence it is that they are laid to be the uglieft of all the Arabs : their bodies having fcarcely any thing but fkin and bone, their faces meagre, with fierce ravenous looks *, their garb, which is commonly what they take from the paf- fengers who go through thefe parts, tattered with long wearing while the pooreft of them have fcarce a rag to cover their nakednefs. They are moft expert and refolute robbers, that being their chief employment and livelihood $ but the travellers in thefe parts are fo few, that the Barcans are often neceflitated to make diftant excurlions into Numidia, Libya, and other fouthern countries. Thofe that fall into their nands are made to drink plenty of warm milk then they hang them up by the feet, and {hake them, in order to make them vomit up any money they think they have fwallowed j after which, they ftrip them of all their clothes, even to the laft rag : but with all this inhu¬ manity, they commonly fpare their life, w hich is more than the other African robbers do. Yet notwithftand¬ ing every artifice they can ufe, the Barcans are fo poor, that they commonly let, pledge, or even fell, their chil¬ dren to the Sicilians and others from whom they have their corn, efpecially before they fet out on any long excurfion. BARCALON, an appellation given to the prime minifter of the king of Siam. The barcalon has in his department every thing relating to commerce, both at home and abroad. He is likewife fuperintendant of the king’s magazines. BARCELONA, ahandfome, rich, and ftrong city of Spain, in the province of Catalonia, of which it is the capital. This city was originally founded by Ha- milcar Barcas, and from him called Barcino. It was reduced by the Romans, and continued lubjeft to them till the kingdom of Spain w'as overrun by the Goths and Vandals, and afterwards by the Saracens or Moors. In the beginning of the 9th century, Barcelona was in the hands of the Moors, and binder the government of one Zade. This governor having more than once abu- fed the clemency of Charlemagne, at laft irritated Levris king of Aquitain, and Ion to Charles, to fuch a degree, that he gave orders to his generals to inveft the city, and not to rife from before it till they had put Zade into his hands. The Moor made a moft obftinate re- fiftance, fo that the fiege lafted many months : at laft, finding it impoflible to preferve the city much longer, and being deftitute of all hopes of relief, he determined, or rather was compelled by the inhabitants, to go to the Chrifiian camp and implore the emperor’s mercy ; but here he was no fooner arrived than he was arrefted and fent prifoner to Charlemagne, who condemned him to perpetual baniftiment. The people gaining nothing by this expedient, continued to hold out for fix weeks longer, when the king of Aquitain himfelf took the command of the fiege. To him they made a propofal, that if he would allow them to march out and go where they pleafed, they would furrender. the place. Lewus having agreed to this, made his public entry .in¬ to Barcelona, where he formed a defign of extending his father’s dominions as far as the Lbro J but being recalled before he could put his defign in execution, 3D he BAR Barcelona.^ he appointed one Beta count of Barcelona. _ _ continued fubjeft to him and his fucceffbrs, who ttill enjoyed the title of counts of Barcelona, from the year 802 to 1131 j during which time we find nothing re¬ markable, except that the city was once taken by the Moors, but foon after retaken by the alliftance of Lewis IV. king of France. In 1131 it was united to the crown of Arragon by the marriage of Don Ray¬ mond V. count of Barcelona with the daughter of Don Ramiro the monk, king of Arragon. In 1465 the Catalonians revolted againll Don Juan II. king of Ar¬ ragon, out of hatred to his queen Donna Juanna} the confequence of which was, that Barcelona was befieged' by that monarch in 1471. Various efforts were made by Lewis XL of France and the duke of Lorrain in order to raife the fiege, but without effe£I. Things at length w^ere brought to the utmoft extremity, when the king offered to pardon them all, without the fmall- eit punilhment either in perfon or property, provided they would fubmit : but thefe terms they rejefted, chiefly through the influence of the Count de Pailhars, who had been pardoned the year before. The armv, on the other hand, was very earneft on being led on to the affault, in hopes of plunder. I he king, however, wrote a letter to the citizens, dated the 6th of Ofto- ber, in terms as affe&ionate as if he had been writing to his children, bewailing the miferies they had brought on themfelves, and concluding with a proteflation that they, and not he, mult be anfwerable for the confe- quences. Upon this, at the perfuafion of a prielt who had a reputation for fan&ity, they fent deputies to the king, and made a capitulation on the 17th of the lame month. In this the king acknowdedged they had taken up arms on juft motives; and forgave every body except Pailhars, who was, however, fuffered to efcape. On the 22d of October the king made his entry into the city, and confirmed all their ancient privileges. In 1697, Barcelona veas taken by the French, after a bloody fiege of 52 days ; and the lofs of this city had a confiderable effect in difpofing the Spaniards to aoree to the treaty of Ryfwick. In Queen Anne’s time it was taken by the allies under the earl of Peterborough j but being afterwards lhamefully denied afliftance by the Englilh miniftry, was obliged to fubmit to Philip II. by whom the whole province was deprived of its an¬ cient privileges ; for a particular account of which, fee the article Spain. Barcelona is fituated by the fea-fide, of a form be¬ tween a fquare and an oval. It is furrounded with a good brick w’all, round which is another, with 14 ba- ftions, horn-works, ramparts, and ditches ; the ram¬ parts are high, broad, and fpacious, infomuch that IOO coaches may be feen every evening driving thereon for pleafure. The city is divided into two parts, the Old and the New, which are feparated from each other by a wall and a large ditch ; the ftreets are handfome, well paved with large ftones, wide, and very clean. It is the refidence of a viceroy, is a bifhop’s fee, has a fine univerfity, a mint, a good port, and is adorned with handfome buildings. Here is a court of inquifi- tion, which the inhabitants look upon as an advantace. The remarkable buildings are the cathedral, which"is large, handfome, and adorned with two high towers the church of the Virgin Mary, the palace of the bilhop’ that of the inquifition, and fevexal religious houfes; [ 394 1 bar I he city add to thele the palace of the viceroy j the arfenal, Barcelona which contains arms for icoo men j the exchange, II where the merchants meet ; the terfana, where they , EarCiay- build the galleys ; and the palace where the nobility of the country meet, called La Cafa de la Deputation. This laft is built with fine large freeftone, and adorn¬ ed with columns of marble : there is in it a large hall with a gilt cieling and a handfome portico, wherein perfons may either walk or fit; the hall is adorned with the portraits of all the counts of Barcelona. There are feveral fine fquares, particularly that of St- Michael, into which all the great ftreets run. The port is wide, fpacious, deep, and fafe ; defended on the one fide by a great mole, and on the other fhelter- ed from the weft wind by two mountains that advance into the fea, and form a kind of promontory : the mole is 750 paces long, with ajquay, at the end of which is a light-houfe and a fmalTfort. One of the moun¬ tains, called Mount Joy, is very high, and rifes in the middle of the plain near the city : it is covered with gardens, vineyards, groves of trees, and has a firong fort for the defence of the city. This mountain, being a rock, yields an inexhauftible quarry of fine hard free¬ ftone. Barcelona is a place of great trade, on account of the conveniency of its harbour j and it has a manu¬ facture of knives greatly efteemed in Spain, as alfo of blafikets. Here are alfo feveral glafs-houfes. The in¬ habitants are diligent, and equally fit for labour and trade j they are alfo very civil to ftrangers. The wo¬ men are well ftiaped, and as handfome as any in Spain; they are brifk and lively in their converfation, and more free and unreftrained in their behaviour than in other parts of Spain. E. Long. 2. 5. N. Lat. 41. 26. BARCELONETTA, a town of France, in the department of the Lower Alps, formerly in the go¬ vernment of Dauphiny, and capital of the valley of its own name. It belonged tojhe duke of Savoy, and v'as ceded to France by the treaty of Utrecht in 1712. ^ E. Long. 6. 40. N. Lat. 44. 26. B ARCELOR, a town of Afia, in the Eaft Indies, on the coaft of Malabar. It is a Dutch fadory, where they carry on a confiderable trade in pepper. E. Long. 74. 15. N. Lat. 13. 45. BARCELOS, a town of Portugal, with the title of a duchy. It is feated on the river Cavado, over which there is a handfome bridge. W. Long. 7. o. N. Lat. 41. 20. BARCINO in Ancient Geography, a town of the Terraconenfis in Spain, and capital of the Laletani. Now Barcelona. See that article. BARCLAY, Ale zander, a learned monk in the rejgn of Henry VIII. W here he was born, though ot no great importance, was neverthelefs a matter of virulent contention among his former biographers. Bale, who wTas his cotemporary, is of opinion he was born in Somerfetfhire. There is indeed a village of his name, and a numerous family, in that county. Pits thinks he was born in Devonftiire. Mackenzie is po- fitive he was a Scotchman ; but without proof, unlefs we admit as fuch his name Alexander. He was, how¬ ever, educated in Oriel-college Oxford. After leaving the univerfity he went abroad, and continued fome time in France, Italy, and Germany, where he ac¬ quired a competent knowledge of the languages ofthofe countries, as appears from feveral tranflations of books, which bar [ 59? ] BAR 1?&rchy. tvlncli lie afterwards publiflied. On his return to Eng- land, lie was made chaplain to his patron the bifliop of Tyne, who likewife appointed him a prieft of St Mary, at the college of Ottery in Devonfhire, found¬ ed by Grandifon bil'hop of Exeter. After the death of his patron, he became a Benediftine monk of Ely. On the diffolution of that monaftery, he firit obtained the vicarage of St Matthew at Wokey in Somerfet- fhire ; and, in 1549, being then doflor of divinity, was prefented to the vicarage of Much Badew in Ef- fex* In 1552, he was appointed redlor of Allhallows, Lombard-ftreet, which he lived to enjoy but a very (hort time. He died at Croydon in Surrey in June 1552. He is generally allowed to have improved the Englilh language, and to have been one of the politeft writers of his time* He compofed feveral original works ; but was chiefly remarkable for his tranflations from the Latin, Italian, French, and German langua¬ ges. His verflon from Salluft of the war of Jugurtha Is accurate, and not without elegance. His lives of feveral faints, in heroic verfe, are Hill unpubliihed. His Stultifera navis, or The Jhip of fools, is the moll lingular of his performances. It was printed by Ri¬ chard Pynfon at London, 1509, in folio ; and contains a variety of wooden plates, which are worthy the in- fpettion of the curious^ Barclay, William, a learned civilian, was born in Aberdeerifhire in the year 1541* He fpent the early part of his life, and much of his fortune, at the court of Mary queen of Scots, from whofe favour he had reafon to expeft preferment. In 1573 he went over to France, and at Bourges commenced Undent of civil law under the famous Cujacius. He continued fome years in that feminary, where he took a do&or’s degree 5 and was foon after appointed profeflbr of civil law in the univerfity of Pont-a-Mouflbn, then firft founded by the duke of Lorrain. That prince after¬ wards made him counfellor of Hate and maHer of re- quefts. Barclay, in the year 1581, married Ann de Mallaville, a French lady, by whom he had a fon, who became a celebrated author, and of whom the reader will find an account in the next article. I his youth the Jefuits would gladly have received into their fo- ciety. His father refufed his confent, and for that reafon thefe difciples of Jefus foon contrived to ruin him with the duke his patron. Barclay now embark¬ ed for Britain, where King James I. offered him con- fiderable preferment, provided he would become a member of the church of England : but not choofing to comply, he returned to France in 1604; and, foon after his arrival, was apppointed profeffor of civil law in the univerfity of Angers, where he died the year following, and was buried in the Francifcan church. He was eHeemed a learned civilian ; and wrote elabo¬ rately in defence of the divine right of kings, in an- fwer to Buchanan and others. The titles of his works are, 1. De regno et rega/l potef ate, &c. 2. Commen- tarius in tit. pandeBarum de rebus creditis, et de jure- jurando. 3. De potefate papa, &c. 4. Primitia in vitam AgricoLe. Barclay, 'pohn, fon of the former, was, as vTe have above mentioned, fo great a favourite of the Je¬ fuits, that they ufed all their efforts to engage him in their fociety. Flis father would not confent, and car¬ ried his i’on with him into England, who was already an author, for he had publiffied “ A Commentary up- Barciity. on the Thebais of Statius,” and a Latin poem on the -\T— coronation of King James, and the firH part of Ka~ phormio, 1603. He returned to France with his fa¬ ther $ and after his father’s death w^ent to Paris, and foon after came back to London : he was there in 1606. He publilhed “ The Hiflory of the Gunpow^- der Plot,” a pamphlet of fix leaves, printed at Am- fterdam. He publiflied at London in 1610 “ An A- pology for the Euphormio,” and his father’s treatife De potefate papee. And at Paris, 1612, he publifhed a book entitled Piet as, in aniwer to Cardinal Bellar- min, w’ho had written againfl William Barclay’s book concerning the power of the Pope. Two years after he publilhed Icon Animorum. He was invited to Rome by Pope Paul V. and received a great deal of civility from Cardinal Bellarmin, though he had writ¬ ten againff him. He died at Rome in 1621, while his Argenis was printing at Paris. This celebrated work has fince gone through a great number of edi ¬ tions, and has been tranllated into mofl languages. M. de Peirefc, who had the care of the firft edition, caufed the effigies of the author to be placed before the book j and the following diftich, written by Grotius, was put under it; Gente Caledonius, Gallus natalibus, hie ef, liomam Romano qui docet ore loqui. Barclay, Robert, one of the moft eminent among the Quakers, the fon of Colonel David Barclay, de- feended of the ancient family of Barclays, was born at Edinburgh in 1648. He was educated under an uncle at Paris, where the Papifts ufed all their efforts to draw him over to their religion. He joined the Quakers in 1669, and diftinguiffied himfelf by his zeal and abili¬ ties in defence of their dodhines. In 1676 he pub¬ lilhed in Latin at Amfterdam his “ Apology for the Quakers j” which is the moft celebrated of his works, and efteemed the ftandard of the dodlrine of the Qua¬ kers. The Thefes Theologicce, which were the foun¬ dation of this work, and addreffed to the clergy of wffiat fort foever, were publilhed before the writing of the Apology, and printed in Latin, French, Pligb- Dutch, Low-Dutch, and Engliffi. The dedication of his Apology to King Charles II. is very remarkable for the uncommon franknefs and fimplicity with which it is written. Amongft many other extraordinary paf- fages, w'e meet with the following : “ There is no king in the world who can fo experimentally teftify of God’s providence and goodnefs; neither is there any who rules fo many free people, fo many true Chriftians j which thing renders thy government more honourable, thyfelf more confiderable, than the accefficn of many nations filled with flavilh and fuperftitious fouls. Thou haft tafted of profperity and adverfity 5 thou knoweft what it is to be banilhed thy native country, to be over-ruled as well as to rule and fit upon the throne 4 and being oppreffed, thou haft reafon to know how hateful the oppreffor is both to God and man : if, after all thofe warnings and advertifements, thou doft not turn unto the Lord with all thy heart, but forget him who remembered thee in thy diftrefs, and give thyfelf up to follow luft and vanity, furely great will be thy condemnation.”—He travelled with the famous Mr William Penn through the greateft part of England, 3 D 2 - Holland, jK.a'imes’s Sketches, Sk. v. I'e6l. ii. ,'B A R [ 3g6 e- Holland, and Germany, and was everywhere received with the higheft refpeft $ for though both his conver- fation and behaviour were fuitable to his principles, yet there was fuch livelinefs and fpirit in his difcourfe, and fuch ferenity and cheerfulnefs in his deportment, as rendered him extremely agreeable to all forts of people. When he returned to his native country he i’pent the remainder of his life in a quiet and retired manner. He died at his own houfe at Ury on the 3d of Oftober 1690, in the 4 2d year of his age. BARCOCHEBAS, or rather Barcochab, a Jew- ilh impoftor, whofe real name was Ahiba ; but he took that of Barcochab, which fignifies the Son of a Star ; in allufion to the prophecy of Balaam, “ There (hall a liar arife out of Jacob.” He proclaimed himfelf the Meffiah ; and talking of nothing but wars, victories, and triumphs, made his countrymen rife againft the Romans, by which means he was the author of innu¬ merable diforders: he ravaged many places, took a great number of fortrelfes, and maflacred an infinite multitude of people, particularly the Chriftians. The emperor Tent troops to Rufus, governor of Judea, to fupprefs the fedition. Rufus, in obedience, exercifed a thoufand cruelties, but could not finifh his ] BAR “ Save then the poet, and thyfelf reward ; 11 ’Tis thine to merit, mine is to record.” Odyffey, viii. Bard. ........ ...o attempt. The emperor was therefore obliged to fend Julius Se- verus, the greateft general of that time ; who attained his end without a direft battle : he fell on them fepa- rately *, cut off their provifions ; and at laft the whole contefi: was reduced to the fiege of Bitter, in the 18th year of Hadrian. Th$ impoftor perifhed there. This war coft the Romans a great deal of blood. BARD, a wrord denoting one who wras a poet by his genius and profeflion j and “ who fung of the bat¬ tles of heroes, or the heaving breafts of love.” OJJtan's Poems, 1. 37. The curiofity of man is great with refpefl to the tranfaflions of his own fpecies ; and when fuch tranf- adlions are defcribed in verfe, accompanied with mu- fic, the performance is enchanting. An ear, a voice, {kill in inftrumental mufic, and, above all, a poetical gertius, are requifite to excel in that complicated art. As fuch talents are rare, the few that poffefied them were highly efteemed •, and hence the profeflion of a bard, which, befide natural talents, required more cul¬ ture and exercife than any other known art. Bards were capital perfons at every feftival and at every fo- lemnity. Their fongs, which, by recording the a- chievements of kings and heroes, animated every hear¬ er, muft have been the entertainment of every warlike nation. We have Hefiod’s authority, that in his time bards were as common as potters or joiners, and as liable to envy. Demodocus is mentioned by Homer as a celebrated bard ; and Phemius, another bard, is introduced by him deprecating the wrath of Ulyffes in the following words : “ O King ! to mercy be thy foul inclin’d, “ And fpare the poet’s ever-gentle kind : “ A deed like this thy future fame would wrong, “ For dear to gods and men is facred fong. “ Self-taught I fing j by heav’n, and heav’n alone, “ The genuine feeds of poefy are fown •, “ And (what the gods beftow) the loft)£ lay, “To gods alone, and godlike worth, we pay. CJcero reports, that at Roman feftivals, anciently, the virtues and exploits of their great men w^ere fung. The fame cuftom prevailed in Peru and Mexico, as we Learn from Garcilaflfo and other authors. We have for our authority Father Gobien, that even the inhabitants of the Marian illands have bards, who are greatly ad¬ mired, becaufe in their fongs are celebrated the feats of their anceftors. But in no part of the world did the profeflion of bard appear with fuch luftre as in Gaul, in Britain, and in Ireland. Wherever the Celtae or Gauls are men¬ tioned by ancient writers, we feldom fail to hear of their druids and their bards; the inftitution of which two orders, was the capital diftin&ion of their manners Blair t Dif- and policy. The druids were their philofophers andfertathn, priefts 5 the bards, their poets and recorders of heroic fubjoined aftions : and both thefe orders of men feem to have ^ ^>JJ'tan 3 fubfifted among them, as chief members of the ftate, voj from time immemorial. The Celt® poflelfed, from p. 306. very remote ages, a formed fyftem of difcipline and manners, which appears to have had a deep and lafting influence. Ammianus Marcellinus * gives them this * Lib. xv. exprefs teftimony, that there flouriflied among themc- 9* the ftudy of the moft laudable arts j introduced by the bards, whofe office it was to fing in heroic verfe the gallant ailions of illuftrious men ; and by the druids, who lived together in colleges or focieties, after the Pythagorean manner, and philofophizing upon the higheft fubjefts, afierted the immortality of the hu¬ man foul. Though Julius C®far, in his account of Gaul, does not exprefsly mention the bards ; yet it is plain, that, under the title of Druids, he comprehends that whole college or order ; of which the bards, who, it is probable, were the difciples of the druids, Z)eBd Gal doubtedly made a part. It deferves remark, that, ac-i. (j. cording to his account, the druidical inftitution firft took rife in Britain, and paffed from thence into Gaul; fo that they who afpired to be thorough ma¬ ilers of that learning were wont to refort to Britain. He adds too, that fuch as were to be initiated among the druids, were obliged to commit to their memory a great number of verfes, infomuch that feme employed 20 years in this courfe of education *, and that they did not think it lawful to record thele poems in writ¬ ing, but facredly handed them down by tradition from race to race. So ftrong -was the attachment of the Celtic nations to their poetry and their bards, that amidft all the changes of their government and manners, even long after the order of the druids was ex tin <51, and the na¬ tional religion altered, the baMs continued to flouriffi j not as a fet of ftrolling fongfters, like the Greek Aoj^ei or rhapfodifs, in Homer’s time, but as an order of men highly refpefted in the ftate, and fupported by a public eftablifhment. We find them, according to the teftimonies of Strabo and Diodorus, before the age of Auguftus C®far ; and w® find them remaining under the fame name, and exercifing the fame funttions as of old, in Ireland, and in the north of Scotland, almoft down to our own times. It is well known, that, in both Barcf. OJJiariy II. 22. Henry s Hijlary, vol. i. P- 3fi5- BAR [ 397 ] BAR Both thefe countries, every regulus or chief had his own bard, who was confidered as an officer of rank in his court. Of the honour in which the bards were held, many inflances occur in Offian’s poems. On all important occafions, they were the ambaffadors between contend¬ ing chiefs ; and their perfons were held facred. “ Cair- bor feared to ftretch his fword to the bards, though his foul was dark. Loofe the bards (faid his brother Cathmor), they are the fons of other times. Their voice (hall be heard in other ages, when the kings of Temora have failed.”—The bards, as well as the druids, were exempted from taxes and military fervi- ces, even in times of the greateft danger ; and when they attended their patrons in the field, to record and celebrate their great a6Hons, they had a guard affign- ed them for their proteftion. At all feflivals and pub¬ lic affemblies they were feated near the perfon of the king or chieftain, and fometimes even above the great- eft nobility and chief officers of the coiTrt. Nor was the profeffion of the bards lefs lucrative than it was ho¬ nourable. For, befides the valuable prefents which they occafionally received from their patrons when they gave them uncommon pleafure by their perfor¬ mances, they had eftates in land allotted for their fup- port. Nay, fo great was the veneration which the princes of thefe times entertained for the perfons of their poets, and fo highly were they charmed and de¬ lighted with their tuneful ftrains, that they fometimes pardoned even their capital crimes for a fong. We may very reafonably fuppofe, that a profeffion that was at once fo honourable and advantageous, and enjoyed fo many flattering diftinftions and defirable immunities, would not be deferted. It was indeed ve¬ ry much crow ded ; and the accounts which we have of the numbers of the bards in fome countries, particular¬ ly in Ireland, are hardly credible. We often read, in the poems of Offian, of a hundred bards belonging to one prince, finging and playing in concert for his en¬ tertainment. Every chief bard, who was called Al¬ lah Redan, or doBor in poetry, was allowed to have 30 bards of inferior note conftantly about his perfon ; and every bard of the fecond rank was allowed a retinue of 15 poetical difciples. Though the ancient Britons of the fouthern parts of this ifland had originally the fame tafte and genius for poetry wuth thole of the north, yet none of their poetical compofitions of this period have been preferv- ed. Nor have we any reafon to be furprifed at this. For after the provincial Britons had fubmitted quietly to the Roman government, yielded up their arms, and had loft their free and martial fpirit, they could take little pleafure in hearing or repeating the fongs of their bards in honour of the glorious achievements of their brave anceftors. The Romans too, if they did not praftife the fame barbarous policy which wras long af¬ ter praflifed by Edw^aid I. of putting the bards to death, would at leaft difcourage them, and difcounte- nance the repetition of their poems, for very obvious reafons. The fons of the fong being thus perfecuted by their conquerors, and. neglefled by their country¬ men, either abandoned their country or their profef¬ fion ; and their fongs being no longer heard, were foon forgotten. It is probable that the ancient Britons, as tvell as many other nations of antiquity, had no idea of poems Eaul. that wTere made only to be repeated, and not to be fung 1 to the found of mufical inftruments. In the firft ftages of fociety in all countries, the two fifter-arts of poetry and tnufic feem to have been always united \ every poet wTas a mufician, and fung his own vcrfes to the found of fome mufical inftrument. This, we are di- reflly told by two ivriters of undoubted credit, ivas the cafe in Gaul, and confequently in Britain, in this pe¬ riod. “ The bards (fays Diodorus Siculus *) fung *Lib.v, their poems to the found of an inftrument not unlike a fed. 31. lyre.” “The bards (according to Ammianus Mar-f Lib. xv. cellinus'{% as above hinted) celebrated the brave ac-c. 0. tions of illuftrious men, in heroic poems, which they fung to the fweet founds of the lyre.” 1 his account of thefe Greek and Latin writers is confirmed by the general ftrain, and by many particular paffages, of the poems of Offian. “ Beneath his own tree, at inter¬ vals, each bard fat down wuth his harp. They railed the fong, and touched the firing, each to the chief he loved 1.” 1 VoL “• The invention of writing made a eonfiderable change P' in the bard profeffion. It is nowT an agreed point, that no poetry is fit to be accompanied with mufic, but what is fimple : a complicated thought or defcriptipn Kalmes's requires the utmoft attention, and leaves none for the mufic j or, if it divide the attention, it makes but a11 lluPra* faint impreffion §. The fimple operas of Quinault § See the bear away the palm from every thing of the kind com- aitide pofed by Boileau or Racine. But wffien a language, Attention, in its progrefs to maturity, is enriched with variety of phrafes fit to exprefs the moft elevated thoughts, men of genius afpired to the higher ftrains of poetry, leav¬ ing mufic and fong to the bards: wffiich diftinguiffied the profeffion of a poet from that of a bard. Homer, in a lax fenfe, may be termed a bard j for in that cha- rafler he ftrolled from feaft to feaft. But he wTas not a bard in the original fenfe : he, indeed, recited his poems to crowded audiences ; but his poems are too complex for mufic, and he probably did not ling them, nor accompany them with the lyre. The Trovadores of Provence were bards in the original fenfe, and made a capital figure in the days of ignorance, when few could read, and fewer w’rite. In later times, the fongs of the bards were taken dowm in writing, which gave every one accefs to them without a bard ; and the pro- . feffion funk by degrees into oblivion. Among the Highlanders of Scotland, reading and writing in their own tongue is not common even at prefent •, and that circumftance fupported long the bard profeffion among them, after being forgot among the neighbouring na¬ tions. BARDANA, or Burdock. See Arctium, Bo¬ tany Index. BARDx^RIOTiE, in Antiquity, were a kind of ancient guard attending the Greek emperors, armed with rods, wherewith they kept off the people from * crowding too near the prince when on horfeback. Their captain, or commander, was denominated pri- mivergius.—The wmrd was probably formed from the harder, or houfings on their horfes. BARDAS, the brother of the emprefs Theodora, and uncle of the famous Photius, is faid to have had no other good quality befides that of loving the feien- ces and polite literature, which he eftablilhed in the „ E aft era. I BAR [ 393 ] BAR Sar3ed Eaftern empire j for he was treacherous, cruel, and ^ ^ ambitious. In the year 856, he affaffinated Theoc- '1 ~ tides, general of the emperor Michael’s forces, and obtained his port. At length he caufed the difgrace of the emprefs Theodora ; and St Ignatius, patriarch •of Conftantinople, reproaching him for his vices, he • had him depofed in 858, in order to make room for Photius. Bardas was aifaffinated by Bafilius the Ma¬ cedonian, in 866. BARDED, in Heraldry, is ufed in fpeaking of a horfe that is capariioned. Pie bears fable, a cavalier d'or, the horfe horded, argent. B ARDESANISTS, a febl of ancient heretics, thus denominated from their leader Bardefanes, a Sy¬ rian of Edefia in Mefopotamia. Bardefanes, born in the middle of the fecond century, became eminent, af¬ ter his converfion to Chriftianity, for his zeal againft •heretics..; againft whom, we are informed by St Je¬ rome and Eufebius, he wrote a multitude of books: yet h$d he the misfortune to fall, himfelf, into the er¬ rors of Valentinus, to which he added feme others of his own. He taught, that the adlions of men depend altogether on fate, and that God himfelf is fubjeift to neceftity. His followers went further, and denied the refurredlion of the body, and the incarnation and death of our Saviour ; holding that thefe were only apparent or phantaftical. BARDEWICK, a town of Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony and duchy of Lunenburg ; formerly a very large place ; but being ruined in 1189, by the duke of Saxony, has never yet recovered itfelf. It is feated on the river Ilmenau, in E. Long. 10. 6. N. .Lat. 53. 40. BARD F, a ftrong and rich town of Germany, in the duchy of Pomerania, with a caftle and fpacious harbour. It is fubjeft to the Swedes; and is fituated near the Baltic fea, in E. Long. 13. 20. N. Lat. 54. •23- BAR E, • in a general fenfe, fignifies not covered* Hence we fay bare-headed, bare-footed, &c. The Roman women, in times of public diftrefs and mourning, went hare-headed, with their hair loofe.—- Among both Greeks, Romans, and Barbarians, we had a feaft called Nudlpedalia.—The Abyflinians ne¬ ver enter their churches, nor the palaces of kings and great men, but bare-footed. Bare-FooI Carmelites and Augnjlines, are religious of the order of St Carmel and St Auftin, who live un¬ der a ftri£! obfervance, and go without (hoes, like the capuchins. There are alfo bare-foot fathers of mercy. •Formerly there were bare-foot dominicans, and even bare-foot nuns of the order of St Auguftin. BAREITH, a town of Germany in Franconia, in the margravate of Culembach, with a famous college belonging to the margrave of Brandenburg Bareith. E. Long. 11. 50. N. Lat. 50. o. BARENT, Diteric, an excellent painter, was born at Amfterdam, and was the fon of a very indu- ftrious painter. He ftudied in Italy, and became the favourite difciple of Titian, with whom he lived a long time ; but at length returned to Amfterdam, where he painted many extraordinary pieces. He died in itjSa, aged 48. .BARFLEUR, a town of France, in Normandy, 2 now the department of the Channel. It was ruined, Eatgiuh and had its harbour filled up by the Englifh in 1346. tl . The cape of that name is 12 miles eaft of Cherburg, BarSe" and near it part of the French fleet was deftroyed in < ccmne' 1692. W. Long. 1. 6. N. Lat. 49. 40. BARGAIN and JSale a fpecies of conveyance in the Englifh law. It is a kind of a real contraft, whereby the bargainer for fome pecuniary confideration bargains and fells, that is, contradls to convey, the land of the bargainee ; and becomes by fuch bargain a truftee for, or feized to the ufe of, the bargainee ; and then the ftatute of ufes completes the purchafe : or, as it hath been well exprefled, the bargain firft veils the ufe, and then the ftatute veils the poffeftion. But as it was foiefeen that conveyances, thus made, would want all thofe benefits of notoriety which the old common-law afiurances were calculated to give ; to pre¬ vent therefore clandelline conveyances of freeholds, it was enabled in the fame feffion of parliament by ftatute 27 Hen, VIII. c. 16. that fuch bargains and lales Ihould not enure to pafs a freehold, unlefs the fame be made by indenture, and enrolled within fix months in one of the courts of Weftminfter-hall, or with the cujlos rotulorum of the county. Clandeftine bargains and fales of chattel interefts, or leafes for years, were thought not worth regarding, as fpeh interefts were very precarious till about fix years before ; which alfo occafioned them to be overlooked in framing the ftatute of ufes : and therefore fuch bargains and fales are not direbted to be enrolled. But how impoftible is it to forefee, and provide againft, all the confequences of in¬ novations ! This omiftion has given rife to the fpecies of conveyance by lease and release. BARGE (bargie, Dutch), a veffel or boat of ftate, furnilhed with elegant apartments, canopies, and cu- Ihions ; equipped with a band of rowers, and decorated with flags and ftreamers : they are generally ufed for procefiions on the water, by noblemen, officers of ftate, or magiftrates of great cities. Of this fort, too, we may naturally fuppofe the famous barge or galley of Cleopatra, which, according to Shakefpeare, Like a burniffi’d throne, Burnt on the water : the poop was beaten gold : Purple her fails; and fo perfumed, that The winds were love-fick with them : the oars were filver, Which to the tune of flutes kept time, and made The water which they beat to follow fafter, As amorous of their ftrokes. _____ At the helm A feeming mermaid fleer’d : the filken tackjes Swell’d with the touches of thofe flower foft hands That yarely ’form’d their office. There are likewife other barges of a fmaller kind, for the ufe of admirals and captains of fhips of war. Thefe are of a lighter frame, and may be eafily hoifted into and out of the fhips to which they occafionally belong. Barge is alfo the name of a flat-bottomed veffel of burden, for lading and difeharging (hips, and removing their cargoes from place to place in a harbour. BARGE-Couples, in ArchiteBure, a beam mortifed into another, to ftrengthen the building. Barg&-Courfcj with bricklayers, a term ufed for that BAR [ 399 ] BAR Uargh- tliiit part of the tiling which proje£ls over without the maft'-r principal rafters, in all forts of buildings where there Barina is either a gable or a kirkin-head. —iy—BARGHMASTER, Barmer, or Bar-Master, in the royal mines, the fleward or judge of the barmote. — 1 he bar-mafter is to keep two great courts of bar- mote yearly j and every week a fmall one, as occafion requires. BARGHMOTE, orBARMor, a court which takes cognizance of caufes and diiputes between miners— By the cuftom of the mines, no perfon is to fue any miner for ore-debt, or for ore, or for any ground in variance, but only in the court of barmote, on penalty of forfeiting the debt, and paying the charges at law. BARI, a very handfoiiie and rich town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples ; the capital @f Terra di. Bari, and an archbifhop’s fee. It is well fortified, is feated on the gulf of Venice, and had formerly a good har¬ bour, but it w'as deftroyed by the Venetians. E. Long. 17. 40. N. Lat. 41. 31. Bari, or Terra di Bari, a territory of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, of which the above-mentioned city is the capital. It is bounded on the north by the Capitanata, on the north-tveff by the Ulterior Princi- pato, on the fouth by the Bafilicata, on the fouth-eaft by the Terra de Otranto, and on the north-eaft by the gulf of Venice. It has no confiderable river except the Offanto, which feparates it from the Capitanata. The air is temperate ; and the foil produces plenty of corn, fruit, and faffron : but there are a great many f’erpents, and fpiders called tarantulas. See Aranea. The principal towns are Bari the capital, Frani, An- dria, Bavo, Bilonto, Converfano, Monopoli, Polignia- no, Barletta, and Malfetto. The two hrll are archi- epifcopal, and all the reft epifcopal. BARILLA, or Barilha, the name of a plant cul¬ tivated in Spain for its allies, from which the pureft kinds of mineral alkali or foda are obtained. There are four plants, which, in the early part of their growth, bear fo ftrong a refemblance to each other as would deceive any but the farmers and nice obfer- vers. Thefe four are, barilla, ga%ul (or, as fome call it, algazal\ foza, and falicornia or falicor. They are all burnt to allies ; but applied to different ufes, as being poffeffed of different qualities. Some of the ro- guifti farmers mix more or lefs of the three laft with the firft 5 and it requires a complete knowledge of the colour, tafte, and fmell of the allies to be able to de- teff their knavery. Barilla is fown afrefti every year. Its greateft height"above ground is four inches: each root pulhes out a vaft number of little ftalks, which again are fub- divided into fmaller fprigs refembling famphire ; and all together form a large fpreading tufted bufti. The colour is bright green 5 as the plant advances towards maturity, this colour vanifties aw'ay till it comes at laft to be a dull green tinged with brown, Gazul bears the greateft affinity to barilla, both in quality and appearance : the principal difference con- fifts in its growing on a ftill drier falter earth, con- fequently it is impregnated with a ftronger fait. It does not rife above two inches out of the ground, fpreading out into little tufts. Its fprigs are much flatter and more pulpy than thofe of barilla, and are ftill more like famphire, It is fown but once in three, Barilla, four, or five years, according to the nature of the foil. ^ jjanng- So%a, when of the fame lize, has the fame appear¬ ance as gazul; but in time grows much larger, as its natural foil is a ftrong fait marfh, where it is to be found in large tufts of fprigs, treble the fize of barilla, and of a bright green colour, which it retains to the lart. Salicor has a ftalk of a deep green colour inclining to red, which laft becomes by degrees the colour of the whole plant. From the beginning it grows up¬ right, and much refembles a buffi of young rofemary. Its natural foil is oh the declivities of hills near the fait marfhes, or on the edges of the fmall drains or chan¬ nels cut by the huffiandmen for thepurpofe of watering the fields ; before it has acquired its full growth, it is very like the barilla of thofe feafons in which the ground has been dunged before fowing. In thofe years of manuring, barilla, contrary to its ufual na¬ ture, comes up with a tinge of red ; and when burnt falls far ftrort of its wonted goodnefs, being bitter, more impregnated with falts than it ffioulcj be, and rai¬ ling a blifter if applied for a few minutes to the tongue. Barilla contains lefs fait than the others : when burnt, it runs into a mafs refembling a fpongy ftone, with a faint call of blue. Gazul, after burning, comes as near barilla in its- outward appearance as it does while growing in its ve¬ getable form •, but if broken, the infide is of a deeper and more gloffy blue. Soza and falicor are darker, and almoft black within, of a heavier confiftence, with, very little or no fign of fponginefs. All thefe allies contain a ftrong alkali j but barilla the bell and pureft, though not in the greateft quan¬ tity. Upon this principle, it is fitteft for making glafs and bleaching linen ; the others are ufed in making foap. Each of them would whiten linen ; but all,. except barilla, would burn it. A good crop of ba¬ rilla impoverilhes the land to fuch a degree, that it can¬ not bear good barilla a fecond time, being quite ex- haufted. For this reafon the richer farmers lay ma¬ nure upon the ground, and let it lie fallow for a fca- fon *, at the end of which it is fown afrefti without any danger, as the w?eeds that have fprung up in the year of reft have carried off all the pernicious effefts of the dung. A proper fucceffion of crops is thus fecured by manuring and fallowing the different parts of the farm, each in their turn. The poorer tribe of cultiva¬ tors cannot purfue the fame method for want of capi¬ tal ; and are therefore under the neceffity of fowing their lands immediately after manuring, vffiich yields them a profit juft fufficient to afford a prefent fcanty fubfiftence, though the quality and price of their ba¬ rilla be but trifling. The method ufed in making barilla is the fame as that followed in Britain in burning kelp. The plant as foon as ripe is plucked up and laid in heaps, then, fet on fire. The fait juices run out below into a hole made in the ground,, where they run into a vitri¬ fied lump, which is left about a fortnight to cool. An~ acre may give about a tun. BARING of trees, in Agriculture, the taking aw-ay fome of the earth about the roots, that the winter-rain and fnow-water may penetrate farther. int© •BAR [ 400 ] BAR Barjols II Bark. into the roots. This is frequently praclifed in the au¬ tumn. BARJOLS, a fmall populous town of Provence, now the department of Var, in France. E. Long. 5. 23. N. Lat. 43. 35. BARIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Apulia, on the Adriatic •, fo called from the founders, who be¬ ing expelled from the ifland Bara, built this town. It is now' called Bari ■, fee that article. BARK, in the anatomy of plants, the exterior part of trees, correlponding to the {kin of an animal, for its organization, texture, &c. fee the article Plants. As animals are furnUhed wuth a panniculus adipo- fus, ufually replete with fat, which invefts and covers all the flefhy parts, and fcreens them from external cold ; plants are encompaffed with a bark replete with fatty juices, by means wdiereof the cold is kept out, and in winter-time the fpiculse of ice prevented from fixing and freezing the juices in the veffels: whence it is, that fome forts of trees remain evergreen the year round, by reafon their barks contain more oil than can be fpent and exhaled by the fun, &c. The bark has its peculiar difeafes, and is infe&ed with infefts peculiar to it.—-It appears from the expe¬ riments of M. Buffon, that trees ftripped of their bark the whole length of their ftems, die in about three or four years. But it is very remarkable, that trees thus itripped in the time of the fap, and fulfered to die, afford timber heavier, more uniformly denfe, ftronger, and fitter for fervice, than if the trees had been cut down in their healthy ftate. Something of a like nat- ture has been obferved by Vitruvius and Evelyn. The ancients wrote their books on bark, efpecially of the afli and lime tree, not on the exterior, but on the inner and finer bark called/>/&z/yrtf. There are a great many kinds of barks in ufe in the feveral arts. Some in agriculture, and in tanning lea¬ ther, as the oak-bark ; fome in phyfic, as the quinqui¬ na or Jefuit’s bark, mace, &c. 5 others in dyeing, as the bark of alder and walnut trees $ others in fpicery, as cinnamon, caflia lignea, &c. and others for divers ufes, as the bark of the cork tree, &c. In the Eaft Indies, they prepare the bark of a cer¬ tain tree fo as to fpin like hemp. After it has been beat and fteeped in water, they extraa long threads from it, which are fomething between filk and common thread *, being neither f® foft nor fo glofly as filk,. nor fo rough and hard as hemp. They mix filk with it in fome Huffs; and thefe are called nillaes, and cherque- tnolles. Of the bark of a fpecies of mulberry-tree the Ja- panefe make their paper. See Morus. In the ifland of Otaheite, the natives make their cloth, which is of three kinds, of the bark of three dif¬ ferent trees $ the paper-mulberry above mentioned, the bread-fruit tree, and the cocoa tree. That made of the mulberry is the fineft and whiteft, and worn chiefly by the principal people. It is manufaftured in the fol- lownng manner. When the trees are of a proper fize, they are drawn up, and ftripped of their branches ; af¬ ter which, the roots and tops are cut off: the bark of thefe rods being then flit up longitudinally, is eafily ■drawn off; and, when a proper quantity has been pro¬ cured, it is carried down to fome running water, in Bart:., Water. Barks. which it is depofited to foak, and fecufed from float¬ ing away by heavy Hones: when it is luppofed to be fufficiently foftened, the women fervants go down to the brook, and, {tripping themfelves, fit down in the water, to feparate the inner bark from the green part on the outfide : to do this, they place the under fide up¬ on a flat fmooth board, and with a kind of ftiell fcrape it very carefully, dipping it continually in the water till nothing remains but the fine fibres of the inner coat. Being thus prepared in the afternoon, they are fpread out upon plantain leaves in the evening ; they are placed in lengths of about 11 or 12 yards, one by the fide of another, till they are about a foot broad, and tw'o or three layers are aifo laid one upon the o- ther : care is taken that the cloth {hall be in all parts of an equal tbicknefs, fo that if the bark happens to be thinner in any one particular part of one layer than the reft, a piece that is fomewhat thicker is picked out to be laid over in the next. In this ftate it remains till the morning, when great part of the water which it contained when it wras laid out is either drained off or evaporated, and the feveral fibres adhere together, fo as that the whole may be raifed from the ground in one piece. It is then taken away, and laid upon the fmooth fide of a long piece of wood prepared for the purpofe, and beaten by the women fervants. The in- ftrument ufed for this purpofe is a fquare wooden club, having each of its four fides or faces marked, length- wife, with fmall grooves, or furrows, of different de¬ grees ot finenefs } thofe on one fide being of a width and depth fufficient to receive a finall pack-thread, and the others finer in a regular gradation, fo that the laft are not more than equal to fewing filk. 1 hey beat it firft with the coarfeft fide of this mallet, keeping time like our fmiths *, it fpreads very faft under the ftrokes, chiefly however in the breadth, and the grooves in the mallet mark it with the appearance of threads •, it is fucceflively beaten with the other fides, laft with the fineft, and is then fit for ufe. Of this cloth there are feveral forts, of different degrees of finenefs, in pro¬ portion as it is more or lefs beaten. 1 he other cloth ai¬ fo differs in proportion as it is beaten 5 but they differ from each other in confequence of the different mate¬ rials of which they are made. The bark of the bread¬ fruit is not taken till the trees are confiderably longer and thicker than thofe of the mulberry j the procefs af¬ terwards is the fame.—Of the bark, too, of a tree which they call poerou*, they manufaflure excellent matting 5 * Hil'ifcus both a coaife fort which ferves them to fleep upon, and *//;«««» of a finer to w^ear in wet weather. Of the fame bark they Linnaeus, alfo made ropes and lines, from the thicknefs of an inch to the fize of a fmall pack-thread. Bark, or Jefuit’s Bark, is a name given by way of eminence to the quinquina, or cinchona. See Cin¬ chona. Bark, in Navigation, a general name given to fmall {hips; it is, however, peculiarly appropriated by feamen to thofe which carry three mafts without a mizen top- fail. Our northern mariners, who are trained in the coal-trade, apply this diftinftion to a broad fterned {hip which carries no ornamental figure on the ftem or prow’. 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