\ ■ f ft ^r--
 t&rwZX&b' y'
The CHRONOLOGICAL CHART of Univer¬
sal History will be delivered with the laft Part of
this Edition j as it could not poflibly be got ready to
accompany the Article.
Ju/y, 1807.
1
E NCYCLOPjEDIA
Britannica.
ESBS3
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Hyhicaia‘ T TYDROGRAPHICAL Charts or Maps, more
15 n3 XT1 ufually called fea-charts, are projedlions of fome
Hydromel. Part fea, or coaft, for the ufe of navigation. In
* —v' ~1 thefe are laid down all the rhumbs or points of the
compafs, the meridians, parallels, &c. with the coafts,
capes, illands, rocks, Ihoals, fhallows, &c. in their pro¬
per places and proportions.
HYDROGRAPHY, the art of meafuring and
defcribing the fea, rivers, canals, lakes, &c.—With
regard to the fea, it gives an account of its tides,
counter-tides, foundings, bays, gulfs, creeks, &c. ; as
alfo of the rocks, {helves, lands, {hallows, promonto¬
ries, harbours j the diftance and bearing of one port
from another j with every thing that is remarkable,
whether out at fea or on the coaft.
HYDROLEA, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
with thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Bo¬
tany Index.
HYDROMANCY, a method of divination by water,
pradlifed by the ancients. See Divination, N* 7.
HYDROMEL, honey diluted in nearly an equal
weight, of water. When this liquor has not ferment¬
ed, it is called Jimple hydromel; and when it has un¬
dergone the fpirituous fermentation, it is called the vi¬
nous hydromel or mead.
.Honey, like all faccharine fubftances, vegetable or
animal, is fufceptible of fermentation in general, and
particularly of the fpirituous fermentation. To in¬
duce this fermentation, nothing is neceffary but to di¬
lute it fufficiently in water, and to leave this liquor
expofed to a convenient degree of heat. To make
good vinous hydromel or mead, the whiteft, pureft,
and belt tailed honey mull be chofen ; and this muft
be put into a kettle with more than its weight of wa¬
ter: a part of this liquor muft be evaporated by boil¬
ing, and the liquor fcummed, till its coniillence is
fuch that a frefli egg {hall be lupported upon its fur-
face without finking more than half its thieknefs into
the liquor •, then the liquor is to be {trained and pour¬
ed through a funnel into a barrel r this barrel, which
ought to be nearly full, muft be expofed to ■a heat as
equable as is poflxble, from 20 to 27 or 28 degrees of
Mr Reaumur’s thermometer, taking care that the
bung-hole be {lightly covered, but not clofed. The
phenomena of the fpirituous fermentation will appear
.in this liquor, and will fubfift during two or three
Yol. XL Part I.
H Y D
months, according to the degree of heat; after wkich Hydrc-
they will diminifh and ceafe. During this fermenta meter
tion, the barrel muft be filled up occafionally with !|
more of the fame kind of liquor of honey, fome of
which ought to be kept apart on purpofe to replace
the liquor which flow's out of the barrel in froth.
When the fermentation ceafes, and the liquor has be¬
come very vinous, the barrel is then to be put in a
cellar and well clofed. A year afterwards the mead
will be fit to be put into bottles.
_ -Th0 vinous hydromel or mead is an agreeable kind of
wine: neverthelefs it retains long a tafte of honey, which
is unpleafing to fome perfons; but this tafte it is faid to
loie entirely by being kept a very long time.
The fpirituous fermentation of honey, as alfo that
of fugar, and of the moft of vinous liquors, when it is
very.faccharine, is generally effedled with more difficulty,
requires more heat, and continues longer, than that of
ordinary wines made from the juice of grapes j and
thele vinous liquors always preferve a faccharine tafte,
w'hich ffiows that a part only of them is become fpiri¬
tuous.
HYDROMETER, an inftrument to meafure the
gravity, denfity, &c. of w'ater and other fluids. For
an account of different hydrometers, fee Hydrody^
NAMICS.
OMPHALUS, jn medicine and furgery,
a tumor in the navel, arifing from a colle&ion of w'a-
ter.
HYDROPHANES, or Oculus Mundi, a kind
of precious ftone, which becomes tranfparent in water,
much efteemed by the ancients.
HYDROPHOBIA, an averfion or dread of water:
a terrible fymptom of the rabies camna; and w'hich has
like wife been found to take in violent inflammations
of the ftomach and in hyfteric fits. See Medicine
Index.
HY DROPHYLACIA, a word ufed by Kircher
and fome others wrho have written in the fame lyftem,
to exprefs thofe great refervoirs of water which he
places in the Alps and other mountains for the fupply
of rivers which run through the feveral lower countries.
This he maices to be one of the great ufes of moun¬
tains in the economy of the univerfe.
HYDROPHYLLAX, a genus of plants belonging
to the tetrandria clafs. See Botany Index.
HYDROPHYLLUM, water-leaf, a genus of
■A- plants
\
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Hjdrops plants belonging to the pentandria clafs, and in the na-
J* Uira^ method ranking with thofe of which the order is
HjrfeT doubtful. See Botany Index.
'•—HYDROPS, in Medicine, the lame with Dropsy.
HYDROSCOPE, an inftrument anciently ufed for
meafuring time.
1 he hydrofcope was a kind of water-clock, confid¬
ing of a cylindrical tube, conical at bottom : the cy¬
linder was graduated, or marked out with divifions, to
which the top of the water becoming fucceffively con¬
tiguous, as it trickled out at the vertex of the cone,
pointed out the hour.
HYDROSTATICS, is that branch of phyfics
which treats of the weight, preffure, and equilibrium of
fluids. See Hydrodynamics.
HYDROTHORAX, a colledlion of water in the
bread. See Medicine Index.
HYDRUNTUM, in Ancient Geography, a noble
and commodious port of Calabria, from which there
was a fiiorter pafi'age to Apollonia (Pliny). Famous
for its antiquity, and for the fidelity and bravery of its
inhabitants. Now Otranto, a city of Naples, at the
entrance of the gulf of Venice. E. Long. 19. i^. N.
Lat. 40. 12.
FIY EM ANTES, in the primitive church, offen¬
ders who had been guilty of fuch enormities, that they
were not allowed to enter the porch of the churches
with the other penitents, but were obliged to dand
without, expofed to all the inclemency of the wea¬
ther.
HYGEIA, in Mythology. See Health.
HYGIEINE, 'Yyiuvn (formed of vyw, “ found,
healthy”), that branch of medicine which confiders
health, and difcovers proper means and remedies, with
their ufe, in the prefervation of that date.
The objefts of this branch of medicine are, the non-
naturals. See Diet, Exercise, &c.
Hygieine, more largely taken, is divided into three
parts ; prophylattice, which forefees and prevents dif-
eafes; fynteritice, employed in preferving health j and
analeptice, whofe office is to cure difeafes, and redore
health.
HYGROMETER, an indrument for meafuring
the degrees of drynefs or moidure of the atmofphere,
in like manner as the barometer and thermometer mea-
fure its different degrees of gravity or warmth.
Though every fubdance which fwells in moid, and
Ihrinks in dry weather, is capable of becoming an hy¬
grometer ; yet this kind of indrument is far from be¬
ing as yet arrived at fuch a degree of perfettion as the
barometers and thermometers. There are three gene¬
ral principles on which hygrometers have been con-
Hygrome- Rrutted. 1. The lengthening and fhortening of drings
*5rs °(. . by drynefs and moidure, or their twiding and untvvid-
. irte “ing by the lame. 2. The fwelling and dninking of
folid fubdances by moidure or drynefs ; and 3. By
the increafe or decreafe of the weight of particular bo¬
dies whofe nature is to abforb the humidity of the at¬
mofphere.
Smeaton’s. I. On the fird of thefe principles Mr $meaton con-.
drutted an hygrometer greatly fuperior to any that had
appeared before ; and of which the following account
is given in the 6ad volume of the Philofophical Tranf-
^attions.
“ Having foxne years ago attempted to make an ac-
2 ] H Y G
curate and fenfible hygrometer by means of a hempen Hygrome-
cord of a confiderable length, 1 quickly found, that ^r*
though it wras more than fufficiently fufceptible of eve- -1
ry change in the humidity of the atmofphere, yet the
cord wras upon the whole in a continual date of length¬
ening. Though this change was the greated at fird,
yet it did not appear probable that any given time
would bring it to a certainty ; and furthermore, it
feemed, that as the cord grew more determinate in
mean length, the alteration by certain differences of
moidure grew lefs. Now, as on confidering w'ood,
catgut, paper, &c. there did not appear to be a like¬
lihood of finding any fubdance fufficiently fenfible of
differences of moidure that wrould be unalterable under
the fame degrees thereof 5 this led me to confider of a
condruttion which wrould readily admit of an adjud-
ment j fo that, though the cord whereby the indru¬
ment is attuated may be variable in itfelf, both as to
abfolute length, and difference of length under given
degrees of moidure, yet that, on fuppofition of a ma¬
terial departure from its original fcale, it might be
readily redored thereto} and, in confequence, that any
number of hygrometers, limilarly conffrudted, might,
like thermometers, be capable of fpeaking the fame,
language.
“ The two points of heat the more readily deter¬
minable in a thermometer, are the points of freezing
and boiling wrater. In like manner, to condrutt hy¬
grometers which diall be capable of agreement, it is ne-
ceffary to edablidi two different degrees of a moidure
which {hall be as fixed in themfelves,. and to which we
can have recourfe as readily and as often as podible.
“ One point is given by making the fubdance per-
fettly wet, which feems fufficiently determinable ; the
other is that of perfett dry, which I do not apprehend
to be attainable with the fame precifion. A readinefs
to imbibe wet, fo that the fubdance may be foon and
fully faturated, and alfo a facility of parting with its
moidure on being expofed to the fire to dry, at the
fame time, that neither immerfion, nor a moderate
expofition to the warmth of the fire, drall injure its
texture, are properties requifite to the fird mover of
fuch an hygrometer, that in a manner exclude all fub¬
dances that I am acquainted with, befides hempen and
daxen threads and cords, or fubdances compounded of
them.
“ Upon thefe ideas, in the year 1758, I condrutted
two hygrometers as nearly alike as poffible, in order
that I might have the means of examining their agree¬
ment or difagreement on fimilar or didimilar treatment.
The interval or fcale between dry and wet I divided
into 100 equal parts, wdiich I call the degrees of this
hygrometer. The point of o denotes perfett dry j and
the numbers increafe with the degrees of moiffure to
100, which denotes perfett wet.
“ On comparing them for feme time, when hung
up together in a paffage or daircafe, where they wmuld
be very little affetted by fire, and where they would
be expofed to as free an air as podible in the infide of
the houfe, I found that they were generally within one
degree, and very rarely differed two degrees 5 but as
thefe comparifons neceffarily took up fome time, and
wrere frequently interrupted by long avocations from
home, it was fome years before I could form a tolerable
iudgment of them. One thing I foon obferved, not
altogether
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[
Hygrome- altogether to my liking, which was, that the flaxen
ter- cords made ufe of feemed to make fo much refiftance
w’“”~v to the entry of fmall degrees of mcifture (fuch as is
commonly experienced within doors in the fituation
above-mentioned), that all the changes were comprifed
within the firft 30* of the fcale ; but yet, on expoling
them to the warm fleam of a walh-houfe, the index
quickly mounted to 100. I WTas therefore defirous of
impregnating the cords with fomething of a faline na¬
ture, which fhould difpofe them more forcibly to at¬
tract moifture in order that the index might, with the
ordinary changes of the moiflure in the atmofphere, tra¬
vel over a greater part of the fcale of 100. How' to do
this in a regular and fixed quantity, was the fubjedl of
many experiments and feveral years interrupted inquiry.
At laft I tried the one hereafter defcribed, which feemed
to anfwer my intention in a great meafure ; and though
upon the whole it does not appear probable that ever
this inflrument wnll be made capable of fuch an accu¬
rate agreement as the mercurial thermometers are, yet
if we can reduce all the difagreements of an hygrome¬
ter within -joth part of the whole fcale, it will pro¬
bably be of ufe in fome philofophical inquiries, in lieu
of inftruments which have not yet been reduced to
any common fcale at all.
Plates “ Fig* i* and 2. ABC is an orthographic delinea¬
te lxxvi. tion of the whole inftrument feen in front in its true
cclxxvii. proportion. DE is that of the profile, or inltru-
ment feen edgewife. FG in both reprefents a flaxen
cord about 35 inches long, fufpended by a turning peg
F, and attached to a loop of brafs wdre at A, wdiich
goes down into the box cover H, and defends the in¬
dex, &c. from injury j and by a glafs expofes the fcale
to view.
“ Fig. 3. {hows the inftrument to a larger fcale, the
upright part being ftiortened, and the box-cover re¬
moved ; in which the fame letters reprefent the fame
parts as in the preceding figures •, GI are two loops
or long links of brafs wire, which lay hold of the in¬
dex KL, moveable upon a fmall ftud or centre K. The
cord FG is kept moderately {trained by a weight
M of about half a pound avoirdupois.'—It is obvious,
that, as the cord lengthens and ftiortens, the extreme
end of the index rifes and falls, and fucceflively pafles
over N 2 the fcale difpofed in the arch of a circle, and
containing 100 equal divifions. This fcale is attached
to the brafs Aiding ruler QP, which moves upon the
dire&ing piece RR, fixed by ferews to the board, which
makes the frame or bafe of the whole j and the fcale
and ruler NQP is retained in any place nearer to or
further from the centre K, as may be required by the
/crew S.
“ Fig. 4. reprefents in profile the Aiding piece and
ftud I (fig. 3.), which traverfes upon that part of the
index next the centre K ; and which can, by the two
ferews ot the ftud, be retained upon any part of the
index that is made parallel $ and which is done for
three or four inches from the centre, for that purpofb.
I he ftud is filed to the edges, like the fulcrum of a
leale-beam one being formed on the under fide, the
other on the upper, and as near as may be to one
another. An hook formed at the lower end of the
wire-loops Cl, retains the index, by the lowermoft
edge of the ftud; while the weight M hangs by a fmall
hook upon the upper edge : by thefe means the index
3 1 H Y G
is kept fteady and the cords ftrained by the weight, Hyghsme
with very little friftion or burthen upon the central ter‘
ftud K.
“ Fig. 5. is a parallelogram of plate-brafs, to keep
out dull, wrhich is attached to the upper edge of the
box-cover H 5 and ferves to ftiut the part of the box -
cover neceflarily cut away, to give leave for the wire
GI to traverfe with the Aiding ftud nearer to or fur¬
ther from the centre of the index K ; and where, in *
fig. 5. a is a hole of ab®ut an inch diameter, for thi
wire GI to pafs through in the riling and falling of the
index freely without touching ; £ is a Ait of a lefler
fize, fufficient to pafs the wire, and admit the cover to
come off without deranging the cord or index 5 c c are
tv'o fmall ferew's applied to two Aits, by which the
plate Aides lengthwife, in order to adapt the hole c
to the wire GI, at any place of the ftud I upon the
index KL.
“ I. In this conftruftion, the index KL being 12
inches long, 4 inches from the extreme end are filed fo
narrow7 in the dire&ion in which it is feen by the eye1,
that any part of thefe four inches lying over the divi¬
fions of the fcale, becomes an index thereto. The fcale
itfelf Aides four inches, fo as to be brought under any
part of the four inches of the index attenuated as above-
mentioned.
“ 2. The pofition of the directing piece RR is fo
determined as to be parallel to a right line drawn through
o upon the fcale, and the centre K of the index $ con-
fequently, as the attenuated part of the index forms a
part of a radius or right line from the fame centre, it
-allows, that whenever the index points to o upon the
fcale, though the fcale is moved nearer to or further
from the centre of the index, yet it produces no change
in the place to which the index points.
“ When the divided arch of the fcale is at 10 inches
from the centre (that is, at its mean diftance); then
the centre of the arch and the centre of the index are
coincident. At other diftances, the extremes of wThich
are eight or twelve inches, the centre of the divifions,
ana the centre of the index pointing thereto, not be¬
ing coincident, the index cannot move over the fpaces
geometrically proportionable to one another in all fi-
tuations of the fcale j yet the whole fcale not exceed-
3°* a circle, it will be found on computation,
that the error can never be fo great as i/oth part of the
fcale, or i* of the hygrometer ; which in this inftru¬
ment being confidered as indivifible, the mechanical
error will not be fenfible.
^ “ Fhe cord here made ufe of is flax, and between
T^-th and -^-th of an inch in diameter ; which can be
readily afeertained by meafuring a number of turns
made round a pencil or fmall flick. It is a fort of cord
ufed in London for making nets, and is of that par¬
ticular kind called by net-makers flaxen three-threads
laid. A competent quantity of this cord was boiled
in one pound avoirdupois of water, in which was put
two pennyweights troy of common fait 5 the whole
W'as reduced by boiling to fix ounces avoirdupois,
which wras done in about half an hour. As this afeer-
tains a given ftrength of the brine, on taking out the
cord, it may be fuppofed that every fibre of’the cord
is. equally impregnated with fait. The cord being
dried, it will be proper to ftretch it; w'hich may be
done fo as to prevent it from untwifting, by tying
A 2 three
H Y G [4
three er four yards to two nails againft a wall, in an
horizontal poiition, and hanging a weight of a pound
or two to the middle, fo as to make it form an obtufe
angle. This done for a week or more in a room, will
lay the fibres of the cord clofe together, and prevent
its firetching fo faft after being applied to the in-
ilrument as it would otherwife be apt to do.
“ The hygrometer is to be adjufted in the following
manner. The box-cover being taken off to prevent its
being fpoiled by the fire, and choofing a day natu¬
rally dry, fet the inftrument nearly upright, about a
yard from a moderate fire ; fo that the cord may be¬
come dry, and the inllrument warm, but not fo near
as would fpoil the finefl linen by too much heat, and
yet fully evaporate the moifture j there let the inftru¬
ment flay till the index is got as low as it wall go j
now and then ftroaking the cord betwixt the thumb
and finger dorvnwards, in order to lay the fibres there¬
of clofe together j and thereby caufing it to lengthen
as much as poflible. When the index is thus become
flationary, which will generally happen in about an
hour, more or lefs as the air is' naturally more or lefs
dry, by means of the peg at top, raife or deprefs the
index, till it lies over the point o. This done, remove
the inftrument from the fire •, and having ready fome
warm w^ater in a tea-cup, take a middling camel’s hair
pencil, and dipping it in the water, gently anoint the
cord till it will drink up no more, and till the index
becomes ftationary and water will have no more effe£l
upon it, which will alfo generally happen in about an
hour. If in this ftate the index lies over the degree
marked loo, all is right: if not, flack the fcrew S,
and Aide the fcale nearer to or further from the centre,
till the point 100 comes under the index, and then the
inftrument is adjufted for ufe : but if the compafs of
the Aide is not fufficient to effedl this, as may proba¬
bly happen on the firft adjuftment, flack the proper
fcrews, and move the Aiding ftud I nearer to or fur¬
ther from the centre of the index, according as the
angle formed by the index between the two points of
dry or w^et happens to be too fmall or too large for
the fcale.”
Coventry's.. On this principle, a Ample hygrometer has been
made by P*lr Coventry of Southwrark, London. It is
not upon the moft accurate conftruftion, yet will aft
very fenfibly in the common changes of the air. Fig. 6.
reprefents the hygrometer as applied to a wall or board.
A is a firing of whip-cord, catgut, &c. of any length
at pleafure : it is fufpended on a bracket B, and kept
extended by a weight at the bottom C. X)D is a Aip
of wood, which with the bracket is fixed perpendicu¬
larly to a wall or fide of a room. It has a ftraight
line E drawn down in the middle of the board, ler-
ving to point out the divifions upon the edges of the
two thin circular cards F and G. At the centre of the
bottom of each of thefe cards is glued»a piece of
cork, through which the firing A is drawn : Thefe
cork pieces ferve to preferve the horizontal pofition of
the cards. The upper card F is divided into 10 equal
parts or divifions, and the under card G into 100 equal
parts} the firing A being meafured into 10 equal
parts, from the point of fufpenfion H to the furface
of the lower card I. The card F is hung at the firft
part, from H, and the card G at the 10th part from
the fame point; confequently, from the twilling and
] H Y G
untwifting of the firing A by the different changes of Hygrome-
the air, the lower card G, from the mechanical prin- ter-
ciples of motion, will defcribe 10 revolutions for one v
of the upper card F ; or wdren the kwer card G has
made one revolution, the upper card F will have de-
fcribed but the 10th part, or one of its divifions.
From whence it appears, that by the afiiftance of the
upper card F, an index is thereby obtained of the num¬
ber of revolutions the lower card G performs, which
are reckoned by the line E on the Aip of w7ood.
Example. It mull firft be obferved what divifion
of the card F the line E is againft, fuppofe 3 j
and alfo what divifion of the kwer card G is cut
by the fame line, fuppofe 10 : it then appears, that
the ftate of the hygrometer is thus, 3 degrees and I o
hundredths of another. If the whole 10 divifions of
the card have paffed the line E, the lowfer card G will
have revolved 10 times, or 10 hundred parts, equal to
IOOO 5 the accuracy to which the principle of this
fimple contrivance anfwers. Before ufe, the hygrome¬
ter thould be adjufted ; to do which, the cards F and
G are firit fet to the line E at the o of each, or com¬
mencement of the graduations : whatever direftion the
cards afterwards take, it muft evidently be from the
change to greater moifture or drynefs in the air j and
they will accordingly point it out..
On this principle, but with a degree of ingenuity SauffureV
and pains perhaps never before employed, an hygrome¬
ter has been conftrufted by M. de Sauflurc, profeffor
of philofophy at Geneva. In his F.Jfais fur /’ Hygro-
metric, in 410, 1783, is an important detail on the lub-
jeft of hygrometry; from which the following defcrip-
tion of his hygrometer is taken. The author found by
repeated experiments, that the difference between the
greateft extenfion and contraftion of a hair, properly
prepared, and having a weight of about three grains fut-
pended to it, is nearly of its whole length ; that is,
34, or 34 lines in a foot. This circurrfftance fuggefted
the idea of a new hygrometer : and, in order to render
thofe fmall variations perceptible and ufeful, the fol¬
lowing apparatus was conftrufted.
Fig. 7. is a reprefentation of the whole inftrument,
with the hair and other appendages complete. The
lower extremity of the hair ab \s held by the chaps
of the fcrew pincers b. Thefe pincers are reprefented
afide at B : by a fcrew at its end, it fattens into the nut
of the bottom plate C. This nut of the plate turns in¬
dependently of the piece that fupports it, and ferves to
raife or deprefs the pincers B at pleafure.
The upper extremity a of the hair is held by the
under chaps of the double pincers a, reprefented afide
at A. Thefe pincers fatten the hair below, and above
fallen a very fine narrow Aip of filver, carefully an¬
nealed, which rolls round the arbor or cylinder d, a fe-
parate figure of which is ftrown at DF. This arbor,
which carries the needle or index e e, or E in the fepa-
rate figure, is cut into the ftiape of a fcrew •, and the
intervals of the threads of this {crew have their bafes
Aat, and are cut fquarely fo as to receive the Aip of
filver that is faftened to the pincers a, and joined in this
manner with the hair. M. Sauffure obferves, that hair
alone fixed immediately to the arbor would not do $ for it
curled upon it, and acquired a ftiffnefs that the counter-
poife was not able to furmount. The arbor was cut in
a fgrew form, in Older that the Aip of Alver in wind¬
ing
H Y G
[
Hygrome- ing upon it (hould not increafe the diameter of the
arbor, and never take a fituation too oblique and vari-
^ " able. The flip is fixed to the arbor by a fmall pin F.
The other extremity of the arbor D is fliaped like a
pulley, flat at the bottom fo as to receive a fine fupple
filken firing, to which is fufpended the counterpoife
g in the large figure, and G in the fide one. This
counterpoife is applied to diftend the hair 5 and a£ts in
a contrary direftion to that of the hair, and the move-
able pincers to which the hair is fixed. If then the
hair fhould be loaded wTith the weight of four grains,
the counterpoife mufl weigh four grains more than the
pincers. The arbor at one end pafl'es through the cen¬
tre of the dial, and turns therein, in- a very fine hole,
on a pivot made very cylindrical and well poliflied : at
the other end is alfo a fimilar pivot, which turns in a
hole made in the end of the arm /i of the cock /i i,
H I. This cock is fixed behind the dial by means of
the fcrew I.
The dial keek, divided into 360 degrees, isfupport-
ed by two arms / /; thefe are foldered to two tubes,
which inclofe the cylindrical columns m m m m. The
fetting fcrews n n move upon thefe tubes, and ferve
thereby to fix the dial and arbor to any height requi¬
red. The two columns which fupport the dial are
firmly faftened to the cafe of the hygrometer, which
reft upon the four fcrews 0 00 o\ by the affiftance of
thefe fcrews, the inftrument is adjufted, and placed in a
vertical lituation.
The fquare column ppy which refts upon the bafe of
the hygrometer, carries a box qy to which is fixed a
kind of port-crayon r, the aperture of which is equal
to the diameter of the counterpoife g. When the hy¬
grometer is to be moved from one place to another ; to
prevent a derangement of the inftruments from the of-
cillations of the counterpoife, the box q and the port¬
crayon r muft be raifed up fo as the counterpoife may
fall into and be fixed in it, by tightening the fcrew s
and the box and counterpoife together by the fcrew t.
When the hygrometer is intended for ufe, the coun¬
terpoife muft be difengaged by lowering the box, as
may be conceived from the figure.
Laftly, at the top of the inftrument is a curved piece
of metal x1, y, *, which is faftened to the three columns
juft defcribed, and keeps them together. It has a
fquare hole at y, which ferves to hang up the hygrome¬
ter by when required.
The variations of which this hygronaeter is capable,
are (all things befides equal) as much greater as the
arbor round which the flip of filver winds is than a
fmaller diameter, and as the inftrument is capable of
receiving a longer hair. M. Saufture has had hygro¬
meters made with hairs 14 inches long, but he finds
one foot fufficient. The arbor is three-fourths of a
line in diameter at the bafe between the threads of
the fcrew or the part on which the flip winds. The
variations, when a hair properly prepared is applied to
it, are more than an entire circumference, the index
defcribing about 400 degrees in moving from extreme
drynefs to extreme humidity. M. Sauflure mentions
an inconvenience attending this hygrometer, viz. its
not returning to the fame point when moved from one
place to another j becaufe the weight of three grains
that keeps the filver flip extended, cannot play fo ex¬
actly as to ad always with the fame precifion againft the
5 ] H Y G
arbor round which it winds. But this weight cannot Hygrome,
be fenfibly increafed without ftill greater inconvenien- , ter*
ces : he therefore obferves, that his hygrometer is well *
calculated for a fixed fituation in an obfervatory, and for
various hygrometrieal experiments; fince, inftead of the
hair, there may be fubftituted any other fubftance of
which a trial may be wanted j and it may be kept ex¬
tended by a counterpoife more or lefs heavy as they
may require : but the inftrument will not admit of be¬
ing moved, nor ferve even for experiments which may
fubjed it to agitation.
To obviate the objedion above-mentioned, M. Sauf-Portable
fure has contrived another apparatus more portable
and convenient, and which, if not fo extenfive in its va- c^uflure *'
nations, is in fad very firm, and not in the leaft liable
to be deranged by carriage and agitation. Fig. 8. is a
reprefentation of this hygrometer, which he calls the
portable hygrometer, in diftindion from the preceding,
which he calls the great hygrometer or the hygrometer
ivith the arbor. The material part of this inftrument
is its index « ^ c e; an horizontal view of which, and
the arm that carries it, is feen in the feparate figure
GBDEF. This index carries in its centre D a thin
tube hollow throughout, and projeds out on each fide
of the needle. The axis which paffes through it, and
round which the index turns, is made thin in the
middle of its length and thick at the ends ; fo that
the cylindrical tube which it pafl'es through touches it
only at two points, and ads upon it only at its extre¬
mities.
The part ^ DE of the index ferves to point out
and mark on the dial the degrees of moifture and dry¬
nefs j the oppofite part //£DB ferves to fix both the
hair and counterpoife. This part, which terminates in
a portion of a circle, and is about a line in thicknefs,
is cut on its edge in a double vertical groove, which
makes this part fimilar to the fegment of a pulley with
a double neck. Thefe two grooves, which are portions
of a circle of two lines radius, and have the fame cen¬
tre with that of the index d, ferve in one of them to
contain the hair, and in the other the filk, to the end of
which the counterpoife is fufpended. The fame index
carries vertically above and below its centre two fmall
fcrew-pincers, fituated oppofite to the two gooves : that
above at a, oppofite to the hindmoft groove, ferves to
fix to the filk to which the counterpoife is fufpended ^
and that below at Z>, oppofite to the hithermoft groove,
ferves to hold one of the ends of the hair. Each of
thefe grooves has its partitions cut, as feen. in the fedlion.
B, and its bottom made flat, in order that the hair and
filk may have the greateft freedom poflible. The axis
of the needle DD goes through the arm g/GF, and it
is fixed to this arm by the tightening fcrew y'F. All
the parts of the index ftrould be in perfedft equilibrium
about its centre; fo that when it is on its pivot without
the counterpoife, it will reft indifferently in any pofitiou
it may be placed in.
It muft be underftood, that when, the hair is fixed
by one of its extremities in the pincers e, and by the
other end on the pincers y at the top of the inftrument,
it paffes in one of the necks of the double pulley
b, whilft the counterpoife to which the filk is fixed in a
paffes in the other neck of the fame pulley: the coun«-
terpoife ferves to keep the hair extended, and a£ls al¬
ways in the fame direction and with the fame force,,
whatever.
H Y G [ 6 ] H Y G
Hyg^ome- •whatever the fituation of the index may be. When
, ter‘ therefore the drynefs contradis the hair, it overpowers
’”~v- '' the gravity of the counterpoife, and the index defcends:
when, on the contrary, the humidity relaxes the hair,
it gives way to the counterpoife, and the index afcends.
The counterpoife Ihould weigh but three grains; fo
that the index ihould be made very light and very eafy
in its motion, in order that the leaf! poffible force may
move it and bring it back again to its point when
drawn alide.
The dial he h is a circular arch, the centre of which
is the lame with that of the index. This arch is di¬
vided into degrees of the fame circle, or into the hun¬
dredths of the interval which is found between the li¬
mits of extreme drynefs and extreme humidity. The
interior edge of the dial carries at the dilfance hi a
kind of projecting bridle or flay ii, made of brafs wire,
curved to the arch, and fixed in the points it. This
bridle retains and guards the index, at the fame time
leaving it to play with the requifite freedom. The
fcrew-pincers y, in which is fattened the upper extre¬
mity of the hair, is carried by a moveable arm, which
afcends and defcends at pleafure the length of the frame
KK. This frame is cylindrical everywhere elfe, ex¬
cept its being here flattened at the hinder ftart to
about half its thicknefs, in order that the piece with
the ferew’ which carries the arm Ihould not projeCt out
underneath, and that the arm may not turn. The
arm may be flopped at any defired height by means of
the prefling ferew x. But as it is of ufe fometimes to
be able to give the inftrument a very fmall and accurate
motion, fo as to bring the index exactly to the part that
may be wanted, the Hide piece /, which carries the
pincers y, to which the hair is fixed, is to be moved by
the adjulting ferew tn.
At the bafe of the inftrument is a great lever n o p q,
which ferves to fix the index and its counterpoife when
the hygrometer is to be moved. The lever turns an
axis «, terminated by a ferew which goes into the
frame ; in tightening this ferew, the lever is fixed in
the defired polition. When the motion of the index
is to be flopped, the intended pofition is given to this
lever, as reprefented in the dotted lines of the figure.
The long neck p of the lever lays hold of the double
pulley b of the index, and the fhort neck o of the coun¬
terpoife : the tightening ferew q fallens the tw7o necks
at once. In confining the index, it mull be fo placed,
that the hair be very flack j fo that, if whilft it is
moved the hair fhould get dry, it may have room to
contradl itfelf. Afterwards, when the inftrument is
placed for ufe, the firft thing to be done is to relax
the ferew n, and turn back the double lever with great
care, taking equal caution at the fame time not to
ftrain the hair. It is better to apply one hand to the
index near its centre, w’hilft the other hand is difenga-
ging the pulley and the counterpoife from the lever
that holds them Heady. The hook r ferves to fufpend
a thermometer upon 5 it ftiould be a mercurial one,
with a very fmall naked bulb or ball, fo as to fliow in the
moll fenfible manner the changes of the air : it Ihould
be mounted in metal, and guarded in fuch a manner as
not to vibrate fo as to break the hair. Laftly a
4iotch is made under the top of the frame j, to mark
the point of fufpenfion, about which the inftrument is
in equilibrium, and keeps a vertical fituation.
3
All the inftrument Ihould be made of brafs : though Hygrome-
the axis of the index and its tube work more pleafantly ter-
together if made of bell-metal. v
The extent of this hygrometer’s variations is not
more than the fourth or fifth part of the hygrometer
with the arbor. It may be augmented by making the
fegment of the pulley to which the hair is fixed of a
fmaller diameter *, but then the hair, in moving about
it, would fret and contradl a ftilfnefs, which wrould caufe
it to adhere to the bottom of the neck. M. Sauffure
is of opinion, that the radius of this pulley ftiould not
be lefs than two lines, at leaft that there flieuld be
adapted a plate of lilver or fome other contrivance j
but then the hygrometer would be too difficult to con-
ftrudt, and it would require too much attention and
care on the part of thofe who ufe it : his objedt wras,
to make an inftrument generally ufeful, and eafy and
convenient in its ufe. The hygrometer with the arbor
may be ufed for oblervations which require an extreme
fenlibility.
The variations of this inftrument may be augment¬
ed by making it higher, becaufe in that cafe longer hairs
might be adapted : but it wrould be then lefs portable.
Befides, if the hair is too long when obfervations are
made in the open air, the wind has too great an effedl
upon it, and thus communicates to the index in¬
convenient vibrations. It is not proper therefore to
make it more than a foot in height. When it is of
this dimenfion, an hair properly prepared can be ap¬
plied to it, and its variations from extreme drynefs to
extreme humidity are 80 or even 100 degrees j which
on a circle of 3 inches radius forms an extent fufficient
for obfervations of this kind. M. Sauffure has even
made fmaller inftruments that may be carried conve¬
niently in the pocket, and to make experiments witli
under fmall receivers : they were but feven inches high
by two inches of breadth ; which, notwithftanding their
variations, were very fenfible.
Thus much for the conftru&ion of the various parts
of the inftrument. The limits of this wurk will not
admit of our inferting the whole of M. Sauffure’s fub-
fequent account of the preparation of the hair, the man¬
ner of determining the limits of extreme humidity-and
of extreme drynefs, the pyrometrical variations of the
hair, and the graduation of the hygrometer. The fol¬
lowing abftra£i muft therefore fuffice.
In the preparation of the hair, it was found ne-
ceffary to free it of a certain umftuofity it always
has in its natural ftate, w'hich in a great meafure de¬
prives it of its hygrometrical fenfibility. A number
of hairs are boiled in a ley of vegetable alkali; and
among thefe are to be chofen for ufe fuch as are
moft tranfparent, bright, and foft: particular pre¬
cautions are neceffary for preventing the ftraining of
the hair, which renders it unfit for the intended pur-
pofe.
The two fixed points of the hygrometer are the ex¬
tremes both of moifture and drynefs. The former is
obtained by expofing the inftrument to air completely
faturated wdth water ; and this is effe&ed by placing
it in a glafs receiver Handing in water, the lides of
which are kept continually moiftened. The point on
the dial, at which the hand after a certain interval re¬
mains ftationary, is marked 100. The point of ex¬
treme drynefs, not abfolute drynefs, for that does not
H Y G [
Hygrome- exift, but the greateft degree of it that can be obtain-
ter- ed, is produced by introducing repeatedly into the fame
,J v 1 receiver containing the inflrument, and {landing now
upon quickfilver, certain quantities of deliquefeent al¬
kaline falts, which abforb the moifture of the air. The
higheft point to which the hand can be brought by
this operation, not only when it will rife no higher,
but when it becomes retrograde from the dilatation
occafioned by heat, is called o ; and the arch between
thefe two points is divided into 100 equal parts, being
degrees of the hygrometer. The arch p/>, upon which
the fcale is marked in the inftrument (reprelented in
fig. 2.) being part of a circle of three inches diameter j
hence every degree meafures about one third of a line.
In the ftationary hygrometer, fig. i. the fcale upon the
complete circular dial is fo much larger, that every
degree meafures about five lines j but this M. Sauffure
confiders as far from being a perfedlion, that it is ra¬
ther an inconvenience ; iince the inftrument becomes
thereby fo very fefceptible of the leaf! impreflion, that
there is even no approaching it without a fenfible
variation. The thermometer, adapted as before men¬
tioned, ferves to corredl the changes of tempera¬
ture : towards the extreme of drynefs, i° of the thermo¬
meter produces on the hair an effeft of half a degree of
the hygrometer, but towards the extreme of moifture, the
fame difference of temperature caufes an effedl no lefs
than 30 on the hygrometer. He conftru£ted two
tables, that gave the intermediate hygrometrical varia¬
tions for fingle degrees of the thermometer at different
parts of the fcale.
The whole range of the atmolpherical variations
takes in about 75* of this fcale ; a drynefs of more
than 25* being always the effect of art. The fenfibi-
lity of this inftrument is fo very great, that being ex-
pofed to the dew, he mentions that it varies above 40°
in about 20 minutes of time. Being removed from a
very moift into a very dry air, it varied in one inftance
no lefs than 350 in three minutes. He fays that
its variations were always found uniform in diffe¬
rent inftruments fufpended in different parts of the
fame atmofphere. This hygrometer is confidered by
the author as poffeffed of all the properties requifite in
Inch an inftrument. Thefe are, 1. That the degrees in
the fcale be fufticiently large, and to point out even
the leaft variation in the drynefs or moifture of the at¬
mofphere. 2. That it be quick in its indications.
3. That it be at all times confident with itfelf 5 viz.
that in the fame ftate of the hair it always points to
the fame degree. 4. That feveral of them agree with
one another. 5. That it be affedled only by the aque¬
ous vapours. 6. That its variations be ever propor¬
tionate to the changes in the air.
But after all it mud be obferved, that a confiderable
degree of trouble and delicacy is requifite in the pre¬
paration of the hair, and it is very fragile j circum-
ftances which may prevent it from coming into general
ufe among common obfervers, although probably it may
be the beft in principle of any yet made.
Inftead of hairs or cat-gut, of which hygrometers
of the firft kind are commonly made, Caffebois, a Be-
nediaine monk at Mentz, prepofed to make fuch hy¬
grometers of the gut of a filk-worm. When that in-
lea is ready to fpin, there are found in it two veffels
proceeding from the head to the ftomach, to which
7 ] H Y G
they adhere, and then bend towards the back, where Hygrome-
they form a great many folds. The part of thefe vef- , ter' .
fels next the ftomach is of a cylindric form, and about
a line in diameter. Thefe veffels contain a gummy fort
of matter from which the worm fpins its filk j and,
though they are exceedingly tender, means have been
devifed to extract them from the infett, and to prepare
them for the above purpofe. When the worm is a-
bout to fpin, it is thrown into vinegar, and iuffered to
remain there twenty-four hours $ during wrhich time
the vinegar is abforbed into the body of the infe<!ft, and
coagulates its juices. The worm being then opened,
both the veffels, wdiich have now acquired ftrength, are
extra&ed 5 and, on account of their pliability, are ca¬
pable of confiderable extenfion. That they may not,
however, become too w'eak, they are ftretched only to
the length of about fifteen or twTenty inches. It is
obvious that they muft be kept fufficiently extended
till they are completely dry. Before they attain to
that ftate, they muft be freed, by means of the nail of
the finger, from a flimy fubftance which adheres to
them. Such a thread will fuftain a weight of fix pounds
without breaking, and may be ufed for an hygrome¬
ter in the fame manner as cat-gut j but wre confefs that
we do not clearly perceive its fuperiority.
II. On the fecond general principle, namely, that ^uc>Sj
of the fwelling of folid bodies by moifture, and their con¬
traction by drynefs, M. de Luc’s inftrument is the beft.
He makes choice of ivory for the conftrudtion of his hy¬
grometer, becaufe he finds that, being once wetted,
ivory regularly fwrells by moifture, and returns exadtly
to the fame dimenfions when the moifture is evapora¬
ted, which other bodies do not. This hygrometer is
reprefented in fig. 9. where o <7 £ is an ivory tube open
at the end a a, and clofe at b. It is made of a piece of
ivory taken at the diftance of fome inches from the top
of a pretty large elephant’s tooth, and likewife at the
fame diftance from its furface and from the canal
which reaches to that point. (This particular direc¬
tion is given, that the texture of the ivory in all dif¬
ferent hygrometers may be the fame, which is of great
importance.) This piece is to be bored exadlly in the
diredlion of its fibres $ the hole muft be very ftraight,
its dimenfions 2\ lines in diameter, and 2 inches 8 lines
in depth from a a to c. Its bore is then to be exactly
filled with a brafs cylinder, which, however, muft pro-
jedt fomewhat beyond the ivory tube $ and thus it is to
be turned on a proper machine, till the thicknefs of
the ivory is exaclly of a line, except at the two
extremities. At the bottom b the tube ends in a point j
and at the top a a \\ muft for about two lines be left a
little thicker, to enable it to bear the preffure of ano¬
ther piece put upon it. Thus the thin or hygrometri¬
cal part of the tube will be reduced to 2^ French
inches, including the concavity of the bottom. Before
this piece is ufed, it muft be put into water, fo that
the external part alone may be wetted by it j and here
it is to remain till the water penetrates to the infide,
and appears in the form ©f dew, which will happen
in a few hours. The reafon of this is, that the ivory
tube remains lomewhat larger ever after it is wetted
the firft time.
For this hygrometer, a glafs tube muft be provided
about 14 inches long, the lower end of which is fhown
\n.ddee. Its internal diameter is about 4 of a line.
If-
Hygrome¬
ter.
H Y G [8
If now the ivory tube is exactly filled with mercury,
and the glafs one affixed to it, as the capacity of the
former decreafes by being dried, the mercury will be
forced up into the glafs one.
The piece ff g g is intended to join the ivory with
the glafs tube. It is of brafs, ffiaped as in the figure.
A cylindrical hole is bored through it, which holds
the glafs tube as tight as poffible without danger of
breaking it 5 and its lower part is to enter wdth fome
degree of difficulty into the ivory pipe. To hinder
that part of the tube which inclofes the brafs piece
from being affecled by the variations of the moifture,
it is covered with a brafs verrel reprefented mhliii.
The pieces muft be united together with gum-lac or
maftich.
The introdu&ion of the mercury is the next opera¬
tion. For this purpofe, a flip of paper three inches
wide is firft to be rolled over the glafs tube, and tied
fall to the extremity neareft the ivory pipe. A horfe-
hair is then to be introduced into the tube, long enough
to enter the ivory pipe by an inch, and to reach three
or four inches beyond the extremity of 'the glafs one.
The paper which has been ffiaped round the tube muft
nowr be raifed, and ufed as a funnel to pour the mer¬
cury into the inftrument, which is held upright. The
pureft quickfilver is to be ufed for this purpofe, and it
will therefore be proper to ufe that revived from cinna¬
bar. It eafily runs into the tube ; and the air efcapes
by means of the horfe-hair, affifted with fome gentle
ffiakes. Freffi mercury muft from time to time be
fupplied, to prevent the mercurial tube from being to¬
tally emptied j in which cafe, the mercurial pellicle
which alwTays forms by the contaft of the air, would
run in along with it.
Some air-bubbles generally remain in the tube j
they may be feen through the ivory pipe, which is thin
■enough to have fome tranfparency. Thefe being col¬
lected together by ffiaking, muft be brought to the
top of the tube, and expelled by means of the horfe-
hair. To facilitate this operation, fome part of the
mercury muft be taken out of the tube, in order that
the air may be lefs obftruCted in getting out, and the
horfe-hair have a free motion to affift it. Air, how¬
ever, cannot be entirely driven out in this manner. It
is the wreight of the mercury with which the tube is
for that reafon to be filled, which in time completes
its expulfion, by making it pafs through the pores of
the ivory. To haften this, the hygrometers are put
into a proper box. This is fixed nearly in a vertical
dire&ion to the faddle of a horfe, which is fet a trot¬
ting for a few hours. The ffiakes fometimes divide
the column of mercury in the glafs tube, but it is eafily
re-united with the horfe-hair. When upon fhaking
the hygrometer vertically, no fmall tremulous motion
is any longer perceived in the upper part of the co¬
lumn, one may be fure that all the air is gone out.
The fcale of this hygrometer may be adjufted, as
foon as the air is gone out, in the following manner.
The inftrument is to be fufpended in a veffel of water
cooled with ice, freffi quantities of which are to be add¬
ed as the former melts. Here it is to remain till it
has funk as lo#v as it will fink by the enlargement of
the capacity of the ivory tube, ow-ing to the moifture
it has imbibed. This ufually happens in feven or eight
jjqurs, and is to be carefully noted. In two cur three
I
]
H Y G
hours the mercury begins to afcend, becaufe the moi- Hygronw
fture pafies into the cavity, and forces it up. The ter>
loweft ftation of the mercury is then to be marked o 5
and for the more accurate marking the degrees on the
fcale, M. de Luc always chofe to have his hygrome-
trical tube made of one which had formerly belonged
to a thermometer. The reafon of this is, that in the
thermometer the expanfion of the mercury by heat had
been already determined. The diftance between the
thermometrical points of melting ice and boiling water
at 27 French inches of the barometer wTas found to be
1937 parts. The bulb of this preparatory thermome¬
ter was broke in a bafon, in order to receive carefully
all the mercury that it contained. This being weighed
in nice fcales amounted to 1428 grains. The hygro¬
meter contained 460 grains of the fame mercury. Now
it is plain, that the extent of the degrees on the hy¬
grometer, ought to be to that of the degrees on the
preparatory thermometer as the different weights of the
mercury contained in each j confequently 1428 : 46c :
1937 : 624 nearly j and therefore the correfponding
intervals ought to follow the fame proportion : and
thus the length of a fcale w7as obtained, which might
be divided into as many parts as he pleafed.
Fig. 10. is a reprefentation of De Luc’s hygrome¬
ter when fully conftru&ed. In elegance it far exceeds
Smeaton’s or any other, mid probably alfo in accuracy j
for by means of a fmall thermometer fixed on the board
along with it, the expanfion of the mercury by heat
may be known with great accuracy, and of confe-
quence how much of the height of the mercury in the
hygrometer is owing to that caufe, and how much to
the mere moifture of the atmofphere.
M. de Luc having continued his inquiries further in¬
to the modifications of the atmofphere, mentions in his
Idee fur la Meteorologie another hygrometer, which he
finds to be the beft adapted to the meafure of local hu¬
midity. Of all the hygrofcopic fubftances which he
tried for this purpofe, that which anfwers the beft is a
flip of whalebone cut tranfverfely to the direftion of
the fibres, and made extremely thin 5 for on this de¬
pends its fenfibility. A flip of 12 inches in length and
a line in breadth, he has made fo thin as to weigh only
half a grain j and it may be made ftill thinner, but is
then of too great fenfibility, being affefted even by the
approach of the obferver. This flip is kept extended
by a fmall fpring, and the variations in its length are
meafured by a vernier divifion, or by, wffiich is perhaps
better, an index on a dial plate : the whole variation
from extreme drynefs to extreme moifture is about £ of
its length.
In thefe hygrometers, which are made by the inftru¬
ment-makers in London, the flip of whalebone is mount¬
ed in a frame very fimilar to that belonging to M.
Sauffure’s hygrometer before defcribed (fee fig. 7.) The
only material difference is, that a fmall concentric
vvke fpring is ufed, inftead of a counterpoife, to keep
the flip of whalebone extended. M. Sauffure had
tried fuch a fpring applied to his hairs j but the
vveakeft fpring he found too ftrong for the hair j and
he was further apprehenfive, that the variations which
the cold, heat, and the weather infallibly make, would
fuffer from the force of the fprings.
M. de Luc, in the hygrometers he formerly made, as
before defcribed (made of ivory), had graduated them
from
H Y G
Hygrome- from one fixed point only, that of extreme ttidijiure,
ter. which is obtained by foaking, them in water. He has
111 ' ' v " nowT very ingenioufly contrived to fix the other ex¬
treme, that of drynefs : but this being producible only
by means of llrong fires, fuch as hygrometers cannot
fupport, he ufes an intermediate body, quicklime j
which after having been deprived, by force of fire,
of all its own humidity, has the property of flovvly
imbibing humidity again from the bodies in its neigh¬
bourhood ; and whofe capacity is fuch that all the
vapour that can be contained in a quantity of air equal
to its own bulk, can give it no fenfible humidity. Thefe
hygrometers, inclofed with a large quantity of frefh
burnt lime in lumps, acquire in three weeks the fame
degree of drynsfs with the lime, which cannot difter
/enJibly from extreme drynefs.
M, de SaufTure makes choice of hairs, prepared by
maceration in alkaline lye. M. de Luc (hows that hairs,
and all other animal or vegetable fubfiances, taken
/engthwife, or in the direction of their fibres, undergo
contrary changes from different variations of humidity j
that, when immerled in water, they lengthen at firft,
and afterwards Ihorten ; that w'hen they are near the
greateft degree of humidity, if the moifture is increaled,
they (horten themfelves •, if it is diminilhed, they
lengthen themfelves firff before they contraft again.
Thefe irregularities, which obviouily render them in¬
capable of being true meafures of humidity, he ihowTs
to be the neceffary confequence of their organic reticu¬
lar ftrudure.
M. de Sauffure takes his point of extreme moifture
from the vapours of water under a glafs bell, keeping
the fides of the bell continually moiftened : and af¬
firms, that the humidity is there conftantly the fame
in all temperatures: the vapours even of boiling water
having no" more effect than thofe of cold. M. de
Luc ftiows, on the contrary, that the differences of
humidity under the bell are very great, though M.
Sauffure’s hygrometer was incapable of difcovering
them j and that the real undecompofed vapour of boil¬
ing water has the direftly oppolite effeift to that of
cold, the effeiff of extreme drynefs : and on this point he
mentions an interefting fa£t, communicated to him
by Mr Watt, viz. that wood cannot be employed in
the fteam engine for any of thofe parts where the va¬
pour of the boiling water is confined, becaule it dries
fo as to crack, juft as if expofed to the fire. In M. de
Luc’s work above mentioned there are ftriking inftances
related, in which the imperfection of M. Sauffure’s
hygrometer led him into falfe conclufions refpeCting
phenomena, and into erroneous theories to account
for them.
III. On the third principle, namely, the alteration of
the weight of certain fubftances by their attracting the
moifture of the air, few attempts have been made, nor
do they feem to have been attended with much fuccefs.
Sponges dipped in a folution of alkaline falts, and
lome kinds of paper, have been tried. Thefe are fuf-
pended to one end of a very accurate balance, and
counterpoifed by weights at the other, and fhow the
degrees of moifture or drynefs by the afeent or defeent
of one of the ends. But, befides that fuch kinds of
hygrometers are deftitute of any fixed point from
whence to begin thsir fcale, they have another incon¬
venience (from which indeed Smeaton’s is not free, and
Vol. XL Part I.
H Y G
which has been found to render it erroneous), namely, Hygrome*
that all faline fubftances are deftroyed by long conti-, t('r* ,
nued expofure to the air in very fitmll quantities, and
therefore can only imbibe the moisture for a certain
time. Sulphuric acid has therefore been recommended
in preference to the alkaline or neutral falts, and, in¬
deed, for fuch as do not choofe to be at the trouble of
conftruCting a hygrometer on the principles of Mr
Smeaton or De Luc, this will probably be found the
moft eafy and accurate. Fig. 11. reprefents an hygro¬
meter of this kind. A is a fmall glafs cup containing
a fmall quantity of oil of vitriol, B an index counter-
poifing it, and C the fcale where it is plain, that as
the oil of vitriol attraCfs the moifture of the air, the
fcale will delcend, which will raife the index, and vice
verfa. This liquor is exceedingly fenfible of the in-
creafe or decreale of moifture. A Angle grain, after
its full increafe, has varied its equilibrium fo fenfibly
that the tongue of a balance, only an inch and a half
long, has deferibed an arch, one-third of an inch in
compafs (which arch would have been almoft three
inches if the tongue had been one foot), even with fo
fmall a quantity of liquor ; confequently, if more li¬
quor, expanded under a large furface, were ufed, a
pair of feales might afford as nice an hygrometer as
any kind yet invented. A great inconvenience, how¬
ever, is, that as the air muft have full accefs to the
liquid, it is impoflible to keep out the duft, which, by
continually adding its weight, muft render the hygro¬
meter falfe j add to this, that even oil of vitriol itfelf
is by time deftroyed, and changes its nature, if a fmall
quantity of it is continually expofed to the air.
The beft hygrometer upon this principle, and for
afeertaining the quantity as well as the degree of
moifture in the variation of the hygrometer, is of the
contrivance of Mr Coventry, Southwark, London.
The account he has favoured us with is as follows.
“ Take two ftieets of fine tiffue paper, fuch as is ufed by
hatters j dry them carefully at about two feet diftance
from a tolerably good fire, till after repeatedly weigh¬
ing them in a good pair of feales no moifture remains.
When the ftieets are in this perfeftly dry ftate, reduce
them to exaftly 50 grains; the hygrometer is then fit
for ufe. The (beets muft be kept free from duft, and
expofed a few minutes in the open air ; after which it
may be always known by weighing them the exadt
quantity of moifture they have imbibed.
“ For many years the hygrometer has (fays Mr Co¬
ventry) engrofled a confiderable (hare of my attention ;
and every advantage propofed by others, either as it
refpedled the (ubftances of which the inftrument was
compofed, or the manner in which its operations were
to be difeerned, has been impartially examined. But
(adds he) I have never feen an hygrometer fo fimple
in itfelf, or that would ad! with fuch certainty or fo
equally alike, as the one I have now deferibed. The
materials of which it is compofed being thin, are
eafily deprived wholly of their moifture 5 which is a
circumftance effentially neceffary in fixing a datum
from which to reckon, and which, I think, cannot be
faid of any fubftance hitherto employed in the con-
ftrudlion of hygrometers ; with equal facility they im¬
bibe or impart the humidity of the atmofphere, and
(how with the greateft exadlnefs when the lead alte¬
ration takes place/*
[ 9 1
B
When
H Y G [i
- 'When tlie paper is prepared, as already defcribed, it
will ferve, without the trouble of drying, as a ftandard
for any number of (heets intended for the fame pur-
pofe. But then the Iheets mutt be kept together in
the open air for a few hours •, becaufe whatever alte¬
ration may take place by this expofure, the paper al¬
ready weighed mutt have undergone the fame j being
confequently in the fame ftate, they mutt be cut to
the fame weight.
For eafier weighing the paper, take a piece of round
tin or brafs the fize of a crown-piece, through the
centre of which drill a hole, and alfo three others round
it at equal dittances : then cut about one hundred
papers *, and after putting them under the tin or brafs,
drive through each hole a ftrong pin into a board, in
Order to round them to the lhape of the plate : the
papers mult be then feparated and expofed to the air
a few hours with that already weighed, and fo many
of them taken as are equal to the weight already fpe-
eified. This done, threadle them together through
frhofe holes made by the pins, putting between every
paper on each thread a fmall bead, in order to prevent
the papers from touching each other, and alfo that
the air may be more readily admitted. The top of
“the hygrometer is covered with a card cut to the fame
fize j and wrhicb, by reafon of its ftiffnefs, fupports all
the papers, and keeps them in proper lhape. Before
the papers are threaded, the beads, filk, card, and a
thin piece of brafs about the fize of a fixpence, which
mull be placed at the bottom, and through which the
centre firing paffes, mull be vyeighed with the greatefi:
exadlnefs, in order to bring them to a certain weight,
fuppofe 50 grains 5 now the paper in its drieft ftate
being of equal weight, they will weigh together 100
grains, confequently what they weigh more at any
time is moiflure.
To obviate the trouble and difficulty of making ex¬
periments with weights and fcales, Mr Coventry con¬
trived a machine or fcale by which to determine at
one view the humidity or drynefs of the atmofphere.
This, with its cafe, is reprefented by fig. 12. The
front and back of the cafe are glafs j the fides fine
gauze, which excludes the dull and admits the air j
the cafe is about ten inches high, 8 inches broad, and
4 inches deep. A, a brafs bracket in front, behind
which, at about 34- inches dillance, is another; thefe
fupport the axis of the index E, alfo of the beam D,
and another which fupports the flem B, to which the
ivory fcale of divifions C is fixed. G, a brals fcale
fufpended in the ufual manner to the end of a beam
D, and weighing exaftly ico grains. This fcale is an
exa£l counterpoife to the papers I and the different
apparatus. The particular manner of fufpenfion in
this balance is, from the conftruflion, as follow* : The
axis of the beam g, which is made of brafs, inllead of
hanging on pivots, as in common fcales, turns wdth
two Heel edges k k, fixed in the extremities of the brafs
axis : thefe edges are fhaped like the edge of a knife,
and act on twro Heel concave edges //, in order to ren¬
der the fri£tion as fmall as poffible. D, is a fine fcale
beam fixed at right angles with the axis g. E, the
Iteel index fixed to the under fide of the fame axis.
F, a brafs Hiding weight: // is the axis that holds the
Item B to which the fcale of divifions C is fixed. AA,
the brafs brackets which fupport the whole by four
> ] H Y c
fcrews, two of which are feen at f/, that fcrew the Hygrome-
brackets to the top of the cafe. The axis of the fer-
fcale of divifions is hung on pivots, one of which is v_
feen at /«, that, fhould the cafe not Hand level, the item
B may alwrays be in a perpendicular fituation.
The hygrometer, before ufe, ihould be adjufted as
follows: To the end of the beam wdiere the hygro¬
meter is fufpended, hang a weight of 100 grains, which
is equal to the weight of the fcale ; then move the
Hiding weight F up or down the index E, till one
grain w'ill caufe the index to traverfe neither more nor
lefs than the whole fcale of divifions; then add half a
grain to the fcale, in order to bring the index to o ^
and the inflrument, after taking off the 100 grain
weight and hanging on the papers, is fit for ufe ; then
put grain weights in the fcale till the index is brought
within compafs of the fcale of divifions. Example :
H is 3 grains on the brafs fcale, and the index points
at jo ; confequently there is 3 grains and 10 hun¬
dredths of a grain of moiiture in the papers. If four
grain weights are kept, viz. 1, 2, 4, and 5, they will
make any number from 1 to 9, which are as many as
will be wanted. Sometimes the index wall continue
traverfing within the fcale of divifions for many days
without Ihifting the weights; but if otherwife, they
muH be changed as occafion may require.
“ One great advantage of this hygrometer above all
others that have attrafled my notice is (fays Mr Co¬
ventry), that it a£ls from a certain datum, namely, the
dry extreme ; from which all the variations towards
moift are calculated wuth certainty : and if conftrufled
with that precifion reprefented by the drawing, it will
afford pleafure to the curious in obferving the almoft
perpetual alteration of the atmofphere, even in the
moll fettled w7eather. In wdnter it will be confiantly
traverfing from about eight in the morning till four or
five in the afternoon, towards dry; and in fummer,
from about four in the morning till fix or feven in the
evening, when the weather is hot and gloomy, the
hygrometer difcovers a very great change towards
moiflure; and w7hen clear and frolly, that it contain*
a much greater quantity of moifture than is generally
imagined.”
An improvement has been propofed of this kind of
hygrometer, of w7hich the following circumftance, it is
faid, fuggelled the firft hint. While Mr Lowitz was
at Dmitriew7flc in Affracan, he found on banks of the
Wolga, a thin bluifli kind of Hate which attrafled
moiflure remarkably foon, but again fuffered it as foon
to efcape. A plate of this Hate weighed, when
brought to a red heat, 175 grains, and, when faturated
with water, 247 : it had therefore imbibed* between
complete drynefs and the point of complete moifture,
72 grains or water. Lowitz fufpended a round thin
plate of this Hate at the end of a very delicate ba¬
lance, faftened within a wooden frame, and fufpended.
at the other arm a chain of filver wire, the end of
which was made faft to a Hiding nut that moved up
and down in a fmall groove on the edge of one fide of
the frame. He determined, by trial, the pofition of
the nut when the balance was in equilibrio and when it
had ten degrees of over-weight, and divided the fpace
between thefe two points into ten equal parts, adding
fuch a number more of thefe parts as might be necel-
fary. When the ftone was fufpended from the one arm
of
. —
HY(rRO ME TER.
, </A//
Plate CCLXXVJI.
I
\
H Y L [ ii ] H Y M
ITygfoitie- of tlie balance, and at the other a weight equal to 175
ter grains, or the weight of the done when perfeftly dry,
„ l's the nut in the groove (hewed the excefs of weight in
■ ^a ’ / grains when it and the chain wrere fo adjufted that the
balance flood in equilibrio. A particular apparatus on
the fame principles as a vernier, applied to the nut,
(hewed the excefs of weight to ten parts of a grain.
Lowitz remarked that this hygrometer in continued
wet weather gave a moitture of piore than. 15 grains,
and in a continued heat of 113 degrees of Fahrenheit
only 14 degree of moifture.
The hygrometer thus invented by Lowitz was, how¬
ever, attended with this" fault, that it never threw off
the moiilure in the fame degree as the atmofphere be¬
came drier. It was alfo fometimes very deceitful, and
announced moiilure when it ought to have indicated
that drynefs had again begun to take place in the at¬
mofphere. To avoid thefe inconveniences, M. Hoch-
heimer propofes the following method :
1. Take a fquare bar of (leel about two lines in
thicknefs, and from ten to twelves inches in length, and
form it into a kind of balance, one arm of which ends
in a fcrew. On this ferewr let there be fcrewed a lead¬
en bullet of a propel: weight, inftead of the common
tveights that are fufpended. 2. Take a glafs plate
about ten inches long, and feven inches in breadth *, de-
flroy its polilh on both Tides, free it from all moifture
by rubbing it over with warm allies, fufpend it at the
other end of the balance, and bring the balance into
equilibrium by fcrewing up or down the leaden bullet.
3. Mark now the place to which the leaden bullet is
brought by the fcrew, as accurately as poffible, for the
point of the greated drynefs. 4. Then take away the
glafs plate from the balance, dip it completely in water,
give it a (hake that the drops may run off from it, and
wipe them carefully from the edge. 5. Apply the
glafs plate thus moillened again to the balance, and
bring the latter into equilibrium by fcrewing the leaden
bullet. Maik then the place at which the bullet (lands
as the highell degree of moifture. 6. This apparatus
is to be fulpended in a fmall box of well dried wood,
fufficiently large to fuffer the glafs plate to move up
and down. An opening mud be made in the lid, ex-
adlly of fuch a fize as to allow the tongue of the ba¬
lance to move freely. Parallel to the tongue apply a
graduated circle, divided into a number of degrees at
pleafure, from the highed point of drynefs to the high-
eft degree of moifture. The box mud be pierced with
fmall holes on all the four Tides, to give a free paffage
to the air •, and to prevent moifture from penetrating
into the wood by rain, when it may be requifite to ex-
pofe it at a window', it mud either be lackered or
painted. To fave it at all times from rain, it may be
furnithed with a fort of roof.
For a defcription of Mr Leflie’s Hygrometer, fig. 13.
and in a more portable form, fig. 14. fee Meteorolo¬
gy Index.
HYGROSCOPE. The fame with Hygrometer.
HYLA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Myfia Mi¬
nor, famous for Hylas the favourite boy of Hercules,
who wras carried down the dream and drowned. It is
faid to run by Prufa 5 whence it feems to be the fame
with the Rhyndacus, which runs north-weft into the Pro¬
pontis.
HYLAS, in fabulous hiftory, Ton of Theodamus,
was ravilhed by the nymphs of a fountain as he was Hylozoltfs*
taking out fome water for Hercules, by whom he was Hymen. ^
beloved. v
HYLOZOISTS, formed of vM matter, life, the
name of a fe£t of atheifts among the ancient Greek
philofophers, wTho held matter to be animated j main¬
taining that matter had feme natural perception, with¬
out animal fenfation, or refledlion in itfelf confidered j
but that this imperfect life occafioned that organiza¬
tion whence fenfation and refledtion afterwards arofe.
Of thefe, fome held only one life, which they called a
plastic nature, prefiding regularly and invariably over
the whole corporeal univerfe, w'hich they reprefented as
a kind of large plant or vegetable : thefe w'ere called the
cofmoplaftic and (loical atheifts, becaufe the Stoics
held fuch a nature, though many of them fuppofed it
to be the inftrument of the Deity. Others thought
that every particle of matter w7as endued with life, and
made the mundane fyftem to depend upon a certain
mixture of chance and plaftic or orderly nature united
together. Thefe w'ere called the Stratonici, from
Strato Lampfacenus, a difciple of Theophraftus, called
alfo Phyficus (Cicero de Nat. Deor. lib. 1. cap. 13.)
who was firft a celebrated Peripatetic, and afterwards
formed this new fyftem of atheifm for himfelf. Befides
thefe two forms of atheifm, fome of the ancient philo¬
fophers were Hylopathians, or Anaximandrians, de¬
riving all things from dead and ftupid matter, in the
way of qualities and forms, generable and corruptible ;
and others again adopted the atomical or Democri-
tical fyftem, who aferibe the produdlion of the univerfe
to atoms and figures. See on this fubjeft Cudvoortli1 s
IntellcBual Si/Jlem, book i. chap. 5.
HYMEN, or Hymek&tjs, a fabous divinity, the
Ton of Bacchus and Venus Urania, was fuppofed by
the ancients to prefide over marriages; and accord¬
ingly was invoked in epithalamiums, and other ma¬
trimonial ceremonies, under the formula, Hymen, or
Hy mencee !
The poets generally crown this deity with a chap¬
let of rofes; and reprefent him, as it were, diffolved
and enervated with pleafures, dreffed in a yellovv
robe and (hoes of the fame colour, with a torch in
his hand.—Catullus, in one of his epigrams, addreffes
him thus:
Cinge tempera Jloribus
SuaveoJentis amaraci.
It was for this reafon, that the new-married ccEple bore
garlands of fiowers on the w'edding-day : wrhich cuftora
alfo obtained among the Hebrews, and even among
Ghrittians, during the firft ages of the church, as ap¬
pears from Tertullian, De corona militari, where he
fays, Coronant et nuptce fponfos.—S. Chryfoftom, like-
wife mentions thefe crowns of flowers 5 and to this day
the Greeks call marriage &<pMup.cty in refpedl of this
crown or garland.
Hymen, 'Tftw, in Anatomy, a thin membrane or (kin,
fometimes circular, of different breadths, more or lefs
fmooth, and fometimes femilunar, formed by the union
of the internal membrane of the great canal with that
on the infide of the alae, refembling a piece of fine
parchment. This membrane is fuppofed to be ftretch-
ed in the neck of the womb of virgins, below the
nymphae, leaving in fome fubje&s a very fmall opening,
B 2 ia
H Y M [ 12 ] H Y O
Hymen, in others a larger, and in all rendering the external ori-
" ^ ' fice narrower than the reft of the cavity, and to be
broke when they are deflowered ; an effufion of blood
following the breach.
The membranous circle may likewife fuffer fome
diforder by too great a flux of the menfes, by impru¬
dence, levity, and other particular accidents.
The hymen is generally looked upon as the teft of vir¬
ginity ; and when broke, or withdrawn, fhows that the
perfon is not in a ftate of innocence. This notion is
very ancient. Among the Hebrew's, it was the cultom
for the parents to fave the blood Ihed on this occafion
as a token of the virginity of their daughter, and to
fend the fheets ' next day to the hulhand’s relations.
And the like is faid to be flill pradfifed in Portugal,
and fome other countries.
And yet authors are not agreed as to the exiftence
of fuch a membrane. Nothing, Dr Drake obferves,
has employed the curiofity of anatomifts, in difledfing
the organs of generation in women, more than this
part : they have difl'ered not only as to its figure, fub-
ilance, place, and perforation, hut even its reality j
fome pofitively affirming, and others flatly denying it.
De Graaf himielf, the mod accurate inquirer into the
flruclure of thefe organs, confeffes he always fought it
in vain, though in the moft unfufpedted fubjedts and
ages : all he could find was, a different degree of flrait-
nefs or wddenefs, and different corrugations, which were
greater or lefs according to the refpedtive ages •, the
aperture being ftill the lefs, and the rugolities the
greater, as the fubjedt was younger and more un¬
touched.
Dr Drake, on the other hand, declares, that in all the
fubjedls he had opportunity to examine, he does not re¬
member to have miffed the hymen fo much as once,
where he had reafon to depend on finding it. The
faireft view he ever had of it was in a maid wffio died
at thirty years of age •, in this he found it a membrane
of fome ftrength, furnifhed with flefhy fibres, in figure
round, and perforated in the middle with a fmall hole,
capable of admitting the end of a woman’s little finger,
and fituated a little above the orifice of the urinary paf-
fage, at the entrance of the vagina of the womb.
In infants it is a fine thin membrane, not very confpi-
cuous, becaufe of the natural ftraitnefs of the paffage it-
felf, wffiich does not admit > f any great expanfion in fo
little room } which might kad De Graaf into a notion
of its being no more than a corrugation.
This membrane, like moft others, does probably
growr more diffir.61, as well as firm, by age. That it
not only exilks, but is fometimes very ftrong and im¬
pervious, may be collected from the hiftory of a cafe
reported by Mr Cowper. In a married woman, twenty
years of age, whofe hymen was fodnd altogether imper¬
vious, fo as to detain the menfes, and to be driven out
by the preffure thereof beyond the labia of the puden¬
dum, not unlike a prolapfus of the uterus ; on divid¬
ing it, at leaft a gallon of grumous blood came forth.
It kerns the huffiand, being denied a paffage that w’ay,
had found another through the meatus urinarius j which
was found very open, and its fides extended like the anus
of a cock.
Upon a rupture of the hymen, after the confumma-
tion Of marriage, and efpecially delivery, its parts,
flu-inking up, are fuppofed to form thofe little flefliy Hymenae*
knots, called cjruhculje myrtiformes. ^ .
HYMENyEA, the BASTARD LOCUST TREE ’, a
genus of plants, belonging to the decandria clafs ; and ..-v- ..J
in the natural method ranking under the 33d order,
Lomentacece. See Botany Index.
HYMENiEAL, fomething belonging to marriage;
fo called from Hymen.
HYMENOPTERA (derived from ipw membrane,
and TrjegM wing'), in the Linnaean fyftem of natural
hiflory, is an order of infedts, having four membrana¬
ceous wings, and the tails of the females are furnifhed
with flings, w’hich in fome are ufed for inflilling poi-
fon, and in others for merely piercing the bark and
leaves of trees, and the bodies of other animals, in
■w’hich they depofit their eggs. See Entomology
Index.
HYMETTUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain
of Attica near Athens, famous for its marble quarries,
and for its excellent honey. Hymeltius the epithet.
Pliny fays that the orator Craffus was the firfl. who had
marble columns from this place.
HYMN, a fong or ode in honour of God ; or
a poem, proper to be fung, compofed in honour of fome
deity.—The word is Greek, bf*u>s hymn, formed of the
verb celebro, “ I celebrate.”—Ifiodore, on this word,
remarks, that hymn is properly a fong of joy, full of the
praifes of God ; by wfliich, according to him, it is di-
ftinguhhed from threna, w’hich is a mourning fong, full
of lamentation.
St Hilary, bifhop of PoifHers, is faid to have been
the firft that compoled hymns to be fung in churches,
and wTas followed by St Ambrofe. Moft of thofe
in the Roman Breviary were compofed by Prudentius.
They have been tranflated into French verfe by Mef.
fieurs de Port Royal.— In the Greek Liturgy there are
four kinds of hymns; but the w’ord is not taken in the
fenfe of a praite offered in verfe, but limply of a laud
or praife. The angelic hymn, or Gloria in cxce/Jis,
makes the firfl; kind ; the trifagion the lecond ; the
Cherubic hymn, the third ; and the hymn of viciory and
triumph, called the laft.
The hymns or odes of the ancients generally con-
fifted of three forts of ftanzas ; one of which, called
Jlrophe, was fling by the band as they w’alked from call
to weft ; another, called antiftrophe, was performed as
they returned from weft to eaft; the third part, or epode,
veas fling before the altar. The Jewilh hymns were ac¬
companied with trumpets, drums, and cymbals, to aiTift
the voices of the Levites and people.
HYOBANCHE, a genus of plants belonging to the
didynamia clafs. See Botany Index.
HYOIDES, in Anatomy, a bone placed at the root
of the tongue. See Anatomy, N* 28.
HYOSCYAMUS, henbane; a genus of plants
belonging to the pentandria clafs, and in the natural
method ranking under the 28th order, Luridce. See
Botany and Materia Medica Index.
HYOSERIS, a genus of plants belonging to the
fyngenefia clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 49th order, Compojitce. See Botany Index.
HYO-THYROIDES, in Anatomy, one of the
mufcles belonging to the os hyoides. See Anatomy,
Table of the Mufcles. t
HYPALLAGE,
Hypallage
II .
Hypatia.
HYP [ 13 ] HYP
HYP ALLAGE, among grammarians, a fpecies of
hyperbaton, coniifting in a mutual permutation of one
cafe for another. Thus Virgil fays, Dare clajjibus
aujlros, for dare clajfes aujiris ; and again, Nec dum ti¬
lts lahra admovi, for nec dum ilia labris admovi.
HYPANTE, or Hyperpante, a name given by the
Greeks to the fealt of the prefentation of Jefus in the
temple.—This word, which lignifies loxvly or humble
meeting, was given to this feaft from the meeting of old
Simeon and Anna the prophetefs in the temple when
Jefus was brought thither.
HYPATIA, a learned and beautiful lady of anti¬
quity, the daughter of Theon a celebrated philofopher
and mathematician, and prelident of the famous Alex¬
andrian fchool, was born at Alexandria about the end
of the fourth century. Her father, encouraged by her
extraordinary genius, had her not only educated in all
the ordinary qualifications of her fex, but inftrudled in
the mod abftrufe fciences. She made fuch great pro-
grefs in philofophy, geometry, aftronomy, and the ma¬
thematics, that fhe paifed for the moll learned perfon
of her time. At length fhe was thought worthy to
fucceed her father in that dillinguithed and important
employment, the government of the fchool of Alexan¬
dria ; and to teach out of that chair where Ammonius,
Hierocles, and many other great men, had taught be¬
fore } and this at a time too when men of great learn¬
ing abounded both at Alexandria and in many other
parts of the Roman empire. Her fame was fo exten-
iive, and her worth fo univerfally acknowledged, that
we cannot wonder if fhe had a crowded auditory.
“ She explained to her hearers (fays Socrates) the fe-
veral fciences that go under the general name of phi¬
lofophy for which reafon there was a confluence to
her from all parts of thofe who made philofophy their
delight and ftudy.” One cannot reprefent to himfelf,
without pleafure, the flower of all the youth of Europe,
Afia, and Africa, fitting at the feet of a very beauti¬
ful lady (for fuch rve are affured Hypatia was), all
greedily fwallowing inftruflion from her mouth, and
many of them, doubtlefs, love from her eyes *, though
we are not fure that fhe ever liftened to any felicita¬
tions, fince Suidas, who talks of her marriage with
Ifiodorus, yet relates at the fame time that fhe died a
maid.
Her fcholars were as eminent as they were nume¬
rous •, one of whom was the celebrated Synefius, who
was afterwards bifliop of Ptolemais. This ancient
Chriilian Platonifl everywhere bears the ftrongeft, as
well as the molt grateful, teilimony of the virtue of
his tutorefs j and never mentions her without the moll
profound refpeft, and fometimes in terms of affeftion
coming little fliort of adoration. But it was not Sy¬
nefius only, and the difciples of the Alexandrian fchool,
who admired Hypatia for her virtue and learnihg :
never was woman more careffed by the public, and
yet never woman had a more unfpotted charafter. She
yvas held as an oracle for her wifdom, which made her
confulted by the magiilrates in all important cafes $
and this frequently drew her among the greateft: con-
courfe of men, without the leaft cenfure of her manners.
In a word, when Nicephorus intended to pafs the
higheft compliment on the princefs Eudocia, he thought
he could not do it better than by calling her another
Ihjpatia,
Hyperba¬
ton.
While Hypatia thus reigned the brighteft orna- llypecovm
ment of Alexandria, Oreftes was governor of the
fame place for the emperor Theodofius, and Cyril was
bifhop or patriarch. Orefles having had a liberal edu- -
cation, could not but admire Hypatia; and as a wife
governor frequently confulted her. This, together
■with an averlion which Cyril had againlt Oreftes,
proved fatal to the lady. About 500 monks alfem-
bling, attacked the governor one day, and would have
killed him, had he not been refeued by the townfmen ;
and the refpedt which Oreftes had for Hypatia cau-
fing her to be traduced among the Chriftian multitude,
they dragged her from her chair, tore her to pieces,
and burned her limbs. Cyril is not clear from a fuf-
picion of fomenting this tragedy. Cave indeed en¬
deavours to remove the imputation of fuch an horrid
adlion from the patriarch ; and lays it upon the Alex¬
andrian mob in general, whom he calls levijjimum ho-
minum genus, “ a very trifling inconftant peopleA
But though Cyril Ihould be allowed neither to have
been the perpetrator, nor even the contriver of it,
yet it is much to be fufpedled that he did not difeoun-
tenance it in the manner he ought to have done:
which fufpicion mull needs be greatly confirmed by
reflefting, that he was fo far from blaming the out¬
rage committed by the monks upon Oreftes, that he
afterwards received the dead body of Ammonius, one
of the moft forward in that outrage, who had grie-
voufly wounded the governor, and who was juftly pu-
nifhed with death. Upon this riotous ruffian Cyril
made a panegyric in the church where he was laid,
in which he extolled his courage and conftancy, as
one that had contended for the truth j and changing
his name to Thaumajius, or the “ Admirable,” or¬
dered him to be confidered as a martyr. “ However,
(continues Socrates), the wifeft part of Chriftians did
not approve the zeal which Cyril fhowed on this man’s
behalf, being convinced that Ammonius had juftly fuf-
fered for his defperate attempt.”
HYPECOUM, wild CUMIN, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the tetrandria clafs 5 and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 24th order, Corydales. See
Botany Index.
HYPER, a Greek prepofition frequently ufed in
compofition, where it denotes excefs j its literal fignifi-
cation being above, or beyond.
HYPERBATON, in Grammar, a figurative con-
ftrudlion inverting the natural and proper order of words
and fentences. The feveral fpecies of the hyperbaton
are, the anaftrophe, the hyfteron-proteron, the hypal-
lage, fynchyfis, tmefis, parenthefis, and the hyperb'atoii
ftri&ly fo called. See AnastropHE, &c.
Hyperbaton, ftridlly fo called, is a long retention
of the verb which completes the fentence, as in the fol¬
lowing example from Virgil:
Interea Reges: ingenti ?nole Latinus
^tiadrijugo vehitur curru, cui iempora circum
Aurati bis fex radii fulgentia cingunt,
Solis avi fpecimen : bigis it Turnus in a Ibis,
Bina manu Into crifpans hajlilia ferro :
Hinc Pater JEneas, Romance Jlirpis origo,
Sidereo fagrans clypeo et ccelefibus armis ;
Et juxta Afcanius, magnee fpes altera Romcet
Procedunt cq/lris.
HYPERBOLA,
✓
HYP f 14
■Hyperbola, HYPERBOLA, a curve formed by cutting a
Hyperbole. cone jn a dire&ion parallel to its axis. See Conic
* Sections.
HypERBOLA Deficient, is a curve having only one
afymptote, though two hyperbolic legs running out
infinitely by the fide of the afymptote, but contrary
ways.
HYPERBOLE, in Rhetoric, a figure, whereby the
truth and reality of things are excefiively either enlar¬
ged or diminifhed. See Oratory, N° 58.
An object uncommon with refpefl to fize, either
very great of its kind or very little, ftrikes us with
furprife •, and this emotion forces upon the mind a mo¬
mentary convidlion that the objeft is greater or lefs
than it is in reality: the fame effeft precifely attends
figurative grandeur or littlenefs; and hence the hy¬
perbole, which expreffes this momentary conviction.
A writer, taking advantage of this natural delufion,
enriches his defcripticn greatly by the hyperbole : and
the reader, even in his cooled: moments, relilhes this
figure, being fenfible that it is the operation of nature
upon a warm fancy.
It cannot have efcaped obfervation that a writer is
generally more fuccefsful in magnifying by a hyperbole
than in diminifhing. The reafon is, that a minute ob-
jeCt contrafts the mind, and fetters its powers of ima¬
gination j but that the mind, dilated and inflamed
with a grand objeCt, moulds objeCts for Its gratification
with great facility. Longinus, with refpeCt to a di-
minilhing hyperbole, cites the following ludicrous
thought from a comic poet: “ He was owner of a bit
of ground not larger than a Lacedemonian letter.”
But, for the reafon now given, the hyperbole has by far
the greater force in magnifying objeCls j of which
take the following example :
For all the land which thou feed, to thee will I
give it, and to thy feed for ever. And I will make
thy feed as the dud of the earth : fo that if a man
can number the dud of the earth, then fliall thy feed
alfo be numbered. Gen. xiii. 15. 16.
Ilia vel intaElce fiegetis per fiin7ima volaret
Gramina, nec teneras curfiu Icrfififet arfias.
JEneicl. vii. 808.
— — Atque inio barathri ter gurgite vafios
Sorbet in abruptum fiuBus, rnrfiufique fiub auras
Erigit alternos, et fidera verberat undo.
JEneid. iii. 42 1.
 Horrficis juxta tonat JEtna minis,
Interdumque atram prorumpit ad eethera nubem,
"Turbine fumantem piceo et candente favilla :
Attolliique globes fiamtnarum, et fidera lar/ibit.
JEneid. iii, 571.
Speaking of Polyphemus,
 Ipfie erduus, altaque pulfiat
Sidera. JEneid. iii. 619.
 When he fpeaks,
The air, a charter’d libertine, is dill.
Henry V. aCl. i. fc. f.
Now Ihield with fliield, with helmet helmet clos’d.
To armour armour, lance to lance oppos’d,
1 HYP
Hod againd hod with Ihadowy fquadrons drew, Hyperbole-
The founding darts in iron ternpeds flew, ' * 'J
ViCtors and vanquilh’d join promifeuous cries,
And flirilling fliouts and dying groans arife $
With dreaming blood the flipp’ry fields are dy’d,
And flaughter’d heroes fwell the dreadful tide.
Iliad iv. j;o8.
Quintilian is fenfible that this figure is natural :
‘ For (fays he), not contented with truth, we natu-
■ally incline to augment or diminifli beyond it ; and
for that reafon the hyperbole is familiar even among
the vulgar and illiterate $” and he adds, very judly,
“ That the hyperbole is then proper, when the objeCl
of itfelf exceeds the common meafure.” From thefe
premifes, one would not expect the following infe¬
rence, the only reafon he can find for juflifying this
figure of fpeech, Conceditur enim amplius dicere, quia
diet quantum efi, non potefi : nieliufque ultra quam citra
fiat oratiol' (We are indulged to fay more than
enough, becaufe we cannot fay enough j and it is bet¬
ter to be above than under.) In the name of wonder,
why this flight and childifh reafoning, when immediate¬
ly before he had obferved, that the hyperbole is found¬
ed on human nature ? We could not refill this perfonal
ftroke of criticifm 5 intended not againft our author,
for no human creature is exempt from error j but a-
gainft the blind veneration that is paid to the ancient
clafiic writers, without diftinguilhing their blemifhes
from their beauties.
Having examined the nature of this figure, and the
principle on which it is ereCted, let us proceed to the
rules by which it ought to be governed. And, in the
firft place, it is a capital fault to introduce an hy¬
perbole in the defeription of an ordinary objeCt or
event ; for in fuch a cafe, it is altogether unnatural,
being deftitute of furprife, its only foundation. Take
the following inftance, where the fubjeCt is extremely
familiar, viz. fwimming to gain the fliore after a Ihip-
wreck.
I faw him beat the furges under him,
And ride upon their backs : he trode the water j
Whofe enmity he flung afide, and breafled
The furge mofl fwoln that met him; his bold head
’Bove the contentious w’aves he kept, and oar’d
Himfelf with his good arms, in lufty ftrokes
To th’ fhorc, that o’er his w’ave-born bafis bow’d,
As Hooping to relieve him. Tetnpefi, aCt ii. fc. 1.
In the next place, it may be gathered from what is
faid, that an hyperbole can never fuit the tone of any
difpiriting paffion : forrow in particular will never
prompt fuch a figure \ and for that reafon the follow¬
ing hyperboles muft be condemned as unnatural:
K. Kick. Aumerle, thou weep’fl, my tender¬
hearted coulin !
We’ll make foul weather with defpifed tears:
Our fighsv and they, fliall lodge the fummer-corn,
And make a dearth in this revolving land.
Richard II. a£l. iii. fc. 6.
Draw them to Tyber’s bank, and weep your tears
Into the channel, till the loweft fiream
Do kifs the moll exalted fhore of all.
Julius Ccefiar, act i. fc. f.
Thirdly,
t
HYP [i
Hyperbole. Thirdly, A writer, if he wifh to fucceed, ought al-
'—-v ' ways to have the reader in his eye : he ought, in par¬
ticular, never to venture a bold thought or expreflion,
till the reader be warmed and prepared. For this rea-
fon, an hyperbole in the beginning of a work can never
be in its place. Example :
Jam pauca aratro jugera regice
Moles relinquent. Moral. Carm. lib. ii. ode 15.
In the fourth place, The niceft point of all is, to
afcertain the natural limits of an hyperbole, beyond
which being overftrained, it has a bad effect. Longi¬
nus (chap, iii.), with great propriety of thought, en¬
ters a caveat againfl an hyperbole of this kind : he
compares it to a bow-ftring, which relaxes by over-
ftraining, and produceth an effeft directly oppofite to
what is intended. To afcertain any precife boundary,
would be difficult, if not impra&icable. We ffiall
therefore only give a fnecimen of what may be rec¬
koned overdrained hyperboles. No fault is more
common among writers of inferior rank *, and inftan-
ces are found even among thofe of the fined tafte;
witnefs the following hyperbole, too bold even for an
Hotfpur.
Hotfpur talking of Mortimer :
In fingle oppofitiun hand to hand,
He did confound the beil: part of an hour
In changing hardiment with great Glendower.
Three times they breath’d, and three times did they
drink,
Upon agreement, of fwift Severn’s flood ;
Who then affrighted with their bloody looks,
Ran fearfully among the trembling reeds,
And hid his crifp’d head in the hollow bank,
Blood-flamed with thefe valiant combatants.
Fuji Pari Henry IV. aft i. fc. 4.
Speaking of Henry V.
England ne’er had a King until this time.
Virtue he had, deferving to command :
His brandilh’d fword did blind men with its beams :
His arms fpread wider than a dragon’s wings :
His fparkling eyes, replete with awful fire,
More dazzled, and drove back his enemies,
Than mid-day fun fierce bent againft their faces.
What fliould I fay ? his deeds exceed all fpeech :
He never lifted up his hand, but conquer’d.
Firjl Part Henry VI. ail: i. fc. 1.
Laftly, An hyperbole, after it is introduced with all
advantages, ought to be comprehended within the
feweft words poffible : as it cannot be reliffied but in
the hurry and fwelling of the mind, a leifurely view' dif-
folves the charm, and difcovers the delcription to be
extravagant at lead, and perhaps alfo ridiculous. This
fault is palpable in a fonnet which paffeth for one of
• the moft complete in the French language; Phillis, in
a long and florid defcription, is made as far to out-
fliine the fun as he outfhines the ftars:
Le JUence regnoit fur la terre et fur Ponde,
Hair dev emit ferrain et POlimp vermeil.
Ft Pamoureux Zephir ajfranclii du fomcil,
jReJfufcitoit les fleurs d'une haleine feconde.
] HYP
Id Aurore deployoit Por cle fa trejfe blonde,
Et femoit de rubis le chemin du foleil;
Enfin ce Dieu venoit au plus grand appareil
%’ il foil jamais venu pour eclairer le monde:
Pliiand la jeune Phillis au vifage riant,
Sortant de fon palais plus clair que Porient,
Fit voir une lumiere et plus vive et plus belle.
Sacre Flambeau du jour, rden foiev, point jaloux,
Vous parutes alors aujji pen devant die.
Pine les feux de la nuit avoient fait devant vous.
Malleville.
There is in Chaucer a thought expreffed in a fingle
line, which fets a young beauty in a more advanta¬
geous light than the whole of this much laboured
poem :
Up rofe the fun, and up rofe Emelie,
HYPERBOREAN, in the Ancient Geography*
The ancients denominated thofe people and places
Hyperborean which wTere to the northward of the Scy¬
thians. They had but very little acquaintance with
thefe Hyperborean regions; and all they tell us of
them is very precarious, much of it falfe. Diodorus
Siculus fays, the Hyperboreans were thus called by
reafon they dwelt beyond the wind Boreas ; fig-
nifying, “ above, or beyond,” and Begsaj, Boreas, the
“ north wind.” This etymology is very natural and
plaufible ; notwithftanding all that Rudbeck has faid
againfl: it, who would have the word to be Gothic,
and to fignify nobility. Herodotus doubts whether
or not there were any fuch nations as the Hyper¬
borean. Strabo, who profeffes that he believes there
are, does not take hyperborean to fignify beyond Boreas
or the north, as Herodotus underftood it : the prepo-
fition v7T£g, in this cafe, he fuppofes only to help to
form a fuperlative •, fo that hyperborean, on his prin--
ciples, means no more than mojl northern ; by which it
appears the ancients fcarce knew themfelves what the
name meant.—Moll: of our modern geographers, as
Hoffman, Cellarius, &c. have placed the Hyperboreans
in the northern parts of the European continent, among
the Siberians and Samoieds : according to them, the
Hyperboreans of the ancients w’ere thofe in general
who lived fartheft to the north. The Hyperboreans
of our days are thofe Ruffians who inhabit between
the Volga and the White fea. According to Cluvier,
the name Celtes was fynonymous wflth that of Hy¬
perboreans.
HYPERCATALECTIC, in the Greek and La¬
tin poetry, is applied to a verfe that has one or twTo
fyllables too much, or beyond the regular and juft mea-
fure 5 as,
Mufeforores funt Minervce :
Alfo,
Mufe forores Palladis lugent.
HYPERCRITIC, an over-rigid cerifor or critic .*■
one who will let nothing pafs, but animadverts fe-
verely on the flighteft fault. See Criticism. The
word is compounded of fuper, “ over, above, be¬
yond $” and of judex, of judico,
“ I judge,”
Hyperh®>.
rean
II
Hypercri¬
tic.
HYPERDULIA,
HYP [i
Hyperdulia EVPERDULIA, in the Romlth theology, is the
, wodhip rendered to the holy virgin. The word is
ITvpoofi:e. Qree}^ compofed of i/Trig, above, and ovXux,
voorjhip, fervice. The worfliip offered to iamts is call¬
ed duiia j and that to the mother of God, hyperdulia,
as being fnperior to the former.
HYPER I A, in Ancient Geography, the feat of the
Phseacians near the Cyclops, (Homer) : fome com¬
mentators take it to be Camarina in Sicily •, but, ac¬
cording to others, it is fuppofed to be an adjoining itland,
which they take to be Melita, lying in fight of Sicily.
And this leems to be confirmed by Apollonius Rhodius.
Whence the Pha^acians afterwards removed to Corcyra,
called Scheria, Plueacia, and Maoris; having been
expelled by the Phoenicians, ivho fettled in Melita for
commerce, and for commodious harbours, before the
war of Troy, (Diodorus Siculus.)
HYPERICUM, St John’s wort, a genus of
plants belonging to the polyadelphia clafs, and in the
natural method ranking under the 20th order, Rotacecc.
See Botany Index.
HYPERIDES, an orator of Greece, was the dif-
ciple of Plato and Ifocrates, and governed the republic
of Athens. He defended with great zeal and courage
the liberties of Greece j but was put to death by An¬
tipater’s order, 322 B. C. He compofed many ora¬
tions, of w’hich only one now’ remains. He was one
of the ten celebrated Greek orators.
HYPERMNESTRA, in fabulous hiftory, one of
the fifty daughters of Danaus king of Argos. She
alone refufed to obey the cruel order Danaus had given
to all his daughters, to murder their hufbands the firft
night of their marriage ; and therefore faved the life
of Lynceus, after Hie had made him promife not to
violate her virginity. Danaus, enraged at her difobe-
dience, confined her clofely in prifon, whence Lynceus
delivered her fome time after.
HYPERS ARCOSIS, in Medicine and Surgery, an
excels of flefii, or rather a flefliy excrefcence, fuch as
thofe generally rifing upon the lips of wrounds, &c.
HYPHEN, an accent or chara&er in grammar,
impying that two words are to be joined, or con-
nedted into one compound word, and marked thus - ;
as pre-ejlablifhed, jive-leaved, &c. Hyphens alfo ferve
to conned the fyllables of luch wmrds as are divided by
the end of the line.
HYPNOTIC, in the Materia Medica, fuch medi¬
cines as any way produce fleep, whether called nar¬
cotics, hypnotics, opiates, or foporifics.
HYPNOTICUS SERPENS, the Sleep-fnake, in Zoo¬
logy, the name of an Eaft Indian fpecies of ferpent,
called by the Ceylonefe nmtipolong, a word importing
the fame fenfe. It is of a deep blackilh brown, varie¬
gated with fpots of white, and is a very fatal kind in
its poifon : its bite it is faid brings on a fleep which
ends in death •, hence this trivial name.
HYPNUM, FEATHER-MOSS, a genus of plants of
the natural order of mufei, belonging to the cryptoga-
mia clafs. See Botany Index.
HYPO, a Greek particle, retained in the compofi-
tion of divers words borrowed from that language j li¬
terally denoting under, beneath.— In which fenfe it
Hands oppofed to Ittiq fupra, “ above.”
HYPOBOLE, or Subjection, (from v^ra, and
(ictXXu, I cajl), in rhetoric, a figure j fo called, when
, 2
) ] HYP
feveral things are mentioned, that feem to make for Hypoca-
the contrary fide, and each of them refuted in order,
This figure, when complete, conlitts of three parts j a „ I' ,
propoiiiion, an enumeration of particulars with their triuai.
anfwer, and a concluilon. Thus Cicero, upon his re- ——y——.
turn from baniihment, vindicates his conduft in with¬
drawing fo quietly, and not oppofing the facllon that
ejefted him. See Oratory, Na 81.
HYPOCATHARSIS (compounded of {/to tinder,
and I purge), in Medicine, a too faint or feeble
purgation.
HYPOCAUSTUM, among the Greeks and Ro¬
mans, a fubterraneous place, where was a furnace to
heat the baths. The word is Greek, formed of the
prepofition iere under; and the verb y-oucj, to burn.—
Another fort of hypocauftum was a kind of kiln to
heat their winter parlours. The remains of a Roman
hypocauftum, or fweating-room, were difeovered un¬
der ground at Lincoln in 1739. We have an account
of thefe remains in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions,
N* 461. $ 29.—Among the moderns, the hypocauftum
is that place where the fire is kept which warms a
Hove or hot-houfe.
HYPOCHAERIS, HAWK’s-EYE, a genus of plants
belonging to the fyngenefia clafs, and in the natural
method ranking under the 49th order, Compojitce. See
Botany Index.
HYPOCHONDRIA, in Anatomy, a {pace on each
fide the epigaftric region, or upper part of the abdo¬
men. See Anatomy, N° 88.
HYPOCHONDRIAC PASSION, a difeafe in men,
fimilar to the hyfteric affefHon in women. See Medi¬
cine Index.
HYPOCISTIS, in the Materia Medica, an infpif-
fated juice obtained from the feffile afarum, much re-
fembling the true Egyptian acacia. They gather the
fruit while unripe, and exprefs the juice, which they
evaporate over a very gentle fire, to the confiftence
of an extrafl, and then form into cakes, and ex-
pofe them to the fun to dry. It is an aftringent
of confiderable power; is good againft diarrhoeas
and haemorrhagies of all kinds j and may be ufed in
repellent gargarifras in the manner of the true aca¬
cia ; but it is very rarely met with genuine in our
{hops, the German acacia being ufually fold under its
name.
HYPOCRISY, va-a>4g«r<s, in Ethics, denotes diflimu-
lation with regard to the moral or religious chara&er.
In other words, it fignifies one who feigns to be what
he is not j and is generally applied to thofe who aflume
the appearances of virtue or religion, without having
any thing in reality of either.
HYPOGASUM, vtto'/xhv, formed of vtto under, and
yctict. earth, in the ancient architeflure, is a name com¬
mon to all the parts of a building that are under
ground \ as the cellar, butteries, and the like places.
The term kypogeeuin was ufed by the Greeks and Ro¬
mans for fubterraneous tombs in which they buried their
dead.
Hypog;eum, vvcyctioi, in AJlrology, is a name given
to the celeftial houfes which are below the horizon:
and efpecially the imum cceli, or bottom of heaven.
HYPOGAS I'RIC, an appellation given to the in¬
terna'! branch of the iliac artery.
HYFOGASTRIUM, in Anatomy, the middle part
of
HYP [ i? ] HYP
Rypcglofil of the lowrr "tgion of the belly. See Anatomy,
II N° 88.
Hypoftafis. HYPOGLOSSI EXTERNI, or MAJORES, in Ana¬
tomy, the ninth pair of nerves, called alfo hnguales and
gujlatorii. See Anatomy.
HYPOGLOTTIS or Hypoglossis, (compofed of
vtco under, and yXurhn tongue'), in Anatomy, is a name
given to two glands of the tongue. There are four
large glands of the tongue ; two of them called hypo-
glottides, fituated under it, near the venae ranulares : one
on each fide of the tongue. They ferve to fecrete a
kind of ferous matter of the nature of faliva, which
is difcharged into the mouth by little du£ls near the
gums.
Hypoglottis, or HypogloJJis, in Medicine, denotes
an inflammation or ulceration under the tongue 5 called
alfo ranula.
HYPOPYON, in Medicine, a colledlion of purulent
matter under the corner of the eye.
HYPOSCENIUM, in antiquity, a partition under
the pulpit or logeum of the Greek theatre, appointed
for the mufic.
HYPOSTASIS, a Greek term, literally fignifying
fubjlance, or fubfijlence ; ufed in theology for perfon.—
The wrord is Greek, vTrorao-^ ; compounded of vttd fub,
“ under and Uryu, Jio, exijio ; “ I Hand, I exifl:
q. d. fub f/lentia. Thus we hold, that there is but
one nature or efl'ence in God, but three hypojiafes or
perfons.
The term hypojlajis is of a very ancient Handing in
the church. St Cyril repeats it feveral times, as alfo
the phrafe union according to hypofafis. The firfl: time
it occurs is in a letter from that father to Neftorius,
W'hlre he ufes it inftead of TTgos-^sroy, the word we com¬
monly render perfon, which did not feem expreflive
enough. “ The philofophers (fays St ’Cyril) have
allowed three hypofafes : They have extended the Di¬
vinity to three hypofafes : They have even fometimes
ufed the word trinity : And nothing wTas wanting but
to have admitted the confubftantiality of the three hy¬
pofafes, to fhow the unity of the divine nature, exclu-
live of all triplicity ;in refpeft of diftin&ion of nature,
and not to hold it neceflary to conceive any refpedlive
inferiority of hypofafes A
This term occafioned great diflenfions in the ancient
church 5 firfl: among the Greeks, and afterwards alfo
among the Latins. In the council of Nice, hypofafs
was defined to denote the fame wflth effence or fubfance;
fo that it was herefy to fay that Jefus Chrifl: was of a
different hypofafs from the Father; but cuflom altered
its meaning. In the neceflity they were under of ex-
prefllng themfelves ftrongly againll the Sabellians, the
Greeks made choice of the word hypoftafs, and the
Latins of perfona ; which change proved the occafion
of endlefs diiagreement. The phrafe t§j<s vKoscta-w;, ufed
by the Greeks, fcandalized the Latins, whofe ufual
way of rendering vTrcs-xng in their language was by
fubfantia. The barrennefs of the Latin tongue in
theological phrafes, allowed them but one word for
the two Greek ones, vc-iot, and iTrog-xa-tg; and thus dif-
abled them from diftinguifliing ef'ence from hypofafs.
For wdiich reafon they chofe rather to ufe the term
ires perfonce, and ires hypofafes.— An end was put to
logomachias, in a fynod held at Alexandria about the
Yor. XL Part I.
year 362, at which St Athanafius aflifled ;
time the Latins made no great fcruple of
hypofafes, nor the Greeks of three perfons.
HYPOTHECA, in the Civil Law, an obligation,
whereby the effects of a debtor are made over to his
creditor, to fecure his debt. The word comes from
the Greek vTro^gx.^, a thing fubjccl to fame obligation ; of
the verb v-xoldnuMi, fuppofe, “ I am rejectedof vtco
under, and pono, “ I put.”
As the hypotheca is an engagement procured on pur-
pofe for the fecurity of the creditor, various means have
been made ufe of to fecure to him the benefit of the
convention. The ufe of the pawn or pledge is the
mofl: ancient, which is almofl: the fame thing wuth the
hypotheca; all the difference confifting in this, that the
pledge is put into the creditor’s hands ; whereas, in a
Ample hypotheca, the thing remained in the poffeflion
of the debtor. It was found more eafy and commo¬
dious to engage an eftate by a civil covenant than by
an a6lual delivery : accordingly the expedient was firfl:
pradlifed among the Romans ; and from them the Ro¬
mans borrow'ed both the name and the thing : only the
Greeks, the better to prevent frauds, ufed to fix fome
viiible mark on the thing, that the public might know
it was hypothecate or mortgaged by the proprietor ;
but the Romans, looking on fuch advertifements as in¬
jurious to the debtor, forbade the ufe of them.
The Roman lawyers diftinguilhed four kinds of hy-
pothecas : the conventional, which w-as with the will
and confent of both parties ; the legal, which was ap¬
pointed by law, and for that reafon called tacit; the
praetor’s pledge, wdien by the flight or non-appearing
of the debtor, the creditor wras put in poffeflion of his
effedhs; and the judiciary, when the creditor was put in
poffeflion by virtue of a fentence of the court.
The conventional hypotheca is fubdivided into gene¬
ral and fpecial. The hypotheca is general, when all
the debtor’s effedls, both prefent and future, are en¬
gaged to the creditor. It is fpecial, when limited to
one or more particular things.
For the tacit hypotheca, the civilians reckon no lefs
than twTenty-fix different fpecies thereof.
HYPOTHENUSE, in Geometry, the longeft fide
of a right-angled triangle, or that which fubtends the
right angle.
HYPOTHESIS, (formed of Ino “ under,” and
pof tio, of pono, “ I put”), is a propofition
or principle w'hich we fuppofe, or take for granted, in
order to draw ccnclufions for the proof of a point in
queftion.
In difputation, they frequently make falfe hypothe-
fes, in order to draw their antagonifls into abfiirdities ;
and even in geometry truths are often deducible from
fuch falfe hypothefes.
Every conditional or hypothetical propofition may
be diftinguiffred into hypothefis and thefis : the firll
rehearfes the conditions under which any thing is af¬
firmed or denied ; and the latter is the thing itfelf af¬
firmed or denied. Thus, in the propofition, a triangle is
half of a parallelogram, if the bafes and altitudes of the
two be equal ; the latter part is the hypothefis, “ if
the bafes,” &c. and the former a thefis, “ a triangle
is half a parallelogram.”
In ffrid logic, we are never to pafs from the hypo-
C thefis
from which llypothecar
faying
h y p r
JTypotlieGs tliefis to the, thefi? j that is, the principle fuppofed
il mull; be proved to be true, before we require the con-
"chikjp2' i'er]uence to be allowed.
t. y  i Hypothesis, in Physicsr &c. denotes a kind of
fyfteru laid down from our ovvn imagination, whereby
to account for fome phenomenon or appearance of
nature. Thus we have hypothefes to account for
the tides, for gravity, for magnetifm, for the de¬
luge, &c.
The real and fcientific caufes of natural things ge¬
nerally he very deep : obfervation and experiment, the
proper means of arriving at them, are in moft cafes ex¬
tremely flow, and the human mind is very impatient:
hence we are frequently driven to feign or invent fome-
thing that may feem like the caufe, and which is cal¬
culated to anfwer the feveral phenomena, fo that it may
poflibly be the true caufe.
Philofophers are divided as to the ufe of fuch fiflions
or hypothefes, which are much lefs current now than
they were formerly. The lateft and beft writers are
for excluding hypothefes, and Handing wholly on ob¬
fervation and experiment. Whatever is not deduced
from phenomena, fays Sir Ifaac Newton, is an hypo-
thefis; and hypothefes, whether metaphyfical, or phy-
fical, or mechanical, or of occult qualities, have no.
place in experimental philofophy.
The Cartefians take upon them to fuppofe what af¬
fections in the primary particles of matter they pleafe \
juft what figures, what magnitudes, what motions, and
what fituations, they find for their purpofe. They
alfo feign certain unfeen, unknown fluids, and endue
them with the moft arbitrary properties •, give them a
fubtility which enables them to pervade the pores of
all bodies, and make them agitated with the moft un¬
accountable motions. But is not this to fet afide the
real conftitution of things, and to fubftitute dreams in
their place ? Truth is fcarce attainable even by the
fureft obfervations 5 and will fanciful conjeftures ever
come at it ? They who found their fpeculations on hy¬
pothefes, even though they argue from them regularly,
according to the ftriCteft laws of mechanics, may be
faid to eompofe an elegant and artful fable; but it is
ftill only a fable.
Hypothesis is more particularly applied in aftro-
nomy to the feveral fyftems of the heavens ; or the
different ways in which different aflronomers have
fuppofed the heavenly bodies to be ranged, mov¬
ed, &c.
The principal hypothefes are the Ptolemaic, Coper-
nican, and Tychonic. The Copernican is now become
fo current, and is fo well warranted by obfervation,
that the retainers thereto hold it injurious to call it an
Hypothejis. See Astronomy.
‘ HYPOTIPOSIS. See Oratory, N° 91.
HYPOTRACHELION, in Architecture, is ufedfor
a little frieze in the Tufcan and Doric capital, between
the aftragal and annulets 5 called alfo the colerin and
18 . ] H Y S
gorgenn. The word is applied by ionic; authors in a fHypexis
more general fenie, to the neck of any column, or that II.
part of its capital below the aftragal. * ‘Y
HYPOXIS, a genus of plants belonging to the hex-
andria clafs, and in the natural method ranking under
the 10th order Coronarue. See Botany Index.
HYPSISTARII, (formed from v-J/iro; “ higheft), a
fe<ft of heretics in the fourth century : thus called from
the profeflion they made of worihipping the mod high
God.
The doftrine of the Hypfiftarians was an aflemblage
of Paganifm, Judaifm, and Chriftianity. They ado¬
red the moft high God with the Cbriftians} but they
alfo revered fire and lamps with the heathens : and ob-
ferved the fabbath, and the diftinttion of clean and un¬
clean things with the Jews.
The Hypfiftarii bore a near refemblance to the Eu-
chites, or Maffalians.
HYRCANIA, in Ancient Geogrcphxj, a country of
the farther Afia, lying to the fouth-eaft of the Mare
Hyrcanum or Cafpium •, with Media on the -weft, Par-
thia on the fouth, and Margiana on the eaft. Famous
for its tygers (Virgil) 5 for its vines, figs, and olives,
(Strabo).
Hyrcania, in Ancient Geography, a town of Lydia,
in the campus Hyrcanus, near Thyatira : fo called from
colonifts brought from Hyrcania, a country lying to
the fouth of the Cafpian fea. The people called Hyr-
cani Macedones, becaufe a mixed people (Pliny).—An¬
other Hyrcania, the metropolis of the country called
Hyrcania*, Thought to be the Tape of Strabo, the
Syrinx of Polybius, the Zeudracarta of Arrian, and
the Afaac of Ifidorus Characenus.—A third, a ftrong
place of Judea, built by Hyrcanus.
HYSSOP. See Hyssopus.
Hedge-Hrssov. See Gratiola.
HYSSOPUS, hyssop, a genus of plants belonging
to the didynamia clafs.. See Botany and Materia
Medica Index.
HYSTERIC affection, or PaJJion, (formed of
“ Vomb”) 5 a difeafe in women, called alfo fuffo-
cation of the womb, and vulgarly fits of the mother. It
is a fpafmodico-convuliive affe£lion of the nervous fyf-
tem, proceeding from the womb j for the fymptoms and -
cure of which, fee Medicine.
HYSTERON proteron, in Grammar and Rhe¬
toric, a fpecies of the hyperbaton, wdierein the proper
order of conftruftion is fo inverted, that the part of
any fentence which fhould naturally come firft is placed
laft : as in this of Terence, Valet et vivit, for vivit et
valet; and in the following of Virgil, Moriamur, is3
in media arma ruamus, for In media anna ruamus, is'
monamur.
HYSTRIX, or Porcupine, a genus of quadru¬
peds belonging to the order of glires. -See Mammalia
Index,
I.
JAB
[
J9 ]
I.
JAG
j T or i, the ninth letter and third vowel of the al¬
ii -*■9 phabet, is pronounced by throwing the breath
’ Jabefli. fuddenly again 11 the palate, as it comes out of the la¬
rynx, with a fmall hollowing of the tongue, and
nearly the fame opening of the lips as in pronoun¬
cing /i or e. Its found varies : in fome words it is
long, as high, mind, &c.; in others Ihort, as bid, hid,
^(in, &c.; in others, again, it is pronounced like y, as
in collier, onion, &c.; and in a few, it founds like ee,
as in machine, magazine, &c. No Englifh word ends in
t, e being either added to it, or elfe the i turned into ?/.
But befides the vowel, there is the jod confonailt;
which, becaufe of its different pronunciation, has like-
wife a different form, thus J, j. In Engliih, it has
the foft found of g; nor is ufed, but when g foft is re¬
quired before vowels, where g is uiually hard : thus we
lay, jack, jet, join, &c. inftead oigack, get, gain, &.c.
which would be contrary to the genius of the Englilh
language.
I, ufed as a numeral, lignifies one, and Hands for
fo many units as it is repeated times; thus I. one;
II, two j HI, three, &e.} and when put before a
higher numeral, it fubtracls itfelf, as IV, four, IX,
nine, &c. But, when fet after it, fo many are added
to the higher numeral as there are I’s added : thus
VI is 5-f x, or fix ; VII, 5-f-2, or feven; VIII, 5 + 3,
or eight. The ancient Romans likewife ufed 13 for
500, CIO for XOOO, 133 for 50CO, CCI33 for
iO,GOO. Farther than this, as Pliny obferves, they
did not go in their notation 5 but, when neceffafy re¬
peated the laft number, as CCCI333, CCCI333, for
200,0005 CCCI333, CCCI333, CCCI033, for
300,000 5 and fo on.
The ancients fometimes changed i into u ; decumus
for decimus; maxumus for maximus, &c.
According to Plato, the vow'el i is proper to exprefs
delicate but humble things, as in this verfe in Virgil
which abounds in t’s, and is generally admired :
Accipiunt inimicum imbrem, rimifque fatifeunt.
I, ufed as an abbreviature, is often fubftituted for
the whole word Jesus, of which it is the firft letter.
JABBOK, a brook on the other fide of the Jordan,
the fpring whereof is in the mountains of Gilead. It
falls into Jordan pretty near the fea of Tiberias, to the
fouth of this fea. Near this brook the patriarch Ja¬
cob wreilled with the angel (Gen. xxxii. 22). The
.labbok feparated the land of the Ammonites from the
Gaulanites, and the territories of Og king of B ifhan.
JABESH, or jABESH-gilead, w-as the name of a
city, in the half tribe of Manaffeh, beyond Jordan.
The feripture calls it generally Jabelh-Gilead, becaufe
it lay in Gilead, at the foot of the mountains which go
by this name. Eufebius places it fix miles from Pella,
towards Gerafa 5 and confequently it muff be eafhvard
of the lea of Tiberias.
JABIRG. See Mycteria, Ornithology Index.
JABLONSKl, Daniel Ernest, a learned Polifli
Proteftant divine, born at Dantzick in 1660. He be¬
came fucceffively miniffer of Magdeburg, Liffa, Ko-
ningfberg, and Berlin 5 and was at length ecclefiaftical
counfellor, and prefident of the academy of fciences at Jabim
the latter. Pie took great pains to effecl an union H
between the Lutherans and Calvinifts 5 and wrote fome Jack-Daw
works which are in good elleem, particularly Medita- ' ' v
tions on the origin of the Scriptures, &c. He died
in 1741.
Jablonski, Theodore, counfellor of the court of Pruf-
fia, and fecretary of the royal academy of foiences in
Berlin, was alfo a man of diitinguiffied merit. He lov¬
ed the foiences, and did them honour, without that
ambition which is generally feen in men of learning 5
it was owing to this modefty that the greateft part of
his wmrks were published without his name. Pie pub-
lilhed, in 1711, a French and German Di&ionary 5
a Coyrfe of Morality, in 1713 5 a Dfolionary of Arts
and* Sciences, 17215 and X.v&nfax.&d. Tacitus de moribus
Germanornm into High Dutch, in 1724.
JABNE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Paleffine,
near Joppa 5 called Jamnia or Jamnial, by the Greeks
and Romans. In Joflma xv. it foems to be called jab-
ncel; but in 2 Chron. xxvi. Jabne. It was taken from the
Philiftines by Uzziah, who demolifhed its fortifications.
Its port, called Jamnitarum portus, lay between Joppa
and Azotus.
JACAMAR. See Alcedo, Ornithology Index.
JACCA, an ancient town of Spain, in the kingdom
of Arragon, with a biffiop’s fee, and a fort 5 feated on
a river of the fame name among the mountains of Jac-
ca, which are part of the Pyrenees. W, Long. o. 10.
N. I^at. 42. 36.
JACK, in mechanics, a well-known Inffrument of
common ufe for raifing great weights of any kind.
The common kitchen-jack is a compound engine,
where the weight is the power applied to overcome the
friction of the parts and the Weight with which the fpit
is charged 5 and a Heady and uniform motion is obtain¬
ed by means of the ffy.
Jack, in the fea-langnage, a fort of flag or colours,
difplayed from a mart erefled on the outer end of a
ffiip’s bowfprit. In the Britifh navy the jack is no¬
thing more than a fmall union flag, compofed of the
interfoflion of the red and white croffes 5 but in mer¬
chant-flips this union is bordered with a red field. See
the article Union.
Jack is uled alfo for a horfe or wooden frame to faw
timber upon 5 for an inffrument to pull off a pair of
boots; for a great leathern pitcher to carry drink in 5
for a I mall bowl that ferves as a mark at the exercife of
bowling 5 and for a young pike.
Jack-Flag, in a flip, that is hoifted up at the fprit-fail
top-malt head.
JncK-Daw, the Englilh name of a fpecies of corvus.
See Corvus, Ornithology Index.
This bird is very mifehievous to the farmer and
gardener5 and is of inch a thievifh difpofition, that
he will carry away much more than he can make ufe
of. There is a method of deftroying them by a kind
of fprings much ufed in England 5 and is fo ufeful,
that It ought to be made univerfal.—A Itake of about
five feet long is to be driven firmly into the ground,
and made fo faff that it cannot move, and fo fharp in
C 2 the
•TAG [ 20 1 JAG
Jackall the point that the bird cannot fettle upon it. Within
Jl a foot of the top there muft be a hole bored through
° J‘ "b' it, of three quarters of an inch diameter ; through
this hole is to be put a flick of about eight inches
long 5 then a horfe-hair fpringe or noofe is to be made
haft to a thin hazel-wand, and this brought up to the
place where the fliort flick is placed, and carried with
it through the hole, the remainder being left open un¬
der that flick. The other end of the hazel red is to
be put through a hole in the flake near the ground,
and faflened there. The flake is to be planted among
the jack-daw’s food, and he will naturally be led to
fettle on it; but finding the point too fharp, he will
defcend to the little crofs flick. This will fink with
his weight, and the fpringe will receive his leg, and
hold him faff.
JACKALL, in Zoology. See Canis, Mammalia
Index.
JACOB, the fon of Ifaac and Rebekah, was bom
in the year of the world 2t68, before Jefus Chrifl
1836. The hiftory of this patriarch is given at large
in the book of Genefis. He died in Egypt in the
147th year of his age. Jofeph directed that the body
fhould be embalmed, after the manner of the Egyp¬
tians ; and there was a general mourning for him
throughout Egypt for feventy days. After this, Jo¬
feph and his brethren, accompanied with the principal
men of Egypt, carried him, with the king of Egypt’s
permiffion, to the burying-place of his fathers near He¬
bron, where his wife Leah had been interred. When
they were come into the land of Canaan, they mourned
for him again feven days j upon which occafion the
place where they flaid was called Abelmifraim, or the
mourning of the Egyptians.
Jacob Ben Hajim, a rabbi famous for the collec¬
tion of the Maforah in 15 25 ; together with the text of
the bible, the Chaldaic paraphrafe, and Rabbinical com¬
mentaries.
Jacob, Ben Naphtali, a famous rabbi of the 5th
century : he was one of the principal mafforets, and
bred at the fchool of Tiberias in Palefline with Ben
Afer, another principal mafforet. The invention of
points in Hebrew to ferve for vowels, and of accents
to facilitate the reading of the language, are afcribed
to thefe two rabbis4 and faid to be done in an aflembly
©f the Jews held at Tiberias, A. D. 476.
JACOBINE monks, the fame with Dominicans.
Jacobines, the name affumed by a party or club
at the beginning of the French revolution, compofed of
members of the national affembly. This club held its
meetings in the hall belonging to the Jacobin /riars,
from which it derived its name. For an account of the
-views and influence of the Jacobin club in the I'rench
/evolution, fee France.
J ACOBITES, a term of reproach bellowed on the
perfons who, vindicating the dodlrines of paflive obe¬
dience and non-refiftance with refpe£l to the arbitrary
proceedings of princes, difavow the revolution in 1688,
and aflert the fuppofed rights, and adhere to the inter-
ells, of the late abdicated King James and his family.
Jacobites, irt church hillory, a fc£t of Chriitians
in Syria and Mefopotamia ; fo called, either from Ja¬
cob a Syrian who lived in the reign of the emperor
Mauritius, or from one Jacob a monk who llourilhed in
the year 550.
The Jacobites are of two feffs, fome following the
rites of the Latin church, and others continuing fe-
parated from the church of Rome. There is alfo a
divilion among the latter, who have two rival patri- >.
archs. As to their belief, they hold but one nature
in Jefus Chrilt; with refpedl to purgatory and prayers
for the dead, they are of the fame opinion with the
Greeks and other eallern Chrillians: they confecrate
unleavened bread at the eucharift, and are againll con-
fellion, believing that it is not of divine inllitution.
JACOBUS, a gold coin, worth 25 (hillings; fo
called from King James I. of England, in whole reign
it was Itruck. See Coin.
We ufually diltinguilh two kinds of Jacobus, the old
and the new; the former valued at 25 ihillings, weigh¬
ing fix penny-weights ten grains ; the latter, called alfo
Carolus, valued at 23 Ihillings, in weight five penny¬
weights twenty grains.
JACQUIN1A, a genus of plants belonging to the
hexandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
with thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany
Index.
JACULATOR, or shooting-fish. See Cha:-
todon, Ichthyology Index.
JADDESSES is the name of an inferior order of
priefts in Ceylon, who have the care of the chapels ap¬
propriated to the genii, who form a third order of
gods among thefe idolaters. Thefe priells are applied
to by the people in a time of difeafe or calamity, who
offer a cock on their behalf to appeafe the anger of the
dsemons.
JADE-stone, or Lapis nephriticus, a fpecies of
Mineral. See Mineralogy Index.
JAFFA, an ancient town of Alia in Paledine, for¬
merly called Joppa. Its former grandeur is now great¬
ly diminifhed. It is fituated 50 miles north-well of
Jerufalem, while others make it only 27, and ICO.
from the town of Acre. It was taken by the French
under Bonaparte, in February 1799, but afterwards re¬
taken and fortified. E. Long. 35.^0. N. Lat. 32. 16.
JAFFATEEN islands, the name of four iilands
in the Red lea, vilited by Mr Bruce in his late travels.
They are joined together by Ihoals or funk rocks ;
are crooked or bent like half a bow ; and are dan¬
gerous for (hips in the night time, becaufe there feems
to be a palfage between them, to which, while the pi¬
lots are paying attention, they negleft two fmall funk
rocks which lie almoll in the middle of the entrance in
Jacobus
li
Jagger-
naut.
deep wTater.
JAFNAPATAN, a fea-port town, feated at the
north-ead: end of the idand of Ceylon in the Ead In¬
dies. The Dutch took it from the Portuguefe in
1658, and have continued in the poffedion of it fince
that time. They export from thence great quantities
of tobacco, and fome elephants, which are accounted
the molt docile of any in the whole world. E. Long.
80. 25. N. Lat. 9. 30.
.1AGENDORF, a town and cadle of Silefia, capi¬
tal of a province of the fame name, feated on the river
Oppa. E. Long. 17. 47. N. Lat. 50. 4.
JAGGERNAUF, a black pyiamidal done wor-
diipped by the Gentoos, who pretend that it fell from
heaven, or was miraculoufly prefented on the place
where there temple dands. There are many other
idols of this figure in India 3 which, however, are all
but.
JAG [ -
juggernaut but accounted copies from the Juggernaut. According
li to the beft information Mr Grofe could obtain, this
Jag°- , ftone is meant to reprefent the power prefiding over
~‘" '1 univerfal generation, which they attribute to the ge¬
nial heat and influence of the fun afting in fubordina-
tion to it. Domeftic idols of the form of the Jug¬
gernaut, and diftinguifhed by the fame name, are made
by the Gentoos. Thefe are niched up in a kind of
triumphal car, decorated with gilding and tinfel j
which for fome days they keep in the bed apartment
in their houfe. During this time their devotion con-
fifts in exhibiting the mod obfcene podures, and act¬
ing all manner of lafcivioufnefs, in fight as it were of
the idol, and as the mod acceptable mode of wordiip
to that deity it reprefents; after which they carry it
in its gilded car in proceflion to the Ganges, and throw
in all together as an acknowledgment to that river of
its congenial fertilization with that of the fun. For¬
merly this machine was decorated with jewels and other
. expenfive ornaments •, but the Indians are now become
lei's extravagant, as they found that the Moors and
Chridians, watching the places where they threw in
their idpls, dived for them for the fake of the jewels with
which they were adorned.
Our author conjeftures, that this pyramidal form of
the Gentoo idol was originally taken from that of
flame, which always inclines to point upwards. From
this Indian deity he fuppofes the fhape of the Paphian
Venus to have been derived, for which Tacitus could
not account. This image had nothing of the human
form in it, but rofe orbicularly from a broad bafis, and
in the nature of a race goal tapering to a narrow con¬
vex a-top; which is exadlly the figure of the idol in In¬
dia, confecrated to fuch an office as that heathen deity
was fuppofed to prefide over, and to which, on the bor¬
ders of the Ganges efpecially, the Gentoo virgins are
brought to undergo a kind of Superficial defloration be¬
fore they are prefented to their hufbands.
J AGHIRE, an affignment made in Bengal by an im¬
perial grant upon the revenue of any diftricJ, to defray
civil or military charges, penfions, gratuities, &c.
JAGHIRFDER, the holder of a jaghire.
JAGO, Richard, an ingenious poet, was vicar of
Snitterfield in Wanviokfhire, and ref'tor of Kimcote in
Eeicefterfhire. He was the intimate friend and corre-
fpondent of Mr Shenftone, contemporary with him at
Oxford, and, it is believed, his fchoolfellow ; was of U-
niverfity college •, took the degree of M. A. July 9. 1739 ;
was author of feveral poems in the 4th and 5th volumes
of Dodfley’s Poems; publifhed a fermon, in 175$, on
the Caufes of Impenitence confidered, preached May 4.
1755, at Harbury in Warwickfhire, where he was vi¬
car, on occafion of a converfation faid to have paffed
between one of the inhabitants and an apparition in the
church-yard there ; wrote “ Edge-hill,11 a poem, for
. which he obtained a large fubfcription in \ and
was alfo author of “ Labour and Genius,” 1768, 410;
of “ The Blackbirds,” a beautiful elegy in the Adven¬
turer ; and of many other ingenious performances. He
died May 28. 1781.
St Jago, a large river of South America, which rifes
in the audience of Quito in Peru. It is navigable ;
and falls into the South fea, after having watered a fer¬
tile country abounding in cotton-trees, apd inhabited
by wild Americans*
i ] JAG
Sl Jago, the largeft, moft populous, and fertile of
the Cape Verd iflands, on the coart of Africa, and the ^ *
refidence of the Portuguefe viceroy. It lies about 13
miles eaftward from the ifland of Ptlayo, and abounds
with high barren mountains ; but the air, in the rainy
feafon, is very umvholefome to ftrangers. Its produce
is fugar, cotton, wine, and fome excellent fruits. The
animals are black cattle, horfes, afles, deer, goats, h«gs,
civet-cats, and fome very pretty green monkeys with
black faces.
Sir George Staunton, in the account which he gives
of this ifland, obferves, that it is liable to long and ex-
ceffive droughts, for which it is perhaps impoffible to af-
fign any philcfophical caufe. It was in a ftate of abfolute
famine at the end of 1792, wffien vifited by the embaffy
to China, and the waters of the rivers were almoft dried
up. The furface of the earth was devoid of herbage,
the cattle had nearly all periflied, as much from the
want of food as from drought.
“ What were the uncommon circumftances (fays Sir
George) that took place in the atmofphere of that part
of Africa to wffiich the Cape de Verd iflands lie conti¬
guous, or in the vaft expanfe of continent extending to
the eaft behind it, and from which this direful efleft
rnuft have proceeded (as they happened where no man
of fcience exifted to obferve or to record them), will
remain unknown, nor is theory bold enough to fupply
the place of oblervation. Whatever was the caufe
which thus arrefted the bountiful hand of nature, by
drawing aw'ay the fources of fertility, it wTas obfervable,
that foine few trees and plants preferved their luxuri¬
ance, indicating that they ftill could extradl from the
arid earth whatever portion of humidity it wTas neceffary
to derive from thence for the purpofe of vegetable life,
though it wTas denied to others.”
Befide palm trees, frequently found verdant amidft
burning fands, nothing could be more rich in flavour,
or abound more wdth milky though corrofive juice,
than the afclefnas gigantea, growing plentifully without
culture, but undifturbed. The phytic nut tree appear¬
ed as if its perpetuity was not to be affected by any
drought. Some fpecies of mimofa, or fenfitive plant,
wrere moft common, and did not appear to languilh.
But the annual produce of agriculture had almoft;
wffiolly difappeared, and the fugar canes had little re-
femblance to any thing like vegetation. Yet vegeta¬
tion quickly revived wdienever any moirture could be
conveyed through the foil.
The refidence of the viceroy is reprefented by Sir
George as a hamlet, confiding of 100 fmall dwellings,
only one ftory high, fcattered nearly a mile in length,
and one-third as much in breadth. Not being com¬
manded by any eminence, it was a fituation which ad¬
mitted of defence, yet the fort was nearly in ruins, and
the few guns mounted on it were moftly honey-combed.
Amidft the ruins of St Jago, w7as found a Portuguefe,
to whom one of the party was recommended, by whom
they were hofpitably received, and treated with every
fpecies of tropical fruits from his garden..
St Jago, a hand fome and confiderable towm of South-
America, the capital of Chili, wdth a good harbour, a
bifliop’s fee, and a royal audience. It is feated in a
large and beautiful plain, abounding with all the ne-
celfaries of life, at the foot of the Cordilleras, on, the
river Mapocho, which runs acrofs it from eaft to weft.
Here
J A L [2
Here are feveral canals and a dyke, by means of which
, H they water the gardens and cool the ftreets.—It is very
much fubjedl to earthquakes. W. Long. 69. 35. $.
Lat. 33. 40.
St J.iGo (fe Cuba, a town in North America, fituatcd
on the fouthern coall of the iiland of Cuba, in the bot¬
tom ol a bay, with a good harbour, and on a river of
the fame name. W. Long. 76. 44. N. Lat. 20. o.
jCgs de /os Cava/ieras, a town of America, and one
of the principal of the ifland of Hifpaniola. It is feat-
ed on the river Yague, in a fertile &>il, but bad air.
^ \Y. Long. 70. 5. N. Lat. 19. 4c.
St J.iGo dtl Entero, a town of South America, one
of the mod contiderable of Tucuman, and the ufual
refidence of the inquititor of the province. It is
feated on a large river, in a Hat country, where there
is game/ tygers, guanacos, commonly called camel-
♦ ‘facp, &c.
Jaoo de la Vega, otherwife called Spani/h-town, is
the capital ot the illand of Jamaica, in the Weft Indies',
and Hands in i S° ft north latitude, and 76° 45' weft
longitude. It is about a mile in length, and little more
than a quarter of a mile in breadth, and contains be¬
tween 300 and 600 houfes, with about 4000 inhabi¬
tants of all colours and denominations. This town is
lituated in a delightful plain on the banks of the Rio
Cobre, 13 miles from Kingfton, and 10 from Port
Royal. It is the refidence of the commander in chief:
and here the fupreme court of judicature is held, four
times in the year, viz. on the laft Tuefdays of February,
May, Auguft, aTid November, and fits three weeks.—
St Jago de la Vega is the county-town of Middlefex,
and belongs to the parilh of St Catharine •, in which
parilh there are 11 fugar-plantations, ic8 pens, and
other iettlements, and about 10,000 Haves.
JAGUAR, or Jaquar, a name given to the Brafi-
lian ounce, a fpecies of Felis. See Felis, Mamma¬
lia Index.
JAGUEER, in Eaft India affairs, any penfion from
the Grand Mogul, or king of Delhi} generally fuch
as are affgr.ed for military fervices.
JAGUEERDAR, the holder or poffeffor of a ja-
gueer. It comes from three Perfian words, *ja, “ a
place j’'’ gueriftun, “ to take}” and dajhtun, “ to
hold }” quaji, “ a place-holder or penfioner.” In the
times of the Mogul empire, all the great officers of the
court, called omrahs, were allowed jagueers, either in
lands of which they coll eft e.d the revenues, or aftign-
ments upon the revenues for fpecified furns, payable by
the lord-lieutenant of a province : which fums- were for
their maintenance, and the fupport of fuch troops as
they were neceftitated to bring into the field when de¬
manded by the emperor, as the condition of their ja¬
gueers, which were always revokable at pleafure.
JAIL-FEVER, a very dangerous diftempcr of the con¬
tagious kind, arifing from the putrefcent difpofition of
the blood and juices. See Medicine Index.
JALAP, the root of a fpecies of convolvulus or
bind-weed. See Convolvulus, Botany and Mate¬
ria Medic a Index.
JALEMUS, in antiquity, a kind of mournful fong,
ufed upon cccafion of death, or any other affefting ac¬
cident. Htnce the Gieek proverbs had their original,
vuliyed epsgerfgtff, or 4 i. e. mor e fad or colder
3
] J A M
than a jaletnus, u<; ictuiXa^ sylpccxTics, worthy'to be Jaloffs
ranhed among jalenutfes. li.
JALOFFS, or Yaloffs, are a warlike people, in- J‘ima’ca-
habiting moft of that part of Africa, lying between Se¬
negal and the Mandingc ftates on the Gambia. Their
lipr, according to Mr Park, are not fo protuberant as
thofe of the generality of Africans : and though their
fkin is of the deepeft black, they are efteemed by the
white traders cs the moft lightly of the negroes in that
part of the continent. They are divided into feveral
independent dates, and more refemble the Mandingoes
than any other nation in their manners and government,
but much exceed them in the manufafture of cotton
cloth, fpinning the wool co a finer thread, weaving it
in a broader loom, and dyeing it ot a better colour.
They make excellent foap, by boiling ground nuts in
water, and then adding a ley of wood alhes. They
likevvile manutafture very good iron, wffiich they carry
to Bandore to exchange for fait. Their language, it
is faid, is copious and Significant, and is frequently-
learned by Europeans trading to Senegal.
A generous difpofition, according to the tefiimony of
Mr Park, is faid to diflinguiih them above the genera¬
lity of favages j they know how to return an aft of
kindnefs fliewn them by others in diflrefs, and their
conduft towards their enemies, in many inHances, h
find to be worthy of imitation.
JAMADAR, an officer of frorfe or foot, in Hindo-
ftan. Alfo the head or fuperiritendant of the Peons in
the Sewaury or train of any great man.
JAMAICA, an iiland of the Wefl Indies, the largeft
of the Antilles, lying between 170 and 19° N. Lat.
and between 76° and 790 W. Long. } in length near
170 miles, and about 60 in breadth. It approaches in
its figure to an oval. The windward paffage right be¬
fore it hath the ifland of Cuba on the weft, and Hifpa¬
niola on the eaft:, and is about 20 leagues in breadth.
This ifland was difeovered by Admiral Chriftopher
Columbus in his fecond voyage, who landed upon it
May 5. 1494} and was fo much charmed with it, as
always to prefer it to the reft of the iflands : in confe-
quence of which, his fon chofe it for his dukedom. It
was fettled by Juan d’Efquivel, A. D. 1509, who built
the town, which, from the place of his birth, he called
Seville, and 11 leagues farther to the eaft flood Melilla.
Orifton wTas on the fouth fide of the ifland, feated on
what is now called Blue Fields River. All thefe are
gone to decay; but St Jago, now Spanifh-town, is ftill
the capital. The Spaniards held this country 160 years,
and in their time the principal commodity w’as cacao }
they had an immenfe flock of horfes, affes, and mules,
and prodigious quantities of cattle. The Englilh land¬
ed hete under Penn and Venables, May ti. 1654, and
quickly reduced the ifland. Cacao wras alfo their prin¬
cipal commodity till the old trees decayed, and the new ,
ones did not thrive } and then the planters from Barba-
does introduced fugar-canes, which hath been the great
ftaple eve: fince.
The profpeft of this ifland from the fea, by reafen of
its conftant verdure, and many fair and fafe bays, is
wonderfully pleafant. The coaft, and for fome miles
within, the land is low ; hut removing farther, it riles
and becomes hilly. The whole ifle is divided by a
ridge of m c/m tains running eaft and weft, fome riling
to
J A M
[ 23 ]
J A M
j.-.va.iicn. to a great height: and thefe are coinpofed of rock and
' aivery hard clay; through which, however, the rains
that fall incedhntly upon them have worn long and
deep cavities, which they call gullies* Thefe moun¬
tains, however, are far from being unpleafant, as they
are crowned even to their fummits with a variety of fine
tree®. There are alfio about a hundred rivers that iffue
from them on both fides : and, though none of them
are navigable for any thing but canoes, are both plea-
fing and profitable in many other refpetts. The cli¬
mate, like that of all countries between the tropics, is
very warm towards the fea, and in marfhy places un¬
healthy ; but in more elevated fituaUons, cooler ; and,
where people live temperately, to the full as wholefome
as in any part of the Weft Indies. The rains fall hea¬
vy for about a fortnight in the months of May and Oc¬
tober ; and, as they are the caufe of fertility, are ftyled
. feafon's. Thunder is pretty frequent, and fometimes
fhowers of hail: but ice and fnow are never feen, al¬
though on the tops of the mountains, and at no very
great height, the air is exceedingly cold.
The molt eallern parts of this ridge are known under
the name of the Blue Mountains. This great chain of
rugged rocks defends the fouth fide of the iiland from
thofe boiilerous north-weft, winds, which might be fatal
to their produce. Their ftreams, though fmall, fupplv
the inhabitants with good water, which is a great bief-
fmg, as their wells are generally brackifh. The Spa¬
niards were perfuaded that thefe hills abounded wuth
metals: but we do not find that they wrought any
mines ; or if they did, it was only copper, of which
they faid the bells in the church of St Jago were made.
They have feveral hot fprings, which have done great
cures. The climate was certainly more temperate be¬
fore the great earthquake; and the ifland was fuppofed
to be out of the reach of hurricanes, which fince that time
it hath feverely felt. The heat, however, is very much
tempered by land and fea breezes; and it is aflferted,
that the hotteft time of the day is about eight in the
morning. In the night, the wind blows from the land
on all fides, fo that no fiiips can then enter their
ports.
In an ifiand fo large as this, which contains above
five millions of acres, it may be very reafonablv con¬
ceived that there are great variety of foils. Some of
thefe are deep, black, and rich, and mixed with a kind
of potters earth ; others {hallow and fandy ; and fome
of a middle nature. There are many favannahs, or
wide plains, without ftones, in w7hich the native In¬
dians had luxuriant crops of maize, which the Spaniards
turned into meadows, and kept in them prodigious
herds of cattle. Some of thefe favanaahs are to be met
with even amongft the mountains. All thefe different
ioils may be jufUy pronounced fertile, as they would
certainly be found, if tolerably cultivated, and applied
to proper purpofes. A fufficient proof of this will arife
from a very curfory review of the natural and artificial
produce of this fpacirms country.
It abounds in maize, pulfe, vegetables of all kinds,
meadows of fine grafs, a variety of beautiful flowers,
and as great a variety of oranges, lemons, citrons, and
other rich fruits. Ufeful animals there are of all forts,
horfes, affes, mules, black cattle of a larg* fize, and
fheep, the fklh of which is well tailed, though their
wool is hairy and bad. Here are alfo goats and hogs
in great plenty ; fea and river fifli; wild, tame, and '
water-fowl. Amongff other commodities of great va¬
lue, they have the fugar-cane, cacao, indigo, pimento,
cotton, ginger, and coffee ; trees for timber and other
ufes, iuch as mahogany, manchineel, white wood
which no worm will touch, cedar, olives, and many
more. Befides thefe, they have fuftick, red wood, and
various other materials for dyeing. To thefe we may
add a multitude of valuable drugs, luch as guaiacum,
china, farfaparilla, caflia, tamarinds, vanellas, and the
prickle-pear or opuntia, which produces the cochineal;,
with no inconfiderable number of odoriferous gums.
Near the coaft they have falt-ponds, from which at one
time they f'upplied their own confumption, and might
certainly make any quantity they pleafed.
As this ifland abounds with rich commodities, it is
happy likevvife in having a number of fine and fafe
ports. Point Morant, the eaftern extremity of the
ifland, hath a fair and commodious bay. Palling on
to the fouth, there is Port Royal t on a neck of land
which forms one fide of it, there flood once the faireft
town in the iiland ; and the harbour is as fine a one as
can be wiflied, capable of holding a thoufand large
veffels, and fiill the ftation of our fquadron. Old
Harbour is alfo a convenient port, fo is Maccary Bay
and there are at leaf! twelve more between tills and
the weftern extremity, which is Point Negrillo, where
cur flaps of war lie when there is a war with Spain.
On the north fide there is Orange bay, Cold harbour,
Rio Novo, Montego bay, Port Antonio, one of the
fined: in the ifland, and feveral others. The north-
wed winds, which fometimes blow furioufly on this
coad, render the country on that fide Ids fit for canes,
but pimento thrives wonderfully ; and certainly many
other daples might be railed in fmall plantations, which
are frequent in Barbadoes, and might be very advan¬
tageous here in many refpeds.
The town of Port Royal dood on a point of land
running far out into the fea, narrow, fandy, and inca¬
pable of producing any thing. Yet the excellence of
the port, the convenience of having diips of feven hun¬
dred tons coming clofe up to their wharfs, and other
advantages, gradually attraded inhabitants in fuch a
manner, that though many of their habitations were
built on piles, there were near two thoufand houfes in
the town in its mod fiouridnng date, and which let at
high rents. The earthquake by which it was over¬
thrown happened on the 7th of June 1692, and num¬
bers of people peri died in it. This earthquake was
followed by an epidemic difeafe, of which upwards of
three thoufand died : yet the place was rebuilt; but the
greated part was reduced to afhes by a fire that hap¬
pened on the 9th of January 1703, and then the inha¬
bitants removed modly to Kingdon. It was, however,
rebuilt for the third time ; and was riling towards its
former grandeur, when it was overwhelmed by the fea,
Augud 28. 1722. There is, notwithdanding, a fmall
town there at this day. Plurricanes fince that time
have often happened, and occafioned terrible devada-
tion®.
The ifland is divided into three counties, Middlefex,
Surry, and Cornwall ; containing 20 pariflies, over
each of which prefides a magidrate dyled a cujlos; but
thefe
JAM [
Jamaica, tliefe pnriflies in point of fize are a kind of hundreds.
~v 1 The whole contain 36 towns and villages, iB churches
and chapels, and about 23,000 white inhabitants.
The adminiftration of public affairs is by a governor
and council of royal appointment, and the reprefenta-
tives of the people in the lower houfe of alfembly.
They meet at Spanifh-town, and things are conduced
with great order and dignity. The lieutenant-gover¬
nor and commander in chief has 5000I. currency, or
357 ll. 8s. 6|-d. fterling belides which, he has a houfe in
Spanilli-town, a pen or a farm adjoining, and a polink
or mountain for provifions : a fecretary, an under-fecre-
tary, and a domeftic chaplain.
The honourable the council conlifts of a preftdent
and i o members 5 with a clerk, at 270I. a chaplain
100I, uflier of the black rod and mtifenger 25ol.
The honourable the alfembly conlills of 43 members,
one of whom is chofen fpeaker. To this aifembly be¬
long a clerk, with 1000I. falary j a chaplain, 150I.;
meffenger, 7001.*, deputy, 140I. 5 and printer, 200k
The number of members returned by each parilh and
county are, for Middlefex 17, viz. St Catharine 3, St
Dorothy 2, St John 2, St Thomas in the Vale 2, Cla¬
rendon 2, Vere 2, St Mary 2, St Ann 2: For Surry
16, viz. Kingfton 3, Port Royal 3, St Andrew 2, St
David 2, St Thomas in the Fall 2, Portland 2, St
■"George 2: For Cornwall 10. viz. St Elizabeth 2,
Weftmoreland 2, Hanover 2, St James 2, Trelaw-
ney 2.
The high court of chancery conlifts of the chancel¬
lor (governor for the time being), 25 mailers in ordi¬
nary, and 20 mailers extraordinary ; a regifter, and
clerk of the patents ; ferjeant at arms, and mace-bear¬
er. The court of vice admiralty has a foie judge, judge
furrogate, and commiffary, king’s advocate, principal
regifter, marlhal, and a deputy-marlhal. The court of
ordinary, confifts of the ordinary (governor for the time
being), and a clerk. The fupreme court of judicature
has a chief juftice, 1 20I. and 16 afliftant judges j at¬
torney-general, 400I. j clerk of the court, look
clerk of the crown, 3501.5 folicitor for the crown:
33 commiflioners for taking affidavits ; a provoft-mar-
ihal-general, and eight deputies; 18 barrifters, belides
the attorney-general and advocate-general j and upward
of 120 pradliling attorneys at law.
The commerce of Jamaica is very conliderable, not
only with all parts of Great Britain and Ireland, but
with Africa, North and South America, the Weft In-
24 ] JAM
dia illands, and the Spaniffi main. The drips annually Jamaica*
employed are upwards of 500 fail. -y-—.
The following account of the exports of this idand
in 1770, as given by Abbe Raynal, but which in feve-
ral particulars appears to be under-rated, will contri¬
bute more than all that hath been faid, to Ihow the
importance of Jamaica. They condfted in 2249 bales
of cotton, which at 10 pounds per bale, the price in
the idand, amounts to 22,490k 5 1873 hundred weight
of coffee, at three pounds five drillings per hundred,
6088k j 2753 bags of ginger, at two pounds five
drillings per bag, 6194k; 2211 hides, at feven dril¬
lings per hide, 773k ; 16,475 puncheons of rum, at
10I. per puncheon, 164,750k Mahogany, 15,282
pieces and 8500 feet, 50,000k Of pimento, 2,089,734
pounds weight, 52,243k Sugar, 57,675 hoglheads,
6425 tierces, 52 barrels, at feventeen pounds ten dril¬
lings per hogdread, twelve pounds per tierce, and four
pounds per barrel, amounting in the whole to
1,086,620k Sarfaparilla, 205 bags, at ten pounds
per bag, 2250k Exports to Great Britain and Ire¬
land, 1,391,210!. To North America, 146,324k
To the other iftands, 595k Total of the exports,
MS8^01-
The following is a general view of the property and
chief produce of the whole idand in 1786, as prefixed
by Mr Beckford to his defcriptive account of Ja¬
maica.
Counties.
Sugar
Eftates.
Middlefex
Surry
Cornwall
Total
323
35°
388
1061
Other
Settle¬
ments.
917
54°
561
Slaves.
87100
75600
90000
2018 255700
Produce
Hhds. of
Sugar.
31500
34900
39000
105400
Cattle.
75000
80000
69500
224500
It drould be here obferved, that where two hogdreads
of fugar are made, there is at leaf! one puncheon of
rum; but the proportion has been of late years more
confiderable : the quantity of the latter will therefore
be 52,700 puncheons.
A comparative view between the years 1768 and 1786.
Sugar Eftates
Sugar Hhds.
Negroes
Cattle
Middlefex
in
1768 1786
239
24050
66744
595io
323
87100
75000
Surry
in
1768 [ 1786
146
15010
39542
21465
350
34900
756o°
80000
Cornwall
in
1768 1786
266
29100
60614
54775
388
39000
93000
69500
Total in
1768 I 1786
651! 1061
68160405400
166900^255700
I
i357502245oo
Amount
of
Increafe.
410
37240
88800
88750
x
From
JAM [ 25 ] JAM
Jambi From tne above fcheme it appears, bow confider-
II, able has been the increafe of fugar-eftates, and confe-
jam.dicus. quendy Qf proJu
ce ol negroes and cattle in eighteen
years: and in the fame portion of time (it is faid),
if proper encouragement were given, they might be
augmented in a threefold proportion.
T he common valuation of an eftate in Jamaica is as
foilotvs:
Cane land (the canes upon it valued
feparately) at - -
Plants
Cane land, in ratoons and young plants,
Failure land
Wood land
Provifions
Negroes
Mules
Steers
Breeding Cattle, &c.
15
8
Ster/itig.
/ 22 per acre.
22 ditto,
ditto,
ditto,
ditto,
ditto,
ditto,
ditto,
ditto,
ditto.
Works, water, carts, &c.
4
l4
57
22
10
5
from 7 to 10,000.
If a planter would with to leafe his eftate for a num¬
ber of years, his income would be large if he could
get only lod. fterling a day for his negroes (the lofs
made good), without requiring any thing for his land
or works.
JAMBI, or Jambis, a fea-port town and fmall
kingdom of Alia, on the eaftern coaft of tire illand of
Sumatra. It is a trading place. The Dutch have a
fort here; and export pepper from thence, with the
beft fort of canes. E. Long. 105. 55. S. Lat. o. 30.
JAPvlBIA vicus. See Yambo.
IAMBIC, in ancient poetry, a fort of verfe, fo call¬
ed from its conftfting either wholly, or in great part,
of iambus’s. See Iambus. f
Ruddiman makes two kinds of iambic, viz. dimeter
and trimeter the former containing four feet, and the
latter fix. And as to the variety of their feet, they
confift wholly of iambus’s, as in the two following ver-
fes of Horace :
1 234 5 6
Dim. Inar\(it a:\Jluo\ lius\
Trim. 5W,i\JS'’ i\pfo Ro\ma vi\ribus'ruit.
Or, a daclylus, fportdeus, anapeftus, and fometimes
tribrachys, obtain in the odd places j and the tri-
brachys alfo in the even places, excepting the laft.—
Examples of all which may,be feen in Horace ; as,
Dimeter.
1234 56
C(inidi\a tra\cinvil\dapes\ • . .
Vidc\re prope\rantes doT7ium\
Trimeter.
YY (]ub\fcele\ Jli rui\tu\dut\cur dex\teris.
PrtusVfue cce\lumJ:\det in\ferius\mari.
AIih\hus at\quc cam\bus homi\cid' Hc\Borem.
Pavidurh\que lepo\r‘ aut ad\vena7n Iaqueo\gruem.
JAMBLICUS, the name of two celebrated Plato¬
nic philofophers, one of whom w as of Colchis, and the
other of Apamea in Syria. The firft, whom Julian
equals to Plato, was the difciple of Anatolius and
Porphyry, and died under the reign of the emperor
Von. XL Part I.
Conftantine.— The fecond alfo enjoyed great reputa¬
tion. Julian wrote feveral letters to him, and it is
faid he was poifoned under the reign of Valens.—It is
not known to which of the two we ought to attribute
the works we have in Greek under the name of Jam-
blicus, viz. 1. The hiftory of the life of Pythagoras,
and the fedl of the Pythagoreans. 2. An exhortation
to the ftudy of philofophy. 3. A piece againft Por¬
phyry’s letter on the myfteries of the Egyptians.
JAMBOLIFERA, a genus of plants, belonging
to the odfandria clafs; and in the natural method rank¬
ing with thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Bo¬
tany Index.
IAMBUS, in the Greek and Latin profody, a
poetical foot, confifting of a Ihort fyllable followed by
a long one 5 as in
©e« Asya/, Dei, mens.
Bijllaba long a brevi fuhjcBa vacatur iambus, as Horace
expreffes it 5 who alfo calls the iambus a fwift, rapid
foot, pes citus.
The word,' according to fome, took its rife from
Iambus, the fon of Pan and Echo, who invented this
foot 5 or, perhaps, w'ho only ufed tharp biting cxprel-
fions to Ceres, when aftlidled for the death of Profer-
pine. Others rather derive it from the Greek <«j, vc-
nenum “ poifon or from ixpZity maledico, “ I rail,
or revile becaufe the verfes compofed of iambus’s
w7ere at firft only ufed in fatire.
JAMES, St, called the Greater, the fon of Zebe-
dee, and the brother of John the evangelift, was bom
at Bethfaida, in Galilee. He was called to be an
apoftle, together with St John, as they were mending
their nets with their father Zebedee* tvho was a fiiher-
man ; when Chriil gave them the name of Boanerges,
or Sons of Thunder. They then followed Chrift, were
wutnefles with St Peter of the transfiguration on Mount
Tabor, and accompanied our I^ord in the garden of
olives. It is believed that St James firft preached the
goipel to the difperfed Jew's j and aftenvards returned
to Judea, where he preached* at Jerufalem, when the
Jews railed up Herod Agrippa againft him, who put
him to a cruel death about the year 44. Thus St
James was the firft of the apoftles who fuffered martyr¬
dom. St Clement of Alexandria relates, that his ac-
cufer was fo ftruck with his conftancy, that he became
converted and fuffered with him. There is a magni¬
ficent church at Jerufalem which bears the name of St
James, and belongs to the Armenians. The Spa¬
niards pretend, that they had St James for their apof¬
tle, and boaft of poffefting his body ; but Baronius,
in his Annals, refutes their pretenfions.
Jamks, St, called the Lefs, an apoftle, the brother
of Jude, and the fon of Cleophas and Mary the filter
of the mother of our Lord, is called in'Scripture the
JuJl, and the brother of .Telus, who appeared to him
in particular after his refurreftion. He w'as the firft
bifhop of Jerufalem, wEen Annanias II. high prieft of
the Jews, caufed him to be condemned, and delivered
him into the hands of the people and the Pharifees,
who threw hini down from the fteps of the temple,
when a fuller dallied out his brains wfith a club, about
the year 62. His life was fo holy, that Jofqphus con-
• ■ T> ’ fiders
JAM [ 26 1 JAM
James, fibers the luin of Jerufalem as a puniihment inflicted
v on that city for his death. He was the author of the
epiftle which bears his name.
St James of the Sword, {San Jago del Efpada),
a military order in Spain, initituted in 1170, under
the reign of Ferdinand II. king of Leon and Gallicia.
Its end was to put a itop to the incurfions of the
Moors j three knights obliging themfelves by a vow to
fecure the roads. An union wras propofed and agreed
to in 1170 between thefe and the canons of St Floy $
and the order was confirmed by the pope in 1175. The
higheft dignity in that order is that of grand mailer,
which has been united to the crown of Spain. The
knights are obliged to make proof of their defcent from
families that have been noble for four generations on
both fides j they mult alfo make it appear, that their
laid ancellors have neither been Jews, Saracens, nor
heretics; nor even to have been called in quellion by the
inquifition. The novices are obliged to ferve fix months
in the galleys, and to live a month in a monaflery. Here¬
tofore they were truly religious, and took a vow of ce¬
libacy $ but Alexander III. gave them a permiflion to
marry. They now make no vows but of poverty, obe¬
dience, and conjugal fidelity 5 to which, fince the year
5652, they have added that of defending the immacu¬
late conception of the holy Virgin. Their habit is a
white cloak, with a red crofs on the bread. This is
efteemed the mod confiderable of all the military or¬
ders in Spain : the king carefully preferves the office
of grand mader in his own family, on account of the
rich revenues and offices, whereof it gives him the dif-
polal. The number of knights is much greater now
than formerly, all the grandees choofing rather to be
received into this than into the order of the golden
fleece ; inafmuch as this puts them in a fair way of at¬
taining to commands, and gives them many confider¬
able privileges in all the provinces of Spain, but efpe-
cially in Catalonia.
James, the name of feveral kings of Scotland and
of Great Britain. See {Hiftories of') Scotland and
Britain.
James I. king of Scotland in 1423, the fird of the
houfe of Stuart, was not only the mod learned king,
but the mod learned man, of the age in which he
flouridicd. This ingenious and amiable prince fell in¬
to the hands of the enemies of his country in his ten¬
der youth, when he was flying from the fnares of his
unnatural ambitious uncle, who governed his domi¬
nions, and was fufpedled of defigns againd his life.
Having fecretly embarked for France, the ffiip was
taken by an Englilh privateer off Flamborough-head ;
and the prince and his attendants (among whom was
the earl of Orkney) were confined in a neighbouring
eaflle until they were fent to London. See {Hi/lory of)
Scotland.
The king of England knew the value of the prize
die had obtained, and kept it with the mod anxious
care. The prince was conduced to the Tower of
London immediately after he was feized, April 12.
A. D. 1405, in the 13th year of his age } and there
kept a clofe prifoner till June lo. A. D. 1407, when
he wras removed to the cadle of Nottingham, from
whence he was brought back to the Tower, March 1.
A. D. 1414, and there confined till Augud 3. in the
fame year, when he was conveyed to the cadle of
Windfor, where he was detained till the fummer of Jame*.
A. D. >417? when Henry V. for political reafons,'   
carried him with him into France in his fecond expe¬
dition. In all thefe fortreffes, his confinement, from
his own account of it, was fo fevere and drift, that he
was not fo much as permitted to take the air. In this
melancholy fituation, fo unfuitable to his age and
rank, books were his chief companions, and dudy his
greated pleafure. He rofe early in the morning, im¬
mediately applied to reading, to divert him from pain*
ful refleftions on his misfortunes, and continued his
dudies, with little interruption, till late at night.
James being naturally fenfible, ingenious, and fond of
knowledge, and having received a good education in
his early youth, under the direftion of Walter Ward-
law bifliop of St Andrew’s, by this clofe application
to dudy, became an univerfal fcholar, an excellent
poet, and exquifite mufician. That he wrrote as well
as read much, we have his own tedimony, and that of
all our hidorians who lived near his time. Bowma-
ker, the continuator of Fordun, who was his con^
temporary, and perfonally acquainted with him, fpends
ten chapters in his praifes, and in lamentations on his
death ; and, amongd other things, fays, that his
knowledge of the fcriptures, of law, and philofophy,
was incredible. Heftor Boece tells us, that Hen¬
ry IV. and V. furniffied their royal prifoner with the
bed teachers in all the arts and fciences j and that,
by their affidance, he made great proficiency in every
part of learning and the fine arts ; that he became
a perfeft mader in grammar, rhetoric, poetry, mufic,
and all the fecrets of natural philofophy, and was in¬
ferior to none in divinity and law. He obferves fur¬
ther, that the poems he compofed in his native
tongue were fo beautiful, that you might eafily per¬
ceive he was born a poet j but that his Latin poems
were not fo fauitlefs ) for though they abounded in.
the mod fublime fentiments, their language was not
lb pure, owing to the rudenefs of the times in which
he lived. This prince’s fkill in mufic was remarkable.
Walter Bower abbot of Inch-colm, who was intimate¬
ly acquainted with that prince, affures us, that he ex¬
celled all mankind in that art both vocal and indru-
mental j and that he played on eight difterent in-
druments (which he names), and efpecially on the
harp, with fuch exquifite fkill, that he feemed to be
infpired *. King James was not only an excellent *
performer, but alfo a capital compofer, both of facred kb. 16.
and fecular mufic 5 and his fame on that account was0, lS*
extenfive, and of long duration. Above a century af¬
ter his death, he was celebrated in Italy as the inven¬
tor of a new and pleafing kind of melody, which had
been admired and imitated in that country. This
appears from the following tedimony of Aleffandro
Taffoni, a writer who was well informed, and of un¬
doubted credit. “ We may reckon among us mo¬
derns, James king of Scotland, who not only compo¬
fed many facred pieces of vocal mufic, but alfo of him-
felf invented a new’ kind of mufic, plaintive and melan¬
choly, different from all other; in which he hath been
imitated by Carlo Gefualdo prince of Venofa, who,
our age, hath improved mufic with new’ and admi-ZV/i-
rable inventions.” f As the prince of Venofa imitated./^’''*
King James, the other muficians of Italy imitated the *l1>'I?lSiy
prince of Venofa. “ The mod noble Carlo Gefual-j[°nsn voj^
d°»p- 5, 6*
J A M [ 27 ] JAM
James, do, tlie prince of muficians of our age, introduced fuch
^" v a Ityle of modulation, that other muficians yielded the
preference to him ; and all fingers and players on
ftringed inftruments, laying afide that of Others, every-
tld.vol.Hi. where embraced his J. All the lovers, therefore, of
p. a 12. Italian or Scotch mufic, are much indebted to the
admirable genius of King James I. who, in the gloom
and folitude of a prifon, invented a new kind of mufic,
plaintive indeed, and fuited to his fituation, but at the
fame time fo fweet and foothing, that it hath given
pleafure to millions in every fucceeding age.
As James I. of Scotland was one of the moft ac-
complifhed princes- that ever filled a throne, he was
alfo one of the moft unfortunate. After fpending al-
jnoft 20 years in captivity, and encountering many
difficulties on his return into his native kingdom, he
was murdered by barbarous affaffins in the prime of
life. In the monuments of his genius, he hath been
almofl: equally unfortunate. No veftiges are now re¬
maining of his (kill in archite&ure, gardening, and
painting •, though we are aflfured by one who was well
I ac<lua"1,;e^ that he excelled in allthefe arts *.
cap.^o. Many of the productions of his pen have alfo perifli-
f ec* 5 f°r he tells us himfelf that he wrote much f 5 and
gfuair, we know of only three of his poems that are now ex-
canto i. tant, viz. Chrift’s Kirk on the Green—Peebles at the
ftan. 13. pjay—an{j tf,e King’s Quair, which was lately difco-
vered by Mr Warton, and hath been publifhed by ano-
* See Pottl- ther gentleman J. But {lender as thefe remains are,
1/ yTm™!. t^ey aff°rcl fofocient evidence, that the genius of this
Ed 1783- r°yal Pcet was n°t inferior to that of any of his con-
and War. temporaries; and that it was equally fitted for the
ion\ Hifl. gayeft or the graveft drains.
/'c/qvol.ii. JAmes II. king of Scotland, 1437, focceeded his
l5 ^ father, being then not feven years of age 5 and wras
killed at the fiege of Roxburgh in 1460, aged 29.
James III. king of Scotland, fucceeded his father,
in 1460, in the 7th year of his age. The moft ftriking
feature in the character of this prince, unjuftly repre¬
sented as tyrannical by feveral hiftorians, was his fond-
nefs for the fine arts, and for thofe who excelled in
them, on wrhom he beftowed more of his company,
confidence, and favour, than became a king in his
circumftances. This excited in his fierce and haugh¬
ty nobles diflike and contempt of their fovereign, and
indignation againft the objeCts of his favour j which
produced the moft pernicious confequences, and ended
in a rebellion that proved fatal to James, who was {lain
in 1488, aged 36.
James IV. king of Scotland, fucceeded his father
in 1488. He was a pious and valiant prince ; fub-
dued his rebellious fubjedts; and afterwards, taking
part with Louis XII. againft Henry VIII, of Eng¬
land, he was (lain in the battle of Flowden-field in
I5I3* aSe(i 41-—This king is acknowledged to have
had great accomplifhments both of mind and body.
His Latin epiftles are claffical, compared with the bar¬
barous ftyle of the foreign princes with whom he cor-
refponded.. Like his father, he had a tafte for ftie fine
arts, particularly that of fculpture. The attention
he paid to the civilization of his people, and his diftri-
bution of juftice, merit the higheft praife. After all,
the virtues of James appear to have been more ffiining
than fohd 1 and his charaCler was that of a fine gentle¬
man and a brave knight, rather than a wife or a great
monarch. At the time of his death, he was only in Jamet.
his forty firfl: year. Like all the princes of his family
(to his great grandfon James VI.) his perfon was hand-
fome, vigorous, and aClive. From their coins, it does
not appear that either he, or any of his predeceffors
of the Stuart race, wTore their beards, as did all his
fucceftbrs, to the reign of Charles II.
James V. king of Scotland, in 1513, was but 18
months old when his father loft his life. When of age,
he aflifted Francis I. king of France againft the em¬
peror Charles V. ; for which fervice Francis gave
him his eldeft daughter in marriage, in 1535. This
princefs died in two years •, and James married Mary of
Lorraine, daughter of Claud duke of Guife, and wi¬
dow of Louis d’Orleans, by whom he had only one
child, the unfortunate Mary queen of Scots, born on¬
ly eight days before his death, which happened De¬
cember 13, 1542, in the 35th year of his age. This
was the firft prince of his family who died a natural
death fince its elevation to the throne. He died,
however, of a broken heart, occafioned by differences
with his barons. He was formed by nature to be the
ornament of a throne and a bleffing to his people; but
his excellent endowments were rendered in a great
meafure ineflfeftual by an improper education. Like
moft of his predeceflbrs, he was born with a vigorous,
graceful perfon, which, in the early part of his reign,
was improved by all the manly exercifes then in ule.
This prince was the author of a humorous compofition
in poetry, which goes by the name of the Gaber/unzie
Man.
James VI. king of Scotland in 1567, and of Eng
land in 1603, was fon Mary queen of Scots 5 whom he
fucceeded in Scotland, as he did Elizabeth in {England.
Strongly attached to the Proteftant religion, he iigna-
lized himfelf in its fupport j which gave ’ife to the
horrid confpiracy of the Papifts to deftroy him and
all the Englifh nobility by the Gunpowder Plot, dis¬
covered November 5. 1605. The following year, a
political teft of loyalty was required, which fecured
the king’s perfon, by clearing the kingdom of thofe
difaffe£ted Roman Catholic fubjefts who would not
fubmit to it. The chief glory of this king*s reign con¬
futed in the eftabliftnnent of new colonies, and the
introduftion of fome manufa6tures. The nation enjoy¬
ed peace, and commerce flourifhed during his reign.
Yet his adminiftration was defpifed both at home and
abroad : for, being the head of the Proteftant caufe in
Europe, he did not fupport it in that great crifis, the
war of Bohemia ; abandoning his fon-in-law the electoi*
Palatine; negociating when he ftiould have fought,
deceived at the fame time by the courts of Vienna and
Madrid ; continually fending illuftrious ambalfadors to
foreign powers, but never making a fingle ally. He
valued himfelf much upon his polemical writings; and
fo fond was he of theological deputations, that to
keep them alive, he founded, for this exprefs purpofe,
Chelfea-college j which was converted to a much bet¬
ter ule by Charles II. His Bajilicon Doron, Com¬
mentary on the Revelation, writings againft Bellar-
mine, and his Dcemonologia, or dodlrine of witchcraft,
are fufficiently known. There is a colle&ion of his
writings and fpeeches in one folio volume. Several
other pieces of his are extant } fome of them in the
Cabala, others in manufeript in the Britilh Mufeum,
D 2 and
'Y
JAM [ 21
James, and others in Howard’s colledlion. He died in 1625,
in the 59th yeir of his age, and 23d of his reign.
James II. king of England, Scotland, &c. 1685,
grandfon of James I. fucceeded his brother Charles II.
It is remarkable, that this prince wanted neither cou¬
rage nor political abilities whilll he was duke of York j
on the contrary, he was eminent for both : but when
he afcended the throne, he was no longer the fame
man. A bigot from his infancy to the Romilh reli¬
gion and to its hierarchy, he facrificed every thing to
eftablilh them, in *dire£! contradidlion to the experi¬
ence he had acquired, during the long reign of his
brother, of the genius and chara£Ier of the people he
■was to govern. Guided by the Jefuit Peters his con-
' feffor, and the infamous chancellor Jeffries, he violated
every law enabled for the fecurity of the Proteilant re¬
ligion 5 and then, unable to face the refentment of his
injured fubjedis, he fled like a coward, inftead of dif¬
arming their rage by a difmiffion of his Popifli mini-,
ifers and prieils. He rather chofe to live and die a bi¬
got, or, as he believed, a faint, than to fupport the
dignity of his anceftors, or perifh beneath the ruins of
his throne. The confequertce rvas the revolution in
1689. James II. died in France in 1710, aged 68.
He wrote Memoirs of his own life and campaigns to
the reftoration ; the original of which is preferved in
the Scotch colleg;e at Paris. This piece is printed at
the end of Ramfay’s life of Marfhal Turenne. 2. Me¬
moirs of the Engliih affairs, chiefly naval, from the
year 1660 to 1673. 3- royal fufferer, King
James II. confifting of meditations, foliloquies, vows,
&c. faid to be compofed by his majefty at St Ger¬
mains. 4. Three letters ; which were publifhed by
William Fuller, gent, in 1702, with other papers re¬
lating to the court of St Germains, and are faid in the
title page to be printed by command.
James, Thomas, a learned Englifh critic and di¬
vine, born about the year 1571. He recommended
himfelf to the office of keeper of the public library at
Oxford, by the arduous undertaking of publilhing a
catalogue of the MSS in each college library at both
univefflties. He was eledled to this office in 1602,
and held it 18 years, when he refigned it to profecute
his iludies with more freedom. In the convocation
held with the parliament at Oxford in 1625, of which
he was a member, he moved to have proper commif-
fioners appointed to collate the MSS of the fathers in
all the libraries in England, with the Popjth editions,
in order to detedl the forgeries in the latter ; but this
propofal not meeting with the defired encouragement,
he engaged in the laborious talk himfelf, which he con¬
tinued until his death in 1629. He left behind him a
great number of learned works.
James, Richard, nephew of the former, entered in¬
to orders in 1615 : but, being a man of humour, of
three fermons preached before the univerfity, one con¬
cerning the obfervation of Lent w7as without a text,
according to the moll ancient manner ; another againfl:
the text ; and the third befide it. About the year
1619, he travelled through Wales, Scotland, Shet¬
land, into Greenland and Ruffia, of which he wrote
obfervations. He affilted Selden in compofing his
Marmora shrundcliana; and was very ferviceable to
Sir Robert Cotton, and his fon Sir Thomas, in dif-
] ofing- and fettling their noble library. He died in
I ] JAM
1638; and has an extraordinary characler given him James,
by Wood for learning and abilities. jarntnonc.
James, Dr Robert, an Englilh phyfician of great
eminence, and particularly diftinguilhed by the prepa
ration of a molt excellent fever-powder, wTas born at
Kinverfton in Staffordihire, A. D. 1703 : his father a
major in the army, his mother a filter of Sir Robert
Clarke. He was of St John’s-college in Oxford,
where he took the degree of A. B. and aftenvards
pra&ifed phylic at Sheffield, Lichfield, and Birming¬
ham fucceflively. Then he removed to London, and
became a licentiate in the college of phyficians j but in
what years is not known. At London he applied
himfelf to writing as well as praflifing phyfic ; and in
1743, publiihed a Medical Dictionary, in 3 vol.t folio.
Soon after he publifhed an Englifh tranflation, wdth a
Supplement by himfelf, of Ramazzini de jnorbis artiji-
cmn; to w hich he_ alfo prefixed a piece of Frederic
Hoffman upon Endemical Diftempers, 8vo. In 1746,
The Practice of Phyfic, 2 vols 8vo *, in 1760, On Ca¬
nine Madnefs, 8vo •, in 1764, A Difpenfatory, 8vo.
June 25. 1755, when the king was at Cambridge,
James was admitted by mandamus to the dodtorfhip
of phyfic. In 1788, w:ere publifhed, A Differtation
upon Fevers, and A Vindication of the Fever-powder,
8vo ; with A Short Treatife on the Diforders of Chil¬
dren, and a very good print of Dr James. This was
the 8th edition of the Differtation, of which the firft
was, printed in 1751 and the purpofe of it was, to
fet forth the fuccefs of this powder, as well as to de-
feribe more particularly the manner of adminirtering it.
The Vindication wras pofthumous and unfinifhed : for
he died March 23. 1776, while he wTas employed up¬
on it.—Dr James was married, and left feveral ions and
daughters.
'James's Powder, a medicine prepared by Robert
James, which is known alfo by the name of jantes's
fever powder. See Materia Medic a Index.
James's Town, a borough and market town of Ire¬
land, in the county of Leitrim, and province of Con¬
naught 5 fituated five miles north-weft of Carrick, on
Shannon, and 73 north-weft of Dublin, in N. Lat. 53.
44. W. Long. 8. 15. It has a barrack for a company
of foot, and returns two members to parliament •, pa¬
tronage in the family of King.—It has three fairs.
St James's Day, a feftival of the Chriftian church,
obferved on the 25th of July, in honour of St James
the greater, fon of Zebedee.
Fpijlle of St James, a canonical book of the New
Teftament, being the firft of the catholic or general
epiftles j which are fo called, as not being written to
one but to feveral Chriftian churches.
This general epiftle is addreffed partly to the belie¬
ving and partly to the infidel Jews ; and is defigned to
correct the errors, foften the ungoverned zeal, and re¬
form the indecent behaviour of the latter •, and to com¬
fort the former under the great hardfhips they then
did, or fhortly were to fuffer, for the fake of Chril-
tianity.
JAMESONE, Gcorge, an excellent painter, jufk-
ly termed the Vandych of Scotland, was the fon of An¬
drew Jamefone, an architeft \ and was born at Aber¬
deen, in 1586. He ftudied under Rubens, at Ant-
werp •, and, after his return, applied with indefatiga¬
ble induftry to portraits in oil, though he fometimes
pra&ifed
/
JAN [ 29 ] JAN
Jfivnyn, praftifed in miniature, and alfo in hiftory and land-
Jane. fcapes. His largeft portraits were fomewhat lefs than
" v life. His earlielt works are chiefly on board, after¬
wards on a fine Imen cloth fmoothly primed with a
proper tone to help the harmony of his fhadows. His
excellence is faid to confift in delicacy and foftnefs,
with a clear and beautiful colouring ; his (hades not
charged., but helped by varniih, with little appearance
of the pencil. When King Charles L vifited Scotland
in 1633, the maghlrates of Edinburgh, knowing his
majefty’s tafie, employed this artift to make drawings
of the Scettiih monarchs 5 with which the king was
fo pleafed, that, enquiring for the painter, he fat to
him, and rewarded him with a diamond ring from his
own finger. It is obfervable, that Jamefone always
drew himfelf t^th his hat on, either in imitation of
his mafter Rubens, or on having been indulged in that
liberty by the king when he fat to him. Many of
Jamefone’s wmrks are in both the colleges of Aber¬
deen •, and the Sibyls there he is faid to have drawn
from living beauties in that city. His beft works are
from the year 1630 to his death, wdiich happened at
Edinburgh in 1644.
JAMYN, Amadis, a celebrated French poet in
the 16th century. He is efleemed the rival of Ron-
fard, who was his cotemporary and friend. He was
fecretary and chamber-reader in ordinary to Charles IX.
and died about 1585. He wrote, x. Poetical works,
two vols. 2. Philofophical difcourfes to Paficharis and
Rodanthe, with feven academical difcourfes. 3. A
franfiation of the Iliad of Homer, begun by Hugh
Sabel, and finifhed by Jamyn ; with a tranfiation into
French verfe of the three firft books of the Odyfley.
JANE o/*Flanders, a remarkable lady, wTho feems
to have pofiefled in her own perfcn all the excellent qua¬
lities of both fexes, was the wife of John de Mountfort,
a competitor for the dukedom of Brittany upon the
death of John III. This duke, dying without Hue,
left his dominions to his niece Jane, married to Charles
de Blois nephew to the king of France ; but John de
Mountfort, brother to the late duke though by a fecond
marriage, claimed the duchy, and was received as fuc-
ceffor by the people of Nantes. The greateft part of
the nobility fwore fealty to Charles de Blois, thinking
him bell fupported. ihis difpute occafioned a civil
war ; in the courfe of which John was taken prifoner,
and fent to Paris. Ihis misfortune wmuld have entire¬
ly ruined his party, had not his intereft been fupport¬
ed by the extraordinary abilities of his wife, Jane of
Flandprs. Bold, daring, and intrepid, fhe fought like
a warrior in the field ; fhrewd, fenfible, and fagacious,
die fpoke like a politician in the council ; and endow-
ed with the mofl amiable manners and w'inning addrefs,
file was able to move the minds of her fubjeds by the
force of her eloquence, and mould them exa&ly accord¬
ing to her pieafure. She happened to lie at Rennes
when flie received the news of her hufband’s captivity ;
but that difafter, inflead of depreffing her ipirits, ferved
only to roufe her native courage and fortitude. She
forthwith afiembled the citizens 5 and, holding In her
arms her infant fon, recommended him to their care
and protedion in the moil pathetic terms, as the male
heir of their ancient dukes, who had always governed
them with lenity and indulgence, and to whom they
had ever prpfefled the mod zealous attachment. She
declared herfelf willing to run all hazards with them in Jansr o
fo juft a caufe j pointed out the refources that flill re- J^rjes
mained in the alliance of England 5 earneftly befeech- "‘.A '' i
ing them to make one vigorous effort againft an ufur-
per, who being forced upon them by the intrigues of
France, would, as a mark of his gratitude, facrifice the
liberties of Brittany to his protedor. The people
moved by the afieding appearance, and animated by
the noble condud of the princefs, vowed to live and die
with her in defending the rights of her family *, and
their example was follow'ed'by almcft all the Bretons.
The countefs went from place to place, encouraging
the garrifons of the feveral fortrelfes, and providing
them with every thing neceffary for their fubfiftence :
after which Ihe ihut herfelf up with her fon in Henne-
bon, where fhe refolved to wait for the fuccours which
the king of England (Edward III.) had promifed to
fend to her alTrftance. Charles de Blois, accompanied
by the dukes of Burgundy and Bourbon, and many
other noblemen, took the field with a numerous army,
and having reduced Rennes, laid fiege to Hennebon,
which was defended by the countefs in perfon. This
heroine repulfed the affailants in all their attacks with
the moft undaunted courage 5 and obferving one day
that their whole army had left the camp to join in a
general ftorm, fhe ruflied forth at a poftern-gate, with
three hundred horfe, fet fire to their tents and baggage,
killed their futlers and fervants, and raifed fuch a ter¬
ror and confternation through all their quarters, that the
enemy gave over their affault, and getting betwixt her
and the walls, endeavoured to cut off her retreat to
the city. Thus intercepted, fhe put the fpurs to her
horfe, and without halting, galloped direftly to Breft,
which lay at the diftance of two-and-twenty miles from
the feene of a6fion. There being fupplied with a bo¬
dy of five hundred horfe, fhe immediately returned,
and fighting her way through one part of the French
camp, was received into Hennebon, amidft the accla¬
mations of -the people. Soon after this the Englifh
fuccours appeared, and obliged the enemy to raife the
fiege.
JANEIRO, or Rio-Janetro, a river and province
of Brafil in South America, feated between the tropic
of Capricorn and 220 of S. Eat. See Rio-jaxeiro.
JANICULUM, or Janicularis, a hill of ancient
Rome, added by Ancus Martius j the burial place of
Numa, and of Statius Caecilius the poet : to the eaft and
fouth, having the Tiber ; to the weft, the fields 5 to the
north, a part of the Vatican. So called, either from
an ancient city, (Virgil) j or becaule it was a janua,
or gate, from which to iffue out and make incurfions
on the Tufcans, (Verrius Flaccus.) Now called Moris
Mureus, corruptly Montsnus, from its fparkling fands..
From this hill, on account of its height, is the moft
extenfive profpeft of Rome : but it is lefs inhabited,
becaule of its grofs air ; neither is it reckoned among
the feven hills. Hither the people retired, and were
hence afterwards recalled by O. Hortenfius the dida-
tor, (Pliny.)
JANIZARIES, an order of infantry in the Turkifh
armies j reputed the grand feignior’s foot-guards.
Voftius derives the word from gcni'zers, which in the
Turkifh language fignifies novt homines or militcs.
E1 Herb dot tell us, that jenitoheri fignifies a new band,
or troop; and that the name was firft given by Amu-
rath
JAN [5
janizaries,rath I. called the Conqueror, who choofing out one-fifth
^Janfen. part of the Chrlflian prifoners whom he had taken
from the Greeks, and inftrufting them in the difcinline
of war and the doftrines of their religion, fent them to
Jiagi Bektafche (a perfon vvhofe pretended piety render¬
ed him extremely revered among the Turks), to the
end-that he might confer his blefling on them, and at
the lame time give them fome mark to diftinguilh them
from the reft of the troops.-—Bektafche, after blefling
them in his manner, cut off one of the fleeves of the
fur-gown w'hich he had on, and put it on the head of
the leader of this new militia •, from which time, viz.
the year of Chrilf 1361, they have flill retained the
name jer.itcheri, and the fur-cap.
As, in the Turkiih army, the European troops are
diftinguilhed from thole of Alia •, the janizaries are al-
fo dillinguilhed into joni^ories of Conjlantinople, and of
Damafcus. 'I heir pay is from two afpers to twelve
per diem; for when they have a child, or do any fig-
nal piece of fervice, their pay is augmented.-—Their
drefs confitls of a dolyman, or long gowm, with ihort
fleeves, which is given them annually by the grand
feignior on the firft day of Ramazan. They wear no
turbeau 5 but, in lieu of that, a kind of cap, w'hich
they call %arcoIa, and a long hood of the fame fluff
hanging on their fhoulders. On folemn days they are
adorned with feathers, which are lluck in a little cafe
on the fore part of the bonnet.—Their arms, in Europe,
in time of war, are a fabre, a carabine or mufket,
and a cartouch-box hanging on the left fide. At Con-
ftantinople, in time of peace, they wear only a long
ItafF in their hand. In Alia, where powder and fire¬
arms are more uncommon, they wear a bow and ar¬
rows, with a poignard, w'hich they call haniare.—
Though the janizaries are not prohibited marriage,
yet they rarely marry, nor then but with the confent
of their officers ; as imagining a married man to make
a w’orfe foldier than a bachelor.— It was Ofman, or
Ottoman, or, as others wall have it, Amurath, who
firfl inflituted the order of janizaries. They were at
firfl called jaja, that is, footmen, to diflinguifh them
from the other Turks, the troops whereof confifled
moflly of cavalry. The number of janizaries is gene¬
rally above 40,000 j divided into 162 companies or
chambers called odas, in which they live together at
Conflantinople as in a convent. They are of a fupe-
rior rank to all other foldiers, and are alfo more arro¬
gant and factious, and it is by them that the public
tranquillity is moflly diilurbed. The government may
therefore be faid to be in the hands of the janizaries.
They have, howrever, fome good qualities : they are
employed to efcort travellers, and efpecially ambaf-
fadors and perfons of high rank, on the road ; in which
cafe, they behave with the utmofl zeal and fidelity.
Janizaries, at Rome, are officers or penfioners of
the pope, called alfo participantes, on account of certain
rites or duties which they enjoy in the annates, bulls,
or expeditions, and the Roman chancery.—Moll
authors are miif*ken in ' the nature of their office :
the truth is, they are officers of the third bench or
college of the Roman chancery. The firfl bench
confifls of writers, the fecond of abbreviators, and the
third of janizaries ; who are a kind of correflors and
revifors of the pope’s bulls.
JANSEN, Cornelius, biihop of Ypres, one of the
3.
moft learned divines of the l yth century, and princi- JanfenMl*.
pal of the feci called from his name janfeni/is. He * " ■■r
was born in Holland of Catholic parents, and fludied
at Louvain. Being fent to tranfafl fome bufinefs of
confequence relating to the univerfity, into Spain, the
Catholic king, viewing with a jealous eye the intriguing
policy of France, engaged him to wuite a book to
expofe the French to the pope as no good Catholics,
fince they made no fcruple of forming alliances with
Proteilant flates. Janfen performed this talk in his
Mars Gallicus •, and was rewarded with a mitre, being
promoted to the fee of Ypres in 1635. He had,
among other writings, before this, maintained a con-
troverfy agahiil the Proteflants upon the points of
grace and predeflination ; but his Augr/linus was the
principal labour of his life, on wdiich he /pent above 20
years. See the next article.
JANSENISTS, in Church Hijlory, a fefl of the
Roman Catholics in France, who followed the opinions
of Janfenius, biihop of Ypres, and dodtor of divinity
of the univerfities of Louvain and Douay, in relation
to grace and predeilination.
In the year 1640, the two univerfities juft mention¬
ed, and particularly Father Molina and Father Leonard
Celfus, thought fit to condemn the opinions of the Je-
fuits on grace and free-will. This having fet the con-
troverfy on foot, Janfenius oppofed to the dodlrine of
the Jefuits the fentiments of St Auguftine ; and wrote
a treatife on grace, which he entitled Augufinus.
This treatife was attacked by the Jefuits, who accufed
Janfenius of maintaining dangerous and heretical opi-'
nions; and aftenvards, in 1642, obtained of Pope Ur¬
ban VIII. a formal condemnation of the treatife written
by Janfenius : when the partizans of Janfenius gave
out that this bull was fptrious, and compofed by a per¬
fon entirely devoted to the Jefuits. After the death
of Urban VIII. the affair of Janfenifm began to be
more warmly controverted, and gave birth to an infi¬
nite number of polemical waitings concerning grace.
And what occafioned fome mirth, was the titles which
each party gave to their writings j one wmiter publifti-
ed The torch of St AuguJUne, another found Snuffers
for St Augufline's torch, and Father Veron formed A gag
for the JanfeniJIs, &c. In the year 1650, 68 biihops
of France fubferibed a letter to Pope Innocent X. to
obtain an inquiry into and condemnation of the five
following propofitions, extracted from Janfenius’s Au-
guftinus : 1. Some of God’s commandments are im-
poflible to be obferved by the righteous, even though
they endeavour with all their powrer to accomplifti
them. 2. In the ftate of corrupted nature, we are in¬
capable of refilling inwmrd grace. 3. Merit and de¬
merit, in a ftate of corrupted nature, does not depend
on a liberty which excludes neceflity, but on a liberty
which excludes conftraint. 4. The Semipelagians ad¬
mitted the neceflity of an inward preventing grace for
the performance of each particular a£l, even for the
beginning of faith : but they were heretics in main¬
taining that this grace was of fitch a nature, that the
will of man was able either to refill or obey it. It isr
Semipelagianifm to fay, that Jefus Chrift died, or Hied
his blood, for all mankind in general.
In the year 1652, the pope appointed a congrega¬
tion for examining into the difpute in relation *0 grace.
In this congregation Janfenius tvas condemned j and
the
JAN [
Janfiens. tlie bull of condemnation, publilhed in May 1653, fill-
v ' ed all the pulpits in Paris with violent outcries and
alarms againlt the herefy of the Janfenifts. In the year
1656, Pope Alexander VII. iflued out another bull,
in which he condemned the five propofitions of Janfe-
nius. However, the Janfenifts affirm, that thefe pro-
pofiticns are not to be found in this book j but that
fome of his enemies having caufed them to be printed
on a ffieet, inferted them in the book, and thereby de¬
ceived the pope. At laft Clement XI. put an end to the
dil’pute by his conftitution of July 1 7. 170$ ; in which,
after having recited the conftitutions of his predecef-
fors in relation to this affair, he declares, “ That in
order to pay a proper obedience to the papal conftitu¬
tions concerning the prefcnt queftion, it is neceffary to
receive them with a refpe&ful lilence.” The clergy of
Paris, the fame year, approved and accepted this bull,
and none dared to oppofe it.
This is the famous bull Unigcnitus, fo called from
its beginning with the words Unigcnitus Dei Fc/iijs,
&.c. which has occafioned fo much confufion in
France.
JANSSENS, Abraham, hiftory-painter, w’as born
at Antwerp in 1569. He was cotemporary with Ru¬
bens, and alfo his competitor, and in many of the fineft
parts of the art was accounted not inferior to that cele¬
brated mafter. It is reported, that having wafted his
time and his fubftance by a life of diffipation and
pleafure, and falling into neceffitous circumftances,
which he imputed more to ill fortune than to his own
negleft of his bufinefs, he grew envious at the grandeur
in which Rubens appeared, and impatient at his merit
and fuccefs; and with peevilh infolence challenged him
to paint a picture with him only for fame, which he was
willing to fubmit to impartial judges. But Rubens
rejefted the propofal, anfwering with modefty, that he
freely fubmitted to him, and the world would certain¬
ly do juftice to them both.
Sandrart, who had feen feveral of his works, affures
us, that he not only gave a fine roundnefs and relief
to his figures, but alfo fuch a warmth and clearnefs to
the carnations, that they had all the look of real llelh j
and his colouring was as durable as it was beautiful,
retaining its original luftre for a number of years. His
moft capital performance is faid to be the refurreftion of
Lazarus, which is in the cabinet of the eleftor Pala¬
tine, and is an objedl of admiration to all who behold
it.
JANSSENS, Vi&or Honorius, hiftory-painter, was born
at Bruffels in 1664, and was a difciple of one Volders,
under whofe direflion he continued for feven years
in which time he gave many proofs of a genius far
fuperior to thofe who were inltrufted in the fame fchool.
He afterwards went to Rome, where he attended par¬
ticularly the works of Raphael •, he defigned after the
antiques, and fketched the beautiful feenes around that
city ; and in a ihort time his paintings rofe in eiteem,
and tire principal nobility of Rome wrere defirous to
employ him. He affociated with Tempefta, the cele¬
brated landfcape-painter, for feveral years, and painted
the figures in the works of that great mafter as long as
they refided together.
Janffens compofed hiftorical fubje&s, botli in a fmall
and a large fize ; but he found the demand for his
finall pictures fo confiderable, that he was induced to
51 ] JAN
paint moft frequently in that fize. During 1 t years Jar.fie*,
he continued at Rome, which barely fufficed for his Jaruanus.
finiftiing thofe pidlures for which he was engaged ; nor v J
could he have even then been at his liberty, had he not
limited himfelf to a number, and determined not to un¬
dertake more.—Returning to Bruffels, his performances
were as much admired there as they had before been
in Italy ; but having married, and gradually become
the father of 11 children, he was compelled to change
Ins manner of painting in fmall, and to undertake on¬
ly thofe of the large kind, as being more lucrative,
more expeditious, and alfo more agreeable to his ge¬
nius and inclination. He adorned moft; of the churches-
and palaces of his own country with his compofitions.
—The invention of this artift w^as fruitful j he defign¬
ed correftly, his colouring is natural and pleafing, his
pencil free, and the airs of his heads have beauty and
elegance. . As to the difference between his large and
fmall paintings, it is obferved, that in corrednefs and
tafte they had an equal degree of merit j but the co¬
louring of the former appears more raw' and cold than
the colouring of the latter j and it is agreed, that for
fmall hiftorical pidures, he w'as preferable to all the
painters of his time.
Janssen, Cornelius, called Jolinfon, an eminent pain¬
ter of portraits, was born at Amfterdam (though in,
the Chronological tables, and in Sandrart, it is im¬
properly afferted that he was born in London), and
he refided in England for feveral years ; where he was-
engaged in the fervice of King James I. and painted
feveral excellent portraits of that monarch, as alio of
his children and of the principal nobility of his court.
He had not the freedom of hand, nor the grace of
Vandyck j but in other refpeds he w-as accounted his
equal, and in the finiihing his pidures fuperior. His
paintings are eafily diftinguiffied by their fmooth, clear,
and delicate tints, and by that charader of truth and’
nature with which they are ftrongly marked. He ge¬
nerally painted on board ; and, for the moft part, his
draperies are black j probably becaule the oppofition
of that tint made his flefti colours appear more beauti¬
fully bright, efpecially in his female figures. It is faid
that he ufed a quantity of ultramarine in the black
colours, as w-ell as in his carnations j which may be
one great caufe of their preferving their original luftre
even to this day. Frequently he painted in a fmall fize
in oil, and often copied his owm works in that manner.
His fame began to be fomewhat obicured, on the ar¬
rival of Vandyck in England; and the civil w'ar break¬
ing out fome time after, induced him to return to his
own country, where his paintings wrere in the hi«heit
efteem. He died in 1685.
Sr JANUARIUS, the patron faint of Naples,
where his head is occafionally carried in proceftion, in
order to flay the eruption of Vefuvius. The lique-
fadion of his blood is a famous miracle at Naples.
The faint fuffered martyrdom about the end of the
third century. When he was beheaded, a pious lady
of Naples caught about an ounce of his blood, which
has been carefully preferved in a bottle ever fince
without having loft a fingle grain of its weight. This
of itfelf, were it equally demonftrable, might be con-
fidered as a greater miracle than the circumftance on
which the Neapolitans lay the whole ftrefs, viz. that
the blood which has congealed, and acquired a folid
form-
•IAN [3
t1-»nuariu?, form by age, is no fooner brought near the bead of the
Jaruaiy. fajnt? t}ianj as a mark of veneration, it immediately li-
' quefies. This experiment is made three different times
every year, and is coniidered by the Neapolitans as a
miracle of the firth magnitude.
The fubftance in the bottle, which is exhibited for
the blood of the faint, has been fuppofed to be fome-
thing naturally fond, but which melts with a Imall
degree of heat. When it is firft brought out of the
cold chapel, it is in its natural folid date \ but when
brought before the faint by the pried, and rubbed be¬
tween his warm hands and breathed upon for fome
time, it melts ; and this is the whole mydery. But
Dr Moore, though he confeffes himfelf unable to ex¬
plain on what principle the liquefaflion depends, is
convinced that it mud be fomething different from
this : “ For he had it (he informs us) from the mod
fa'tisfafiory authority, from thofe who had opportuni¬
ties of knowing, and who believe no more in the mi¬
racle than the’ daunched Protedant, that, this con¬
gealed mafs has fometimes been found in a liquid date
in cold weather, before it was touched by the pried,
or brought near the head of the faint ^ and that, on
other occafions, it has remained folid when brought
before him, notwithdanding all the efforts of the pried
to melt it. When this happens, the fuperditious,
which, at a very moderate calculation, comprehends
99 in too of the inhabitants of this city, are thrown
into the utmod condernation, and are fometimes
wrought up by their fears into a date of mind which
is highly dangerous both to their civil and ecclefiailical
governors. It.is true, that this happens but feldom:
for, in general, tbe fubdance in the phial, whatever It
may be, is in a folid form in tbe chapel, and becomes li¬
quid when brought before tbe faintbut as tins is not
always tbe cafe, it affords reafon to believe, that what¬
ever may have been the cafe when this miracle or
trick, call it which you pleafe, was fird exhibited, tbe
principle on which it depends has fomehow or other
been lod, and is not now underdood fully even by the
prieds themfelves ; or elfe they are not now fo expert
- as formerly, in preparing the fubdance which reprefents
tbe faint’s blood, fo as to make it remain folid when it
ought, and liquefy the indant it is required.” .
The head and blood of the faint are kept in a kind
of prefs, with folding doors of diver, in the chapel of
St Januarius belonging to the cathedral church. I he
real head is probably not fo freih and well preferved
as the blood/ On that account, it is not expofed to
the eyes pf tbe public ; but is inclofed in a large diver,
bud, gilt and enriched with jewels of high value. This
being What appears to the people, their idea^ ol the
faint’s features and complexion are taken entirely from
the bud.—The blood is kept in a fmall repofitory by
itfelf.
JANUARY, the name of tbe fird month ot the
year, according to the computation now7 uled in tbe
vied. Tbe word is derived from the Latin Januarius,
a name given it by tbe Romans from Janus, one ol
their divinities, to w:hom they attributed two laces,
becaufe on the one Tide the fird day of January locked
towards the new year, and on the other towards.the
odd one. The word Januarius may alfo be derived
from lanua ii gate in regard this month being the
fird, is, as it were, the gate of the year.
3
2 ] JAN
January and February were introduced into the year Jams,
by Numa Pempilius •, Romulus’s year beginning in the 'r~i'
month of March.—The kalends, or fird day of this
month, was under the protection of Juno, and in a pe¬
culiar manner confccrated to Janus by an offering of a
cake made of new meal and new fait, with new frank-
incenfe and new wine. On the firft day of January a
beginning was made of every intended work, the con-
fuls elect took poffedion of their oftice, who, with the
flamens, offered facrifices and prayers for the prolperi •
ty of the empire. On this day ail animofities were fuf-
pended, and friends gave and received new year’s gifts,
called Strence. On this day too the Romans above all
things took care to be merry and divert themfeives, and
oftentimes luch a feene of drunkennels wras exhibited,
that they might wfith propriety enough have didin-
guidied it with the name of Ail-fools day.
The Chriltians heretofore faded on the fird day of
January, by way of oppolition to the luperditions and
debaucheries of the heathens.
.1 AN U S, in the heathen w'ordiip, the fird king of Italy,
v-ho, it is faid, received Saturn into his dominions, after
his being driven from Arcadia by Jupiter. He tem¬
pered the manners of his fubjefts, and taught them ci¬
vility 5 and from him they learned to improve the vine,
to fow corn, and to make bread. After his death, he
was adored as a god.
This deity was thought to prehde over all new un¬
dertakings. Hence, in all facrifices, the fird libations
of wine and wheat w7ere offered to Janus, all prayers
prefaced with a diort addreis to him j and tbe fird
month of tbe year was dedicated to and named from
him. See January.
Janus was reprefented w'ith two faces, either to de¬
note his prudence, or that he views at once the pad
and approaching years he had a iceptre in his right
hand, and a key in his left, to fignify his extendve au¬
thority, and his invention of locks.
Though this is properly a Roman deity, the abbe la
Pluche reprefents it as derived from the Egyptians,
who made known the rifing of the dog-ftar, which
opened their folar year, with an image with a key in its
hand, and two faces, one old and the other young, to
typify the old and new year.
Temple of Janus, in ancient hidory, a iquare build¬
ing at Rome (as fome fay) of entire brafs, ereCled by
Romulus, and fo large as to contain a datue of Janus
five feet high, with brazen gates on each fide, which
-were always kept open in time of war, and drut in time
of peace. But the Romans were fo much engaged in
war* that this temple was diut only twice from the
foundation of Rome till the reign of Auguftus, and fix
times afterwards. It was fird diut during the long reign
of Numa, who indituted this cersmony. 2. In the
year of the city 519, after the end of the fird Punic
war. 3. By Augudus after the battle of Actium, in
the year of Rome 725. 4. On Augudus’s-return from
tbe war which he had againd the Cantabrians in Spain,
in the year of Rome 729. 5. Under the fame emperor, in
744, about five years before the birth of Chrid, when
there was a general peace throughout the whole Ro¬
man empire, which laded 1 2 years. 6. Under Nero,
811. 7. Under Vefpafian, 824. 8. Under Condan-
tius, when, upon Magnentius’s death, he was left
foie poffeffor of the empire, 1105. Some difpute the
authority
JAP [ 33 ] JAP
Janus, authority on which it is faid to have been fhnt by Con-
Japan. fl;ant!us> and fay that the laft time of its being fliut
was under Gordian, about the year of Rome 994.
Virgil gives us a noble defcription of this cuftom,
JEn. lib. iii. ver. 607. The origin of this cudom
is not certainly known.
Janus was alfo the name of a ftreet in Rome, inha¬
bited for the moft part by bankers and ufurers. It was
fo called from two ftatues of Janus which were erected
there, one at the top, the other at the bottom, of the
ftreet. The top of the ftreet was therefore called Ja¬
nus Summus, the bottom Janus Imus, and the middle
Janus Medius. Hence Horace, lib. 1. epift. 1.
llcec Janus fummus ab imo perdocet.
And Sat. 3. Lib. 2.
— ■ ■— PoJIquam
omms res mea Janum
Jld mediant fraBa ejl.  
JAPAN, a general name for a great number of
iflands lying between the eaftern coaft of Alia and the
Weftern coaft of America, and which all together form
■a large and powerful empire. They extend from the
30th to the 41ft degree of north latitude, and from the
130th to the 147th of call longitude.
Were Smith and North Britain divided by an arm of
the fea, Japan might be moft aptly compared to Eng¬
land, Scotland, and Ireland, with their refpe&ive fmaller
iflands, peninfulas, bays, channels, &c. all under the
fame monarch.
The Europeans call the empire Japan ; but the in¬
habitants Niphon, from the greateft ifland belonging
to it ; and the Chinefe Ciphon, probably on account of
its eaftern fituation $ thefe names fignifying, in both
languages, the Bajis or Foundation of the Sun. It was
firft difcovered by the Portuguefe about the year of
Chrift 1542.
Moft of the iflands which compofe it are furrounded
with fuch high craggy mountains, and fuch fhallow
and boifterous feas, that failing about them is extreme¬
ly dangerous •, and the creeks and bays are choaked
tip with fuch rocks, fhelves, and fands, that it looks
as if Providence had defigned it to be a kind of little
wwld by itfelf. Thefe feas have likewife many dan¬
gerous whirlpools, which are very difficult to pafs at
low w-ater, and will fuck in and fwallow up the largeft
veffels, and all that comes within the reach of their
vortex, daftiing them againft the rocks at the bottom }
infomuch that fome of them are never feen again, and
others thrown upon the furface at fome miles diftance.
Some of thefe whirlpools alfo make a noife terrible to
hear.
The Cbinefe pretend that the Japan iflands were
fir ft peopled by themfelves: but it is more probable
that the original inhabitants were a mixture of differ¬
ent nations, driven thither by thofe tempeftuous feas,
at different times.
As thefe iflands lie in the fifth and fixth climates^
they w’ould be much hotter in fummer than England,
wrere not the heats refrelhed by the wands which conti¬
nually blow from the fea around them, and to which
they are much expofed by the height of their fitua¬
tion : this circumftance, however, not only renders
their winters exceffively cold, but the feafons more in-
eonftant. They have great falls of fnow in winter,
-Vol.XI. Part I.
which are commonly followed by hard frofts. The
rains in fummer are very violent, efpecially in the
months of June and July, w’hich on that account are
called fat Juki, or water-months. The country is al¬
fo much fubjedft to dreadful thunders and lightnings,
as well as ftorms and hurricanes, which frequently do
a great deal of damage.
The foil, though naturally barren and mountainous,
by the induftry of the inhabitants, not only fupplies
them with every neceffary of life, but alfo furniffies
other countries with them j producing, befides corn,
the finely and whiteft rice and other grains, with a
great variety of fruits, and vaft numbers of cattle of
all forts. Befides rice, and a fort of wheat and bar¬
ley, wdth two forts of beans, they have Indian wheat,
millet, and feveral other kinds in great abundance.
Their feas, lakes, and rivers, abound with fiffi ; and
their mountains, woods, and forefts, are well ftocked
with horfes, elephants, deer, oxen, buffaloes, fheep,
hogs,, and other ufeful animals. Some of their moun¬
tains alfo are enriched with mines of gold, filver, and
copper, exquifitely fine, befides tin, lead, iron, and
Various other minerals and foffils j whilft others abound
with feveral forts of marble and precious ftones. Of
thefe mountains, fome may be juftly ranked among
the natural rarities of this country j one, in particu¬
lar, in the great ifland of Niphon, is of fuch prodi¬
gious heignt as to be eafily feen forty leagues off at
fea, though its diftance from the Ihore is about eigh¬
teen. Some authors think it exceeds the famous Peak
of Teneriffe; but it may rather be called a clufter or
gjoup of mountains, among which are no lefs than
eight dreadful volcanoes, burning with incredible fury,
and often laying wafte the country round about them :
but, to make fome amends, they afford great variety
of medicinal waters, of different degrees of heat *, one
of thefe, mentioned by Varenius, is faid to be as hot as
burning oil, and to fcorch and confume every thing
thrown into it.
The many brooks and rivers that have their fources
among the mountains, form a great number of delight¬
ful cafcades, as well as fome dreadful catara&s. A-
mong the great variety of trees in the forefts here,
the cedars exceed all of that kind through India, for
ftraightnefs, height, and beauty. They abound in
moft of the iflands, efpecially the 'largeft.
_ Their feas, befides fifli, furnifh them with great quan¬
tities of red and white coral, and fome pearls of great
value, befides a variety of fea plants and ffiells ; which
laft are not inferior to thofe that are brought from Am-
boyna, the Molucca and other eafterly iflands.
The vaft quantity of fulphur with which moft of
the Japan iflands abounds, makes them fubjeft to fre¬
quent and dreadful earthquakes. The inhabitants are
fo atcuftomed to them, that they are fcarcely alarmed
at any, nnlefs they chance to be very terrible indeed,
and lay whole towns in ruins, which very often proves
the cafe. On thefe occafions, they have recourfe to
extraordinary facrifices, and ads of worlhip, to their
deities or demons, according to the different notions
of each feeft, and fometimes even proceed to offer hu¬
man viaims; but in this cafe they only take fome of
the vileft and moft abandoned fellow's they can meet
with, becaufe they are only facrificed - to the malevo¬
lent deities.
The
\
E
JAP [
The religion throughout Japan, it is well known, js
Pagan, fplit into feveral feds, who live together in the
greateft harmony. Every fed has its own temples and
priefts. The fpiritual emperor, the Dairi, is the chief
of their religion. They acknowledge and honour a
Supreme Being. The author of this relation (Dr
Thunberg) faw two temples of the God of gods of a
majeftic height. The idol that reprefented this god
was of gilded wood, and of fo prodigious a lize, that
upon his hands fix perfons might fit in the Japanefe
fafhion j his (boulders were five toifes broad. In the
other temple, the infinite power of this god was repre¬
fented by little gods to the number of 33,333, all (land¬
ing round the great idol that reprefented God. The
priefts, who are numerous in every temple, have nothing
to do but to clean the pavement, light the lamps, and
drefs the idol with flowers. The temples ape open to
every body, even to the Hollanders; and in cafe they
are in want of a lodging in the fuburbs, when they go
to the court of Jeddo, they are entertained with hofpi-
tality in thefe temples.
The Roman Catholic religion had once made a
confiderable progrefs in this country, in confequence
of a million coudufted by the Portuguefe and Spa-
r.ifii Jefuitsj among -whom the famous Saint Fras-
cis Xavier was employed, but foon relinquifhed the fer-
vice. There were alfo fome Francifcan friars of Spain
engaged at la ft. The Jefuits and friars were fupplied
from Goa, Macao, and the Manilhas. At firft the un¬
dertaking proceeded with the mod rapid fuccefs, but
ended at laft in the moft tragical manner, all owfing to
the pride and haughtinefs, the mifcondudl, rapacity,
and fenfelefs extravagant confpiracy of the fathers againft
the ftate. This folly and madnefs produced a perfecu-
tion of 40 years duration, terminated by a mod hor¬
rible and bloody maffacre, not to be paralleled in hif-
tory. After this the Portuguefe, as likewife the Chri-
ftian religion, were totally, expelled the country, and
the moft effedlual means taken for preventing their re¬
turn. The natives are for this purpofe prohibited from
going out of the country; and all foreigners are exclu¬
ded from an open and free trade ; for as to the Dutch
and Chinefe, under which laft name fome other eaftern
nations go thither, they are (but up whilft they remain
there, and a moft ftridt watch is fet upon them, infomuch
that they are no better than prifoners; and the Dutch,
it is (aid, to obtain a privilege even fo far, declared
tbemfelves to be no Chri/lians, but Dutchmen. This ca¬
lumny, however, Dr Kempfer has endeavoured to wipe
off, but not altogether to fatisfaftion.
It was about the year of Chrift 1549, or fix years af¬
ter the firft difeovery, that the fathers of the fociety ar¬
rived there, being induced by the favourable reprefen-
tations of a young Japanefe who had fled to Goa.
Till the year 1625, or near 1630, the Chriftian reli¬
gion fpread through moft of the provinces of the em¬
pire, many of the princes and lords openly embracing it;
and “ there was very good reafon to hope, that within
a (hort compafs of time the whole empire would have
been converted to the faith of our Saviour, had not the
ambitious views, and the impatient endeavours of the
fathers to reap the temporal as well as the fpiritual
fruits of their care and labour, fo provoked the fupreme
ma|efty of_-the-empire as to raife againft themfelves and
t,heir converts a perfecution which hath not its parallel
34 ] JAP
in hiftory, whereby the religion they preached, and all
thofe that profeffed it, w^ere in a few years time entirely
exterminated.'”—The fathers had made a progrefs lb
great, that the princes of Bungu, Arima, and Omura
who had been baptized, “ fent, in the year 1582, fome
of their neareft relations, with letters and preients to
pay homage to the then pope, Gregory XIII. and
to afifure his holinefs of their filial fubmiflion to the
church ; an account of which moft celebrated embaffy
hath been given in the works of that incomparable
hiftorian Thuanus, and by many other Roman catholic
writers.” •»
But notwithftanding this pleafing profpeft, the em¬
peror, anno 1586, iffued proclamations for the fuppref-
fion of the religion, and the perfecution began. This,
however, at firft had not that effedl which the govern¬
ment expedied ; for though, according to the letters of
the Jefuits, 20,570 perfons fuffered death for the faith
of Chrift in the year 1590 only, yet in 1591 and 1592,
when all the churches wrere adlually (hut up, they made
12,000 new7 converts. The bufinefs was finally con¬
cluded by the maffacre at Simabara, about the year
1640. The reafons of the emperor’s proclamations,
making it death to embrace the religion, were as
follow : 1. The new religion occafioned confiderable
alterations in the Japanefe church, and was prejudi¬
cial in the higheft degree to the heathen clergy. 2. It
was feared the innovation in religion might be attended
wdth fatal confequences even in regard to the lick ; but
what more immediately gave rife to them was, as the
Japanefe of credit confeffed to Dr Kempfer, pride and
covetoufnefs ; pride among the great ones, and cove-
toufnefs in people of lefs note ; the fpiritual fathers
aiming not only at the falvation of their fouls, but ha¬
ving an eye alfo to their money and lands, and the mer¬
chants dilpofing of their goods in the moft ufurious and
unreafonable manner. To confine ourfelves to the cler¬
gy here: they “thought it beneath their dignity to walk
on foot any longer ; nothing w'ould ferve them but they
muft be carried about in (lately chairs, mimicking the
pomp of the pope and his cardinals at Rome. They not
only put themfelves on an equal footing with the greateft;
men of the empire, but, fwelled with ecclefiaftical pride,
fancied that even a fuperior rank was nothing but their
due. It one day happened, that a Portuguele bilhop
met upon the road one of the counfellors of ftate on his
way to court. The haughty prelate would not order
his chaife to be (lopped, in order to alight and to pay
his refpedls to the great man, as is ufual in that coun¬
try; but without taking any notice of him, nay, indeed
without (howing him fo much as common marks of ci¬
vility, he very contemptuoufly bid his men carry him
by. The great man, exafperated at fo fignal an affront,
thenceforward bore a mortal hatred to the Portuguefe,
and, in the height of his juft refentment, made his com¬
plaint to the emperor himfelf, with fuch an odious pic¬
ture of the infolence, pride, and vanity of this nation,
as he expe&ed could not but raife the emperor’s utmoft
indignation.” This happened in 1566. The next year
the perfecution began anew, and 26 perfons, of the num¬
ber whereof were two foreign Jefuits, and feveral other
fathers of the Francifcan order, were executed on the
crofs. The emperor Jiojas had ufurped the crown on
his pupil Tidajori, who, as likewife the greater part of
his court and party, had been either Chriftians them¬
felves.
Japan.
I
JAP ■ [ 35
felves, or at leafl very favourably inclined to that reli¬
gion j fo that reafons of ftate mightily co-operated to
forivard the perfecution.
Some Francifcan friars, whom the governor of the
Manilhas had fent as his ambafladors to the emperor of
Japan were guilty at this time of a mod imprudent
flep : they, during the whole time of their abode in the
country, preached openly in the ftreet of Macao where
they relided •, and of their own accord built a church,
contrary to the imperial commands, and contrary to the
advice and earned folicitations of the Jefuits.
Some time after, a difcovery of a dangerous confpi-
racy, which the fathers, and the yet remaining adhe¬
rents of their religion, entered into againd the perfon
of the emperor as a heathen prince, put a finilhing
droke to the affair, and hadened the fentence which
was pronounced foon after, that thePortuguefeJhouldfor
ever he banifhed the emperor's dominiotis; for till then
the date feemed defirous to fpare the merchants and fe-
cular perfons, for the purpofe of continuing trade and
commerce with them, which rvas looked upon as an af¬
fair independent of religion. The affair of the confpi-
racy was as follows: the Dutch had had an eye to the
trade of Japan before 1600, and in 1611 had liberty of
a free commerce granted them by the imperial letters
patent, and had aftually a faftory at Firando. The
Dutch were then at vrar with Spain, which was then
fovereign of the Portuguefe dominions j lo that it was
natural for them to be trying to fupplant them. The
Portuguefe, on their parts, made ufe of all malicious in¬
ventions to blacken their charadlers, calling them re¬
bels and pirates, whence it was natural for the Dutch
to endeavour to clear, and even to revenge, themfelves.
Now they “ took an homeward-bound Portuguefe Ihip
near the Cape of Good Hope, on board of which they
found fome traitorous letters to the king of Portugal,
written by one Captain Moro, who was chief of the
Portuguefe in Japan, himfelf a Japanefe by birth, and
a great zealot for the Chriftian religion. The Dutch
took fpecial care to deliver the faid letters to their pro-
tedlor the prince of Firando, who commut-icated them
without lofs of time to the governor of Nagafaki, a
great friend to the Portuguefe. Captain Moro having
been taken up, boldly, and with great affurance, denied
the fa<ff, and fo did all the Portuguefe then at Nagafa¬
ki. However, neither the governor’s favour, nor their
conftant denial, were able to clear them, and to keep off
the cloud which was ready to break over their heads.
Hand and feal convinced them ; the letter was fent up
to court, and Captain Moro fentenced to be burnt alive
on a pale, which was executed accordingly. This let¬
ter laid open the whole plot which the Japanefe Chri-
flians, in conjunftion with the Portuguefe, had laid
againft the emperor’s life and throne $ the want they
flood in of (hips and foldiers, which were promifed them
from Portugal j the names of the Japanefe princes con¬
cerned in the confpiracy ; and laftly, to crown all, the
expedlation of the papal bleffing. This difcovery made
by the Dutch was afterwards confirmed by another let¬
ter written by the faid Captain Moro to the Portuguefe
government at Macao, which was intercepted and
brought to japan by a Japanefe Hup.”
Confidering this, and the fufpicions which the court
had then already conceived againft the Portuguefe, it
was no difficult matter thoroughly to ruin the little ere-
] J A V
dit and favour they had as yet been able to preferve j
and the rather, fince the ftridt imperial orders notwith-
ftanding, they did not leave off privately to bring over
more ecclefiaftics. Accordingly, in the year 1637, an
imperial proclamation was fent to the governors of Na¬
gafaki, with orders to fee it put in execution. It was
then that the empire of Japan was Unit for ever both
to foreigners and natives.
Now, although the governors of Nagafaki, on receipt
of thefe commands, took care they Ihould be obeyed,
yet the directors of the Portuguefe trade maintained
themfelves in Japan two years longer, hoping to obtain
leave to ftay in the illand of Defima, and there to con¬
tinue their trade. But they found themfelves at laft
wholly difappointed j for the emperor was refolved to
get rid of them •, and on affurance given him by the
Dutch Fall India company that they would fupply for
the future wdiat commodities had been imported by the
Portuguefe, he declared the Portuguefe and the Caffi-
lians, and whoever belonged to them, enemies of the
empire, forbidding the importation of even the goods
of their country, Spanilh wines only excepted, for the
ufe of the court. And thus the Portuguefe loft their
profitable trade and commerce with Japan, and were
totally expelled the country before the latter end of the
year 1639 or 1640 j and thus ended the fruitlefs popith
million in this empire, for the Portuguefe have never been
able to reftore themfelves 5 and the Dutch have it not
in their power to do any one thing in favour of religion,
were they fo inclined j but, as it appears, they are very
indifferent as to that, and are in but little credit with
the Japanefe.
According to Dr Thunberg’s refearches, the Japa¬
nefe have never been fubdued by any foreign power,
not even in the moft remote periods 5 their chronicles
contain fuch accounts of their valour, as one would ra¬
ther incline to confider as fabulous inventions than ac¬
tual occurrences, if later ages had not furnifhed equally
ftriking proofs of it. When the Tartars, for the firft
time in 790, had overrun part of Japan, and when,
after a confiderable time had elapfed, their fleet was
deftroyed by a violent ftorm in the courfe of a Angle
night, the Japanefe general attacked, and fo totally de¬
feated his numerous and brave enemies, that not a Angle
perfon furvived to return and carry the tidings of fuch
an unparalleled defeat. In like manner, when the Japa¬
nefe were again, in 1281, invaded by the warlike Tartars,
to the number of 240,000 fighting men, they gained a
viflory equally complete. The extirpation of the Por¬
tuguefe, and with them of the Chriftian religion, to¬
wards the beginning of the 17th century, as already
mentioned, was fo complete, that fcarce a veftige can
now be difeerned of its ever having exifted there.
With refpecl to the government of thefe iflands, it
is and has been for a long time monarchical; though
formerly it feems to have been fplit into a great num¬
ber of petty kingdoms, which were at length all fwal-
lowed by one. The imperial dignity had been en¬
joyed for a confiderable time before the year 1500,
by a regular fucceffion of princes, under the title of
dairos, a name fuppofed to have been derived from
Dairo the head of that family. Soon after that
epoch, fuch a dreadful civil war broke out, and lafted
fo many years, that the empire was quite ruined. Dur-
ring thefe diftraftions and confufions, a common fol-
E 2 dier,
JAP [ 36 ] JAP
Jannn. dier, by name Tayckoy, a perfon of obfcure birth,
v ’ but of an enterpriling genius, found means to raife
himfelf to the imperial dignity 5 having, in little more
than three years time, by an uncommon Ihare of good
fortune, fubdued all his competitors and opponents
and reduced all their cities and caftles. The dairo
not being in a condition to obftruifl or put a flop
to his progrefs, was forced to fubmit to his terms j
and might perhaps have been condemned to much
harder, had not Tayckoy been apprehenfive left his
foldiers, who ftill revered their ancient natural mo¬
narch, ftiould have revolted in his favour. To prevent
this, he granted him the fupreme power in all religious
matters, with great privileges, honours, and revenues
annexed to it; whilft himfelf remained invefted with
the whole civil and military power, and was acknow¬
ledged and proclaimed king of Japan. This great re¬
volution happened in 1517, and Tayckoy reigned fe-
veral years with great wifdom and tranquillity j during
which he made many wholefome laws and regulations,
which ftill fublift, and are much admired to this day.
At his death, he left the crown to his fon Tayckof-
fama, then a minor 5 but the treacherous prince under
whofe guardianfhip he was left deprived him of his
life before he came of age. By this murder, the
crown paffed to the family of Jejaffama, in which it
ftill continues. Tayckoy and his fucceffors have con¬
tented themfelves with the title of cubo, which, under
the dairos, was that of prime minifter, whofe office is
now fupprefled-, fo that the cubo, in all fecular con¬
cerns, is quite as abfolute and defpotic, and has as
extenftve a power over the lives and fortunes of all his
lubjefts, from the petty kings down to the loweft per-
fons, as ever the dairos had. The dairo refides con-
ftantly at Meaco, and the cubo at Jeddo.
The inhabitants of Japan are well-grown, agile, and
aflive, and at the fame time flout-limbed, though they
do not equal in ftrength the northern inhabitants of
Europe. The colour of the face is commonly yellow 5
which fometimes varies to brown, and fometimes to
white. The inferior fort, who during their work in
fummer have often the upper parts of the body naked,
are fun-burnt and browner j women of diftinftion, who
never go uncovered into the open air, are perfedlly white.
The national character, conlifts in intelligence and
prudence, franknefs, obedience, and politenefs, good¬
nature and civility, curiofity, induftry, and dexterity,
economy and fobriety, hardinefs, cleanlinefs, juftice
and uprightnefs, honefty and fidelity *, in being alfo
miftruftful, fuperftitious, haughty, refentful, brave and
invincible.
In all its tranfaftions, the nation ffiows great intel¬
ligence, and can by no means be numbered among the
favage and uncivilized, but rather is to be placed
among the polilhed. The prefent mode of government^
admirable fldll in agriculture, fparing mode of life,
way of trading with foreigners, manufaflures, &.c.
afford convincing proofs of their cunning, firmneff,
and intrepid courage. Here there are no appearances
of that vanity fo common among the Afiatics and A-
fricans, of adorning themfelves with Ihells, glafs-beads,
and poliffied metal plates : neither are they fond of
the ufelefs European ornaments of gold and filver lace,
jewels, &c, but are careful to provide themfelves, from
the produ&ions of their own country, with neat clothes, Japas.
well-tafted food, and good weapons. —-y—.
Their curiofity is exceffive j nothing imported by the
Europeans efcapes it. They afk for information con¬
cerning every article, and their queftions continue till
they become wearifome. It is the phyfician, among
the traders, that is alone regarded as learned, and par¬
ticularly during the journey to court and the refidence
at Jeddo, the capital of the empire, that he is regarded
as the oracle, wffiich they truft can give refponfes in all
things, whether in mathematics, geography, phyfics,
chemiftry, pharmacy, zoology, botany, medicine, &c.
Economy has its peculiar abode in Japan. It is a
virtue admired as well in the emperor’s palace as in the
meaneft cottage. It makes thofe of finall poffeffions
content with their little, and it prevents the abundance
of the rich from overflowing in excels and voluptuoul-
nefs. Hence it happens, that what in other countries
is called fcarcity and famine, is unknown here j and
that, in fo very populous a ftate, fcarce a perfon in ne-
ceffity, or a beggar, ffiould be found.
The names of families, and of Angle perfons, are
under very different regulations from ours. The family
name is never changed, bpt is never ufed in ordinary
converfation, and only when they fign fome writing j
to which they alfo for the moft part affix their feal.
There is alfo this peculiarity, that the furname is al¬
ways placed firft 5 juft as in botanical books the generic
name is always placed before the fpecific name. The
prsenomen is always ufed in addreffing a perfon ; and it
is changed feveral times in the courfe of life. A child
receives at birth from its parents a name, which is re¬
tained till it has itfelf a fon arrived at maturity. A
perfon again changes his name when he is invefted with
any office j as alfo when he is advanced to a higher
truft : fome, as emperors and princes, acquire a new
name after death. The names of women are lefs vari¬
able ; they are in general borrowed from the moft beau¬
tiful flowers.
After marriage, the wife is tonfined to her own
apartment, from whence (he hardly ever ftirs, except
once a-year to the funeral-rites of her family j nor is
ftie permitted to fee any man, except perhaps lome
very near relation, and that as feldom as can be. The
wives, as well as in China and other parts of the eaft,
bring no portion with them, but are rather bought by
the hulband of their parents and relations. The bride¬
groom moft commonly fees his bride for the firft time
upon her being brought to his houfe from the place of
the nuptial ceremony : for in the temple where it is
performed (he is covered over with a veil, which reach¬
es from the head to the feet. A hulband can put his
wives to a more or lefs fevere death, if they give him
the leaft caufe of jealoufy, by being feen barely to con-
verfe with another man, or fuffering one to come into
their apartment.
The drefs of the Japanefe deferves, more than that
of any other people, the name of national j fince they
are not only different from that of all other men, but
are alfo of the fame form in all ranks, from the mo¬
narch to his meaneft fubjeft, as well as in both lexes j
and what exceeds all credibility, they have not been
altered for at leaft 2444 years. They umverially con-
fill of night-gowns, made long and wide, of which fe¬
veral
JAP [ 37 3 JAP
Japan, veral are worn at once by all ranks and all ages. The
—v——1 more diftinguifhed and the rich have them of the fineft
filk •, the poorer fort of cotton. Thofe of the women
reach down to the ground, and fometimes have a train j
in the men, they reach down to the heels : travellers,
foldiers, and labourers, either tuck them up, or wear
them only down to the knees. The habit of the men
is generally of one colour ; the women have theirs va¬
riegated and frequently with llowers of gold interwo¬
ven. In fummer, they are either without lining, or
have but a thin one •, in winter they are fluffed to a
great thicknefs with cotton or fllk. The men feldom
wear a great number j but the women thirty, fifty, or
more, all fo thin, that they fcarce together amount to
five pounds. The undermoft ferves for a (hirt, and is
therefore either white or blue, and for the moft part
thin and tranfparent. All thefe gowns are faftened
round the w^aift with a belt, which in the men are about
a hand’s-breadth, in the women about a foot ; of fuch
a length that they go twice round the waiff, and after¬
wards are tied in a knot with many ends and bows.
The knot, particularly among the fair fex, is very con-
fpicuous, and immediately informs the fpedlator whe¬
ther they are married or not. The unmarried have it
behind, on their back ; the married before. In this
belt the men fix their fabres, fans, pipe, tobacco, and
medicine boxes. In the neck the gowns are always cut
round, without a collar ; they therefore leave the neck
bare j nor is it covered with cravat, cloth, or any thing
elfe. The fleeves are always ill made, and out of all
proportion wide : at the opening before, they are half
fewed up, fo that they form a fack, in which the hands
can be put in cold weather *, they alfo ferve for a pock¬
et. Girls in particular have their fleeves fo long that
they reach down to the ground. Such is the fimplicity
of their habit, that they are foon dreffed \ and to un-
drefs, they need only open their girdle and draw in
their arms.
As the gowns, from their length, keep the thighs
and legs warm, there is no occafion for ftockings $
nor do they ufe them in all the empire. Among
poorer perfons on a journey, and among foldiers, who
have not fuch long gowns, one fees bulkins of cotton.
Shoes, or, more properly fpeaking, flippers, are of all
that is worn by the Japanefe, the fimpleft, the meaneft,
and the moft miferable, though in general ufe among
high and low, rich and poor. They are made of in¬
terwoven rice-ftraw ; and fometirnes, for perfons of dif-
tinflion, of reeds fplit very thin. They confift only of
a foie, without upper leathers or quarters. Before,
there paffes over, tranfverfely, a bow of linen, of a
finger’s breadth : from the point of the ftioe to this bow
goes a thin round band, which running within the great
toe, ferves to keep the Ihoe fixed to the foot. The
ftioe being without quarters. Aides, during walking,
like a flipper. Travellers have three bands of twifted
ftraw, by which they faften the flioe to the foot and
leg, to prevent its falling off. The Japanefe never en¬
ter their houfes with ftioes, but put them off in the en¬
trance. This precaution is taken for the fake of their
neat carpets. During the time the Dutch refide in Ja¬
pan, as they have fometimes Occafion to pay the natives
vifits in their houfes, and as they have their own apart¬
ment at the faflory covered with the fame fort of car¬
pets, they do not wear European fhoes, but have in.
their Head red, green, or black flippers, which can ea-
fily be put off at entering in. They, however, wear
ftockings, with ftioes of cotton, faftened by buckles.
Thefe (hoes are made in Japan, and may be waftied
whenever they become dirty.
The way of dreffing the hair is not lefs peculiar to
this people, and lefs univerfally prevalent among them,
than the ufe of their long gowns. The men {have the
head from the forehead to the neck j and the hair re¬
maining on the temples, and in the nape, is well be-
fmeared with oil, turned upwards, and then tied with,
a white paper thread, which is wrapped round feveral
times. The ends of the hair beyond the head, are cut
crofs-ways, about a finger’s length being left. This
part, after being pafted together with oil, is bent in
fuch a manner that the point is brought to the crowm of
the head $ in which fituation it is fixed by palling the
fame thread round it once. Women, except fuch as
happen to be feparated from their hufbands, ftiave no
part of their head.
The head is never covered with hat or bonnet in
winter or in fummer, except when they are on a jour¬
ney *, and then they ule a conical hat, made of a fort
of grafs, and fixed with a ribband. Some travelling
women, who are met with on the roads, have a bonnet
like a ftiaving bafon inverted on the head, w-hich is
made of cloth, in which gold is interwoven. On other
occafions, their naked heads are preferved, both from
rain and the fun, by umbrellas. Travellers, moreover,
have a fort of riding-coat, made of thick paper oiled.
They are worn by the upper fervants of princes, and
the fuite of other travellers. Dr Thunberg and his;
fellow-travellers, during their journey to court, were
obliged to provide fuch for their attendants when they
paffed through the place where they are made.
A Japanefe always has his arms painted on one or
more of his garments, efpecially on the long and Ihort
gowns, on the fleeves, or between the ftioulders j fa
that nobody can fteal them } which otherwife might
eafily happen in a country where the clothes are fo
much alike in fluff, ihape, and fize.
The weapons of the Japanefe confift of a bow and ar¬
rows, fabre, halbert, and mulket. The bowrs are very
large, and the arrows long, as in China. When the
bows are to be bent and difcharged, the troop always
refts on one knee, which hinders them making a fpeedy
difcharge. In the fpring the troops affemble to pra£life
fkooting at a mark. Mulkets are not general \ Dr
Thunberg only faw them in the hands of perfons of di-
ftindtion, in a feparated and elevated part of the audi¬
ence room. The barrel is of the common length j but
the flock is very Ihort, and there is a match in the
lock. The fabre is their principal and beft wreapon,
which is univerfally worn, except by the peafants.
They are commonly a yard long, a little crooked, and
thifk in the back. The blades are of an incomparable
goodnefs, and the old ones are in very high efteem.
They are far fuperior to the Spanilh blades, fo celebrat¬
ed in Europe. A tolerably thick nail is eafily cut in
twro without any damage to the edge; and a man, ac¬
cording to the account of the Japanefe, may be cleft
afunder. A feparate fafti is never ufed, but the fword
is ftuck in the belt, on the left fide, with the edge up¬
wards, which to a European appears ridiculous. AIL
p.erfons in office wear two fuch fabres, one of their owm,.
and
JAP [ 38 ] JAP
• Japan, and the other the /word of office, as it is called; the
" v latter is always the longer. Both are worn in the belt
cn the fame fide, and lo difpofed as to crofs each other.
When they are fitting, they have their fword of office
laid on one fide or before them.
The fciences are very far from having arrived at the
fame height in Japan as in Europe. The hillory of the
country is, notwithflanding, more authentic, perhaps,
than that of any other country ; and it is ftudied, with¬
out diftinftion, by all. Agriculture, which is confider-
ed as the art mofi. neceffary, and molt conducive to the
fupport and prolperity of the kingdom, is nowhere in
the world brought to fuch perfedtion as here ; where
neither civil nor foreign war, nor emigration, diminifh-
es population ; and where a thought is never entertain¬
ed, either of getting pofTeffion of other countries, or to
import the ufelefs and often hurtful productions of fo¬
reign lands; but where the utmoft care is taken that no
turf lies uncultivated, and no produce of the earth un¬
employed. Aftronomy is purfued and refpefted ; but
the natives are unable, without the aid of Chinefe, and
fometimes of Dutch almanacks, to form a true kalen-
dar, or calculate an eclipfe of the fun or moon within
minutes and feconds. Medicine has neither arrived,
nor is it likely to arrive, at any degree of perfeClion.
Anatomy is totally unknown ; the knowledge of dif-
eafes imperfeCf, intricate, and often fabulous. Botany,
and the knowledge of medicines, conffitute the whole
of their Ikill. They ufe only fimples ; and thefe gene¬
rally in diuretic and diaphoretic decoftions. They are
unacquainted with compound medicines. Their phyfi-
cians always indeed feel the pulfe ; but they are very
tedious, not quitting it for a quarter of an hour; be-
fides, they examine firlf one, and then the other arm,
as if the blood was not driven by the fame heart to
both pulfes. Belides thofe difeafes which they have in
common with other countries, or peculiar to themfelves,
the venereal difeaie is very frequent, which they only
underftood how to alleviate by decoClions, thought to
purify the blood. Salivation, which their phyficians
have heard mentioned by the Dutch furgeons, appears
to them extremely formidable, both to condudf and to
undergo ; but they have lately learned the art of em¬
ploying the fublimate with much fuccefs.—Jurifpru-
dence is not an extenfive fiudy in Japan. No country
has thinner law-books, or fewer judges. Explanations
of the law, and advocates, are things altogether un¬
known ; but nowhere, perhaps, are the laws more cer¬
tainly put in force, without refpeft to perfons, without
partiality or violence. They are very ftridf, and law-
fuits very fhort. The Japanefe know little more of
phyfics or chemiltry than what they have learned of
late years of the Europeans.
Their computation of time takes its rife from Min-o,
or 660 years before Chrift. The year is divided ac¬
cording to the changes of the moon ; fo that fome
years confift of twelve, and others of thirteen, months ;
and the beginning of the year falls out in February or
March. They have no weeks confifting of feven days,
or of fix wmrking days, and a holiday ; but the firft and
fifteenth days of the month ferve for holidays. On
thefe days no work is done. On new-year’s-day they
go round to wifh one another a new-year, with their
whole families, clad in white and blue chequered, their
** boliday-drefs; and they reft almoft the whole of the
3
firft month. The day is divided only into twelve hours; Japan,
and in this divifion they are directed the whole year by y—"
the rifing and fetting of the fun. They reckon fix
o’clock at the rifing, and fix likewife at the fetting of
the fun. Mid-day and mid-night are always at nine.
Time is not meafured by clocks or hour-glaffes, but
with burning matches, which are twifted together like
ropes, and divided by knots. When the match is burnt
to a knot, which indicates a certain portion of time
elapfed, notice is given during the day, by ftriking the
bells of the temples ; and in the night, by the watch¬
men ftriking twTo boards againft one another. A child
is always reckoned a year old at the end of the year of
his birth, whether this happen at the beginning or the
clofe. A fewT days after the beginning of the year, is
performed the horrid ceremony of trampling on images
reprefenting the crofs and the Virgin Mary with her
child. The images are of melted copper, and are faid
to be fcarce a foot in height. This ceremony is intend¬
ed to imprefs every individual with hatred of the Chrif-
tian do&rine, and the Portuguefe, who attempted to in¬
troduce it there ; and alfo to difcover whether there is
any remnant of it left among the Japanefe. It is per¬
formed in the places where the Chriftians chiefly refided,
In Nagafaki it lafts four days ; then the images are
conveyed to the circumjacent places, and afterwards are
laid afide againft the next year. Every perfon, except
the Japanefe governor and his attendants, even the fmal-
left child, muft be prefent; but it is not true, as fome
have pretended, that the Dutch are alfo obliged to
trample on the image. Overfeers are appointed in every
place, who aflemble the people in companies in cer¬
tain houfes, call over the name of every one in his turn,
and take care that every thing goes on properly. The
children, not yet able to walk, have their feet placed
upon it; older perfons pafs over it from one fide of the
room to the other.
The Japanefe are much addi£!ed to poetry, mufic,
and painting : the firft is faid to be grand as to the
ftyle and imagery, loftinefs, and cadence ; but, like
that of the Chinefe, is not eafily underftood or relifhed
by the Europeans. The fame may be faid of their mu¬
fic, both vocal and inftrumental; the beft of which, of
either kind, would hardly be tolerable to a nice Euro¬
pean ear.
They pretend, like the Chinefe, to have been the in¬
ventors of printing from time immemorial, and their
method is the lame with theirs on wooden blocks ; but
they excel them in the neatnefs of cutting them, as well
as in the goodnefs of their ink and paper. They like¬
wife lay claim to the invention of gunpowder ; and are
vaftly luperior to the Chinefe in the ufe of all forts of
fire-arms, efpecially of artillery, as well as the curiouf-
nefs of their fire-works.
Their manner of wTriting is much the fame as that of
the Chinefe, viz. in columns from top to bot'om, and
the columns beginning at the right and ending at the
left hand. Their charailers were alfo originally the
fame, but now differ confiderably.
Their language hath fome affinity with the Chinefe,
though it appears from its various dialects to have been
a kind of compound of that and other languages, deri¬
ved from the various nations that firft peopled thofe
illands. It is not only very regular, polite, elegant,
and copious, but abounds with a great variety of fy-
nonyma,
JAP [ 39 1 JAP
Japan, nonyma, adapted to the nature of the fubjedf they are
—v upon, whether fublime, familiar, or low; and to the
quality, age, and fex, both of the fpeaker and perlon
fpoken.
The Japanefe are commonly very ingenious in molt
handicraft trades •, and excel even the Chinefe in fe-
veral manufadlures, particularly in the beauty, good-
nefs, and variety of their filks, cottons, and other
fluffs, and in their Japan and porcelain wares. No
eaftern nation comes up to them in the tempering and
fabricating of fcimitars, fwords, mufkets, and other
fuch weapons.
The Japanefe architedhire is much in the fame taffe
and flyle as that of the Chinefe, efpecially as to their
temples, palaces, and other public buildings j but in
private ones they affedl more plainnefs and neatnefs
than fhow. Thefe laft are of wood and cement, Con¬
fiding of two dories : they dwell only in the lower j
the upper chamber ferving for wardrobes. The roofs
are covered with rulh-mats three or four inches thick.
In every houfe there is a fmall court, ornamented with
trees, (hrubs, and flower-pots j as likewife with a place
for bathing. Chimneys are unknown in this country,
although fire is needed from the cold month of Octo¬
ber till the end of March. They heat their rooms with
charcoal contained in a copper ffove, which they fit
round. Their cities are generally fpacious, having
each a prince or governor redding in them. The capi¬
tal of Jeddois 21 French leagues in circumference. Its
dreets are draight and large. There are gates at little
didances, with an extremely high ladder, which they
afcend to difcover fires. Villages differ from cities in
having but one dreet; which often extends feveral
leagues. Some of them are fituated fo near each other,
that they are only feparated by a river or a bridge.
The principal furniture of the Japanefe confids in draw-
mats, which ferve them for feats and beds ; a fmall ta¬
ble for every one who choofes to eat is the only move-
able. The Japanefe fit always upon their hams. Be¬
fore dinner begins, they make a profound bow and
drink to the health of the gueds. The women eat by
themfelves. During the courfes, they drink a glafs of
Jakki, which is a kind of beer made of rice kept con-
dantly warm j and they drink at each new morfel. Tea
and fakki are the mod favourite drink of this people ;
wine and fpirits are never ufed, nor even accepted when
offered by the Dutch. Sakki, or rice beer, is clear as
wine, and of an agreeable tafle : taken in quantity, it
intoxicates for a few moments, and caufes headach.
Both men and women are fond of tobacco, which is in
univerfal vogue and fmoked continually. The gardens
about their houfes are adorned with a variety of flowers,
trees, verdure, baths, terraces, and other embellidi-
rnents. The furniture and decorations of the houfes of
perfons of didin&ion confiff in japan-work of various co- ?
lours, curious paintings, beds, couches, fkreens, cabi¬
nets, tables, a variety of porcelain jars, vafes, tea-equi-
page, and other vefi'els and figures, together with fwords,
guns, fcimitars, and other arms. Their retinues are
more or lefs numerous and fplendid according to their
rank ^ but there are few of the lords who have lefs than
50 or 60 men richly clad arid armed, feme on foot,
but mofl: on horfeback. As for their petty kings and
princes, they are feldom feen without 300 or 200 at
leaf!, when they either wait on the emperor, which is Japan.
' one-haif of the year, or attend him abroad. 1
‘when a prince or great man dies, there are com¬
monly about 10, 20, or more youths of his houfehold,
and luch as were his greateil favourites, who put them-
lelves to a voluntary death, at the place where the bo¬
dy is buried or burned : as foon as the funeral pile,
confifting of odoriferous woods, gums, fpices, oils,
and other ingredients, is fet on fire, the relations and
friends of the deceafed throw their prefents into it,
fuch as clothes, arms, vi&uals, money, fvveet herbs,
flowers, and other things which they imagine will be of
ufe to him in the other world. Thofe of the middle
or lower rank commonly bury their dead, without any
other burning than that of fome odoriferous woods,
gums, &c. The fepulchres in which the bones and
allies of perfons of rank are depofited, are generally
very magnificent, and fituated at fome diftance°from the
towns.
The Dutch and Chinefe are the only nations allowed
to traffic in Japan. I he Dutch at prefent fend but two
fliips annually, which are fitted out at Batavia, and fail
in June, and return at the end of the year. The chief
merchandife is Japanefe copper and raw camphor. The
wares which the Dutch company import are, coarfe fu-
gar, ivory, a great quantity of tin and lead, a little caff
iron, various kinds of fine chintzes, Dutch cloth of dif¬
ferent colours and finenefs, ferge wood for dyeing, tor-
toife-lhell, and cojlus Avabicus. i he little merchandile
brought by the officers on their own account, confifts of
faffron, theriaca, fealing-wax, glafs-beads, watches, &c.
&c. About the time when the Dutch ffiips are expedl-
ed, feveral outpolls are ftationed on the higheft hills by
the government 5 they are provided with telefcopes,
and long before their arrival give the governor of Na-
gafaki notice. As foon as they anchor in the harbour,
the upper and under oflicers of the Japanefe immediately
betake themfelves on board, together with interpreters $
to whom is delivered a chert, in which all the failors
books, the murter-roll of the whole crew, fix fmall bar¬
rels of powder, fix barrels of balls, fix mulkets, fix
bayonets, fix piftols, and fix fwords are depofited ; this
is luppofed to be the whole remaining ammunition after
the imperial garrifon has been faluted. Thefe things
are conveyed on fliore, and preferved in a feparate ware-
houfe, nor are they returned before the day the ihip
quits the harbour.
Duties are quite unknown as well in the inland part
as on the coaft, nor are there any cuftoms required ei¬
ther for exported or imported goods ; an advantage en¬
joyed by few nations. But, to prevent the importation
of any forbidden w>ares, the utmoft vigilance is obfer-
ved •, then the men and things are examined with the..
eyes of .Argus. When any European goes on fliore, he
is examined before he leaves the (hip, and afterwards
on his landing. This double fearch is exceedingly
rtricl j fo that not only the pockets and clothes are
flroaked with the hands, but the pudenda of the mean¬
er fort are preffed, and the hair of the flaves. All the
Japanefe who come on board are fearched in like man¬
ner, except only their fuperior officers: fo alfo are the
wares either exported or imported, firft on board, and
then at the fa&ory, except the great cherts, which are
opened au the faflory, and fo carefully examined that ‘
they,
JAP
[ 40 ]
JAP
Japan, thfey ftnke the very ficJes left they ftiould be hollow.
Japanning^ bed-clothes are often opened, and the feathers
v~ ' examined : rods of iron are run into the pots of butter
and confeftions : a fquare hole is made in the cheefe,
and a long pointed iron is thruft into it in all direc¬
tions. Their fufpicion is carried fo far, that they take
out and break one or two of the eggs brought from Ba¬
tavia.
The interpreters are all natives $ they fpeak Dutch
in different degrees of purity. The government per¬
mits no foreigner to learn their language, left they
(hould by means of this acquire the knowledge of the
manufaftures of the country j but 40 or 50 interpreters
are provided to ferve the Dutch in their trade, or on
ffny other occafion.
The interpreters are very inquifitive after European
books, and generally provide themfelves with fome
from the Dutch merchants. They perufe them with
care, and remember what they learn. They befides
endeavour to get inftru&ion from the Europeans;. for
w’hich purpofe they alk numberlefs queftions, particu¬
larly refpecting medicine, phyfics, and natural hiftory.
Moft of them apply to medicine, and are the only
phyftcians of their nation who praftife in the European
manner, and wdth European medicines, which they
procure from the Dutch phyficians. Hence they are
able to acquire money, and to make themfelves re-
fpeifted.
Among the vegetable productions peculiar to Japan,
we may take notice of the ctletris japonic a, camellia ja-
ponica, and the volkamena japonica. The trumpet-
flower, or bignoma catalpa of Linnaeus, is very com¬
mon, bearing a refemblance to the epidetidrtim ’Vanilla,
the berries of which are faid to conftitute an article of
commerce. Here alfo we find the mimofa acborea, and
tallow tree, together with the plantain, cocoa-nut tree,
the chanuerops excelfa, and the cycas circtnalis, adorn¬
ing the wmods near the fea Ihore.
It is a Angular circumftance, that in the whole em¬
pire of Japan, neither fheep nor goats are to be met
with, the goats being deemed pernicious to cultivation *,
and the vaft quantities of filk and cotton with which it
abounds, are confidered as an excellent fubftitute for
wool. There are few quadrupeds of any kind, either
fwine, horfes, or cattle, as the Japanefe live upon filh,
poultry, and vegetables. Some wolves are feen in the
northern provinces j and foxes are confidered as demons
incarnate.
Gold and filver abound in Japan* and copper richly
impregnated with gold, which conftitutes the chief
wealth of many provinces. Iron is faid to be fcarcer
than any other metal, which of confequence they are
not fond of exporting. Amber, fulphur, pit-coal, red
agate, afbeftos, porcelain, clay, pumice and white
marble, are alfo found in confiderable quantities; but,
according to Kempfer, neither antimony nor mercury.
As Europeans have feldom vifited the interior parts of
the country, the natural curiofities of Japan are but very
little known,
Japan Earth. See Mimosa and Terra Japonica,
Materia Medica Index.
JAPANNING, the art of varnifhing and drawing
figures on w’ood, in the fame manner as is done by the
natives of Japan in the Eaft Indies.
The fubfiances which admit of being japanned are
! 1
almoft every kind that are dry and rigid, or not too JaPannlng'i
flexible 5 as wood, metals, leather, and paper pre- ' '
pared.
Wood and metals do not require any other prepara¬
tion, but to have their furface perfe&ly even and clean i
but leather ftiould be fecurely ftrained either on frames
or on boards j as its bending or forming folds would
otherwife crack and force off the coats of varnifh : and
paper fhould be treated in the fame manner, and have
a previous ftrong coat of fome kind of fize •, but it is
rarely made the fubjedt of japanning till it is converted
into papier mache, or wrought by other means into fuch
form, that its original ftate, particularly with refpecl
to flexibility, is loft.
One principal variation from the method formerly
ufed in japanning is, the ufing or omitting any priming
or undercoat on the work to be japanned. In the older
pra&ice, fuch priming was always ufed j and is at pre-
fent retained in the French manner of japanning coach¬
es and fnuff-boxes of the papier mache j but in the Bir¬
mingham manufafture here, it has been always rejedl-
ed. The advantage of ufmg fuch priming or undercoat
is, that it makes a faving in the quantity of varnifti
ufed $ becaufe the matter of wdiich the priming is com-
pofed fills up the inequalities of the body to be varnifh-
ed ; and makes it eafy, by means of rubbing and water-
polifhing, to gain an even furface for the varnifh : and
this was therefore fuch a convenience in the cafe of
wood, as the giving a hardnefs and firmnefs to the
ground w-as alfo in the cafe of leather, that it became
an eftablifhed method > and is therefore retained even
in the inftance of the papier mache by the French, who
applied the received method of japanning to that kind
of work on its introduction. There is neverthelefs this
inconvenience always attending the ufe of an undercoat
of fize, that the japan coats of varnifh and colour wdll
be conftantly liable to be cracked and peeled off by any
violence, and wall not endure near fo long as the bodies
japanned in the fame manner, but without any fuch
priming 5 as may be eafily obferved in comparing the
wear of the Paris and Birmingham fnuff-boxes *, which
latter, when good of their kind, never peel or crack,
or fuffer any damage, unlefs by great violence, and fuch
a continued rubbing as waftes away the fubftance of the
varnifh ; while the japan coats of the Parifians crack and
fly off in flakes, whenever any knock or fall, particu¬
larly near the edges, expofe them to be injured. But
the Birmingham manufaClurers, who originally praCli-
fed the japanning only on metals, to which the reafon
above given for the ufe of priming did not extend, and
who took up this art of themfelves as an invention, of
courfe omitted at firft the ufe of any fuch undercoat j
and not finding it more neceffary in the inftance of pa¬
pier mache than on metals, continue ftill to rejedl it.
On which account, the boxes of their manufafture are,
with regard to the wear, greatly better than the
French.
The laying 6n the colours in gum-water, inftead of
varnifh, is alfo another variation from the method of
japanning formerly pra&ifed : but the much greater
ftrength of the work, where they are laid on in varnifh
or oil, has occafioned this way to be exploded with
the greateft reafon in all regular manufaflures : how¬
ever, they who may praftice japanning on cabinets, or
other fuch pieces as are not expofed to much wear and
violence.
JAP [4
Japanning, violence, for their amufement only, and confequently
v ' may not find it worth their while to encumber them-
fielves with the preparations neceffary for the other
methods, may paint with water-colours on an under¬
coat laid on the wTood or other fubftarice of which the
piece to be japanned is formed 5 and then finilhed with
the proper coats of varnifh, according to the methods
below taught : and if the colours are tempered with
the llrongeft ifinglafs fize and honey, inftead of gum-
water, and laid on very Hat and even, the work will
not be much inferior in appearance to that done by
the other method, and will lalt as long as the old
japan.
Of Japan Grounds.—The proper grounds are either
fuch as are formed by the varnilh and colour, where
the whole is to remain of one limple colour j or by the
varnilh either coloured or without colour, on which
fome painting or other decoration is afterwards to be
laid. It is neceffary, however, before we proceed to
fpeak of the particular grounds, to Ihow the manner of
laying on the priming or undercoat, where any fuch is
ufed.
This priming is of the fame nature with that called
clear-coating, or vulgarly clear-coaling, praclifed erro-
neoully by the houfe-palnters 5 and confitls only in
laying on and drying in the mod: even manner a com-
polition of fize and whiting, or fometimes lime in¬
stead of the latter. The common fize has been gene¬
rally ufed for this purpofe : but where the work is of a
nicer kind, it is better to employ the glovers or the
parchment fize ", and if a third of iiinglafs be added, it
will be ilill better, and, if not laid on too thick, much
lefs liable to peel and crack. The work Ihould be pre¬
pared by this priming, by being w'ell fmoothed with
the fifh-fkin or glafs-fhaver *, and, being made tho¬
roughly clean, fhould be brulhed over once or twice
with hot fize, diluted wdth tw'0-thirds of water, if it
be of the common ftrength. The priming fhould
then be laid on with a brufh as even as poffible •, and
fhould be formed of a fize whofe confidence is be¬
twixt the common kind and glue, mixed with as much
whiting as will give it a fufficient body of colour to
hide the fur face of whatever it is laid upon, but not
more.
If the furface be very clean on which the priming
is ufed, twm coats of it laid on in this manner will be
fufficient 5 but if, on trial with a fine wet rag, it will
not receive a proper water polidi on account of any
inequalities not fufficiently filled up and covered, two
or more coats mud be given it : and whether a greater
or lefs number be ufed, the work diould be fmoothed,
after the lad coat but one is dry, by rubbing it wTith
the Dutch rufhes. When the lad coat is dry, the wa¬
ter polifii diould be given, by pading over every part of
it with a fine rag gently moidened, till the whole ap¬
pear perfeidly plain and even. The priming will then
be completed, and the w'ork ready to receive the
painting or coloured varnilh 5 the red of the proceed¬
ings being the fame in this cafe as where no priming is
ufed.
When wood or leather is to be japanned, and no
priming is ufed, the bed preparation is to lay two or
three coats of coarfe varnilh compofed in the following
manner :
“ Take of reidified fpirit of wine one pint, and of
Vol. XL Part I.
Handmaid
U tie Aite*
i ] JAP
coarfe feed-lac and refin each two ounces. DilTolve the Japanning.
feed-lac and refin in the fpirit $ and then drain off the ~"~v—■J
varnith.”
This varnilh, as well as all others formed of fpirit of
wine, mud be laid on in a warm place •, and, il it can
be conveniently managed, the piece of work to be var-
nilhed diould be made warm likewife : and for the dune
reafon all dampnefs diould be avoided ; for either cold
or moillure chills this kind of varnilh, and prevents
it taking proper hold of the fubdance, on which it is
laid.
When the work is fo prepared, or by the priming
writh the compofition ©f fize and whiting above de-
feribed, the proper japan ground mud be laid on,
which is much the bell formed of lliell-lac varnilh,
and the colour defired, if white be not in quellion,
wffiich demands a peculiar treatment, or great bright-
nefs be not required, when alfo other means mud be
purfued.
The colours ufed with the diell-lac varnilh may be
any pigments whatever which give the taint of the
ground delired ", and they may be mixed together to
form browns or any compound colours.
As metals never require to be undercoated wdtli
whiting, they may be treated in the fame manner as
wood or leather, when the undercoat is omitted, except
in the indances particularly fpoken of below.
White Japan Grounds.—The forming a ground per-
feflly white, and of the fird degree of hardnefs, re¬
mains hitherto a defideratum, or matter fought for, in
the art of japanning, as there are no fubdances which
form a very hard varnilh but wdiat have too much co¬
lour not to deprive the whitenefs, when laid on of a due
thicknefs over the work.
The neared approach, however, to a perfect white
varnilh, already known, is made by the following com¬
pofition.
“ Take dake white, or white lead, waflied over and
ground up with a dxth of its weight of darch, and
then dried ", and temper it properly for fpreading with
the madich varnilh prepared as under the article Var¬
nish.
“ Lay thefe on the body to be japanned, prepared
either with or without the undercoat of whiting, in
the manner as above ordered ; and then varnilh it over
with five or fix coats of the following varnilh :
“ Provide any quantity of the bed feed-lac ; and
pick out of it all the cleared and whited grains, re-
lerving the more coloured and fouler parts for the
coarfe varnidies, fuch as that ufed for priming or pre¬
paring wTood or leather. Take of this picked feed-lac
two ounces, and of gum-animi three ounces ; and dil-
folve them, being previoufly reduced to a grofs powder,
in about a quart of fpirit of wine ; and drain off the
clear varnilh.”
The feed-lac will yet give a flight tinge to this com¬
pofition j but cannot be omitted where the varnidi is
wanted to be hard j though, when a fofter will anfwer
the end, the proportion may be diminidied, and a little
crude turpentine added to the gum animi to take off
the brittlenefs.
A very good varnidi, free entirely from all brittlenefs,
may be formed by diffolving as much gum-animi as'tlie* "
oil will take, in old nut or poppy oil 5 which mud be
made to boil gently when the gum is put into it. The
F ground
jap r 42 ] jap
Japanning. gr0Und of white colour itfelf may be laid on In this
varnilh, and then a coat or two of it may be put over
the ground ; but it muft be well diluted with oil of
turpentine when it is ufed. This, though free from
brittlenefs, is neverthelefs liable to fufifer by being in¬
dented or bruifed by any flight ilrokes *, and it will
not well bear any polifli, but may be brought to a very
fmooth furface without, if it be judiciouily managed
in the laying it on. It is likewife fomewhat tedious
in drying, and will require fome time where feveral
coats are laid on; as the lall ought not to contain much
oil of turpentine.
Blue Japan Grounds.—Blue japan grounds may be
formed of bright Pruflian blue, or of verditer glazed
over by Pruffian blue, or of fmalt. The colour may
be belt mixed with (hell-lac varnifti, and brought to a
polilhing (late by live or fix coats of varnifli of feed-
lac : bi : the varnifti, neverthelefs, will fomewhat in¬
jure the colour by giving to a true blue a call of green,
and fouling in fome degree a warm blue by the yellow
it contains : where, therefore, a bright blue is required,
and a lefs degree of hardnefs can be difpenfed with, the
method before direded in the cafe of white grounds
muft be purfued.
Red Japan Grounds.—For a fcarlet japan ground,
vermilion may be ufed : but the vermilion has a glaring
effed, that renders it much lefs beautiful than the
crimfon produced by glazing it over with carmine or
fine lake : or even with rofe-pink, w’hich has a very
good efted u(ed for this purpofe. For a very bright
crimfon, neverthelefs, inftead of glazing with carmine,
the Indian lake ftiould be ufed, diflolved in the fpirit
of which the varnifti is compounded, which it readily
admits of when good : and, in this cafe, inftead of
glazing with the (hell-lac varnifti, the upper or polilh-
ing coats need only be ufed ; as they will equally re¬
ceive and convey the tinge of the Indian lake, which
may be adually diflolved by fpirit of wine : and this
will be found a much cheaper method than the ufing
carmine. If, neverthelefs, the higheft degree of bright-
nefs be required, the white varnifties muft be ufed.
7'e/Iow Japan Grounds.—For bright yellow grounds,
the king’s yellow, or the turpeth mineral, (hould4ie
employed, either alone or mixed wuth fine Dutch pink:
and the effed may be dill more heightened by diffol-
ving powdered turmeric root in the fpint of wine of
which the upper or poliftiing coat is made ; which fpirit
of wine muft be (trained from off the dregs before the
(eed-lac be added to it to form the varnifti.
The (eed-lac varnifti is not equally injurious here,
and with greens, as in the cafe of other colours ; be-
caufe, being only tinged with a reddifti yellow, it is
little more than an addition to the force of the colours.
Yellow grounds may be likewife formed of the Dutch
pink only ; which, when good, will not be wanting in
brightnefs, though extremely cheap.
Green Japan Grounds.—Green grounds may be pro¬
duced by mixing the king’s yellow7 and bright Pruflian
blue, or rather the turpeth mineral and Pruffian blue;
and a cheap, but fouler kind, by verdegris with a little
of the above-mentioned yellows, or Dutch pink. But,
where a very bright green is wanted, the cryftals of
verdegris, called diftilled verdegris, fhouldbe employed;
and to heighten the, efteft. they (hould be laid on a
ground of leaf-gold, which renders the colour extreme-Japaftninj
ly brilliant and pleafing. *
They may any of them be ufed fuccefsfully w.'th
good feed-lac varnifti, for the reafon before given ; but
will be (till brighter with white varnifti.
Orange-coloured Japan Grounds.—Orange-coloured
japan grounds may be formed by mixing vermilion or
red-lead with king’s yellow7, or Dutch pink ; or the
orange-lac, wftiich will make a brighter orange ground
than can be produced by any mixture.
Purple Japan Grounds.—Purple japan grounds may
be produced by the mixture of lake and Prmfhm blue ;
or a foulei kind, by vermilion and Pruflian blue. They
may be treated as the reft with refpeft to the varnifti.
Black Japan Grounds to be produced with Heat.—
Black grounds may be formed by either ivory-black or
lamp black : but the former is preferable where it is
perfeftly good.
Thefe may be always laid on with (hell-lac varnifti;
and have their upper or polilhing coats of common
feed-lac varnifti, as the tinge or fulnefs of the varnilh
can be here no injury.
Common Black Japan Grounds on Iron or Copper, pro¬
duced by means of Heat.—For forming the common
black japan grounds by means of heat, the piece of
work to be japanned muft be painted over with dry¬
ing oil; and, when it is of a moderate drynefs, muft be
put into a (love of fuch degree of heat as will change
the oil to black, without burning it fo as to deftroy or
weaken its tenacity. The (love (liould not be too hot
when the work is put into it, nor the heat increafed
too faft ; either of which errors would make it blifter :
but the fknver the heat is augmented, and the longer
it is continued, provided it be reftrained within the
due degree, the harder will be the coat of japan.—
This kind of varnifti requires no polifti, having re¬
ceived, when properly managed, a fufficient one from
the heat.
The fine Tortoifie-fioell Japan Ground produced by
means of Heat.—The beft kind of tortoife-ftiell ground
preduced by heat is not lefs valuable for its great hard¬
nefs, and enduring to be made hotter than boiling wa¬
ter without damage, than for its beautiful appearance.
It is to be made by means of a varnifti prepared in the
following manner :
“ Take of good linfeed oil one gallon, and of umbre
half a pound : boil them together till the oil become
very brown and thick : drain it then through a coarfe
cloth, and fet it again to boil ; in which (late it muft
be continued till it acquire a pitchy confidence; when
it will be fit for ufe.”
Having prepared thus the varnifti, clean well the
iron or copper plate or other piece which is to be ja¬
panned ; and then ky vermilion tempered with (hell-
lac varnifti, or with drying oil diluted with oil of tur¬
pentine, very thinly, on the places intended to imitate
the more tranfparent parts of the tortoife-ftiell. When
the vermilion is dry, brufti over the whole with the
black varnilh, tempered to a due confidence with oil
of turpentine ; and when it is fet and firm, put the
work into a ftove, where it may undergo a very
ftrong heat, and muft be continued a confiderable
time ; if even three weeks or a month, it will be the
better.
This
JAP
Japanning. This was given amongft other receipts by Kunckel j
but appears to have been negle&ed till it was revived
with great fuccefs in the Eirmingham manufeftures,
wdiere it was not only the ground of fnuff-boxes, drefs-
ing-boxes, and other fueh lefler pieces, but of thofe
beautiful tea-waiters which have been fo juftly efteemed
and adn*ired in feveral parts of Europe where they
have been fent. This ground may be decorated with
painting and gilding, in the fame manner as any other
varnifhed firfacc, which had belt be done after the
ground has been duly hardened by the hot flove ; but
it is well to give a fecond annealing with a more gentle
heat after it is finiihed.
Method of Painting Japan Work.—Japan work ought
properly to be painted with colours in varnilh, though,
in order for the greater difpatch, and, in fome very
'nice works in fmall, for the freer ufe of the pencil, the
colours are fornetimes tempered in oil j which fhould
previoully have a fourth part of its weight of gum-
animi dillolved in itj or, in default of that, of the
gums fandarac or maftich. When the oil is thus ufed,
it ihould be well diluted wuth fpirit of turpentine, that
the colours may be laid more evenly and thin j by
which means, fewer of the polifhing or upper coats of
varniih become neceffary.
In fome inftances, water-colours are laid on grounds
of gold, in the manner of other paintings j and are
belt, when fo ufed, in their proper appearance, without
any varniih over them ; and they are alfo fometimes fo
managed as to have the effedt of emboffed work. The
colours employed in this w7ay, for painting, are both
prepared by means of ifinglafs fize corredfed with ho¬
ney or fugarcandy. The body of which the emboiTed
wTork is raifed, need not, however, be tinged wuth the
exterior colour ; but may be belt formed of very Itrong
gum-water, thickened to a proper confidence by bole-
armenian and whiting in equal parts ; which being laid
on the proper figure, and repaired when dry, may be
then painted with the proper colours tempered in the
ifinglafs fize, or in the general manner with dsell-lac
varniih.
Mariner of Varnifhing Japan Worh.—The lad and
finidiing part of japanning lies in the laying on and
poliihing the outer coats of varniih ; which are necef-
fary, as well in the pieces that have only one fimple
ground of colour, as with thofe that are painted. This
is in general bed done writh common feed-lac varniih,
except in the indances and on thofe occafions where
we have already ihown other methods to be more ex¬
pedient : and the fame reafons which decide as to the
fitnefs or impropriety of the varniihes, with refpefl to
the colours of the ground, hold equally with regard to
thofe of the painting: for where brightnefs is the
mod material point, and a tinge of yellow wull injure
it, feed-lac mud give way to the whiter gums} but
where hardnefs, and a greater tenacity, are mod effen-
tial, it mud be adhered to j and where both are fo ne¬
ceffary, that it is proper one fhould give way to the
other in a certain degree reciprocally, a mixed varnidi
mud be adopted.
I. his mixed varniih, as vve have already obferved,
fhould be made of the picked feed-lac. The com¬
mon feed-lac varnrfh, which is the mod ufeful pre¬
paration of the kind hitherto invented, may be thus
made :
[43 1
J A P
“ Take of feed-lac three ounces, and put it into J ‘Panning,
water to free it from the dicks and filth that are fre- “-v—
quently intermixed with it; and which mud be done
by ffirring it about, and then pouring off the water,
and adding fredi quantities in order to repeat the ope¬
ration, till it be freed from all impurities, as it very
effedfually may be by this means. Dry it then, and
powder it grofsly, and put it, with a pint of reftified
fpirit of wine, into a bottle, of which it will not fill
above two-thirds. Shake the mixture well together ;
and place the bottle in a gentle heat, till the feed
appear to be diffolved j the lhaking being in the mean
time repeated as often as may be convenient : and
then pour oft all that can be obtained clear by this
method, and drain the remainder through a coarfe
cloth. The varnifti thus prepared mud be kept for
ufe in a bottle wTell ftopt.”
When the fpirit of wine is very ftrong, it will dif-
folve a greater proportion of the feed-lac : but this
will faturate the common, which is feldom of a ftrength
fufticient for making varniihes in perfection. As the
chilling, which is the molt inconvenient accident at¬
tending thofe of this kind, is prevented, or produced
more frequently, according to the drength of the
fpirit j we lhall therefore take this opportunity of
Ihowing a method by which weaker rectified fpirits
may with great eafe, at any time, be freed from the
phlegm, and rendered of the firft degree of drength.
“ Take a pint of the common rectified fpirit of
wane, and put it into a bottle, of which it will not fill
above three parts. Add to it half an ounce of pearl-
afties, fait of tartar, or any other alkaline fait, heated
red-hot, and powdered, as well as it can be without
much lofs of its heat. Shake the mixture frequently
for the fpace of half an hour ; before which time, a
great part of the phlegm will be feparated from the
fpirit, and will appear, together with the undiffolved
part of the falts, in the bottom of the bottle. Let the
fpirit then be poured off, or freed from the phlegm
and falts, by means of a tritorium or feparating funnel ;
and let half an ounce of the pearl-adies, heated and
powdered as before, be added to it, and the fame
treatment repeated. This may be done a third time,
if the quantity of phlegm feparated by the addition of
the pearl-alhes appear confiderable. An ounce of
alum reduced to powder and made hot, but not burnt,
muft then be put into the fpirit, and fuffered to remain,
fome hours j the bottle being frequently ftiaken : after
which, the (pint, being poured off from it, will be fit
for ufe.”
The addition of the alum is neceffary, to neutralize
the remains of the alkaline fait or pearl-alhes ; which
would otherwife greatly deprave the fpirit with refpeCt
to varniihes and laquer, where vegetable colours are
concerned ; and mull confequently render another di-
ftillation neceffary.
. The manner of ufing the feed-lac or white var¬
niihes is the fame, except with regard to the fubftance
ufed in polilhing 5 which, where a pure white or great
clearnefs of other colours is in queftion, Ihould be it-
felf white : whereas the browner forts of polilhing dull,
as being cheaper, and doing their bufintfs with greater
difpatch, may be ufed in other cafes. The pieces of
work to be varnilhed Ihould be placed near a fire, or
in a room where there is a Hove, and made perfectly
F 2 dryj
JAP r 44 1 JAR
Japanning, dry •, and then the varnifh may be rubbed over them
Japheth. tiie proper bruflres made for that purpofe, begin-
' ning in the middle, and palling the brufli to one end j
and then with another ftroke from the middle, paflfmg
it to the other. But no part thould be eroded or
twice palled over, in forming one coat, where it can
poflibly be avoided. When one coat is dry, another
mud be laid over it; and this mull be continued at
leaf! five or fix times, or more, if on trial there be not
fufficient thicknefs of vurnifh to bear the polilh, with¬
out laying bare the painting or the ground colour un¬
derneath.
When a fufficient number of coats is thus laid on,
the work is fit to be poliffied : which mull be done, in
common cafes, by rubbing it with a rag dipped in
Tripoli or pumice-flone, commonly called rottenJlone,
finely powdered : but towards the end of the rubbmg,
a little oil of any kind ihould be ufed along with the
powder; and when the work appears fufficiently bright
and gloffy, it Ihould be well rubbed with the oil alone,
to clean it from the powder, and give it a llul brighter
luftre.
In the cafe of white grounds, inllead of the l ripoli
or pumice-ftone, fine putty or whiting mult be uied ;
both which Ihould be walhed over to prevent the dan¬
ger of damaging the work from any fand or other
gritty matter that may happen to be commixed with
them.
It is a great improvement of all kinds of japan
work, to harden the varniffi by means of heat 5 which,
in every degree that it can be applied ffiort of what
would burn or calcine the matter, tends to give it a
more firm and ilrong texture. Where metals form
the body, therefore, a very hot Hove may be ufed,
and the pieces of work may be continued in it a
confiderable time ; efpecially if the heat be gradually
increafed ; but where wood is in quell ion, heat mull
be fparingly ufed, as it would otherwife warp or {brink
the body, fo as to injure the general figure.
JAPHETH, the fon of Noah. His defeendants
pofieffed all Europe and the ifles in the Mediterranean,
as well thofe which belong to Europe, as others which
depend on Afia. They had all Afia Minor, and the
northern parts of Afia above the fources of the ligns
and Euphrates. Noah, when he blefled Japheth, laid
to him, “ God (hall enlarge Japheth, and he (hall
dwell in the tents of Shem ; and Canaan ihall be
his fervant.” This bleiTing of Noah was accom-
pliffied, when the Greeks, and after them the Ro¬
mans, carried their conquells into Afia and Africa,
where were the dwellings and dominions of Shem and
Canaan.
The fons of Japheth were Gomer, Magog, Madai,
Javan, Tubal, Melhech, and 'liras. The feripture
fays, “ that they peopled the ifies of the Gentiles,
and fettled in different countries, each according to his
language, family, and people.” It is luppofed, that Go¬
mer was the father of the Cimbri, or Cimmerians j
Magog of the Scythians \ Madai of the Macedonians
or Medes ; Javan of the lonians and Greeks; Tubal of
the Tibarenians } Meffiech of the Mufcovites or Ruf¬
fians ; and Tiras of the Thracians. By the ifles of
the Gentiles, the Hebrews underftand the ifles of the
Mediterranean, and all the countries feparated by the
fea from the continent of Paleftine; whither aifo the Japydia.
Hebrews could go by fea only, as Spain, Gaul, Italy, !i .
Greece, Afia Minor, fanhi.
Japheth was known by profane authors under the
name of Japetus. The poets make him the father of
heaven and earth. The Greeks believe that he was the
father of their race, and acknowledged nothing more
ancient than him. Befides the feven fons of Japheth
above mentioned, the Septuagint, Euiebius, the Alex¬
andrian Chronicle, and St Aufiin, give him an eighth
called Eliza, wdio is not mentioned either in the He¬
brew or Chaldee, and the eaffern people affirm that
Japheth had eleven children.
JAPYDIA, in Ancient Geography, a weftern di-
flricl of Illyricum, anciently threefold ; the firil Japydia
extending Irom the fprings of the Timavus to Iltria
the fecond, from the river Arfia to the river Teda-
nius } and the third, called Ina/ptna, fituated in Mount
Albius and the other Alps,,which run out above If-
tria. Japodes, or Japydes, the people. Now confti-
tuting the fouth part of Carniola, and the well of Auf-
trian Croatia.
JAPYGIA, Calabria anciently fo called by the
Greeks. Japi/ges, the people. >
JAPYGIUM, in Ancient Geography, a promonto¬
ry of Calabria ; called alfo Sahntinum. Now' Capo di
S. Maria di Leuca.
JAQUELOT, Isaac, a celebrated French Pro-
teflant divine, born in 1647, at Vaffy in Champagne,
where his father was minifter. The revocation of the
edi£l of Nantz obliging him to quit Fiance, he took
refuge firft at Heidelberg, and then at the Hague,
where he procured an appointment in the Walloon
church. Here he continued till that capital was taken
by the king of Pruffia, who, hearing him preach, made
him his French minifter in ordinary at Berlin 5 to
which city he removed in 1702. While he lived at
Berlin, he entered into a ivarm controverfy with M.
Bayle on the dodlrine advanced in his dictionary fa¬
vouring manichaeifm, which continued until death im-
pofed filence on both parties : and it was in this dif-
pute that M. Jaquelot openly declared in favour of the
Remonllrants. He w'rote, among other works, 1.
Dijfertations fur Ccxiftence de Dieu. 2. Di/fertations
fur he MeJJie. 3. Let Ires a MeJJieurs les Pre/ats de
1''Eg life Gallicane. He was employed in finilhing an
important work upon the divine authority of the
holy feriptures, when he died fuddenly in 1708, aged
61.
JAR, or Jarr, an earthen pot or pitcher, with a big
belly and two handles.—The word comes from the Spa-
niffi jarra ox jarr0, which fignifies the fame.
Jar is ufed for a fort of meafure or fixed quantity
of divers things.—The jar of oil is from 18 to 26
gallons ; the jar of green ginger is about 100 pounds
weight.
JARCHI, Solomon, otherwife Raf hi and Ifaaki
Solomon, a famous rabbi, born at Troyes in Cham¬
pagne, who flouriffied in the I 2th century. He was
a perfedl mailer of the talmud and gemara ; and he
filled the pollils of the bible with fo many talmudical
reveries, as totally extinguilhed both the literal and
moral fenfe of it. A great part of his commentaries
ai^e printed in Hebrew, and lome have been tranflated
JAR [ 45 1 J A V
[ Jardyn into Latin by the Chriftians. They are all greatly
II efteemed by the Jews, who have bellowed on the au-
, Jarnac~ thor the title of prince of commentators.
JARDYN, or Jardin, Karel du, painter of con-
verfations, lahdfcapes, &c. was born at Amfterdam in
1640, and became a difciple of Nicholas Berchem. He
travelled to Italy whilft he was yet a young man ; and
arriving at Rome, he gave himfelf alternately up to itudy
and diflipation. Yet, amidll this irregularity of con-
duff, his proficiency in the art was furprifing •, and his
paintings rofe into fuch high repute, that they were
exceedingly coveted in Rome, and bought up at great
prices. With an intention to vifit his native city he at
lall left Rome ; but palling through Lyons, and meet¬
ing fome agreeable companions, they prevailed on him
to Hay there for fome time, and he found as much em¬
ployment in that city as he could pofiibly undertake or
execute. But the profits which arofe from his paintings
were not proportionable to his profufion ; and in order
to extricate himfelf from the encumbrances in which his
extravagance had involved him, he was induced to mar¬
ry his holfefs, who was old and difagreeable, but very
rich. Mortified and alhamed at that adventure, he re¬
turned as expeditioufly as poffible to Amfterdam, ac¬
companied by his wife, and there for fome time follow¬
ed his profeftion with full as much fuccefs as he had met
with in Italy or Lyons. He returned to Rome the
fecond time ; and after a year or two fpent there in his
ufual extravagant manner, he fettled at Venice. In
that city his merit wras well known before his arrival,
which procured him a very honourable reception. He
lived there highly carefled, and continually employed ;
but died at the age of 38. He was fumptuoully in¬
terred, out of refpeff to his talents *, and although a
Proteftant, permitted to be laid in confecrated ground.
This painter, in his colouring and touch, refembled his
mafter Berchem ; but he added to that manner a force
which diftinguillies the great mafters of Italy •, and it is
obferved, that molt of his pictures feem to exprefs the
warmth of the fun, and the light of mid-day. His pic¬
tures are not much encumbered •, a few figures, fome
animals, and a little landfcape for the back-grounds, ge¬
nerally comprife the whole of his compofition. How¬
ever, fome of his fubjedts are often more extenfi ve, con¬
taining more objeffs, and a larger defign. His works
are as much fought after, as they are difficult to be met
with.
JARGON, or Zircon, a kind of precious ftone
found in Ceylon. This mineral contains a peculiar
earth, called jargonia, or %irconia \ for an account of
the properties of which, fee Chemistry, page 611 j
fee alfo Mineralogy Index. *
JARGONIA, or Zirconia, in Chemifry, a pecu¬
liar earth obtained from the preceding mineral. See
Chemistry, p. 611.
JARIMUTH, Jarmuth, or yerimoth, Joftr. xv.
a town reckoned to the tribe of Judah, four miles from
Itleutheropolis, weftward, (Jerome.) Thought to be
the fame with Ramoth and Remeth, Joftma xix. and
Nehem x. 2. (Reland).
JARNAC, a towm of France, in 'Orleanois, and
in Angumois, remarkable for a vi£lory gained by
Henry III. over the Huguenots in 1569. It is feated
on the river Charente, in W. Long. o. 13. N. Lat.
45. 40.
JAROSLOW, a handfome town of Poland, in Jarofiow
the palatinate of Ruffia, with a ftrong citadel. It is II
remarkable for its great fair, its handfome buildings, Java'
and a battle gained by the Swedes in 1656, after which
they took the town. It is feated on the river Saine, in
E. I^ong. 22. 23. N. Lat. 49. 58.
J ASHER, The Book of. This is a book which
Jolhua mentions, and refers to in the follow’ing paf-
fage : “ And the fun flood Hill, and the moon flayed,
until the people had avenged themfelves upon their
enemies : is not this written in the book of Jaffier
It is difficult to determine what this book Jafter,
or “ the Upright,” is. St Jerome and the Jews be¬
lieved it to be Genefis, or fome other book of the
Pentateuch, wherein God foretold he would do won¬
derful things in favour of his people. Huetius fup-
pofes it was a book of morality, in which it was faid
that God would fubvert the courfe of nature in fa¬
vour of thofe who put their truft in him. Others
pretend, it was public annals, or records, which were
ttyled jujlice or upright, becaufe they contained a
faithful account of the hiftory of the Ifraelites. Gro-
tius believes, that this book was nothing elfe but ft-
long, made to celebrate this miracle and this vidlory.
This feems the more probable opinion, becaufe the
words cited by .Tofliua as taken from this work, “ Sun,
ftand thou ftill upon Gibeon, and thou moon in the val¬
ley of Ajalon,” are fuch poetical expreflions as do not
fuit with hiltorical memoirs; befidesthat in the 2d book
of Samuel (i. 18.) mention is made of a book under the
fame title, on account of a fong made on the death of
Saul and Jonathan.
JASIONE, a genus of plants belonging to the
fyngenefia clafs; and in the natural method ranking-
under the 29th order, Campanacece. See Botany
Index,
JASMINE. See Jasminum.
Arabian Jasmine. See Nyctanthes, Botany
Index.
JASMINUM, Jasmine, or Jeffamine tree, a ge¬
nus of plants belonging to the diandria clafs; and in
the natural method ranking under the 44th order, <5e-
piarice. See Botany Index.
JASON, the Greek hero who undertook the Ar-
gonautic expedition, the hiftory of which is obfcured
by fabulous traditions, flourifhed about 937 B. C. See
Argonauts.
JASPACHATES. See Jade-stone, Mineralo¬
gy Index.
JASPER, a fpecies of a mineral belonging to the
argillaceous genus of Hones, and of which there are
many varieties, ibme of which being extremely beauti¬
ful, are much fought after, and employed as trinkets
and ornaments. See Mineralogy Index.
JASPONYX, an old term in mineralogy, import¬
ing, as appears from the name, a compound of jalper
and onyx.
JATROPHA, the cassada plant, a genus of
plants belonging to the monoecia clafs; and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 38th order, Tricocccc.
See Botany Index.
JAVA, a large ifland of the Eaft Indies, lying be¬
tween 105® and 116° E. Long, and from 6° to 8° S.
Lat. extending in length 700 miles, and in breadth
about IOO. It is fituated to the fouth of Borneo, and
fouth-eaii
J A V [ 46 ] J A V
Java. routh-eaft from the peninfula of Malacca, having Su-
matra lying before it, from which it is feparated by a
narrow paffage, now fo famous in the world by the
name of the Straits of Sunda. The country is moun¬
tainous.and woody in the middle-, but a flat coafr, full
of bogs and marfhes, renders the air unhealthful. It
produces pepper, indigo, fugar, tobacco, rice, coffee,
cocoa-nuts, plantains, cardamoms, and other tropical
fruits. Gold alfo, but in no great quantities, hath
been found in it. It is diverfified by many mountains,
woods, and rivers ; in all which nature has very boun¬
tifully bellowed her treafures. Many of the moun¬
tains are fo high as to be feen at the diflance of
a number of leagues. That which is called the Blue
Mountain is by far the highefl of them all, and feen
the fartheff off at fea. They have frequent and very
terrible earthquakes in this ifland, which fhake the city
of Batavia and places adjacent, to fuch a degree, that
the fall of the houfes is expe£led every moment. The
waters in the road are exceflively agitated, infomuch
that their motion refembles that of a boiling pot ;
and in fome places the earth opens, which affords a
flrange and terrible fpedlacle. The inhabitants are of
opinion, that thefe earthquakes proceed from the moun¬
tain Parang, which is full of fulphur, faltpetre, and
bitumen. The fruits and plants of this ifland are in
their feveral kinds excellent, and almoft out of num¬
ber. There are abundance of foreffs fcattered over it,
in which are all kinds of wild hearts, fuch as buffaloes,
tygers, rhinocerofes, and wild horfes, with an infinite
variety of ferpents, fome of them of an enormous lize.
Crocodiles are prodigioufly large in Java, and are found
chiefly about the mouths of rivers; for, being amphi¬
bious animals, they delight moftly in marfhes and fa-
vannahs. This creature, like the tortoife, lays its eggs
in the hot fands, without taking any further care of
them the fun hatches them at the proper feafon, when
the young run inrtantly into the wrater. There is, in
fhort, no kind of animal wanting here : fowls they
have of all forts, and exquifitely good, efpecially pea¬
cocks, partridges, pheafants, wrood-pigeons : and, for
curiofity, they have the Indian bat, which differs little
in form from ours ; but its wings, wdien extended,
meafure a full yard, and the body of it is of the fize of
a rat. They have filh in great plenty, and very good;
fo that for the value of three-pence there may be
enough bought to dine fix or feven men. They have
likewife a multitude of tortoifes, the flerti of which is
very little inferior to veal, and there are many who think
it better.
It is faid, that there are in the ifland upw-ards of
40 great towns, which, from the number of their in¬
habitants, would, in any other part of the world, me-
''■rit the name of cities $ and more than 45CO villages,
befides hamlets, and rtraggling houfes, lying very near
each other, upon the fea coaft, and in the neighbour¬
hood of great towns: hence, upon a fair and moderate
computation, there are within the bounds of the whole
iiland, taking in perfons of both fexes, and of all ranks
and ages, more than thirty millions of fouls ; fo that it
is thrice as populous as France, which, though twice as
big, is not computed to have more than twenty millions
of inhabitants.
There are a great many princes in the iffand, of
which the moil confiderable are, the emperor of Ma-
3
teran, who refides at Katafura, and the kings of Ban- Java,
tam and Japara. Upon the flrft of thefe many of the '—""'v
petty princes are dependant; but the Dutch are ab-
lolute mafters'of the greateft part of the illand, par¬
ticularly of the north coaft, though there are fome of
the princes beyond the mountains, on the fouth coaft,
who ftill maintain their independency. The natives
of the country, wrho are effabliihed in the neighbour¬
hood of Batavia, and for a tract of about 40 leagues
along the mountains of the country of Bantam, are
immediately fubjeft to the governor-general. The
company fend droffards, or commiffaries, among them,
who adminifter juftice and take care of the public re¬
venues.
The city of Batatda is the capital not only of this
ifiand but of all the Dutch dominions in India. It
is an exceeding fine city, fituated in the latitude of
6° fouth, at the mouth of the river Jucatra, and in
the bofom of a large commodious bay, which may be
conffdered not only as one of the fafeft harbours in
India, but in the world. The city is furrounded by
a rampart 21 feet thick, covered on the outfide with
ftone and fortified wdth 22 baftions. This rampart is
environed by a ditch 45 yards over, and full of water,
efpecially when the tides are high, in the fpring. The
avenues to the town are defended by feveral forts,
each of which is well furnifhed with excellent brafs
cannon : no perfon is fuffered to go beyond thefe forts
without a paffport. The river Jucatra paffes through
the midft of the town, and forms 15 canals of run¬
ning water, all faced with free-flone, and adorned
with trees that are ever green : over thefe canals are
56 bridges, befides thofe which lie without the town.
The fireets are all perfeflly ftraight, and each, ge¬
nerally fpeaking, 30 feet broad. The houfes are
built of ftone, after the manner of thofe in Holland,
The city is about a league and a half in circumference,
and has five gates j but there are ten times the num¬
ber of houfes without that there are within it. There
is a very fine town-houfe, four Calvinift churches, be¬
fides other places of worthip for all forts of religions,
a fpin-huys or houfe of corredtion, an orphan houfe,
a magazine of fea ftores, feveral for fpices, with wharfs
and cord manufadffories, and many other public build¬
ings. The garrifon confifis commonly of between
2000 and 3000 men. Befides the forts mentioned
above, there is the citadel of Batavia, a very fine
regular fortification, fituated at the mouth of the
river, and flanked wdth four baftfons 5 two of w'hich
command the fea, and the other twm the town. It
is in the citadel that the governor-general of the In¬
dies has his palace over againft w'hich is that of the
diredlor-general, who is the next perfon to the gover¬
nor. The counfellors, and other principal officers of
the company, have alfo their apartments there j as
have likewife the phyfician, the furgeon, and the a-
pothecary. There are in it, befides, arfenals and ma¬
gazines furnifhed with ammunition for many years.
The city of Batavia is not only inhabited by Dutch,
French, Portuguefe, and other Europeans, eftablifhed
here on account of trade but alfo by a vaft number
of Indians of different nations, Javanefe, Chinefe,
Malayans, Negroes, Amboynefe, Armenians, natives
of the ifle of Bali, Mardykers or Topaffes, Macafiers,
Timers, Bougis, See. Of the Chinefe, there are, it is
faid,
JAY [ 47 ] ICE
Java faid, about ico,ooo in the ifland; of which near
i! 30,000 refided in the city till the year 1740, when
the Dutch, pretending that they were in a plot again!!
them, fent a body of troops into their quarter, and
demanded their arms, w7hich the Chinefe readily de¬
livered up ; and the next day the governor fent another
body, with orders to murder and maffacre every one of
the Chinefe, men, women, and children. Some relate
there were 20,000, others 30.000, that were put to
death, without any manner of trial : and yet the bar¬
barous governor, who was the inftrument of this cruel
proceeding, had the aflurance to embark for Europe,
imagining he had amaffed wealth enough to fecure
him again!! any profecution in Holland : but the
Dutch, finding tbemfelves detefted and abhorred by
all mankind for this piece of tyranny, endeavoured to
throw the odium of it upon the governor, though he
had the hands of all the council oi Batavia, except one,
to the order for the maffacre. The ilates, therefore,
difpatched a packet to the Cape of Good Hope, con¬
taining orders to apprehend the governor, and fend
him back to Batavia to be tried. He was according¬
ly apprehended at the Cape; but was never heard of
afterwards. It is fuppofed he was thrown over-board in
his paffage to Batavia, that there might be no farther
inquiries into the matter ; and it is faid, all the wealth
this merciful gentleman had amaffed, and fent over
before him in four fhips, was caff away in the paf-
fage.
Befides the garrifon here, the Dutch had former¬
ly about 15,000 men in the ifiand, either Dutch,
or formed out of the- feveral nations they had en-
flaved 5 and they had a fleet of between 20 and 30
men of war, with which they gave law to every power
on the coaft of Afia and Africa, and to all the Euro¬
pean powers that vifit the Indian ocean, unlefs we
Ihould except the Britifli: it was, however, but a lit¬
tle before the revolution that they expelled us from
our fettlement at Bantam.
JAVELIN, in antiquity, a fort of fpear five feet
and an half long ; the !haft of which was of wood,
with a Heel point.—Every foldier in the Roman ar¬
mies had feven of thefe, which were very light and
flender.
JAWER, a city of Silefia, capital of a province of
the fame name, with a citadel, and a large fquare,
furrounded with piazzas. It is 12 miles fouth-eaft of
Lignitz, 30 fouth-weft of Breflau, and 87 ea!l of
Prague. E. Long. 1 6. 29. N. Lat. 50. 56.
JAUNDICE (derived from the French jauniffe
I* yellownefs,” of jaune *'■ yellow”) j a difeafe confid¬
ing in a fuffufion of the bile, and a rejeflion thereof
to the furface of the body, whereby the whole exte¬
rior habit is difcoloured. Dr Maclurg is of opinion,
that the bile returns into the circulation in this difor-
der by the courfe of the lymphatics. See Medicine
Index.
JAWS. See Maxillae.
Locked Jaw, is a fpafmodic contrafiion of the low-
er jaw, commonly produced by fome external injury
affeiling the tendons or ligaments. See Medicine
Index.
JAY, fee Corvus, Ornithology Index.
Jay, Gwy Michael /<?, a Irench gentleman, who
diilinguifhed himfelf by caufing a polyglot bibie to. be
printed at his own expence in 10 vols folio : but he
ruined himfelf by that impreflion, fir!! becaufe he
would not fuffer it to appear under the name of Cardi- ;
nal Richelieu, who, after the example of Cardinal Xi-
menes, w?as ambitious of eternizing his name by this
means j and next, becaufe he made it too dear for the
Engli!h market 5 on which Dr Walton undertook his
polyglot bibie, which, being more commodious, redu¬
ced the price of M. le Jay’s. After the death of his
wife, M. le Jay took orders, wTas made dean of Veze-
lay in the Nivernois, and Louis XIV. gave him the
port of counfellor of ftate.
JAZER, or Jaser, in Ancient Geography, a Levi-
tical city in the territory of the Amorrhites beyond
Jordan, 10 miles to the w’efl, or rather fouth-weft, of
Philadelphia, and 15 miles from Efebon, and therefore
fituated between Philadelphia and Heflabon, on the
eaft border of the tribe of Gad, fuppofed to be the
Jazorem of Jofephus. In Jeremiah xlviii. mention is
made of the fea of Jazer, that is, a lake ; taken ei¬
ther for an effufion or overflowing of the Arnon, a
lake through which it paffes, or from which it takes its
rife.
IBERIA, Spain fo called by the ancients, from
the river Iberus. Iberes the people, from the nomi¬
native Iber. See Hispania.
Iberia was alfo the name of an inland country of
Afia, having Colchis to the we!!, with a part of Pon-
tus; to the north Mount Caucafus ; on the eaft Alba¬
nia ; and on the fouth Armenia Magna : Now the
weftern part of Georgia (See Georgia). Iberia, ac¬
cording to Jofephus, was firft peopled by Tubal, the
brother of Gomer and Magog. His opinion is con¬
firmed by the Septuagint 5 for Meihech and Tubal are
by thefe interpreters rendered Mofchi and Iberians. .
We know little of the hitlory of the country till the
reign of Mithridates, when their king, named Artocis,
fiding with that prince again!! Lucullus, and after¬
wards again!! Pompey, was defeated by the latter with
great flaughter; but afterwards obtained a peace, up¬
on delivering up his fons as hoftages. Little notice is
taken of the fucceeding kings by the ancient hiftori-
ans. They were probably tributary to the Romans
till that empire was overturned, when this, with the
other countries in Afia bordering on it, fell fucceffive-
ly under the power of the Saracens and Turks.
IBERIS, sciatica cresses,- or Candy-tuft, a genus
of plants belonging to the tetradynamia clafs, and in
the natural method ranking under the 39th order, Sill
quofec. See Botany Index.
IBEX, a fpecies of goat. See Capra, Mammalia
Index.
IBIS. See Tantalus, Ornithology Index.
IBYCUS, a Greek lyric poet, of whofe w'orks
there are only a few fragments remaining, flourifhed
550 B. C. It is faid, that he was affaffinated by
robbers \ and that, when dying, he called upon fome
cranes he faw flying to bear witnefs. Some time after,
one of the murderers feeing fome cranes, faid to his
companions, “ There are the witneffes of Ibycus’s
death w-hich being reported to the magiftrates, the
aflaflins wTere put to the torture, and having cenfeffed
the faff, were hanged. Thence arofe the proverb
Ibyci Grues.
ICE, in Physiology, a folid, transparent, and brittle
bodv,
Jazer
II
Ice.
Icr.
ICE [48
bod) , formed of fome tluid, particularly water, D}
means of cold.
The younyer Lemery obferves, that ice is only a
re-eflablilhment of the parts of water in their natural
date ; that the mere abfence of fire is fufficient to ac¬
count for this re-eftablilhment ; and that the fluidity
of water is a real fufion, like that of metals expofed to
the fire ; differing only in this, that a greater quan¬
tity of fire is neceffary to the one than the other. Gal-
lileo was the firft that obferved ice to be lighter than
the water which compofed it : and hence it happens,
that ice floats upon water, its fpecific gravity being to
that of water as eight to nine. This rarefaclion of
ice feems to be owing to the air-bubbles produced in
water by freezing ; and which, being confiderably
large in proportion to the water frozen, render the
body fo much fpecifically lighter : thefe air-bubbles,
during their production, acquire a great expanfive
power, fo as to burft the containing veflels, though ever
fo ftrong.
M. Mairan, in a differtation on ice, attributes the
increafe of its bulk chiefly to a different arrangement
of the parts of the water from which it is formed 5 the
icy fkin on the water being compofed of filaments,
which, according to him, are found to be conflantly
and regularly joined at an angle of 60° and which,
by this angular difpofition, occupy a greater volume
than if they were parallel. He found the augmenta¬
tion of the volume of water by freezing, in different
trials, a 14th, an 18th, a 19th-, and when the water
wras previoufly purged of air, only a 22d part: that
ice, even after its formation, continues to expand by
cold 5 for, after wTater had been frozen to fome thick-
nefs, the fluid part being let out by a hole in the bot¬
tom of the vefiel, a continuance of the cold made the
ice convex ; and a piece of ice, which was at firft only
a 14th part fpecifically lighter than water, on being
expofed fome days to the froft, became a 12th part
lighter. To this caufe he attributes the burfting of ice
on ponds.
Wax, refins, and animal fats, made fluid by fire, in-
ftead of expanding like watery liquors, (brink in their
return to folidity : for folid pieces of the fame bodies
fink to the bottom of the refjreflive fluids ; a proof
that thefe bodies are more denfe in their folid than in
their fluid ftate. The oils which congeal by cold, as
oil olive, and the effential oil of anifeeds, appear alfo
to (brink in their congelation. Hence, the different
difpofitions of different kinds of trees to be burft by,
or to refill, ftrong frofts, are by fome attributed to the
juices with which the tree abounds 5 being in the one
cafe watery, and in the other refinous or oily.
Though it has been generally fuppofed that the na¬
tural cryftals of ice are ftars of fix rays, forming angles
of 6o° w’ith each other, yet this cryftallization of wa¬
ter, as it may properly be called, feems to be as much
affeffed by circumftances as that of falts. Hence we
find a confiderable difference in the accounts of thofe
who have undertaken to defcribe thefe cryftals. M.
Mairan informs us, that they are ftars with fix radii;
and his opinion is confirmed by obferving the figure
of froft on glafs. M. Rome de LTfle determines the
form of the folid cryftal to be an equilateral oftaedron.
M. Haffenfratz found it to be a prifmatic hexaedron ;
but M. d’Antic found a method of reconciling thefe
2
] ICE
leemingly oppofite opinions. In a violent hail-ftorm,
where the hailitones vrere very large, he found they
had fharp Wedge-like angles of more than half an inch •,
and in thefe he fuppofed it impoffible to fee two
pyramidal tetraedra joined laterally, and not to con¬
clude that each grain was compofed of odtaedrons con¬
verging to a centre. Some had a cavity in the middle ;
and he faw the oppofite extremities of two oppofite
pyramids, wfliich conftitute the oiiaedron } he like-
wife faw the octaedron entire united in the middle :
all of them were therefore fimilar to the cryftals form¬
ed upon a thread immerfed in a faline folution. On
thefe principles M. d’Antic conftru&ed an artificial
odtaedron refembling one of the largeft hailftones •, and
found that the angle at the fummit of the pyramid
was 4^, but that of the junction.of the two pyra¬
mids 1 450. It is not, howevfcr, eafy to procure regu¬
lar cryftals in hailftones where the operation is con-
duffed with fuch rapidity : in fnow and hoar-froft,
where the cryftallization goes on more ilowly, our
author is of opinion that he fees the rudiments of
oflaedra.
Ice forms generally on the furface of the wrater : but
this too, like the cryftallization, may be varied by an
alteration in the circumftances. In Germany, particu¬
larly the northern parts of that country, it has been ob¬
ferved that there are three kinds of ice. 1. That w'hich
forms on the furface. 2. Another kind formed in the
middle of the water, refembling nuclei or fmall hail.
3. The ground ice w'hich is produced at the bottom,
efpecially where there is any fibrous fubftance to which
it may adhere. This is full of cells like a w'afp’s nert,
but lefs regular •, and performs many ftrange effecls in
bringing up very heavy bodies from the bottom, by
means of its inferiority in fpecific gravity to the water
in wflfich it is formed. The ice which forms in the
middle of the w^ater rifes to the top, and there unites
into large mattes; but the formation both of this and
the ground ice takes place only in violent and hidden
colds, where the water is (hallow, and the furface dis¬
turbed in fuch a manner that the congelation cannot
take place. The ground ice is very deftnuftive to
dykes and other aquatic works. In the more tempe¬
rate European climates thefe kinds of ice are not met
wflth.
In many countries the w'armth of the climate ren¬
ders ice not only a defirable, but even a neceflary
article } fo that it becomes an objeft of fome confe-
quence to fall upon a ready and cheap method of pro¬
curing it. We (hall here take notice of fome attempts
made by Mr Cavallo to difcover a method of produ¬
cing a Sufficient degree of cold for this purpofe by the
evaporation of volatile liquors. He found, however,
in the courfe of thefe experiments, that ether wTas in¬
comparably fuperior to any other fluid in the degree
of cold it produced. The price of the liquor natu¬
rally induced him to fall upon a method of ufing it
W’ith as little wafte as poffible. The thermometer he
made ufe of had the ball quite detached from the ivory
piece on which the fcale was engraved. The various
fluids were then thrown|upon the ball through the ca¬
pillary aperture of a fmall glafs vefiel fhaped like a
funnel; and care was taken to throw’ them upon it fo
flowlv, that a drop might now and then fall from the
under part, excepting when thofe fluids were ufed.
1
ICE [
which evaporate very flowly j in which cafe it  
fuflicient barely to keep the ball moift, without any
drop tailing from it. During the experiment, the
thermometer was kept very gently turning round its
axis, that the fluid made uie of might fall upon every
part of its ball. He found this method preferable to
that of dipping the ball of the thermometer into the
fluid and taking it out again immediately, or even of
anointing it conftantly with a feather. The evapora¬
tion, and confequently the cold, produced by it, may
be increafed by blowing on the thermometer with a
pair of bellows; though this was not ufed in the ex¬
periments now to be related, on account of the difli
culty of its being performed by one perfon, and like-
wife becaufe it occafions much uncertainty in the re-
fults.
I he room in which the experiments wTere made was
heated to 64° of Fahrenheit j and with water it was
reduced to 56’, viz. 8° below' that of the room or of
the water employed. The effedt took place in about
two minutes j but though the operation was continued
for a longer time, it did not fink low'er. With fpirit
of wine it funk to 48*. 1 he cold wras greater with
highly redlified fpirit than with the weaker fort j but
the difference is lefs than wmuld be expedted by one
W'ho had never feen the experiment made. The pure
fpirit produces its effedf much more quickly. On
ufing various other fluids w’hich were either compound¬
ed of w'ater and fpirituous liquors, or pure effences, he
found that the cold produced by their evaporation was
generally fome intermediate degree between that pro¬
duced by water and the fpirit of wine. Oil of turpen¬
tine funk the mercury three degrees ; but olive oil and
others, which evaporate very flowly, or not at all, did
not fenfibly affedf the thermometer.
_ f 0 obferve how much the evaporation of fpirit of
wine, and confequently the cold produced by it, wmuld
be increafed by electricity, he put the tube containing
it into an infulating handle, and connected it w'ith the
conductor of an eleCtrical machine, which was kept in
aCtion during the time of making the experiment; by
which means one degree of cold feemed to be gained,
as the mercury now funk to 470 inftead of 48*, at
which it had flood formerly. On trying the three
mineral acids, he found that they heated the thermo¬
meter inftead of cooling it •, which effeCt he attri¬
butes to the heat they themfelves acquired by uniting
with the. moifture of the atmofphere. The vitriolic
acid, which was very ftrong and tranfparent, raifed
the mercury to 102°, the fmoking nitrous acid to 72°,
and the marine to 66°.
.the apparatus for ufing the leaft poffible quantity
of ether for freezing water confifts in a glafs tube
(fig. 1.) terminating in a capillary aperture, wdiich is
to be fixed upon the bottle containing the ether.
Round the lower part of the neck at A fome thread
is wound, in order to let it fit the neck of the bottle.
W hen the experiment is to be made, the ftopper of the
bottle.containing the ether is to be removed, and the
tube juft mentioned put in its room. The thread
round the tube ought alfo to be previoufly moiftened
with water or fpittle before it is put into the neck of
the bottle, in order the more effeClually to prevent the
efcape of the ether betwixt the neck of the phial and
tube. Hold then the bottle bv its bottom FG ffig 2 I
Vol. XI. Part I. ' ^
49 1 ICE
s and keeping it inclined as in the figure, the fruall
ftream of ether iffuing out of the aperture D of the
tube DE, is direCted upon the ball of the thermome¬
ter, or upon a tube containing water or other liquor
that is required to be congealed. As ether is very vo¬
latile, and has the remarkable property of increafing
the bulk of air, there is no aperture requifite to al¬
low the air to enter the bottle while the liquid flows
out. The heat of the hand is more than fufticient to
force out the ether in a continued ftream at the aper¬
ture D.
In this manner, throwing the ftream of ether upon
the ball of a thermometer in fuch a quantity that a
drop might now and then, every ten feconds for in-
ftance, fall from the bulb of the thermometer, Mr Ca-
vallo brought the mercury down to 3®, or 290 below
the freezing point, when the atmofphere was fomewdrat
hotter than temperate. When the ether is very good,
i. e. capable of diffolving elaftic gum, and has a final!
bulb, not above 20 drops of it are required to pro-
duce this eflfedt, and about two minutes of time 5 but
the common fort muft be ufed in greater quantity, and
for a longer time ; though at laft the thermometer is
brought dowm by this very nearly as low as by the
beft fort.
To freeze water by the evaporation of ether, Mr
Cavallo takes a thin glafs tube about four inches long,
and one-fifth of an inch diameter, hermetically fealed
at one end, with a little water in it, fo as to take up
about half an inch of the cavity, as is ftiewn at CB in
fig. 3. Into this tube a flender wire H is alfo intro¬
duced, the lower extremity of which is twifted into a
fpiral, and ferves to draw up the bit of ice when form¬
ed. He then holds the glafs tube by its upper part
A wdth the fingers of the left hand, and keeps it conti¬
nually and gently turning round its axis, firft one way
and then the other: whilft wdth the right hand he
holds the phial containing the ether in fuch a man¬
ner as to diredf the ftream on the outfide of the tube,
and a little above the furface of the water contained in
it. The capillary aperture D fhould be kept almoft
in contadf with the furface of the tube containing the
w'ater j and by continuing the operation for twm or
three minutes, the water wall be frozen as it were in
an inftant •, and the opacity will* afcend to C in lefs
than half a fecond of time, which makes a beautiful ap¬
pearance. This congelation, how'ever, is only fuper-
ficial : and in order to congeal the whole quantity of
water, the operation muft be continued a minute or
two longer •, after w'hich the wire H will be found
kept very tight by the ice. The hand muft then be
applied to the outfide of the tube, in order to foften
the furface of the ice ; w'hich wmuld otherwife adhere
very firmly to the glafs ; but when this is done, the
wire H eafily brings it out.
Sometimes our author was accuftomed to put into
the tube a fmall thermometer inftead of the wire H j
and thus he had an opportunity of obferving a very
curious phenomenon unnoticed by others, viz. that in
the winter time water requires a fmaller degree of cold
to congeal it than in the fummer. In the wnnter, for
inftance, the w'ater in the tube AB will freeze when
the thermometer ftands about 3c0; but in the fummer,
or even w'hen the thermometer ftands at 6o°, the quick-
filver muft be brought down 10, 15, or even more de-
G grees
ICE [ 5° ] ICE
grees below the freezing point before any congelation
can take place. In the fummer time therefore a
greater quantity of ether, and more time, will be re¬
quired to congeal any given quantity of water than in
winter. When the temperature of the atmofphere has
been about 40°, our author has been able to congeal a
quantity of water with an equal quantity of good
ether ; but in fummer, two or three times the quantity
are required to perform the effeef. “ There feems
(fays he) to be fomething in the air, which, betides
heat, interferes with the freezing of water, and per¬
haps of all fluids ; though I cannot fay from my own
experience whether the above-mentioned difference be¬
tween the freezing in winter and fummer takes place
with other fluids, as milk, oils, wines,” &c.
The proportion of ether requifite to congeal w^ater
feems to vary with the quantity of the latter ; that
is, a large quantity of water feems to require a pro-
portionably lefs quantity of ether to freeze it than a
fmaller one. “ In the beginning of the fpring (fays
Mr Cavallo), I froze a quarter of an ounce of wrater
with about half an ounce of ether : the apparatus be¬
ing larger, though fimilar to that deferibed above.
Now as the price of ether, fufficiently good for the
purpofe, is generally about i8d. or 2s. per ounce, it is
plain, that with an expence under two {hillings, a
quarter of an ounce of ice, or ice-cream, may be made
in every climate, and at any time,*; which may afford
great fatisfa&ion to thofe perfons, who, living in thofe
places w’here no natural ice is to be had, never faw or
tailed any fuch delicious refrefliment. When a fmall
piece of ice, for inftance, of about ten grains weight,
is required, the neceffary apparatus is very fmall, and
the expence not worth mentioning. I have a fmall
box four inches and a half long, twTo inches broad, and
one and a half deep, containing all the apparatus ne¬
ceffary for this purpofe •, viz. a bottle capable of con¬
taining about one ounce of ether ; twTo pointed tubes,
in cafe one (hould break ; a tube in which the water
is to be frozen, and a wire. With the quantity of
ether contained in this fmall and very portable appa¬
ratus, the experiment may be repeated about ten times.
A perfon who wiflies to perform fuch experiments in
hot climates, and in places where ice is not eafily pro¬
cured, requires only a larger bottle of ether befides the
whole apparatus deferibed above.” Eleftricity in-
creafes the cold produced by means of evaporating
ether but very little, though the effe6f is perceptible.
Having thrown the eleiffrifled and alfo the uneleclri-
fled ftream of ether upon the bulb of a thermometer,
the mercury was brought down two degrees lowTer in
the former than in the latter cafe.
Our author obferves, for the fake of thofe who may
be inclined to repeat this experiment, that a cork
confined this volatile fluid much better than a glafs
Hopple, which it is almoft impoflible to grind with fuch
exaftnefs as to prevent entirely the evaporation of the
ether. When a Hopple, made very nicely out of an
uniform and clofe piece of cork, which goes rather
tight, is put upon a bottle of ether, the fmell of that
fluid cannot be perceived through it ; but he never faw
a glafs Hopple which could produce that eftedl. In
this manner, ether, fpirit of wine, or any other vola¬
tile fluid, may be preferved, which does not corrode
cork by its fumes. When the Hopple, however, is very
often taken out, it becomes loofe, as it will alio be by be¬
long keeping : in either of which cafes it muff be ^
changed.
Blink of the Ice, is a name given by the pilots
to a bright appearance near the horizon, occaflon-
ed by the ice, and obferved before the ice itfelf is
feen.
IcE-Boats, boats fo conflrufted as to fail upon ice,
and which are very common in Holland, particular¬
ly upon the river Maefe and the lake Y. See Plate
CCLXXVIII. They go with incredible fwiftnefs,
fometimes fo quick as to affedf the breath, and are
found very ufeful in conveying goods and paffengers
over lakes and great rivers in that country. Boats of
different flzes are placed in a tranfverfe form upon a
or 3 inch deal board •, at the extremity of each end
are fixed irons, which turn up in the form of fkaits 5
upon this plank the boat refls, and the two ends fervs
as out-riggers to prevent overfetting ; whence ropes
are faflened that lead to the head of the mail in the
nature of fhrouds, and others paffed through a block
acrofs the bowfprit: the rudder is made fomewhat like
a hatchet with the head placed downward, which being
preffed down, cuts the ice, and ferves all the purpofes
of a rudder in the w'ater, by enabling the helmfman to
fleer, tack, &c.
Method of making Ice-Cream. Take a fufficient
quantity of cream, and, wThen it is to be mixed with
rafpberry, or currant, or pine, a quarter part as much
of the juice or jam, as of the cream : after beating and
flraining the mixture through a cloth, put it with a
little juice of lemon into the mould, which is a pewter
veffel, and varying in fize and (hape at pleafure j cover
the mould, and place it in a pail about two-thirds full of
ice, into which two handfuls of fait have been throwm j
turn the mould by the hand-hold with a quick motion
to and fro, in the manner ufed for milling chocolate, for
eight or ten minutes; then let it refl as long, and turn
it again for the fame time } and having left it to Hand
half an hour, it is fit to be turned out of the mould and
to be fent to table. Lemon juice and fugar, and
the juices of various kinds of fruits, are frozen with¬
out cream} and when cream is ufed, it Ihould be w’eil
mixed.
Ice-HHIs, a fort of firufture or contrivance common
upon the river Neva at Peterfburg, and which afford
a perpetual fund of amufement to the populace. They
are conffriuffed in the following manner. A fcaffolding
is raifed upon the river about 30 leet in height, with a
landing place on the top, the afeent to which is by a
ladder. From this fummit a Hoping plane of boards,
about four yards broad and 30 long, defeends to
the fuperficies of the river ; it is fupported by ffrong
poles gradually decreafing in height, and its fides are
defended by a parapet of planks. Upon thefe boards are
laid Iquare maffes of ice about four inches thick, which
beifig firft fmoothed with the axe and laid clofe to each
other, are then fprinkled w’ith water : by thefe means
they coalefce, and, adhering to the boards, immediate¬
ly form an inclined plane of pure ice. From the bot¬
tom of this plane the fnow is cleared away for the length
of 200 yards, and the breadth of four, upon the level
bed of the river 5 and the fides of this courfe, as well
as the fides and top of the fcaffolding, are ornamented
with firs and pines. Each perfon, being provided with
ICE [
a fledge, mounts the ladder 5 and having attained the
fummit, he feats himfelf upon his fledge at the upper
extremity of the inclined plane, down which he fuffers
it to glide with confiderable rapidity, polling it as he
goes down j when the velocity acquired by the de¬
ment carries it above 100 yards upon the level ice of
the river. At the end of this courfe, there is ufually
a fimilar ice-hill, nearly parallel to the former, which
begins where the other ends •, fo that the perfon imme¬
diately mounts again, and in the fame manner glides
down the other inclined plane of ice. This diverfion
he repeats as often as he pleafes. The boys alfo are
continually employed in fkaiting down thefe hills :
they glide chiefly upon one fkait, as they are able
to poife themfelves better upon one leg than upon
two. Thefe ice-hills exhibit a pleafing appearance up¬
on the river, as well from the trees with which they
are ornamented, as from the moving objedts wdhch at
particular times of the day are defcending without in-
termiflion.
IcE-Houfe, a repofitory for ice during the fummer
months. The afpedf of ice-houfes fhould be towards the
eaft or fouth-eafl, for the advantage of the morning fun
to expel the damp air, as that is more pernicious than
warmth : for which reafon trees in the vicinity of an ice-
houfe tend to its difadvantage.
The bell foil for an ice-houfe to be made in is chalk,
as it conveys away the wafle water without any artifi¬
cial drain j next to that, loofe ftony earth or gravelly
foil. Its fituation fhould be on the fide of a hill, for
the advantage of entering the cell upon a level, as in the
drawing, Plate CCLXXVIII.
To conflrudl an ice-houfe, firft choofe a proper place
at a convenient diflance from the dweiling-houfe or
houfes it is to ferve : dig a cavity (if for one family, of
the dimenfions fpecified in the defign) of the figure of
an inverted cone, finking the bottom concave, to form
a refervoir for the wafle water till it can drain off 5 if
the foil requires it, cut a drain to a confiderable di¬
flance, or fo far as will come out at the fide of the hill,
or into a well, to make it communicate with the
fprings, and in that drain form a flink or air-trap, mark¬
ed /, by finking the drain fo much lower in that place
as it is high, and bring a partition from the top an inch
or more into the water, which will confequently be in
the trap 5 and will keep the well air-tight. Work up
a fufficient number of brick piers to receive a cart¬
wheel, to be laid with its convex fide upwards to re¬
ceive the ice •, lay hurdles and flraw upon the wheel,
which will let the melted ice drain through, and ferve
as a floor. The fides and dome of the cone are to he
nine inches thick—the fides to be done in fleened
brickwork, i. e. without mortar, and wrought at right
angles to the face of the work : the filling in behind
ihould be with gravel, loofe flones, or brick-bats, that
the water which drains through the fides may the more
eafily efcape into the well. The doors of the ice-
houfe fhould be made as clofe as poffible, and bundles
of draw placed always before the inner door to keep
out the air.
Defcription of the parts referred to by the letters.—
a ’I he line firll dug out. b The brick circumference
of the cell, c The diminution of the cell downwards.
d The leffer diameter of the cell, e The cart wheel
51 1 ICE
or joifls and hurdles. ./The piers to receive the wheel Ice.
or floor, g The principal receptacle for draw, h The " v~“
inner paffage, 1 the firll entrance, k the outer door,
paffages having a feparate door each. / An air trap.
m I he well, n The profile of the piers, o The ice
filled in. Ihe height of the cone, y The dome
worked in two half brick arches, r The arched paf¬
fage. j- The door-ways inferted in the walls, t The
floor of the pafiage. u An aperture through which the
ice may be put into the cell; this mufl be covered next
the crown of the dome, and then filled in with earth.
x The doping door, againd which the draw fhould be
laid*
I he ice when to be put in fhould be colledled du¬
ring the frod, broken into fmall pieces, and rammed
down hard in drata of not more than a foot, in order
to make it, one complete body j the care in putting it
in, and well ramming it, tends much to its preferva-
tion. . In a feafon when ice is not to be had in fufficient
quantities, fnow may be fubdituted.
Ice may be preferved in a dry place under ground, by
covering it well with chaff, draw, or reeds.
Great ufe is made of chad in fome places of Italy to
preferve ice : the ice-houfe for this purpofe need only
be a deep hole dug in the ground on the fide of a hill,
from the bottom of which they can eafily carry out a
drain, to let out the water which is feparated at any
time from the ice, that it may not melt and fpoil the
red. If the ground is tolerably dry, they do not line
the fides with any thing, but leave them naked, and on-
ly make a covering of thatch over the top of the hole :
this pit they fill either with pure fnow, or elfe with ice
taken from the pured and cleared water j becaufe they
do not ufe it as we do in England, to fet the bottles
in, but really mix it with the wine. They fird cover
the bottom of the hole with chaff, and then lay in the
ice, not letting it anywhere touch the fides, but ram¬
ming in a large bed of chaff all the way between : they
thus carry on the filling to the top, and then cover
the furface with chaff j and in this manner it will keep
as long as they pleafe. When they take any of it
out for ufe, they wrap the lump up in chaff, and it
may then be carried to any didant place without wade
or melting.
It appears from the invedigation of Profeffor Beck¬
man, in his Hidory of Inventions, that the ancients
from the earlieil ages were acquainted with the method
of preferving fnow for the purpofe of cooling liquors in
fummer. “ This praftice, (he obferves), is mentioned
by Solomon * 5 and proofs of it are fo numerous in * Proverb^
the works of the Greeks and the Romans, that it is xxv' I5<
unneceffary for me to quote them, efpecially as they
have been colledled by others. How the repofitories
for keeping it were condrucled, we are not exprefsly
told 5 but it is probable that the fnow was preferved in
pits or trenches.
“ When Alexander the Great befieged the city of
Petra, he caufed 30 trenches to be dug, and filled with
fnow, which was covered with oak branches; and which
kept in that manner for a long time. Plutarch fays,
that a covering of chaff and coarfe cloth is fufficient ;
and at prefent a like method is purfued in Portugal.
Where the fnow has been collefled in a deep gulf,
fome grafs or green fods, covered with dung from the
G 2 fheep
ICE [52
fiieep pens, is thrown over it *, and under thefe it is fo
well preferved, that the whole fummer through it is
fent the diflance of 60 Spaniih (nearly 180 Englilh)
miles to Lifbon.
“ When the ancients, therefore, wifhed to have cooling
liquors, they either drank the melted fnow, or put feme
of it in their wine; or they placed jars filled with \vine
in the fnow', and fuffered it to cool there as long as they
thought pioper. That ice was alfo preferved for the
like purpofe, is probable from the teftimony of various
authors ; but it appears not to have been ufed fo much
in warm countries as in the northern. Even at prefent
fnow is employed in Italy, Spain, and Portugal; but in
Perfia ice. I have never any where found an account
of Grecian or Roman ice-houfes. By the writers on
agriculture they are not mentioned.”
IcE-Ijland, a name given by failors to a great quan¬
tity of ice collefted into one huge folid mafs, and float¬
ing about upon the feas near or within the Polar circles.
—Many of thefe fluctuating iflands are met with on
the coafts of Spitzbergen, to the great danger of the
fhipping employed in the Greenland fifhery. In the midfl:
of thole, tremendous mafles navigators have been arreft-
eft and frozen to death. In this manner the brave Sir
Hugh Willoughby perifhed with all his crew in 1553 »
and in the year 1773, Lord Mulgrave, after every ef¬
fort which the moft finiftied feaman could make to ac-
complilh the end of his voyage, was caught in the ice,
and was near experiencing the fame unhappy fate. See
the account at large in Phipps's Voyage to the North
Pole. As there deferibed, the feene, divefted of the
horror from the eventful expectation of change, was
the moft beautiful and piCturefque :—Two large (hips
becalmed in a vaft bafon, furrounded on all fides by
iflands of various forms : the weather clear : the fun
gilding the circumambient ice, which was low7, fmooth,
and even ; covered with fnow, excepting where the
pools of water on part of the furface appeared cryftal-
line with the young ice : the fmall fpace of fea they
ivere confined in perfectly fmooth. After fruitlefs at¬
tempts to force a way through the fields of ice, their
limits w:ere perpetually contracted by its clofing; till at
length it befet each velfel till they became immoveably
fixed. The fmooth extent of furface was foon loft :
the prefihre of the pieces of ice, by the violence of the
fvvell, caufed them to pack : fragment rofe upon frag¬
ment, till they were in many places higher than the
main-yard. The movements of the ftiips were tremen¬
dous and involuntary, in conjunction with the fur¬
rounding ice, actuated by the currents. The water
fhoaled to 14 fathoms. The grounding of the ice or
of the Ihips wrould have been equally fatal: The force
of the ice might have cruflied them to atoms, or have
lifted them out of the water and overfet them, or have
left them fufpended on the fummits of the pieces of ice
at a tremendous height, expofed to the fury of the
winds, or to the rilk of being dallied to pieces by
the failure of their frozen dock. An attempt wras made
to cut a paflage through the ice ; after a perfeverance
worthy of Britons, it proved fruitlefs. The comman¬
der, at all times matter of himfelf, direCIed the boats
to be made ready to be hauled over the ice, till they
arrived at navigable water (a talk alone of feven days),
and in them to make their voyage to England. The
boats were drawn progreftively three whole days. At
: ] T c E
length a wind fprung up, the ice feparated fufficiently
tci yield to the preffure of the full-failed Ihips, which, ^<re‘:> Ts" „
after labouring againft the refilling fields of ice, arrived
on the 10th of Augull in the harbour of Smeeringberg,
at the weft end of Spitzbergen, between it and Hack-
luyt’s Headland.
The forms affutned by the ice in this chilling cli¬
mate are extremely pleafing to even the moft incu¬
rious eye. The furface of that which is congealed
from the fea water (for we mull allow7 it twro origins)
is flat and even, hard, opake, refembling white fugar,
and incapable of being Hid on, like the Britilh ice. I he
greater pieces, or fields, are many leagues in length :
the Idler are the meadows of the feals, on which thele
animals at times frolic by hundreds. 1 he motion of
the lelfer pieces is as rapid as the currents: the greater,
which are fometimes 200 leagues long, and 60 or So
broad, move flow7 and majeftically; often fix for a time,
immoveable by the pow7er of the ocean, and then pro¬
duce near the horizon that bright white appearance cal¬
led the hlin'k. The approximation of two great fields
produces a moft Angular phenomenon : it forces the
lefler (if the term cm be applied to pieces of feveral
acres fquare) out of the water, and adds them to their
lurface ; a fecond and often a third fucceeds ; fo that
the w'hole forms an aggregate of a tremendous height.
Thefe float in the fea like fo many rugged- mountains,
and are fometimes 500 or 600 yards thick ; but the
far greater part is concealed beneath the water. Ihefe
are continually increafed in height by the freezing of
the fpray of the fea, or of the melting of the fnow,
wkich falls on them. Thofe which remain in this fro¬
zen climate receive continual growth ; others are gra¬
dually wafted by the northern winds into fouthern la¬
titudes, and melt by degrees, by the heat of the lun, till
they w-afte away, or difappear in the boundlefs element.
The collifion of the great fields of ice, in high lati¬
tudes, is often attended with a noife that for a time
takes aw7ay the fenfe of hearing any thing elfe; and the
leffer with a grinding of unfpeakable horror. The wa¬
ter which dallies againft the mountainous ice freezes in¬
to an infinite variety of forms; and gives the voyager
ideal towns, ftreets, churches, fteeples, and every lhape
which imagination can frame.
Ici-Plant. See Mesembryanthemum, Botany
Index.
ICEBERGS, are large bodies of ice filling the val¬
leys between the high mountains in northern latitudes.
Among the moft remarkable are thofe of the call coalt
of Spitzbergen (fee Greenland, n° 10.) They are
feven in number, but at confiderable dirtances from
each other ; each fills the valleys for tra&s unknown
in a region totally inacceflible in the internal parts.
The glaciers * of Switzerland feem contemptible to*SeeGfi*-
thefe ; but prefent often a fimilar front into fome lower
valley. The laft exhibits over the fea a front 300 feet
high, emulating the emerald in colour ; catara&s of
melted fnow precipitate down various parts, and black
fpiring mountains, ftreaked with white, bound the
fides, and rife crag above crag, as far as eye can reach
in the background. See PlateCCLXXVIII. At times
immenfe fragments break off, and tumble into the water,
with a moft alarming daftiing. A piece of this vivid
green fubftance has fallen, and grounded in 24 fathoms
water, and fpired above the furface 50 feet Simi-
Plate CCLXXV'JII
the coun¬
try.
‘ ICE [53
Iceland, lar icebergs are frequent in all the Ardlic regions $ and
' v 1 to their lapfes is owing the folid mountainous ice which
infefts thofe feas.—Froft fports wonderfully with thefe
icebergs, and gives them majeftic as well as other moll
fingular forms. Maffes have been feen affuming the
lhape of a Gothic church, with arched windows and
doors, and all the rich drapery of that ftyle, compofed
of what an Arabian tale would fcarcely dare to relate,
of cryftal of the richeft fapphirine blue ; tables with
one or more feet •, and often immenfe flat-roofed tem¬
ples, like thofe of Luxor on the Nile, fupported by
round tranfparent columns of cerulean hue, float by
the allonilhed fpe&ator. Thefe icebergs are the crea¬
tion of ages, and receive annually additional height by
the falling of fnows and of rain, which often inftantly
freezes, and more than repairs the lofs occafloned by
the influence of the melting fun.
ICELAND, a large ifland lying in the northern
part of the Atlantic ocean, between 63 and 68 de¬
grees of north latitude, and between 10 and 26 degrees
of weft longitude j its greateft length being about 700
1 miles, and its breadth 300.
General ac- This country lying partly within the frigid zone, and
count t)f being liable to be furrounded with vaft quantities of ice
which come from the polar feas, is, on account of the
coldnefs of its climate, very inhofpitable ; but much
more fo for other reafons. It is exceedingly fubjeft to
earthquakes 5 and fo full of volcanoes, that the little
part of it which appears fit for the habitation of man
feems almoft totally laid wafte by them. The beft ac¬
count that hath yet appeared of the ifland of Iceland
is in a late publication, intitled “ Letters on Iceland,
&c. written by Uno Von Troil, D. D. firft chaplain
to his Swedifli majefty.” This gentleman failed from
London on the 1 2th of July 1772, in company with
Mr Banks, Dr Solander, and Dr James Lind of E-
dinburgh, in a (hip for which look Sterling was paid
every month. After vifiting the Weftern iiles of Scot¬
land, they arrived on the 28th of Auguft at Iceland,
where they caft anchor at Beffeftedr or Beffaftadr, ly¬
ing in about 64° 6' N. Lat. in the weftern part of the
ifland. The country had to them the moft difmal ap¬
pearance that can be conceived. “ Imagine to your-
felf (fays Dr Troil) a country, which from one end
to the other prefents to your view only barren moun¬
tains, whofe fummits are covered with eternal fnow,
and between them fields divided by vitrified cliffs, whofe
high and fharp points feem to vie with each other to
deprive you of the fight of a little grafs which fcantily
fprings up among them. Thefe fame dreary rocks
likewife conceal the few fcattered habitations of the
natives, and no where a Angle tree appears which might
afford {belter to ffiendlhip and innocence. The profpecl
before us, though not pleafing, was uncommon and
furprifing. Whatever prefented itfelf to our view bore
the marks of devaftation •, and our eyes, accuftomed to
behold the pleafing coafts of England, now faw nothing
but the veftiges of the operation of a fire, Heaven knows
how ancient 1”
The climate of Iceland, however, is not unwhole-
fome, or naturally fubjeft to exceffive colds, notwith-
ftanding its northerly lituation. There have been
inftances indeed of Fahrenheit’s thermometer finking
to 240 below the freezing point in winter, and rifing to
Account
of the cli¬
mate.
] ICE
104® in fummer. Since the year 1749, obiervations Iceland,
have been made on the weather 5 and the refult of thele v
obfervations hath been unfavourable, as the coldnefs of
the climate is thought to be on the increafe, and of
confequence the country is in danger of becoming un¬
fit for the habitation of the human race. Wood, which
formerly grew in great quantities all over the ifland,
cannot now be raifed. Even the hardy firs of Norway
cannot be reared in this ifland. They feemed indeed
to thrive till they were about two feet high ; but then
their tops withered, and they ceafed to grow7. This
is owing chiefly to the ftorms and hurricanes which
frequently happen in the months of May and June, and
which are very unfavourable to vegetation of every
kind. In 1772, Governor Thodal fowed a little bar¬
ley, which grew very brilkly •, but a ftiort time before
it was to be reaped, a violent ftorm fo effeftually de-
ftroyed it, that only a few7 grains were found fcattered
about. Befides thefe violent winds, this ifland lies un¬
der another difadvantage, owing to the floating ice al¬
ready mentioned, with which the coafts are often befet.
This ice comes on by degrees, aUvays wuth an eafterly
wind, and frequently in fuch quantities as to fill up all
the gulfs on the north-weft fide of the ifland, and
even covers the fea as far as the eye can reach j it alfo
fometimes drives to other fhores. It generally comes in
January, and goes away in March. Sometimes it only
reaches the land in April; and, remaining there for a
long time, does an incredible deal of mifchief. It con-
fifts partly of mountains of ice, faid to be fometimes 60
fathoms in height j and partly of field ice, which is
neither fo thick nor fo much dreaded. Sometimes
thefe enormous maffes are grounded in fhoal-water j and
in thefe cafes they remain for many months, nay years,
undiffolved, chilling the atmofphere for a great way
round. When many fuch bulky and lofty ice-maffes are
floating together, the wrood which is often found drift¬
ing between them, is fo much chafed, and preffed with
fuch violence together, that it fometimes takes fire :
which circumftance has occafioned fabulous accounts-
of the ice being in flames.
In 1753 and 1754, this ice occafioned fuch a vio¬
lent cold, that horfes and (beep dropped down dead by
reafon of it, as well as for want of food ; horfes w7ere
obferved to feed upon dead cattle, and the ftieep ate off
each other’s wmol. In 1755, towards the end of the
month of May, the waters were frozen over in one
night to the thicknefs of an inch and five lines. In
1756, on the 26th of June, fnow fell to the depth of
a yard, and continued falling through the months of
July and Auguft. In the year following it froze very
hard towards the end of May and beginning of June,
in the fouth part of the ifland, which occafioned a
great fcarcity of grafs. Thefe frofts are generally fol-
low7ed by a famine, many examples of which are to be
found in the Icelandic chronicles. Belides thefe cala¬
mities, a number of bears annually arrive with the ice,
which commit great ravages among the iheep. The
Icelanders attempt to deftroy thefe intruders as foon as
they get fight of them. Sometimes they affemble toge¬
ther, and drive them back to the ice, with which th ry
often float off again. For want of fire-ar ns, they are
obliged to ufe fpears on thefe occafions. The govern¬
ment alfo encourages the deftruttion of thefe ammntg
. .by
ICE
Iceland. 1by paying a premium of xo dollars for every bear that
^ v is killed, and purchafing the Ikin of him who killed
it.
Notwithflanding this difmal piflure, however, taken
from Von Troil’s letters, fome trafts of ground, in high
cultivation, are mentioned as being covered by the
great eruption of lava in 1783. It is poffible, there¬
fore, that the above may have been fomewhat exagger¬
ated.
Thunder and lightning are feldom heard in Iceland,
except in the neighbourhood of volcanoes. Aurora
Borealis is very frequent and ftrong. It moft com¬
monly appears in dry weather *, though there are not
wanting inftances of its being feen before or after rain,
or even during the time of it. The lunar halo, which
prognofticates bad weather, is likewife very frequent
here ; as are alfo parhelions, which appear from one
to nine in number at a time. Thefe parhelions are ob-
ferved chiefly at the approach of the Greenland ice,
which an intenfe degree of frofl: has produced, and the
frozen vapours fill the air. Fire-balls, fometimes round
and fometimes oval, are obferved, and a kind of ignis
fataus which attaches itfelf to men and hearts \ and co¬
mets are alfo frequently mentioned in their chronicles.
This lart circumftance deferves the attention of aftrono-
mers.
Iceland, befides all the inconveniences already men¬
tioned, has two very terrible ones, called by the natives
Jkvida and fnioflodi: the name of the firft imports large
pieces of a mountain tumbling down and deftroying the
lands and houfes which lie at the foot of it : this hap¬
pened in 1554, when a whole farm was ruined, and
thirteen people buried alive. The other word fignifies
the effedls of a prodigious quantity of fnow, which
covers the top of the mountains, rolling down in im-
menfe mafies, and doing a great deal of damage : of
this there -was an inftance in 1699, during the night,
when two farms were buried, wflth all their inhabitants
and cattle. This laft accident Iceland has in common
with all very mountainous countries, particularly Swit-
3 zerland.
thThott U ^ce^an(^ abounds with hot and boiling fprings,
fprings of f°me °f which fpout up into the air to a furprifing
Iceianfl height. All the jets d’eau which have been contrived
from with fo much art, and at fuch an enormous expence,
'Trail't Let- cannot by any means be compared with thefe wonders
iers' of nature in Iceland. The water-works at Herenhau-
fen throw up a Angle column of water of half a quarter
of a yard in circumference to a height of about 70 feet j
thole at the Winterkeften at Cartel throw it up, but in
a much thinner column, 130 feet; and the jet d’eau
at St Cloud, which is thought the greateft of all the
French water-works, carts up a thin column 80 feet
into the air; but iome fprings in Iceland pour forth
columns of water feveral feet in thicknefs to the height
of many fathoms; and many affirm of feveral hundred
feet.
“ Thefe fprings are unequal in their degrees of heat;
but we have obferved none under 188 degrees of hah-
renheit’s thermometer; in fome it is 192, 193, 212,
and in one fmall vein of water 213 degrees. From
fome the water flow's gently, and the fpring is then
called lang, “ a bath ;” from others it fpouts with a
great noife, and is then called Huer, or hittel. It is
very common for feme of thefe fpouting fprings to
1
[ 54 ]
ICE
clofe up, and others to appear in their rtead. All Iceland,
thefe hot waters have an incrufting quality, fo that we ' '1 "v"
very commonly find the exterior furface from whence
it burrts forth covered with a kind of rind, which al-
moft refembles chafed work, and which we at firrt took
for lime, but which was aftenvards found by Mr Berg¬
man to be of a filiceous or flinty nature. In fome pla¬
ces the wTater taftes of fulphur, in others not ; but
when drank as foon as it is cold, taftes like common
boiled wmter. The inhabitants ufe it at particular
times for dyeing ; and were they to adopt proper re¬
gulations, it might be of ftill greater ufe. Vidluals
may alfo be boiled in it, and milk held over its fleam
becomes fweet; ow'ing, moft probably, to the exceffive
heat of the water, as the fame effedl is produced by boil¬
ing it a long time over the fire. They have begun to
make fait by boiling fea water over it, which when it is
refined, is very pure and good. The cows which drink
this hot w'ater yield a great deal of milk. Egbert
Olafsen relates, that the water does not become turbid
wffien alkali is thrown into it, nor does it change the
colour of fyrup of violets. Horrebow aflerts, that if
you fill a bottle at one of the fpouting fprings, the water
will boil over two or three times while the fpring throws
forth its water; and if corked too foon, the bottle will
burft. 4
“ Among the many hot fprings to be met with in A particu-
Iceland, feveral bear the name of geyfer : the following,ar deferip-
is a defeription of the moft remarkable of that name,^^^0110
and in the whole ifland. It is about two days journey s,yfer.
from Hecla, near a farm called Hauhadul. Here a
poet would have an opportunity of painting whatever
nature has of beautiful and terrible, united in one pic¬
ture, by delineating this furprifing phenomenon. Re-
prefent to yourfelf a large field, where you fee on one
fide, at a great diftance, high mountains covered with
ice, whofe fummits are generally wrapped in clouds, fo
that their rtiarp and unequal points become invifible.
This lofs, howrever, is compenfated by a certain wind,
which caufes the clouds to fink, and cover the mountain
itfelf, wffien its fummit appears as it were to reft on the
clouds. On the other fide Hecla is feen, with its three
points covered with ice, rifing above the clouds, and,
wfith the fmoke which afeends from it, forming other
clouds at fome diftance from the real ones : and on an¬
other fide is a ridge of high rocks, at the foot of which
boiling water from time to time iflfues forth ; and furth¬
er on extends a marffi of about three Engliffi miles in
circumference, where are 40 or 50 boiling fprings,
from which a vapour afeends to a prodigious height.—
In the mid ft of thefe is the greateft fpring geyfer, which
deferves a more exaft and particular account. In tra¬
velling to the place, about an Engliffi mile and a half
from the liver, from which the ridge of rocks ftill di¬
vided us, we hear a loud roaring noife, like the ruflung
of a torrent precipitating itfelf from ftupendous rocks.
We alked our guide what it meant; he anfwered, it
was geyfer roaring ; and w'e foon faw with our naked
eyes what before feemed almoft incredible.
“ The depth of the opening or pipe from which
the water guffies cannot wTell be determined ; for fome¬
times the water funk down feveral fathoms, and fome
feconds parted before a ftone which was thrown into
the aperture reached the furface of the water. 'I he
opening itfelf ivas perfeftly round, and 19 feet in dia¬
meter.
ICE [ 5
Iceland, meter, and terminated in a bafon 59 feet in diameter.
 v ■■ Eoth the pipe and the bafon were covered with a
rough ilalaftitic rind, which had been formed by the
force of the water : the outermoft border of the bafon
- is nine feet and an inch higher than the pipe itfelf.
The water here fpouted feveral times a-day, but always
by ftarts, and after certain intervals. The people who
lived in the neighbourhood told us, that they rofe
higher in cold and bad weather than at other times 5
and Egbert Olafsen and feveral others afhrm, that it has
fpouted to the height of 60 fathoms. Molt probably
they gueffed only by the eye, and on that account their
calculation may be a little extravagant; and indeed it
is to be doubted whether the water was ever thrown up
fo high, though probably it fometimes mounts higher
than when we obferved it. The method we took to
obferve the height was as follows. Every one in com¬
pany wrote down, at each time that the water fpouted,
how high it appeared to him to be thrown, and we af¬
terwards chofe the medium. The firft column marks
the fpoutings of the water, in the order in which they
followed one another ; the fecond, the time when thefe
effufions happened ; the third, the height to which the
water rofe ; and the laft, how long each fpouting of
water contained.
N° Time.
1 At VI 42 m.
2  51
3  VII x6
4-
5-
6-
7'
8-
Height.
30 feet.
 31
 51
• VIII ] 7
 -29
 56
6
6
12
60
24
18
12
Duration.
20 feconds.
20
10
15
6
3°
40
40
The pipe was now for the lirfl time full of water, which
ran flovvly into the bafon.
9-
10-
IX 25
-X 16
48
24
i 10
1 00
“ At 35 minutes after twelve we heard, as it were,
three difcharges of a gun under ground, which made
it fhake : the water flowed over immediately, but in-
flantly funk again. At eight minutes after two, the
water flowed over the border of the bafon. At I mi¬
nutes after three, we again heard feveral fubterranean
noifes, though not fo ftrong as before. At 43 mi¬
nutes after four, the water flowed over very ftronglv
during the fpace of a minute. In fix minutes after,
we heard many loud fubterraneous difcharges, not on¬
ly near the fpring, but alfo from the neighbouring
ridge of rocks, where the water fpouted. At 51 mi¬
nutes after fix, the fountain fpouted up to the height
of 92 feet, and continued to do fo for four minutes.
After this great effort, it funk down very low into the
pipe, and was entirely quiet during feveral minutes j
but foon began to bubble again : it was not, how¬
ever, thrown up into the air, but only to the top of the
pipe-
“ The force of the vapours which throw up thefe
waters is exceflive : it not only prevents the ftones
which are thrown into the opening from finking, but
even throws them up to a very great height, together
with the water. When the bafon was full, we placed
5 ] ICE
ourfelves before the fun in fuch a manner that we Iceland,
could fee our fhadows in the water ; when every one v '
obferved round the fhadow of his own head (though
not round that of the heads of others), a circle of al-
raoft the fame colours which compofe the rainbow, and
round this another bright circle. This moft pro¬
bably proceeded from the vapours exhaling from the
water.
“ Not far from this place, another fpring at the
foot of the neighbouring ridge of rocks fpouted water
to the height of one or two yards each time. The
opening through which this water iffued was not fo
wide as the other : we imagined it poflible to flop up
the hole entirely by throwing large ftones into it, and
even flattered ourfelves that our attempts had fuc-
ceeded : but, to our aftonifhment, the water gulhed
forth in a very violent manner. We haftened to the
pipe, and found all the ftones thrown afide, and the
water playing freely through its former channel. In
thefe large fprings the waters were hot in the higheft
degree, and tafted a little of fulphur •, but in other
refpects it was pure and clear. In the fmaller
fprings of the neighbourhood the wrater was tainted :
in fome, it w?as as muddy as that of a clay-pit : in
others, as white as milk j and in fome few, as red as
blood. ^
“ Iceland abounds with pillars of bafaltes,.. which Account of
the lower fort of people imagine have been piled upon the bafaltic
each other by the giants, who made ufe of fupema-P1^ars’
tural force to effedl it. They have generally from
three to feven fides j and are from four to fix feet in
thicknefs, and from 12 to 16 yards in length, without
any horizontal divifions. But fometimes they are only
from fix inches to one foot in height, and they are
then very regular, infomuch that they are fometimes
made ufe of for windows and door-pofts. In fome
places they only peep out here and there among the
lava, or more frequently among the tufa ; in other
places they are quite overthrown, and pieces of broken
pillars only make their appearance. Sometimes they
extend udthout interruption for tw’o or three miles in
length. In one mountain they have a lingular appear¬
ance : on the top the pillars lie horizontally, in the
middle they are floping •, the loweft are perfectly per¬
pendicular 5 and in fome parts they are bent into a
femicircular figure. The matter of the Iceland bafaltes
feems to be the fame with that of Staffa ; though in
fome it is more porous, and inclines to a gray. Some
we obferved which were of a blackilh gray, and com-
pofed of feveral joints. Another time we obferved a
kind of porous glaffy ftone, confequently a lava, which
was fo indiftindlly divided, that we were for fome time
at a lofs to determine whether it was bafaltes or not,
though at laft we all agreed that it was.
Iron ore is found in fome parts of the ifland, and
that beautiful copper ore called malachites, Horrebow
fpeaks of native filver. A ftratum of fulphur is found
near My vatu from nine inches to two feet in thicknefs j
partly of a brown colour, and partly of a deep orange.
Immediately over the fulphur is a blue earth ; above
that a vitriolic and aluminous one 5 and beneath the ful¬
phur a reddifli bole. ^
At what time the ifland of Iceland was firft peopled Hiltory of
is uncertain. An Engliih colony indeed is faid totheiffinck-
have been fettled there in the beginning of the fifth
century •
ICE [ 56 ]
Ireland, century, but of this there are not fu&cient proofs. Norway to
y]ierc js^ ]lowever, reafon to fuppofe that the Englilh
and Irith were acquainted with this country under
another name, long before the arrival of the Norwe¬
gians ; for the celebrated Bede gives a pretty accurate
defcription of the ifland. But of the original inhabi¬
tants we cannot pretend to fay any thing, as the Ice¬
land chronicles go no farther back that the arrival of
the Norwegians. What they relate is to the following
purpofe.
Naddodr, a famous pirate, was driven on the coaft
of Iceland in 861, and named the country Snio-Jand,
“ Snow-land,” on account of the great quantities of
fnow with which he perceived the mountains covered,
lie did not remain there long : but on his return ex¬
tolled the country to fuch a degree, that one Garder
Suafarfon, an enterprifing Swede, was encouraged by
his account to go in fearch of it in 864* He failed
quite round the ifland, and gave it the name of Gar-
daljholmur, or Carder’s ifland. Having remained in
' Iceland during the winter, he returned in the fpring to
Norway, where he defcribed the new-difcovered ifland
as a pleafant well-wooded country. This excited a
deflre in Floke, another Swede, reputed the greateft
navigator of his time, to undertake a voyage thither.
As the compafs wTas then unknown, he took three
ravens on board to employ them on the dilcovery. By
the w^ay he vifited his friends at Ferro ; and having
failed farther to the northward, he let fly one^ of his
ravens, which returned to Ferro. Some time after, he
difmiffed the fecond, which returned to the flflp again,
as he could find no land. I he laft trial proved more
fuccefsful 5 the third raven took his flight to Iceland,
where the fliip arrived a few days after. Floke ftaid
here the whole wdnter with his company ; and, be-
caufe he found a great deal of floating ice on the north
fide, he gave the country the name of Iceland, which
it has ever fince retained.
When they returned to Norway in the following
fpring, Floke, and thofe that had been with him,
made a very different defcription of the country. ^ Hoke
defcribed it as a wretched place •, while one of his com¬
panions, named Thorulfc, praifed it fo highly, that
he affirmed butter dropped from every plant ; which
extravagant commendation procured him the name of
Thorulfr-fmior, or Butter-Thorulfr.
From this time there are no accounts of any voyages
to Iceland, till Ingolfr and his friend Leifr undertook
one in 874. They fpent the winter on the ifland, and
determined to fettle there for the future. Ingolfr
returned to Norway, to provide whatever might be
neceiTary for the comfortable eftablifliment of a colony,
and Leifr in the mean time went to affift in the war
in England. After an interval of four years, they
again met in Iceland, the one bringing with him a
confiderable number of people, with the neceffary tools
and inffruments for making the country habitable ; and
the other imported his acquired treafures. After this
period many people wrent there to fettle j and,, in the
{pace of 60 years, the whole ifland was inhabited.
Xhe tyranny of Harold king of Norway contributed
not a little to the population of Iceland \ and fo great
was the emigration of his fubjeiffs, that he was at laft
obliged to iffue an order, that no one ftiould fail from
I C E
Iceland without paying four ounces of Iceland,
fine filver to the king. 1 '"'‘-y-—"1
Befides the Norwegians, new' colonies arrived from
different nations, between whom w'ars foon commen¬
ced ; and the Icelandic hiftories are full of the accounts
of their battles. To prevent thefe conflicks for the future,
a kind of chief was chofen in 928, upon whom great
powers were conferred. This man was the fpeaker in
all their public deliberations j pronounced fentence in
difficult and intricate cafes ; decided all difputes j and
publilhed new laws, after they had been received and
approved of by the people at large : but he had no
power to make laws without the approbation and con-
fent of the reft. He therefore affembled the chiefs
whenever the circumftances feemed to require it 5 and
after they had deliberated among themfelves, he repre-
fented the opinion of the majority to the people, whofe
affent was neceflary before it could be confidered as a
law. His authority among the chiefs and leaders,
however, was inconliderable, as he w’as chofen by them
and retained his place no longer than while he prefer-
ved their confidence.
This inftitution did not prove fufficient to reftrain
the turbulent fpirit of the Icelanders. They openly
vvaged w’ar with each other ; and, by their inteftine
conflifts, fo weakened all parties, that the whole be¬
came at laft a prey to a few' arbitrary and enterprifing
men *, who, as is too generally the cafe, wantonly
abufed their power to the oppreffion of their country¬
men, and the difgrace of humanity. Notwithftanding
thefe troubles, however, the Icelanders remained free
from a foreign yoke till 1 261 5 when the greateft part
of them put themfelves under the protection of Hakans
king of Norway, promiling to pay him tribute upon
certain conditions agreed on between them ; and the
reft followed their example in 1264. Afterwards,
Iceland, together with Norway, became fubjeCt to
Denmark. For a long time the care of the ifland
was committed to a governor, who commonly went
there once a-year •, though, according to his inftruc-
tions, he ought to have refided in Iceland. As the coun¬
try buffered incredibly through the abfence of its go¬
vernors, it wras refolved a few years ago that they
fliould refide there, and have their feat at Beffefftedr,
one of the old royal domains. He has under him a
bailiff, two laymen, a ffieriff, and 2\ fyjfelmen, or ma-
giftrates who fuperintend fmall diftrifts j and almoft
every thing is decided according to the laws of Den¬
mark. # _
At the firft fettlement of the Norwegians in Iceland, Man^er%
they lived in the fame manner as they had done in their&C. of the
own country, namely, by war and piracy. Their fi-Icelanders,
tuation with regard to the kings of Norway, however,
foon obliged them to apply to other ftates, in order to
learn as much of the knowledge of government and
politics as was neceffary to preferve their colony from
fubjugation to a foreign yoke. For this purpofe they
often failed to Norway, Denmark, Sweden, England,
and Scotland. The travellers, at their return, were
obliged to give an account to their chiefs of the ftate
of thofe kingdoms through which they paffed. For
this reafon, hiftory, and what related to fcience, wras
held in high repute as long as the republican form of
crovemment lafted •, and the great number of hiftories
to
3
Iceland.
ICE [ 57 ] I C £
to be met with in the country, fhovv* at leaft the defire
of the Icelanders to be inftructed. To fecure them-
felves, therefore, againft their powerful neighbours,
they were obliged to enlarge their hillorical knowledge.
They likewife took great pains in ftudying perfe&ly
their own laws, for the maintenance and protection
of their internal fecurity. Thus Iceland, at a time
when ignorance and obfcurity overwhelmed the reft of
Europe, wTas enabled to produce a confiderable number
of poets and hiftcrians. When the Chriftian religion
wTas introduced, about the end of the 10th century,
more were found converfant in the law than could have
been expected, confidering the extent of the country,
and the number of its inhabitants. Filhing was fol¬
lowed among them ; but they devoted their attention
confiderably more to agriculture, which has fince en¬
tirely ceafed.
Two things have principally contributed towards
producing a great change both in their charadter and
way of life, viz. the progrefs of the Chriftian religion,
and their fubjedtion firft to Norway, and afterwards to
Denmark. For if religion, on one fide, commanded
them to defift from their ravages and warlike expedi¬
tions 5 the fecular power, on the other, deprived them
of the neceffary forces for the execution of them:
fend, fince this time, wTe find no farther traces of their
heroic deeds, except thofe w7hich are preferved in their
hiftories.
The modern Icelanders apply themfelves to filhing
and breeding of cattle. They are middle-fized and
well made, though not very ftrong ; and the women
are in general ill-featured. Vices are much lefs com¬
mon among them, than in other parts where luxury
and riches have corrupted the morals of the people.
Though their poverty difables them from imitating
the hofpitality of their anceftors in all refpects, yet
they continue to fiiow their inclination to it: they
cheerfully give away the little they have to fpare, and
exprefs the utmoft joy and fatisfadfion if you are plea-
fed with their gift. They are uncommonly obliging
and faithful, and extremely attached to government.
They are very zealous in their religion. An Icelander
never pafles a river or any other dangerous place, with¬
out previoufiy taking off his hat, and imploring the
divine protedfion ; and he is always thankful for the
protedlion of the Deity when he has palled the dan¬
ger in fafety. They have an inexpreflible attachment
to their native country, and are nowhere fo happy.
An Icelander therefore rarely fettles in Copenhagen,
though ever fuch advantageous terms Ihould be offered
him. On the other hand, we cannot afcribe any great
induftry or ingenuity to thefe people. They work on
in the way to which they have all along been accuf-
tomed, without thinking of improvements. They are
not cheerful in converfation, but fimple and credulous;
and have no averfion againft a bottle, if they can find
an opportunity. When they meet together, their
chief paftime confifts in reading their hiftory. The
mailer of the houfe makes the beginning, and the reft
continue in their turns when he is tired. Some of
them know thefe ftories by heart •, others have them
in print, and others in writing. Befides this, they are
great players at chefs and cards, but only for their
amufement, fince they never play for money ; which,
however, feems to have been formerly in ufe amono-
Vol. XI. Part I.
them j fince by one of their old laws, a fine is im- Iceland!
pofed upon thofe who play for money. "
The modern Icelanders have made very little alte• Yh=ir dref*
ration in their drefs from what was formerly in ufe.
The men all wear a linen Ihirt next to the Ikin, with
a Ihort jacket, and a pair of wdde breeches over it.
When they travel, another ihort coat is put over all.
The whole is made of coarfe black cloth, called -uW-
mal; but fome wear clothes of a white colour. On
their head they wear large three-cornered hats, and on
the feet Iceland Ihoes and worfted ftockings. Some
of them indeed have Ihoes from Copenhagen ; but, as
they are rather too dear for them, they generally make
their own Ihoes, fometimes of the hide of oxen, but
more frequently of Iheeps leather. They make them
by cutting a fquare piece of leather, rather wider than
the length of the foot j this they few up at the toes
and behind at the heel, and tie it on with leather
thongs. Thefe limes are convenient enough where the
country is level ; but it would be very difficult for us
who are not accuftomed to walk with them amongft the
rocks and ftones, though the Icelanders do it wutli
great eafe.
The women are likewife dreffed in black w7admal.
They wear a bodice over their fhifts, which are fewed
up at the bofom j and above this a jacket laced be¬
fore with long narrow ileeves reaching down to the
w’rifts. In the opening on the fide of the fleeve, they
have buttons of chafed filver, with a plate fixed to
each button 5 on which the lover, wdien he buys them
in order to prefent them to his miftrefs, takes care to
have his name engraved along with hers. At the top
of the jacket a little black collar is fixed, of about
three inches broad, of velvet or filk, and frequently
trimmed with gold cord. The petticoat is likewife of
wadmal, and reaches down to the ankles. Round the
top of it is a girdle of filver or fome other metal, to
which they fatten the apron, which is alio of wadmal,
and ornamented at top with buttons of chafed filver.
Over all this they wear an upper drefs nearly refem-
bling that of the Swediffi peafants; with this difter-
ence, that it is wider at bottom : this is clofe at the
neck and w’rifts, and a hand’s-breadth (hotter than the
petticoat. It is adorned with a facing down to the
bottom, which looks like cut velvet, and is generally
w-ove by the Icelandic wmmen. On their fingers they
wear gold, filver, or brafs rings. Their head-drefs
confifts of feveral cloths wrapped round the head al-
mott as high again as the face. It is tied faft with a
handkerchief, and ferves more for w'armth than orna¬
ment. Girls are not allowed to wrear this head-drefs
till they are marriageable. At their weddings they
are adorned in a very particular manner; the bride
w'ears, clofe to the face, round her head-drefs, a crown
of filver gilt. She has two chains round her neck,
one of which hangs down very low before, and the
other refts on her (boulders. Befides thefe, (lie wears
a lefl'er chain, from whence generally hangs a little
heart, which may be opened to put fome kind of per¬
fume in it. This drefs is wrorn by all the Icelandic
women without exception : only wuth this difference,
that the poorer fort have it of coarfe wadmal, with
ornaments of brafs j and thofe that are in eafier cir-
cumftances have it of broad cloth, with filver orna¬
ments gilt.
H
The
TeeUnd.
9
Houfes.
• Diet.
ICE [ 58 ]
The houfes of the Icelanders are very indifferent,
but the world are faid to be on the f ;uth fide of the
ifland. In fome parts they are built of drift-wood, in
others of lava, almolt in the fame manner as the {tone-
walls we make for inclolures, with mofs fluffed be¬
tween the pieces of lava. In fome houfes the walls are
xvainfcotted on the inflde. The roof is covered with
fods, laid over rafting, or fometimes over the ribs of
whales j the walls are about three yards high, and the
entrance fomewhat lower. Inflead of glals, the win¬
dows are made of the chorion and amnios ot fheep, or
the membranes which furround the womb of the ewe.
Thefe are. flretched on a hoop, and laid over a hole in
the roof. In the poorer fort of houfes they employ for
the window’s the inner membrane of the ftomach of ani¬
mals, which is lefs tranlparent than the others.
As the ifland of Iceland produces no kind of grain,
the inhabitants of confequence have no bread but what
is imported ; and which being too dear for common
ufe, is referved for weddings and other entertainments.
The followdng lift of their viands is taken from i roll’s
Letters.
“ 1. Flour of JialgraSy (lichen ijlandicus'), or rock-
grafs. The plant is firft walked, and then cut into
{mail pieces by fome $ though the greater number dry
it by fire or in the fun, then put it into a bag in which
it is well beaten, and laftly work it into a flour by
flamping.
“ 2. Flour of homfygr, (polygonum bijlerta'), is pre¬
pared in the fame manner, as well as the two other forts
of wild corn melur (arundo arenaria, and arundo folio-
rum latenlus convolutis\ by feparating it from the chaff,
pounding, and laftly grinding it.
“ 3. Surt fmoer, (four butter). The Icelanders
feldom make ufe of frefti or fait butter, but let it grow
four before they eat it. In this manner it may be kept
for 20 years, or even longer j and the Icelanders look
upon it as more wholefome and palatable than the but¬
ter ufed among other nations. It is reckoned better
the older it grows *, and one pound of it then is valued
as much as tw'O of frelh butter.
“ 3. String, or w’hey boiled to the confiftence of four
milk, and prefervcd for the winter.
“ 4. Filh of all kinds, both dried in the fun and in
the air, and either faked or frozen. Thole prepared in
the laft manner are preferred by many.
“ 5, The flefti of bears, iheep, and birds, which
is partly faked, partly hung or fmoked, and fome
preferved in calks with four or fermented whey poured
over it.
“ 6 Mifojl, or whey boiled to cheefe, which is very
good. But the art of making other kinds, of good
cheefe is loft, though fome tolerably palatable is fold in
the eaft quarter of Iceland.
“ 7. Beina friug, bones and cartilages of beef and
mutton, and likewife bones of cod, boiled in whey till
they are quite diffolved : they are then left to ferment,
and.are eaten wdth milk.
“ 8 Shjr. The curds from which the whey is
fqueezed are preferved in calks or other veffels ; they
are fometimes mixed with black crow-berries, or juni-
per-beriies, and are likewife eaten with new milk.
“ Syr a. is four whey kept in calks, and left to
ferment •, which, however, is not reckoned fit fi°r tife
till a year old.
I C E
“ 10 Bhinda, is a liquor made of water, to which Iceland,
a twelfth part of fyra is added. In winter, it is * 1
mixed with the juice of thyme and of the black crow-
berries
“ n. They likewife eat many vegetables, fome of
which grow wdld, and fome are cultivated ) alfo thell-
ffth and muflirooms.”
The Icelanders in general eat three meals a-day, at
feven in the morning, two in the afternoon, and nine
at night. In the morning and evening they common¬
ly eat curds mixed with new milk, and fometimes wdth
juniper or crow-berries. In fome parts, they alio have
pottage made of rock-grafs, w'hich is very palatable,
or curdled milk boiled till it becomes of a red colour,
or new’ milk boiled a long time. At dinner, the food
confifts of dried fifh, with plenty of four butter 5 they
alfo fometimes eat frelh fifh, and, when poffible, a lit¬
tle bread and cheefe wdfh them. It is reported by
fome, that they do not eat any filh till it is quite rot¬
ten ; this report perhaps proceeds from their being
fond of it when a little tainted : they however fre¬
quently eat fiih which is quite frelh, though, in the fame
manner as the reft of their food, often without lak.
The common beverage is milk, either w’arm from
the cow or cold, and fometimes boiled : they likewife
ufe butter-milk with or without water. On the coaft*
they generally drink blanda and four milk ■, w'hich is
fold after it is Ikimmed at two fifths of a rixdollar
per calk : fome likewife fend for beer from Copenha¬
gen, and fome brew their own. A few of the princi¬
pal inhabitants alfo have claret and coffee. The com¬
mon people fometimes drink a kind of tea, which they
make from the leaves of the dryas oclopetala, and the
veronica officinalis. < u
On the coafts the men employ themfelves in fifh- Employ¬
ing, both fummer and winter. On their return home, ment, ma-
when they have drawm and cleaned their filh, they give,^cfa<ftures*'
them to their wives, whofe care it is to dry them. In c'
the winter, when the inclemency of the weather pre¬
vents them from filhing, they are obliged to take care
of their cattle, and fpin w^ool. In fummer, they mow
the grafs, dig turf, provide fuel, go in fearch of fheep
and goats that were gone aftray, and kill cattle. They
prepare leather wdth the fpircea ulmaria inftead of
bark. Some few’ work in gold and filver j and others
are inftru&ed in mechanics, in which they are tolerable
proficients. The wromen prepare the filh, take care
of the cattle, manage the milk and wool, few, fpin,
and gather eggs and down. When they work in
the evening, they ufe, inftead of an hour-glafs, a
lamp with a wick made of epilobium dipt in train
oil, which is contrived to burn four, fix, or eight
hours.
Among the common people of Iceland, time is not
reckoned by the courfe of the fun,. but by the work
they have done, and which is preferibed by law’. Ac¬
cording to his prefeription, a man is to mow as much
hay in one day as grows on 30 fathoms of manured foil,
or 40 fathoms of land which has not been manured } or
he is to dig 700 pieces of turf eight feet long and three
broad. If'as much fnow falls as reaches to the horfes
bellies, a man is required daily to clear a piece of ground
fufficient for 100 Iheep. A woman is to rake together
as much hay as three men can mow, or to weave three
yards of w’admal a-day.
The
ICE [ 59 ] ICE
Iceland. The wagrs of a man are fixed at four dollars and
^ j 2 yar(]s 0f wadmal j and thofe of a woman at two
dollars and five yards of wadmal. When men are fent
a-fiOiing out of the country, there is allowed to each
man, by law, from the 25th of September to the 14th
of May, fix pounds of butter, and 1 8 pounds of dried
fifh every week. This may feem to be too great an
allowance ; but it mult be remembered that they have
nothing elfe to live upon. When they are at home,
and can get milk, &c. every man receives only five
pounds of dried filh and three quarters of a pound of
12 butter a-week.
Difeafis. The food and manner of life of the Icelanders by no
means contribute to their longevity. It is very rare
indeed to fee an inhabitant of Iceland exceed the age
of 50 or 60 ; and the greater part are attacked by
grievous difeafes before middle age. Of thefe the
Icurvy and elephantiafis orleprofy are the worft. They
are alfo lubjett to the gout in their hands, owing to
their frequent employment in fifhing, and handling
the wet filhing-tackle in cold weather. St Anthony’s
fire, the jaundice, pleurify, and lovvnefs of fpirits, are
frequent complaints in this country. The imall-pox
alfo is exceedingly fatal, and not long ago deltroyed
16,000 perfons. By thefe difeafes, and the frequent
famines with which the country has been afflidled, the
inhabitants are reduced to a much fmalkr number than
they formerly were, infomuch that it is computed they
13 do not in all exceed 60,000.
Commerce The exports of Iceland confift of dried filh, failed
and re- mutton and lamb, beef, butter, tallow, train-oil,
%enue. coarfe woollen cloth, ftockings, gloves, raw wool,
Iheep-fkins, lamb Ikins, fox-furs of various colours, ei¬
der down, feathers, and formerly fulphur •, but there is
no longer a demand for this mineral. On the other
hand, the Icelanders import timber, filhing-lines and
hooks, tobacco, bread, horfe-lhoes, brandy, wine, fait,
linen, a little lilk, and a few other necefifaries, as wTell
as fuperfluities for the better fort. The whole trade
of Iceland is engrofied by a monopoly of Danes, in¬
dulged with an exclufive charter. This company
maintains fa&ories at all the harbours of Iceland,
where they exchange their foreign goods for the mer-
chandife of the country j and as the balance is in fa¬
vour of the Icelanders, pay the overplus in Danifli
money, which is the only current coin in this ifland.
All their accounts and payments are adjufted aceord-
ing to the number of fifh : two pounds of fifh are
worth two {killings in fpecie, and 48 fifh amount to
one rixdollar. A Daniih crown is computed at 30
fifh : what falls under the value of 12 fifh cannot be
paid in money j but muff be bartered either for fifh
or roll-tobacco, an ell of which is equal to one fifh.
The weights and meafures of the Icelanders are nearly
the fame with thofe ufed in Denmark. The Icelanders
being neither numerous nor warlike, and altogether
unprovided with arms, ammunition, garrifons, or fleets,
are in no condition to defend themfelves from invafion,
but depend entirely on the prote6!ion of his Danifh ma-
jefiy, to whom they are fubjeft. The revenues which he
draws from this iiland confifl of the income of divers
eflates, as royal demefne, amounting to about 8000 dol¬
lars per annum; of the money paid by the company
for an exclufive trade, to the value of 20,000 dollars j
and of a fixed proportion in the tythes of fifh paid in Iceland,
fome particular diftridts. v-*~
Iceland is noted for the volcanoes with which it Volcanoes
abounds, as already mentioned, and wdiich feem to be of Iceland,
more furious than any yet dilcovered iu the other parts
of the globe. Indeed, from the lateft accounts, it
would feem that this miferable country w-ere little
Other than one continued voicano. Mount Hecla has
been commonly fuppofed to be the only burning
mountain, or at leaf! the principal one, in the ifland :
(fee Hecla). It has indeed been more taken notice of
than many others of as great extent, partly from its
having had more frequent eruptions than any fingle
one, and partly from its fituation, which expofes it to
the fight of Ihips failing to Green1 and and North
America. But in a lift of eruptions publilbed in the
appendix to Pennant’s Arfiic Zoology, it appears, that
out of 51 remarkable ones, only one third have pro¬
ceeded from Hecla, the other mountains it feems being-
no lefs aftive in the work of deftruffion than this
celebrated one. Thefe eruptions take place in the
mountains covered with ice, which the inhabitants
call Jokuls. Some of thefe, as appears from a large
map of Iceland made by order of his Danifh majefty
in 1734, have been fwallowed up. Probably the great
lakes met with in this country may have been occa-
fioned by the finking of fuch mountains, as feveral
initances of a fimilar nature are to be met with in other
parts of the world. The great Icelandic lake called
Myvdtu may probably have been one. Its bottom is
entirely formed of lava, divided by deep cracks, which
fhelter during winter the great quantity of trout
which inhabit this lake. Is is now only 30 feet deep,
but originally was much deeper j being nearly filled up
in the year 1718 by an eruption of the great mountain
Krafle. The fiery ftream took its courfe towards
Myvatu, and ran into it with an horrid noife, which
continued till the year 1730.
“ The mountains of Iceland (fays Mr Pennant) are
of two kinds, primitive and pofterior. The former
confift of ftrata ufually regular, but fometimes confu-
fed. They are formed of different forts of flone without
the lead appearance of fire. Some are compofed of
fand and free-ftone, petrofilex or chin, flaty or fiifile
done, and various kinds of earth or bole, and fteatitse j
different forts of breccia or conglutinated Hones; jaf-
pers ©f different kinds, Iceland cryftal j the common
rhomboid fpat’.n.m, chalcedonies ftratified, and botn/oid;
zeolites of the mod elegant kinds; cryftals, and va¬
rious other fubftances that have no relation to vol¬
canoes. Theft* primitive mountains are thofe called
'Johuhy and are higher than the others. One of them,
called ALfian or Rias, is 6000 feet high. It feems to
be compofed of great and irregular rocks of a dark
gray colour, piled on each other. Another, called
Enneberg, is about 3000 feet high; the Snafeld Joku/,
2287 yards; the Snafieldnas or promontory of Sncefield
is from 300 to 400 fathoms. Harnjlrand or the coaft:
by the north Cape Nord is very high, from 300 to 400
fathoms. The rocks of Drango are feven in number,
of a pyramidal figure, riling out of the fea at a fmall
difbnce from the cliffs, four of which are of a vaft
height, and have a moft magnificent appearance.
“ Eaftward from the Sna-jield begins the Eifberge,
H 2 foaring
ICE [ 60 ] ICE
'fceland, fbariner to a vaft height j many parts t>f which have
1 v felt the effe&s of fire, and in feme of the melted rocks
are large cavities. Budda-lekkur, a rock at one end of
this mountain, is alfo volcanic, and has in it a great
cavern hung with JlalaBitce. The name of Solvahamar
is given to a tremendous range of volcanic rocks, com-
pofed entirely ol Hags, and covered in the feafon with
fea-fowl. It would be endlefs, however, to mention
all the places which bear the marks of fire in various
forms, either by having been vitrified, changed into a
fiery colour, ragged and black, or bear the marks of
Jiaving run for miles in a Hoping courfe towards the
lea.”
Thefe volcanoes, though fo dreadful in their effefts,
feldom begin to throw out fire without giving warning.
A fubterraneous rumbling noife heard at a confider-.
able diftance, as in other volcanoes, precedes the erup¬
tion for feveral days, with a roaring and cracking in
the place from whence the fire is about to burft forth j
many fiery meteors are oblerved, but generally unat¬
tended with any violent concuffion of the earth,
though fometimes earthquakes, of which feveral in-
flances are recorded, have accompanied thefe dreadful
conflagrations. The drying up of (mail lakes, ftreams,
and rivulets, is alfo conlidered as a lign of an impend¬
ing eruption ; and it is thought to halten the eruption
when a mountain is fo covered with ice, that the holes
are flopped up through which the exhalations former¬
ly found a free paffage. The immediate fign is the
burfting of the mafs of ice with a dreadful noile j
flames then iffue forth from the earth, and lightning
and fire balls from the fmoke j (tones, allies, &c. are
thrown out to vaft diftances. Egbert Olafsen relates,
that, in an eruption of Kattle giaa in 1755, a done
weighing 290 pounds wTas thrown to the diftance of 24
Engliih miles. A quantity of white pumice (tones is
thrown up by the boiling waters; and it is conjectured
with great probability, that the latter proceeds from
the fea, as a quantity of fait, fuflicient to load feveral
horfes, has frequently been found after the mountain
has ceafed to burn.
To enumerate the ravages of fo many dreaful vol¬
canoes, which from time immemorial have contributed
15 to render this dreary country (till lefs habitable than it
The conn- from the climate, would greatly exceed our limits,
tiy almoft jt wjjj faffic'ient to give an account of that which
Jyfan?rup-happened in 1783, and which, from its violence feems
lion in to have been unparalleled in hiftory.
1783. Its firft figns were obferved on the 1 ft of June by
a trembling of the earth in the weftern part of the
province of Hhapterfiall. It increaled ^gradually to the
31th, and became at laft fo great that the inhabitants
quitted their houfes, and lay at night in tents on the
ground. A continual fmoke or (team was perceived
rifing out of the earth in the northern and unin¬
habited parts of the country. Three Jit^-fpouts, as
they were called, broke out in different places, one
in Ulfarfdal, a little to the eaft of the river Skapta ; the
other two were a little to the weftward of the river
called Ilwerjisjliot. The river Skapta takes its rife in
the north-eaft, and running firft weftward, it turns to
the fouth, and falls into the fea in a fouth-eaft direction.
Part of its channel is confined for about 24 Englfth
miles in length, and is in fome places 200 fathoms
deep, in others 100 or 150, and its breadth in fome
places TOO, 56, or 40 fathoms. Along the whole of this Iceland,
part of its courfe the river is very rapid, though there
are no confiderable cataracts or falls. There are feve¬
ral other fuch confined channels in the country, but this
is the moil confiderable.
The three fire-fpouts, or ftreams of lava, which
had broke out, united into one, after having rifen a
confiderable height into the air, arriving at laft at faph
an amazing altitude as to be feen at the diftance of
more than 200 Englifh miles ; the whole country, for
double that diftance, being covered wfith a (moke or
fleam not to be deferibed.
On the 8th of June this fire firft became vilible.
Vaft quantities of (and, afties, and other volcanic
matters were ejefled, and fcattered over the country
by the wind, which at that time was very high. The
atmofphere wras filled with fand, brimftone, and afties,
in fuch a manner as to occafion continual darknefs ;
and confiderable damage was done by the pumice
Hones which fell, red hot, in great quantities. Along
with thefe a tenacious fubftance like pitch fell in vaft
quantity; fometimes rolled up like balls, at other
times like rings or garlands, wrhich proved no lels
deftrudlive to vegetation than the other. This fliower
having continued for three days, the fire became very
vifible, and at laft arrived at the amazing height already
mentioned. Sometimes it appeared in a continued
ftream, at others in flafhes or flames feen at the dif¬
tance of 30 or 40 Danilh miles (180 or 240 of ours),,
with a continual nolle like thunder, which lafted the
whole fummer.
The fame day that the fire broke out there fell a
vaft quantity of rain, wdiich running in ftreams on the
hot ground tore it up in large quantities, and brought
it down upon the lower lands. This rain-water was
much impregnated with acid and other falts, fo as to be
highly corrofive, and occafion a painful fenfation when
it fell on the hands or face. At a greater diftance from
the fire the air was exceflively cold. Snow lay upon
the ground three feet deep in fome places ; and in
others there fell great quantities of hail, wdffch did
very much damage to the cattle and every thing with¬
out doors. Thus the grafs and every kind of vege¬
tation in thofe places neareft the fire was deftroyed,
being covered with a thick cruft of fulphureous and
footy matter. Such a quantity of vapour was raifed
by the conteft of the two adverfe elements, that the
fun wras darkened and appeared like blood, the whole
face of nature feeming to be changed ; and thi$ ob-
feurity feems to have reached as far as the ifland of
Britain; for during the whole fummer of 17^3* an
obfeurity reigned throughout all parts of this ifland ;
the atmofphere appearing to be covered with a con¬
tinual haze, which prevented the fun from appearing
with his ufual fplendour.
The dreadful feene above deferibed lafted in Iceland
for feveral days; the whole country was laid wafte,
and the inhabitants fled everywhere to the remoteO
parts of their miferable country, to feek for fafety from
the fury of this unparalleled temped.
On the firft breaking out of the fire, the river
Skapta was confiderably augmented, on the eaft fide of
which one of the fire fpouts was fituated ; and a fimi-
lar overflow' of water was obferved at the fame time
in the great river Piorfa, which runs into the fea a
little
ICE [ 61 ] ICE
Iceland, little to the eaftward of a town called Orrtbakla, and
into which another river called Tuna, after having ruii
through a large tra£l of barren and uncultivated land,
empties itfelf. Rut on the iith of June the waters of
the Skapta were lefiened, and in lefs than 24 hours
totally dried up. The day following, a prodigious
ftream of liquid and red hot lava, which the fire-fpout
had difcharged, ran down the channel of the river.
This burning torrent not only filled up the deep chan¬
nel above mentioned, but, overflowing the banks of
it, fpread itfelf over the whole valley, covering all
the low grounds in its neighbourhood j and not ha¬
ving any fufficient outlet to empty itfelf by, it rofe to
a vaft height, fo that the wdiole adjacent country w7as
overflowxd, infinuating itfelf between the hills, and
covering fome of the lower ones. The hills here are
not continued in a long chain or feries, but are fepa-
rated from one another, and detached, and between
them run little rivulets or brooks ; fo that, befides
filling up the whole valley in which the river Skapta
ran, the fiery ftream fpread itfelf for a confiderable
diflance on each fide, getting vent betw-een the above
mentioned hills, and laying all the neighbouring coun¬
try under fire.
The fpouts ftill"continuing to fupply frefli quanti¬
ties of inflamed matter, the lava took its courfe up the
channel of the river, overflowing all the grounds above,
as it had done thofe below the place w7hence it ilfued.
The river was dried up before it, until at laft it wTas
flopped by the hill whence the Skapta took its rife.
Finding now no proper outlet, it rofe to a prodigious
height, and overflow'ed the village of Buland, confu-
ming the houfes, church, and every thing that flood
in its way : though the high ground on which this vil¬
lage flood feemed to enfure it from any danger of this
kind.
The fiery lake flill increafing, fpread itfelf out in
length and breadth for about 36 Englifli miles j and
having converted all this tra£l of land into a fea of fire,
it ftretched itfelf tow7ard the fouth, and getting out
again by the river Skapta, rufhed down its channel
with great impetuofity. It was ftill confined be¬
tween the narrow banks of that river for about fix
miles (Engliih) $ but coming at laft into a more open
place, it poured forth in prodigious torrents wdth
amazing velocity and force ; fpreading itfelf now to¬
wards the fouth, tearing up the earth, and carrying
on its furface flaming woods and whatfoever it met
with. In its courfe it laid wafte another large diftridl
of land. The ground where it came was cracked, and
fent forth great quantities of fleam long before the fire
reached it ; and every thing near the lake w7as either
burnt up or reduced to a fluid ftate. In this fituation
matters remained from the 12th of June to the 13th
of Auguft ; after w7hich the fiery lake no longer fpread
itfelf, but neverthelefs continued to burn ; and when
any part of the furface acquired a cruft by cooling,, it
w7as quickly broken by the fire from below; and
tumbling down among the melted fubftance, was rolled
and tofled about with prodigious noife and crackling ;
and in many parts of its furface, fmall fpouts or at
leaft ebulht'ons, were formed, which continued for fome
length of time.
In other directions this dreadful inundation proved
no lefs deflruCHve. Having run through the narrow Ice1 and
part of the channel of Skapta as early as the 12 th of
June, it ftretched out itfelf towards the wTeft and fouth-
weft, overflowing all the flat country, and its. edg»
being no lefs than 70 fathoms high at the time it got
Out of the channel of the river. Continuing its de-
ftruftive courfe, it overflowed a number of villages,
running in every direction where it could find a vent,.
In one place it came to a great cataraCt of the river
Skapta, about 14 fathoms in height, over which it
was precipitated with tremendous noife, and thrown in
great quantities to a very confiderable diflance. In an¬
other place it flopped up the channel of a large river,
filled a great valley, and deftroyed two villages by
approaching only within 100 fathoms of them. Others
were overflewed by inundations of water proceeding
from the rivers which had been flopped in their cour-
fes \ until at laft all the paffages on the fouth, eaft, and
weft, being flopped, and the Ipouts ftill fending up incre¬
dible quantities of frefli lava, it burft out to the north
and north-eaft, fpreading over a traCl of land 48 miles
long and 36 broad. Here it dried up the rivers Tuna
and Axafydri; but even this valt effulion being infuffici-
cient to exhauft the fubterraneous refources of liquid
fire, a new7 branch took its courfe for about eight miles
down the channel of the river IlwerJjsJUot, when coming
again to an open country, it formed what our author
calls a fmall lake of fire, about twelve miles in length
and fix in breadth. At laft, however, this branch alfo
flopped on the 16th of Auguft; the fiery fountains cea-
fed to pour torth new fupplies, and this moft aftonifti-
ing eruption came to a period.
The whole extent of ground covered by this dread¬
ful inundation was computed at no lefs than 90 miles
long and 42 in breadth ; the depth of the lava being
from 16 to 20 fathoms. Two rivers w7ere dried up,
20 or 21 villages were deftroyed, and 224 people loft;
their lives. The extent above mentioned, however, is
that only on the fouth, eaft and weft ; for that towards
the north being over uninhabited land, where no body
cared to venture themfelves, was not exaClly known.
Some hills were covered by this lava: others were
melted dow7n by its heat; fo that the w-hole had the
appearance of a fea of red-hot and melted metal.
After this eruption two new iflands w7ere thrown up
from the bottom of the fea. One, about three miles
in circumference, and about a mile in height, made its
appearance in the month of February 1784, where
there was formerly 100 fathoms water. It was about
100 miles fouth-weft from Iceland, and 48 from a cluf-
ter of fmall illands called Gierfugal. It continued for_
fome time to bum with great violence, fending forth
prodigious quantities of pumice-ftones, fand, &.c. like
other volcanoes. The other lay to the north-weft, be¬
tween Iceland and Greenland. It burnt day and night
without intermiflion for a confiderable time ; and was .
alfo very high, and larger than the former., Since that
time, however, one or both cf thefe iflands have been
fwallowed up.
All the time of this great eruption, and for a con¬
fiderable time after, the whole atmofphere w7as loaded
w’ith fmoke, fleam, and fulphureous vapours. The
fun was fometimes wholly invifible ; and when it could
be feen was of a reddilh colour. Moft of the fiftie-
rka.
ICE [62
Iceland. ries were deftroyed j the banks where the fifh uled to
r~~~ refort being fo changed, that the fiihermen could riot
know them again 5 and the fmoke was fo thick, that
they could not go far out to fea. The rain water,
falling through this fmoke and fleam, was fo impreg¬
nated with fait and fulphureous matter, that the hair
and even the Ikins of the cattle were deliroyed 5 and the
whole grafs of the illand was covered with foot and
pitchy matter, that what had efcaped the dellrudlive
elfeits of the fire became poifonous j fo that the cattle
died for wrant of food, or perilhed by eating thofe
umvholefome vegetables. Nor were the inhabitants
in a much better fituation •, many of them having loft
their lives by the poifonous qualities of the fmoke and
fleam with which the whole atmofphere was filled j
particularly old people, and fuch as had any complaint
in the breaft and lungs.
Before the fire broke out in Iceland, there is faid to
have been a very remarkable eruption in the uninha¬
bited parts of Greenland ; and that in the northern
parts of Norway, oppofite to Greenland, the fire w7as
vifible for a long time. It W’as alfo related, that when
the wind was in the north, a great quantity of allies,
pumice, and brimftone, fell upon the north and weft
coafts of Iceland, w'hich continued for the whole fum-
mer whenever the wind was in that quarter; and the
air was always very much impregnated with a thick
fmoke and fulphureous fmell.
During the fall of the fharp rain formerly mention¬
ed, there was obferved at Trondheim, and other places
in Nomay, and likewife at Faw, an uncommon fall of
fharp and fait rain, which totally deftroyed the leaves
of the trees, and every vegetable it fell upon, by
fcorching them up, and caufing them to wither. A
confiderable quantity of allies, fand, and other volcanic
matters, fell at Faro, which covered the whole furface
of the ground whenever the wind blew from Iceland,
though the diftance between the two places is not
lefs than 480 miles. Ships that wrcre failing betwixt
Copenhagen and Norway were frequently covered rvith
afhes and fulphurous matter, which ftuck to the malls,
fails, and decks, befmearing them all over with a black
and pitchy fubftance. In many parts of Holland,
Germany, and other northern countries, a fulphureous
vapour was obferved .in the air, accompanied with a
thick fmoke, and in fome places a light gray-coloured
fubftance fell upon the earth every night •, which, by
yielding a bluifti flame when throwm into the fire, evi¬
dently (bowed its fulphureous nature. On thole nights
in which this fubftance fell in any quantity, there wTas
little or no dew oblerved. Thefe appeaiances con¬
tinued, more or lefs, all the months of July, Auguft
and September.
Some curious particulars relative to the ancient flate
of this iftand have lately been publifhed by a Mr
Vhorkelyn, a native of the country. From his work
fta»e of the it appears that Iceland, for a very confiderable fpace of
ifland. time, viz. from the beginning of the 10th to the
middle of the 13th century, was under a republican
form of government. At firft the father, or head of
every family, was an abfolute fovereign ; but in the
progrefs of population and improvement, it became ne-
ceflary to form certain regulations for the fettlement of
dilputes concerning the frontiers of difterent eftates.
For this purpofe the heads of the families concerned af-
2
16
Vhorke-
lyn’s ac¬
count of
the an. lent
] ICE
fembled thctnfelves, and formed the outlines of a re- Iceland,
public. In the mean time they carried on a ptofpe- ’
rous trade to different parts ^ fending (hips even to the
Levant, and to Conftantinople, at that time celebra¬
ted as the only feat of literature and humanity in the
world. Deputies were likewnfe fent from this ifland
over land to that capital, for the improvement of their
laws and civilization 3 and this a whole century before
the firft crufade. In thefe ancient Icelandic law's, there¬
fore, we meet with evident traces of thofe of the Greeks
and Romans. For example, befides a body of written
laws wrhich w7ere written every third year to the people,
they had two men chofen annually by the heads of fa¬
milies, with confular power, not only to enforce the
laws then in being, but when thefe proved deficient, to
aft as neceftity required.
Thefe laws do irot appear to have inflifted capital
punilliments upon any perfon. Murderers were banilh-
ed to the wood; that is, to the interior and uncultiva¬
ted parts of the iftand : where no perfon was allowed
to approach them within a certain number of fathoms.
In cafes of baniftiment for leffer crimes, the friends of
the offender were allowed to fupply him with neceffa-
ries. The culprit, however, might be killed by any
perfon who found him without his bounds 3 and he
might even be hunted and deftroyed in his fanftuary,
provided he did not withdraw himfelf from the ifland
within a twelvemonth after his fentence, which it w7as
fuppofed he might accompliftr by means of the annual
arrival and departure of (hips. Every man’s perfon
w7as free until he had forfeited his rights by fome crime
againll fociety 3 and fo great was their refpeft for in¬
dependence, that great indulgence was allowed for the
power of paflion. If any provoking word or beha*
viour had been ufed, no puniftiment wTas inflifted on the
party who refented it, even though he fhould have killed
his adverfary. w
By the laws of Iceland, the poor were committed to
the proteftion of their neareil kindred, who had a
right to their labour as far as they w'ere able to work,
and afterwards to indemnification if the poor perfon
flrould acquire any property. Children were obliged
to maintain their parents in their old age 3 but if the
latter had neglefted to give them good education, they
were abfolved from this duty.
While the republic of Iceland continued free and
independent, (hips were fent from the ifland to all parts
of the world. Till very lately, however, not a (hip
belonged to it, the little commerce it enjoyed being
monopolized by a Danifti company, until in 1786 it
was laid open to all the fubjefts of Denmark. “ There
is at prefent (fays Mr Pennant *) a revival of the cod * Append!*
fifhery on the coaft of Iceland from our kingdom. A- to ArBic
bout a dozen of veffels have of late failed from the ille Zoology,
of Thanet, and a few from other parts of Great Bri-p* l9‘
tain. They are either floops or brigs from 50 to 80
tons burden. A lugfail boat, fuch as is ufed in the
herring fifhery, failed laft feafon from Yarmouth thus
equipped. The crew confifted of five men from the
town, and five more taken in at the Orkneys. They
had twelve lines of I 20 fathoms each, and 200 or 300
hooks ; fix heading knives, twelve gutting and twelve
fplitting knives. They take in 18 tons of fait at Leith,
at the rate of three tons to every thoufand fifh 3 of
which fix or feven thoufand is a load for a vefiel of
this
I C H [ 63 ] I C H
Iceland this kind. They go to Tea about the middle of April j
return by the Orkneys to land the men j and get into
'Icho,-;lars. t]lejr p01t jn t]-,e ]a^er enj 0f Auguft or beginning of
September. Pytheas fays, that Iceland lies fix days
failing from Great Britain. A veffel from Yarmouth
was, in the lail year, exactly that time in its voyage
from the Orkneys to Iceland. With a fair wind it
miglit be performed in far lefs time ; but the winds a-
bout the Ferroe ides are generally changeable.
Iceland Agate; a kind of precious ftone met with
in the illands of Iceland and Afcenlion, employed by
the jewellers as an agate, thought too foft for the pur-
pofe. It is fuppofed to be a volcanic produdl j being
folid, black, and of a glaify texture. When held be¬
tween the eye and the light, it is femitranfparent and
greenifh like the glafs bottles which contain much
iron. In the iflands which produce it, fuch large pieces
are met with that they cannot be equalled in any glafs-
, houfe.
ICENI, the ancient name of the people of Suffolk,
Norfolk, Cambridgefhire, and Huntingdonlhire, in Eng¬
land.
ICH-dien. See Heraldry, chap. iv. fed!. 2.
ICHNEUMON, in Zoology. See Viverra, Mam¬
malia Index,
Ichneumon, is alfo the name of a genus of flies
of the hymenoptera order. See Entomology Index.
ICHNOGRAPHY, in Perfpeclive, the view of
any thing cut off by a plane, parallel to the horizon,
juft at the bafe of it.—The word is derived from the
Greek <%»«; footjlcp, and I write, as being a
defcription of the footfteps or traces of a work.
Among painters it fignifies a defcription of images
or of ancient ftatues of marble and copper, of bufls and
femi-bufts, of paintings in frefco, mofaic works, and an¬
cient pieces of miniature.
Ichnography, in ArclutcBure, is a tranfverfe or
horizontal feftion of a building, exhibiting the plot of
the whole edifice, and of the feveral rooms and apart¬
ments in any ffory ; together with the thicknefs of
the walls and partitions •, the dimenfions of the doors,
windows, and chimneys j the proje&ures of the co¬
lumns and piers, with every thing viiible in fuch a
fedlion.
1CEIOGLANS, the grand fignior’s pages ferving
in the feraglio. Thefe are the children of Chriftian
parents, either taken in war, purchafed, or fent in
prefents from the viceroys and governors of diftant
provinces: they are the moft fprightly, beautiful, and
well-made that can be met with : and are always re¬
viewed and approved of by the grand fignior himfelf
before they are admitted into the feraglios of Pera,
Conftantinople, or Adrianople, being the three col¬
leges where they are educated, or fitted for employ¬
ment, according to the opinion the court entertains of
them.
ICHOR, properly fignifies a thin watery humour Ich<fr,
like ferum •, but is fometimes ufed for a thicker kind Ic^l]y°'
liowing from ulcers, called alfo Janies. ,
ICHTHYOCOLLA, Isinglass, a preparation
from the fiflr known by the name of hufo. See Acci-
PENSER. The word is Greek, formed of igfivs JiJh, and
xoWct, glue.—The method of making ifinglafs was long a
fecret in the hands of the Ruffians ; but hath lately been
difcovered, and the following account of it published by
Humphrey .lackfon, Efq. in the 63d volume of the Phi-
lofophical Tranlacfions.
“ All authors who have hitherto delivered pro-
ceffes for making ichthyocolla, filh-glue, or ifinglafs,
have greatly miftaken both its conffituent matter and
preparation.
“ To prove this affertion, it may not be improper to
recite what Pomet fays upon the fubjeff, as he appears
to be the principal author whom the red have copied.
After defending the filli, and referring to a cut engra¬
ved from an original in his cudody, he fays : ‘ As to
the manner of making the ifinglafs, the finewy parts of
the fiih are boiled in water till all of them be diffolved
that tvill diffolve ; then the gluey liquor is drained, and
fet to cool. Being cold, the fat is carefully taken off,
and the liquor itfelf boiled to a jud confidency, then cut
to pieces, and made into a twid, bent in form of a cref-
cent, as commonly fold j then hung upon a firing, and
carefully dried.’
“ From this account, it might be rationally con¬
cluded, that every fpecies of fidi which contained gela¬
tinous principles would yield ifinglafs : and this parity
of reafoning leems to have given rife to the hady con-
clufions of thofe who drenuoufly vouch for the extrac¬
tion of ifinglafs from durgeon ; but as that filh is eafily
procurable, the negligence of afeertaining the faft by ex¬
periment feems inexcufable.
“ In my firfi attempt to difeover the condituent
parts and manufadure of ifinglafs, relying too much up¬
on the authority of fome chemical authors whofe veraci¬
ty I had experienced in many other indances, I found
myfelf condantly difappointed. Glue, not ifinglafs, was
the refult of every procefs \ and although, in the fame
view, a journey to Ruffia proved fruitlefs, yet a deady
perfeverance in the refearch proved not only fuccefsful
as to this objed, but, in the purfuit, to difeover a refi-
nous matter plentifully procurable in the Britiffi fifheries,
which has been found by ample experience to anfwerfi-
milar purpofes. It is now no longer a fecret, that our
(a) lakes and rivers in North America are docked with
immenfe quantities of filh, laid to be the fame fpecies
with thofe in Mufcovy, and yielding the fined ilin-
glafs *, the filheries whereof, under due encouragement
would doubtlefs fupply all Europe with this valuable
article.
“ No artificial heat is neceffary to the produdion of
ifinglafs, neither is the matter diffolved for this purpofe j
for,
(a) As the lakes' of North America lie nearly in the fame latitude with the Cafpian fea, particularly Lake Su¬
perior, which is faid to be of greater extent, it was conjedured they might abound with the fame forts of filh ;
and in confequence of public advertifements didributed in various parts of North America, offering premiums for
the founds of durgeon and other filh, for the purpofe of making ifinglafs, feveral fpecimens of fine ifinglafs, the
produce of filh taken in thefe parts, have been lately fent to England, with proper attedations as to the unlimited.
quantity which may be procured.
1 C H L 64 ] I C H
i‘1iyo- for, as tlie continuity of its fibres would be deftroyed by
3lla- folution, tbe mafs would become brittle in drying, and
fnap iliort afunder, which is always the cafe with glue,
but never with ifinglafs. The latter, indeed, may be re-
folved into glue with boiling wrater •, but its fibrous re-
compofition would be found impra&icable afterwards, and
a fibrous texture is one of the moft difiinguilhing cha-
raflerillics of genuine ifinglafs.
“ A due confideration that an imperfeft folution of
ifinglafs, called fining by the brewers, polTefied a pecu¬
liar property of clarifying malt-liquors, induced me to
attempt its analyfis in cold fubacid menftruums. One
ounce and a half of good ifinglafs, fteeped a few days
in a gallon of Hale beer, was converted into good fining,
of a remarkably thick confidence : the fame quantity of
glue, under fimilar treatment, yielded only a mucilagi¬
nous liquor, refembling diluted gum-water, which, in-
llead of clarifying beer, increafed both its tenacity and
turbidnefs, and communicated other properties in no re-
fpedl correfponding with thofe of genuine fining. On
commixing three fpoonfuls of the folution of ifinglafs
with a gallon of malt liquor, in a tall cylindrical glafs,
a vaft number of curdly maffes became prefently formed,
by the reciprocal attraflion of the particles of ifinglafs
and the feculencies of the beer, which, increafing in
magnitude and fpecific gravity, arranged themfelves ac¬
cordingly and fell in a combined date to the bottom,
through the well-known laws of gravitation •, for, in this
cafe, there is no eledlive attraction, as fome have imagi¬
ned, which bears the lead affinity with what frequently
occurs in chemical decompofitions.
“ If what is commercially termed long ox Jhort fiapled
j/ing/afs be deeped a few hours in fair cold w'ater, the
entwided membranes will expand, and reaffume their
original beautiful (b) hue, and, by a dexterous addrefs,
may be perfectly unfolded. By this fimple operation,
we find that ifinglafs is nothing more than certain mem¬
branous parts of fithes, diveded of their native mucofity,
rolled and twided into the forms above-mentioned, and
dried in open air.
“ The founds, or air-bladders, of fredr w’ater fiflr in
general, are preferred for this purpofe, as being the mod
tranfparertt, flexible, delicate fubllances. Thefe confli-
tute the fined forts of ifinglafs 5 thofe called book and
ordinary fiaple are made of the intedines, and probably
of the peritonaeum of the fiflr. ’I he belluga yields the
greated quantity, as being the larged and mod plenti¬
ful fiflr in the Mufcovy rivers j but the founds of all
frefli-w’ater fiflr yield, more or lefs, fine ifinglafs, par¬
ticularly the fmaller forts, found in prodigious quan¬
tities in the Cafpian fea, and feveral hundred miles be¬
yond Adracan, in the Wolga, Yaik, Don, and even as
far as Siberia, where it is called kleox hla by the natives,
which implies a glutinous matter ; it is the bafis of the
Ruffian glue, which is preferred to all other kinds for
its drength.
“ 'I he founds, which yield the finer ifinglafs, confid
of parallel fibres, and are eafily rent longitudinally \
but the ordinary forts are found compofed of double
membranes, whofe fibres crofs each other obliquely, re¬
fembling the coats of a bladder : hence the former are lelithycr.
more readily pervaded and divided with lubacid li-,
quors j but the latter, through a peculiar kind of inter¬
woven texture, are wdth great difficulty torn afunder,
and long refid the power of the fame mendruum ; yet,
when duly refolved, are found to a£l with equal energy
in clarifying liquors.
“ Ifinglafs receives its different drapes in the follow¬
ing manner :
“ The parts of which it is compofed, particularly
the founds, are taken from the fifh while fweet and
frefh, flit open, wafhed from their flimy fordes, dived¬
ed of every thin membrane which envelopes the found,
and then expofed to diffen a little in the air. In this
date, they are formed into rolls about the thicknefs of
a finger, and in length according to the intended fize
of the daple : a thin membrane is generally feledled
for the centre of the roll, round w'hich the red are
folded alternately, and about half an inch of each ex¬
tremity of the roll is turned inwards. The due di-
menfions being thus obtained, the two ends of wdiat
is called Jhort fiaple are pinned together with a fmall
wooden peg ; the middle of the roll is then prefled a
little downwards, which gives it the refemblance of a
heart-fhape j and thus it is laid on boards, or hung up
in the air to dry. The founds, which compofe the
long-flaple, are longer than the former } but the ope¬
rator lengthens this fort at pleafure, by interfolding
the ends of one or more pieces of the found with each
other. The extremities are faffened with a peg, like
the former ; but the middle part of the roll is bent
more confiderably downwards, and, in order to pre-
ferve the fhape of the three obtufe angles thus formed,
a piece of round flick, about a quarter of an inch dia¬
meter, is faftened in each angle with fmall wooden
pegs, in the fame manner as the ends. In this ftate,
it is permitted to dry long enough to retain its form,
when the pegs and flicks are taken out, and the
drying completed ; laflly, the pieces of ifinglafs are
colligated in rows, by running pack-thread through
the peg-holes, for convenience of package and exporta¬
tion.
“ The membranes of the book fort, being thick
and refra£lory, will not admit a fimilar formation with
the preceding j the pieces, therefore, after their fides
are folded inwardly, are bent in the centre, in fuch
manner that the oppofite fides refemble the cover of a
book, from whence its name ; a peg being run acrofs
the middle, faftens the fides together, and thus it is
dried like the former. This fort is interleaved, and
the pegs run acrofs the ends, the better to prevent its
unfolding.
“ That called cake-ifinglafs is formed of the bits
and fragments of the ftaple forts, put into a flat me¬
talline pan, with a very little water, and heated jufl
enough to make the parts cohere like a pancake when
it is dried 5 but frequently it is overheated, and fuch
pieces, as before obferved, are ufelefs in the buiinefs of
fining. Experience has taught the confumers to rejedff
them.
“ Ifinglafs
(b) If the tranfparent ifinglafs be held in certain pofitions to the light, it frequently exhibits beautiful prflma-
tic colours.
I C H [ 65 ] I C H
Ichtliyo- ‘{ Ifinglafs is beft made in the fummer, as froft
colla. gives it a difagreeable colour, deprives it of weight,
vand impairs its gelatinous principles j its faftiionable
forms are unneceffary,- and frequently injurious to its
native qualities. It is common to find oily putrid
matter, and exuviae of infefts, between the implicated
membranes, which, through the inattention of the
cellarmarq often contaminate wines and malt-liquors in
the aft of clarification. Thefe peculiar lhapes might
probably be introduced originally with a view to con¬
ceal and difguife the real fubftance of ifinglafs, and
preferve the monopoly •, but, as the malk is now taken
off, it cannot be doubted to anfwer every purpofe more
effeftually in its native ftate, without any fubfequent
manufafture whatever, efpecially to the principal con-
fumers, who hence will be enabled to procure fufficient
fupply from the Britifh colonies. Until this laudable
end can be fully accomplilhed, and as a fpecies of ifin¬
glafs, more eafily produceable from the marine fiiheries,
may probably be more immediately encouraged, it may
be manufaftured as follows :
“ The founds of cod and ling bear great analogy
with thofe of the accipenfer genus of Linnaeus and Ar-
tedi j and are in general fo W’ell known as to require
no particular defcription. The Newfoundland and
Iceland fiihermen fplit open the fifh as foon as taken,
and throwr the back-bones with the founds annexed,
in a heap j but previous to incipient putrefaftion, the
founds are cut out, w'alhed from their {limes, and fak¬
ed for ufe. In cutting out the founds, the intercoftal
parts are left behind, wLich are much the beft j the
Iceland fiftiernien are fo fenfible of this, that they beat
the bone upon a block with a thick ftick, till the
pockets, as they term them, come out eafily, and thus
preferve the found entire. If tke founds have been
cured with fait, that muft be diffolved by fteeping
them in water before they are prepared for ifinglafs ;
the frefh found muft then be laid upon a block of
wrood, whofe furface is a little elliptical, to the end of
which a fmall hair-brufh is nailed, and with a faw knife
the membranes on each fide of the found muft be fcra-
ped off. The knife is rubbed upon the bruih occa-
iionally, to clear its teeth ; the pockets are cut open
with fciffars, and perfeftly cleanfed of the mucous mat¬
ter with a coarfe cloth } the founds are afterwards
waftied a few minutes in lime-water in order to abforb
their oily principle, and laftly in clear water. They
are then laid upon nets to dry in the air ; but if in¬
tended to refemble the foreign ifinglafs, the founds of
cod will only admit of that called book, but thofe of
ling both fhapes. The thicker the founds are, the bet¬
ter the ifinglafs, colour excepted ; but that is immate¬
rial to the brew'er, who is its chief confumer.
“ This ifinglafs refolves into fining, like the other
forts, in fubacid liquors, as ftale beer, cyder, old hock,
Vol. XL Part I.
&.c. and in equal quantities produces fimilar effects Icht!-,
upon turbid liquors, except that it falls fpeedier and co!1,
clofer to the bottom of the veffel, as may be demon-
ftrated in tall cylindrical glaffes; but foreign ifinglafs
retains the conliitency of fining preferably in warm
weather, owing to the greater tenacity of its native
mucilage.
“ Vegetable acids are, in every refpeft, beft adapted
to fining : the mineral acids are too corrofive, and even
infalubrious, in common beverages
“ It is remarkable, that, during the converfion of
ifinglafs into fining, the acidity of the menftruum feems
greatly diminiftxed, at leaft to tafte \ not on account of
any alkaline property in the ifinglafs, probably, but
by its enveloping the acid particles. It is likewife re¬
ducible into jelly with alkaline liquors, which indeed
are folvents of all animal matters j even cold lime-wTa*
ter diftblves it into a pulpous tnagma, Notwithftand-
ing this is inadmiffible as fining, on account of the
menftruum, it produces admirable effefts in other re-
fpefts : for, on commixture with compofitions of pla-
fter, lime, &c. for ornamenting walls expofed to vicif-
fitudes of weather, it adds firmnefs and permanency to
the cement; and if common brick-mortar be worked
up with this jelly, it foon becomes almoft as hard as
the brick itfelf \ but, for this purpofe, it is more com-
modioufly prepared, by diffolving it in cold water, aci¬
dulated with vitriolic acid 5 in wdrich cafe, the acid
quits the jelly, and forms with the lime a felcnitic mafs,
while, at the fame time, the jelly being deprived in
fome mcafure of its moifture, through the formation
of an indiflbluble concrete amongft its parts, foon dries,
and hardens into a firm body j whence its fuperior
ftrength and durability are eafily comprehended.
“ It has long been a prevalent opinion, that ftur-
geon, on account of its cartilaginous nature, would
yield great quantities of ifinglafs ; but, on examina¬
tion, no part of this fifh, except the inner coat of the
found, promifed the leaft fuccefs. This being full of
rugae, adheres fo firmly to the external membrane,
which is ufelefs, that the labour of feparating them
fuperfedes the advantage. The inteftines, however,
which in the larger fifh extend feveral yards in length,
being cleanfed from their mucus, and dried, were
found furprifingly ftrong and elaftic, refembling cords
made with the inteftines of other animals, commonly
called cat-gut, and, from fome trials, promifed fupe-
nor advantages when applied to mechanic opera¬
tions.”
Ifinglafs is fometimes ufed in medicine ; and may be
given in a thin acrimonious ftate of the juices, after
the fame manner as the vegetable gums and mucilages,
regard being had to their different difpofition to putref-
cence.
I ICHTHYOLOGY,
1
[ 66 |
ICHTHYOLOGY.
CHAP. I. HISTORY OF ICHTHYOLOGY.
Definition
Difficulty
of ftudying
ti flies.
Anc’ent
writers on
fiihes.
Modern.
JBeion.
ICHTHYOLOGY (from the Greek “ a filh,”
-*■ and Aayoj, “ difcourfe”), is that part of zoology
which treats of fillies.
Fillies are fuch animals as have a heart with one au¬
ricle and one ventricle, with cold red blood, which in¬
habit water, and breathe by means of gills. Moll of
the fpecies are likewife diltinguillied by fins and
fcales.
The very element in which fillies live prevents us
from following their motions with exaftnefs, from Hu-
dying their inftinfts, and from noting with fidelity their
fpecific differences. Their colours often vary, accord¬
ing to the accidental circumllances of age, fex, climate,
feafon, breeding, &c. and often vanilli in the open air,
or with the principle of life. On the fame Ihores un¬
known kinds feldom occur •, and, when they do, they
may pafs unnoticed by the illiterate fifherman. Hence,
the natural hiftory of the finny tribe has, in all ages,
been involved in greater obfcurity than that of land
animals, which are more readily fubje&ed to the invef-
tigation of the learned and the curious. Hence, Ari-
Jlotle, Pliny, and JElian, in treating of filhes, have
mingled much fable ivith fome truths, and have even
confounded clalfes which nature has diftin&ly feparated.
Such, too, is the ambiguity which now attaches to
their vague and unfcientific nomenclature, and fuch,
we may add, is the indifpenfable limitation of our plan,
that we lhall forbear enlarging on the ichthyological
portions of their writings. The clalfieal and inquifitive
reader may, however, derive entertainment and fome
inftruftion from a careful perufal of their text, and of
fome of the moil ingenious and judicious annotatiorts of
mere recent fcholars and naturalifts. Fo the names
juft mentioned, we may add that of Athenceus, who, in
the feventh book of his Deipnofof>hi/h%, difeourfes of
filhes. Ovid celebrates them in his Halienticon; and
his example has been followed, not without fuccefs, by
Oppian, a Greek poet, who dourifhed in the fecond
century, under the reign of Caracalla. Aufonms, a
native of Bourdeaux, who died towards the conclufion
of the fourth century, in his admired poem on the Mo-
felle, has not forgotten to fing of its inhabitants.
In the more downward periods of the dark and mid¬
dle ages, no writer of eminence appears in this depart¬
ment of natural hiilory. Indeed, the firfi who laid the
foundation of ichthyological arrangement was Pierre
Belon, a French phyfician, born in 1518, and advan-
tageoufly known by his travels in Judaea, Greece, and
Arabia, as well as by his writings in natural hiftory.
Some of his divifions of fifties, as the eleventh, which
comprifes the flat fpecies that are not cartilaginous 5 the
twelfth, thofe that are both fiat and cartilaginous •, the
thirteenth, wftiich includes the fquah, &c. are deduced
f t m natural refemblances •, but others are more fanci¬
ful \ and the wooden cuts are deficient in accuracy and
neatnefs. Belon was an induftrious, and rather an
acute obferver, who wrote with pleafing naivete, and Hiflory,
who ftiould rank high in the eftimation of the learned' y
world, when wre refleft on the few refources of which
he could avail himfelf. His hiftory of fifties appeared
in 1551. That of his countryman, Ronde/et, wTas pub-
liihed three years afterwards, and exhibited more accu¬
rate deferiptions and figures, with many excellent re¬
marks, the refult of his owm obfervation. In point of
arrangement, however, Rondelet’s wmrk is extremely Rondelet,
imperfeft, and even puerile. He tells us, for example, Sec*
that, after very mature deliberation, he refolved to be¬
gin with the gilt-head, becaufe it w^as bejl known to the
ancients and moderns, and highly prized for its delicacy.
He had, however, the merit of exciting a general tafte
for the ftudy of ichthyology j and Sa/viatu, Bojfveti,
Conrad Gefner, Pifon, &c. who followed him in rapid
fucceftion, contributed their fliare to the ftock of feien-
tific fads, though they made few7 advances to the con-
ftrudion of a natural order.
In 1605, Aldrovandus, who publiftied a large com-Adwan-
pilation on natural hiftory, diftributed the fifties accord-dus"
ing to the nature of their refidence 5 thus, his firft book
treats of thofe that frequent rocks j the fecond is de¬
voted to the littoral 5 the third to the pelagian, &c.
Several authors, whom we cannot ftay to name, dif-
played their talents, with more or lefs felicity, on the
fame fubjed. But their labours w7ere eclipfed by thofe
of Willoughby, whofe work, entitled Be Hiftoria LV/-Willough-.
cium, w7as printed at Oxford in 1686, and unfolded^3/*
many new and accurate notions relative to the anatomy
and phyfiology of fifties. His arrangement may be con-
fidered as an improved modification of that of Belon.
The celebrated Ray publiflied, in 1707, his Synopjis
Met ho die a Pifcium, which may be regarded as an abrid¬
ged and correded view of Willoughby’s larger w7ork,
and as indicating, if not fixing, a feries of genera. This
valuable deferiptive catalogue continued to be appealed
to as a ftandard, till the combined genius of Artedi
and Linnceus effeded an important reform in the fei-
ence of ichthyology.
Artedi, the countryman and friend of the great Artedi-
Swedifti naturalift, had adopted his principles, and w7as
engaged in applying them to the fyftematic illuftration
of fifties, when death prematurely arrefted the profecu-
tion of his defign. His illuftrious friend put the finifh-
ing hand to his papers, and publiftied them in the form
of two odavo volumes, under the title of Bibliotheca
Ichthyologica, and Philofophia Ichthyologic a, which Wal-
baum re-edited, in four volumes, in 1792. Thus, then,
to Artedi we may aferibe th@ merit of having firft tra- h;s method
ced the outlines of that claflification of fifties which hasof arrange-
novv become fo popular in Europe; for he firft inftitu-ment,
ted orders and genera, and defined the charaders on
which thefe divifions are founded. Independently of
the cetaceous tribes, which are now generally clafted
with the mammalia, and of which w7e have treated in
the
Chap. I. I C H T H Y
Hift'jry. the article CkT0L<5GY, his method confided of four
great divifions or orders, namely, the Ma/acopterygian,
slcanthoptcnjgian, Branchiqftegous, and Chandroptery-
gian. The firfi denoted thofe fpecies which have foft
fins, or fins with bony rays but without fpines, and in¬
cluded twenty-one genera j the fecond, thofe with fpiny
fins, containing fixteen genera j the third, correfpond-
ing to the amphibia nantes of Linmeus, which want the
operculum, or branchioftegous membrane j and the
fourth, the JLinnsean amphibia nantes, which have not
true bones, but only cartilages, and the rays of whole
at firft fol- fins hardly differ from a membrane, fn his firfl; edition
Linnaeus^ t^ie Nature, Linnaeus wrholly adopted the
Artedian method. With regard to the changes which
he afterwards introduced, it would be unnecelfary to
date them in this rapid hillorical fketch, efpecially as
we purpofe to follow his divilions in our fyftematic ex-
pofition.
Thofe ichthyologills who have propofed methods in
oppofition to that of Linnaeus, have ufually fallen fhort
Method of of the latter in point of firaplicity. Thus Klein, who
Klein vainly attempted to rival the profeffor of Upfala, diftri-
buted filhes into three feftions, according as they had
lungs, and vifible or invifible gills; but his fubdivifions
were fo numerous and complex, that his fcheme has ne¬
ver been adopted. That of Gronavius was, at lead
for a few years, much more favourably received. It is
principally founded on the prefence or abfence, and the
number or the nature, of the fins. The firft clafs in¬
cludes all the cetaceous animals, and the fecond all the
fithes. The chondropterygian, and the offeous or bony,
form two great divifions ; and the olfeous are fubdivid-
ed into branchiojlegous and branchial. Thefe laft are
grouped according to the Linnsean rules ; but, in the
formation of the genera, the number of dorfal fins is
admitted as a chara&er, which Linnaeus has, perhaps
injudicioufly, overlooked, and which gives rifes to feveral
genera which are not to be found in the Syftem of Na¬
ture.—Brunnich laboured, with much pains and confi-
derable ingenuity, to combine the Linnaean and Arte¬
dian divifions j but his fyftem remained without encou-
tnd others, ragement or fupport.—Scopoh boldly ftruck out a new
path, and affumed the pofition of the anus as the bafis
of his three primary divifions. His fecondary charac¬
ters fometimes coincide with thofe of Gronovius, and
fometimes with thofe of Linnmus; while his third feries
of diftimftions is fometimes drawn from the form of the
body, and fometimes from the teeth. Gouan, the ce¬
lebrated profefibr of botany at Montpelier, preferved
the Linnaean genera, but formed his greater divifions
from the union of thofe of Linnaeus and Artedi. His
two principal fedions are, of fifties with complete, and
of thofe with incomplete, gills; and the firft is divided
into two others, viz. acanlhopterygian, and malacoptery-
gian, in each of which are ranged the apodal, jugular,
thoracic, and abdominal fpecies. The lame procefs is
followed in the fecond feclion, which includes the
branchiojlegous and the chondropterygian.
All the authors who have juft palled under our re¬
view, with the exception of Belon, Rondelet, and Gro¬
novius, publilhed their works without any regular feries
of plates illuftrative of their defcriptions. Among thofe
who embellifhed their volumes with valuable figures,
tve have to mention Seba> ih his large colle&ion of
O L O G Y. 67
fubjedls belonging to natural hiftory,—Calejby, in his Hiftory.
Natural Hiftory of Carolina,—Broujfonct, in his Ichthyo-
login,—and Bloch, in his Natural Hiftory of Filhes, firft
publilhed at Berlin in German, and in French in
1785, and recently republilhed in a fmall form, by
Deterville, at Paris, forming part of the extenfive work
entitled Hi/ioire Naturelle de Buffon, &.c. Bloch’s
original work includes about 600 fpecies of fifties, which
are generally defcribed with great accuracy, figured, as '
nearly as circumftances will admit, of the natural lize,
and beautifully coloured. The author enters with fome
minutenefs into the hiftory of thofe which afford food
for man, or which fuggeft faffs worthy of remark. He
has followed the Linnsean method, and made confider-
able additions to the number of genera.
La Cepede, the friend and continuator of Buffon, has Of La Ce«
likewife executed an elaborate and extenfive undertak-Pee¬
ing on the natural hiftory of filhes. He divides this
clafs of animals into two fecondary claffes, viz. the car-
tilaginous and the q/Jeous. Each of thefe fubordinate
claffes confifts of four divifions, taken from the combi¬
nations of the prefence or abfence of the operculum,
and of the branchial membrane 5 thus, the firft divilion
of the cartilaginous includes thofe fifties which have nei¬
ther operculum nor branchial membrane ; the fecond,
thofe which have no operculum, but a membrane 5 the
third, thofe which have an operculum, but no mem¬
brane j and the fourth, thofe which have both. The
fame charafters, ftated in the inverfe order, determine
the divilions of the oifeous fpecies. Each of thefe divi¬
fions is again diltributed into the Linnaean orders, and
thefe, in turn, into the Linnaean genera. The con¬
tents of the latter, however, do not always correfpond
with the enumerations in the Syftem of Nature ; for
the French zoologift has withdrawn many fpecies from
their former categories, and ranged them under new
genera. His innovations in this refpeft. are, perhaps,
not always improvements j and fome of his generic ap¬
pellations, as gobie, gobiofore, gobidide, gobiomore, and
gobiotnoroide, pomacanthe, pomacentce, pomadafys, and
pomatome, &c. are too nearly allied in found and ortho¬
graphy, to be readily difcriminated by the memory.
We have, moreover, to regret that the plates are not
coloured, and that they are executed on too fmall a
fcale. Yet, after every dedudlion which even rigid
criticifm may require from the merits of this publica¬
tion, enough will remain to atteft the induftry and the
talents of its author, and to juftify the high rank
which he has obtained among the writers on ichthyo-
logy.
Before doling even thefe very condenfed notices, it Of Peru
wmuld be unpardonable to omit reminding our readers, nant.
that the Britifti fifties have found an able and entertain¬
ing ex politer in Mr Pennant, to whom the natural hif¬
tory of this country is under many obligations. In the
third volume of his Britifli Zoology, this author de-
feribes the fifties under the three great divifions of ceta¬
ceous, cartilaginous, and bony. The latter, which is
by far the moft numerous, he fubdivides into four fec-
tions, entitled, agreeably to the Linnman orders, apo¬
dal, thoracic, jugular, and abdominal.
Betides the fources of information to which we have
referred, the curious inquirer into the hiftory of fifties
may occafionally refort to Duhamel’s General Treatife
I 2 on
68 1 C H T H Y
Anatomy on the Fiiheries, Fabricius’s Fauna Grcenlandica, Fla-
pfHfhe?. Inen on tiie different kinds of frelh-water fiihes, Forf-
*_u. kal’s Fauna Arabic a, Johnfton’s Hijlona Naturahs de
Tifcibus et Cetis, Kolreuters papers in different vo¬
lumes of the Peterfburg Tranfa&ions, the fourth vo-
G L O G Y. Chap. II.
lume of Marfigli’s Danubiui Pannonico- Mi/sius, &ic. Anatomy
Monro’s Anatomy of Fithes, Pallas’s Spici/cgia 'Loolo- of tithes.
gica, &.c. Vicq d’Azyr’s Memoirs on the Anatomy
of Fillies, and the two volumes of the F,nci}dopedie Mc-
thodique which are devoted to the article Poijfons.
CHAP. II. ANATOMY OF FISHES.
Farm of THE Jhape of the body of fillies is fubjeft to confi-
the body, derable varieties. It is faid to be comprejj'ed, when the
diameter, from fide to fide, is lefs than from back to
belly •, and deprejfcd, on the contrary, when the diame¬
ter, from fide to fide, is greater than from back to bel¬
ly. It is cylindrical, when it is circular in the greater
part of its length •, enjiform, or fword-fliaped, when the
back and belly terminate in a lharp edge, or when the
body gradually tapers from the head to the tail j cul¬
trated, or knife-lhaped, when the back is fomewhat
flat, and the angle below acute 5 cannated, or keel-
fhaped, when the back is rounded, and the under part
of the belly acute, through its length 5 oblong, when
the longitudinal diameter is much longer than the
tranfverfe 5 oval, when the longitudinal diameter not
only exceeds the tranfverfe, but the bafe is circular,
and the apex more acute j orbicular, when the longitu¬
dinal and tranfverfe diameters are nearly equal j lamel-
lated, or fpear-fhaped, when oblong, and attenuated at
both extremities ; cuneiform, or wedge-ihaped, when
the body gradually flattens towards the tail; conical,
when it is cylindrical, and grows gradually more flen-
der towards the tail; ventricofe, when the belly is very
prominent } gibbous, when the back prefents one or
more protuberances j annulated, when the body is fur-
rounded by rings, or elevated lines •, articulated, when
it is covered with connefted and bony plates ti igon,
tetragon, pentagon, and hexagon, wrhen the fides are
plain, with three, four, or fix longitudinal angles ; if
the number of thefe angles exceed fix, it is termed a
polygon.
The furface of the body of fiihes is termed naked,
when it is deftitute of feales ; fcaly, when provided
with them j fmooth, when the feales are without angles,
furrows, roughnefs, or inequalities} lubricous, or ilip-
pery, when invefted with a mucous or flimy humour $
tuberculated, or rough, when covered with prominent
warts or tubercles j papillous, when covered with flelhy
points •, fpinous, when the afperities are elongated, and
pointed at their extremities} loricated, or mailed,
when the bodv is mclofed in a hard, callous, or bony
integument, or in feales lo clofely united as to feem
but one •, fafeiated, or banded, when marked with
tranfverfe zones from the back to the belly} friped,
when marked with very narrow, fcattered, and colour¬
ed ftreaks $ vitiated, when marked with longitudinal
zones along the fide, from the head to the tail j reti¬
culated, or checquered, when marked with lines form¬
ing the appearance of net-work } pointed, or dotted,
when marked with points, either longitudinally difpo-
fed, or without order j and variegated, when of differ¬
ent colours.
The parts of the body are either external, or inter¬
nal: the former include the head, trunk, and/wr; the
latter, the Jkeleton, jnufcles) and vifeera.
1. The HEAD is always placed at the anterior part The head,
of the body, and reaches from the extremity of the8cc-
nofe to the gills.
Several of the technical terms already defined, are
applied to the head as well as to the whole body but
others, which are more appropriate, require to be ex¬
plained. Obtufe or truncated, denotes that the head is
blunt, or terminated by a tranfverfe line •, acute, that
it terminates in an acute angle •, f anting, that it pre¬
fents an in'clined plane, from the top of the anterior
part to the extremity of the nofe ; aculeated, or prickly,
that it is armed with fliarp points or fpines; unarmed,
that it is without fpines or tubercles ; beardlefs, that it
is without cirrhi, &c.
The head contains the mouth, nofe, jaws, lips, teeth,
tongue, palate, noftrils, eyes, branchial opercules, the
branchioftegous membrane, the aperture of the gills,
and the nape.
The mouth is that cavity, which is terminated in
front by its own orifice ; on the fides, by the branchial
opercula ; and behind, by the throat. It is fuperior,
when placed at the upper part of the head ; inferior,
when at the lower part; vertical, when it defeends
perpendicularly from the upper part •, tranfverfe, or ho-
rizontal, when it is parallel to the furface of the water
when the fifh fwims j oblique, when it is neither verti¬
cal nor horizontal $ tubular, or fjlular, when the ori¬
fice is narrow, round, and deep j fimous, or flat-noled,
when the orifice is not prominent or deep.
The nofe, or fnout, is the fore part of the head, ex¬
tending from the eyes to the extremity of the jaws. It
is cufpidated, when its apex terminates in a fliarp point
or bridle ; fpatula-fhaped, when its extremity is flatten¬
ed and extended •, bifid, forked, or lobed, when its ex¬
tremity is divided into two lobes •, triquetrous and tetra-
quetrous, when it has three or four flat fides; and re¬
flex, wThen it is incurved towards the belly.
The jaws are always two in number, and differ in
different fpecies chiefly in refpeft of figure and propor¬
tion. They arefubulate, or awl-ffiaped, when they are
rounded at the bafe, and are gradually attenuated to¬
wards the apex j carinated, or keel-fliaped, when the
lower jaw is longitudinally ridged, either without or
within •, equal, when both are of the fame length 5 un¬
equal, when one projects beyond the other 5 naked,
when not covered with lips ; labiate, when covered
with one or two lips j edentulated, when deftitute of
teeth j dentated, or toothed, when furniftied with teeth
of unequal fize $ dentato:crenated, when the bones are
formed into the appearance of teeth ; cirrated, or cir-
rofe, when furniftied with cirrhi, or briftly membrana¬
ceous appendages, which hang from one or both jaws \
vaginated, or fheathed, when the margin of one covers
that of the other j arched, or covered, when furniflied
with a membranaceous veil, attached before, and loofe
behind.
Chap. II.
A> behind, within which, and the upper or under part of
of Fifties. r1n,> mouth, the filh lays its tongue, or difcharges water
1 * from its mouth j and moveable, when they can be
thruft out or drawn in.
The lips are obvious only in a lew fillies, and are ei¬
ther of a lleihy or bony confidence. They are alio dif-
tinguiflied into plicated, or confiding of folds, and re¬
tractile, or capable of being drawn out or in, at the
pleafure of the animal.
The tceth'prz acute, when their extremity terminates
in a point; obtufe, when it is rounded ; granular, when
the teeth are of the fize and fliape of fmall grains;
plntie, when flat on the fidesj femi-fagittate, when hook¬
ed on one fide only ; fcrrated, when toothed like a faw
on the margin ; emarginale, when the extremity is
fomewhat cleft j recurved, when inclined towards the
gullet •, parallel, when of the fame diredlion, length,
and figure •, diverging, when the apices Hand wide, or
difiant from each other j Jimilar, wdlen they are all of
the fame lize and figure •, dijjimilar, when fome are
acute, and others obtufe ; ordinate, wdien difpofed in
one or more rows 5 confufed, wdien crowded, and not
difpofed in any regular order.
The tongue is termed acute or obtufe, according as
its extremity terminates in a point, or is rounded ; it is
emarginate, or bifid, wTen the extremity is divided in¬
to two lobes •, curinated, when angulated on the upper
or lower furface ; dentated, when its furface is furniflied
with teeth ; and papillous, when covered with flefliy
points.
The palate is that part of the mouth which is in¬
cluded between the bafe of the jaw's and the origin of
the ocfophagus. It is either fmooth, when its furface is
deftitute of tubercles, teeth, and afperities ; or denticu¬
lated, when furnithed with teeth.
The nojlrils are orifices, almofl always fituated in the
roftrum, before the eyes. They are anterior, when they
occupy the fore part of the roltrum, and are fomewhat
diilant from the eyes; poficrior, wdien fituated at the
bafe of the roftrum, and very near the eyes j fupenor,
wdien on the crowm of the head, between the eyes, and
clofe to them *, cylindrical, when they form a tube j
fngle, or folitary, when there is only one on each fide
of the head ; and double, when there are two on each
fide.
Eyes. The eyes are always tw7o, and are compofed of twro
principal parts, which as they are vifible from without
belong to the defcription of the external ftruflure.
Thefe parts are the pupil and the iris. The firft occu¬
pies the centre of the globe ; and is ufually fpherical,
but fometimes oval j and the fecond is the coloured
circle which furrounds the pupil, and is often furnilhed
with a diftinft ring. It is, for the moft part black or
gold-coloured, but fometimes it affumes a filvcry hue.
—The eyes are faid to be covered, when they are en¬
veloped in the Ikin, or in a nidlitating membrane;
femi-covered, when this membrane is arched, or lunu-
lated, or perforated like a ring ; naked, when deftitute
of a nidlitating membrane ; vertical, when fituated on
the crown of the head ; lateral, when placed on the
fides of the head ; binate, when they are both on the
lame fide of the head ; plane, or depreffed, when the
convexity of the ball does not .exceed the furface of
head j convex, when the convexity projedls beyond
6i)'
this furface: falient, when the eyes are very promi- Anatomy
/ J of 1* ifties.
nent. * _ . v J
The branchial opercles, are fcaly or bony proceffes, granrh;ai
fituated on both fides of the head, behind the eyes, 0percles.
clofing the aperture of the gills, and fuftaining the
branchial membrane. They are termed fimple, when
compofed of a fingle piece j diphyllous, triphyllous, or
tetraphyllous, when confifting of two, three, or four
pieces 3 flexile, or foft, when they can be ealily bent 3
fub-arcuated, when the pofterior margin is rounded 3
flflulous, when the branchial opening ieems to be exca-
vated out of the fubftance of the opercula 3 acuminated,
wdien the hinder plate runs out into a ftiarp procefs 3
ciliated, when the pofterior margin is iringed, or fet
with membranous fetaceous appendagesfrenated, or
bridled, when connected with the body by means of a
membrane 3 fcabrous, when their furface is covered
with afperities 3 flmated, when marked with hollow
and nearly parallel lines 3 radiated, when the lines run
like rays, from the centre to the edge 3 graved, when
the lines appear in no regular order 3 aculeated, when
the pofterior margin is terminated by one or more
fpines 3 ferrated, when it is cut like the teeth of a faw;
fcaly, when the furface of the opercles is covered with
fcabs.
The branchial, or branchioflegous tnernbrane, is a true And me re¬
fill, formed of cartilaginous crooked bones, joined by abrane.
thin membrane, lurking under the opercula, to which
it adheres, and is capable of being folded or expanded,
as neceflity requires. This membrane is faid to be pa¬
tent, wTen it proje&s beyond the margin of the oper¬
cula 3 retrdBed or latent, wdien it is concealed under
them 3 covered, when concealed under them, yet fo as
to be vifible wdthout hurting them.
The aperture of the gills, is a cleft commonly lateral,
which opens between the opercula and the trunk, by
means of the gills. It is arcuated, or arched, when it
reprefents a crefcent 3 operciliated, when quite covered
by the opercula ; pipe-Jhaped, when in the form of a
tube. Its place, in fome of the cartilaginous fpecies, is
fupplied by vents, or /piracies, which are either round,
arched, lateral, ox inferior, i. e. placed underneath the
body.
The nape is the hind and terminating part of the
head, which is attached to the firft: vertebra of the
trunk, in the region of the gills. It is cannated, when
its furface is lharply angulated 3 plane, wdien flat, and
on a level with the body 3 and falcated, when ridged or
farrowed.
2. The TRUNK is that part of the body, which ex-The trunk,
tends from the nape and branchial aperture, to the ex¬
tremity of the tail. It comprehends the gills, throat,
thorax, back, fides, abdomen,. lateral line, anus, tail,
and feales.
The gills, or hranchice, confift, for the moft part, of
four crooked, parallel,- unequal bones, furnifhed, on the
outer or convex part, with fmall foft appendages, like
the beards of a feather, and generally of a red colour.
rY\\e.y arc aculeated, when the-concave or interior part
has fpines imtead of tubercles 3 anomalous, when fome
are ciliated, others tuberculated, or of a different ftruc-
ture : denuded, when wanting opercles. the brancWi-
oftegous membrane, or both 3 peEiinated, when the con¬
vex or exterior part, towards the branchial aperture,
ICHTHYOLOG Y
70 I C H T H Y
.Anatomy Js fuimdied with red letaceoits rays, or lamellae ; vohh-
or l-iihcs. drawn, vvhen not confpicuous, lying nearer the throat
than the aperture ; fimp/e, when furnilhed either with
filaments or tubercles 5 approaching, when they corre-
Ipond to the fame aperture.
J he throat is that part which correfponds to the
branchial apertures, and is placed between them. It is
/welling, when it exceeds the level of the body and the
head j cannated, when angulated underneath j plane,
■when on a level with the thorax and head.
The thorax is that part which begins at the extre¬
mity of the throat, and is terminated by a line drawn
to the infertion of the peftoral fins.
The back is the upper part of the trunk, extending
from the nape to the origin of the tail. It is aptery-
gwus, without fins 5 tnonopterygious, dipterygious, &c.
with one, or two fins; convex, higher in the middle
than toward the fiides ; ferrated, having a deep longitu¬
dinal furrow for the fame purpofe.
The fides are that part of the trunk, wdiich reaches
from the gills to the anus, between the back and the
abdomen. They are fometimes marked with zones,
lines, fpots, or points.
The abdomen is the under part of the trunk, between
the pollerior extremity of the thorax and the origin of
the tail. It is cannated, or acute through its length j
ferrated, wdien the fcales forming the carina are difpo-
fed like the teeth of a faw j plane, when without pro¬
minence or depreffion.
The lateral line ufually commences at the extremity
of the branchial opercles, runs along the fides, and
terminates at the caudal fin. It is formed by lines,
dots, or fmall tubercles. It is flraight, when it pre-
ients no inllexion through its length •, curved, when it
inclines to the back or belly •, broken, when divided
into turn or more parts, which follow different direc¬
tions ; obliterated, w-hen fcarcely perceptible 5 double,
when there are two on each fide *, fmooth, when with¬
out prickles or tubercles j aculeated, w’hen furniffied
with fpines j defeending, when it runs obliquely from
the head to the tail j inferior, when fituated ©n the
low er part of the fide j loricated, or mailed, when rough
with fmall bones, or hard fcaly tubercles $ mean, when
fituated in the middle of the fide ; obfolete, when near¬
ly effaced ; porous, when punftured with fmall holes j
Jinuous, when bent in a waving line j folitary, when
there is one line on each fide 5 fuperior, when on the
upper part of the fide, near the back j banded, when
covered with a longitudinal zone, coloured or filvery.
The anus is the external orifice of the re&um. It
is jugular, when fituated under the branchial opercles •,
peBoral, when under the gills 5 mean, when equally
removed from the head and the extremity of the tail 5
remote, when near the tail.
The tail is the folid part of the trunk, which it ter¬
minates, being fituated behind the anus. It is round,
as in the lamprey and eels 5 carinated, when its furface
prefents fome fharp angle; muricated, when befet with
fpines or tubercles j apterygious, w’hen deftitute of fins j
dipterygious, when the fin is divided at the bafe.
The fcales are pellucid, cartilaginous, or horny te¬
guments, which ufually cover the trunk. They are
oval, when one extremity is rounded, and larger than
the other, orbiculate, wrhen nearly round j fmooth, wheti
2
O L O G Y. Chap. II.
deftitute of fenlible angles or afperities ; ciliated, when An .tomy
the margin is fet with fetaceous proceffes j ferrated, Fifties,
when the margin is toothed like a faw 5 imbricated, v
when the fcales partly cover one another, like tiles on
a roof J rare, when fenfibly feparated from one ano¬
ther 5 deciduous, when they eafily fall off j tenacious,
w'hen they are detached with difficulty 5 remote, when
feparated from one another j verticillate, w'ben furround¬
ing the body in rings.
3. The fins contift of feveral rays conne&ed by a Fins,
tender film, or membrane j and they are raifed, ex¬
panded, or moved in various direfftions, by means of
appropriate mufcles. The rays of the fins are either
jointed and flexible fmall bones, whole extremity is of¬
ten divided into two parts 5 or hard and prickly, without
divifion at the extremity. In fame cafes, thofe on the
back of the fifti are furnifhed with membranaceous ap¬
pendages, Ample, or palmated, and adhering to the apex
or fides.—The fins, according to their pofition, are de¬
nominated dorfal, peBoral, ventral, anal, or caudal.
The dorfal fins are fituated on the upper part of the
body, between the head and the tail. Their number
varies from one to three, and fo gives rife to the epi¬
thets monopterygious, dipterygious, and tripterygious. If
the back has no fin, it is faid to be apterygious. The
form, fize, and fituation of the dorfal fins have like-
wife fuggelled various technical appellations j but few
of thefe require to be particularly defined. We fhall
notice, therefore, only the flefhy, which are covered
w-ith a thick fkin, or mufcular fubftance ; and the ra-
mentaceous, which are furnifhed with membranaceous
or filamentous appendages.
The peBoral fins are fituated on each fide, about the
aperture of the gills. In fome fpecies, they are want¬
ing ; in others, fohtary, or one on each fide ; in a few
they are double, i. e. two on each fide; in fome, they
are falcated, or arched above, and concave below.
The ventral or inferior fins are always placed on
the under part of the fifh ; but at a greater diftance
from the mouth. They are abdominal, when placed in
the belly, behind the pe&oral fins, and not fixed in the
fternum, but in the offa pelvis j difform, when they
have a fpine or cirrhus, befides the oflicles 5 jugular,
when placed under the throat before the peftoral fins,
and fixed to the clavicles j multiradiated, when they
have feveral rays, though feldom exceeding feven j tho¬
racic, when placed under the pe&oral fins, often a lit¬
tle behind them, but always fixed to the fternum.
The anal fin is placed between the anus and the cau¬
dal fin. It is bifurcated, or two-forked, when the ofli¬
cles in the middle are fhorteft 5 coalefcing, when united
with the caudal fin j longitudinal, when it extends from
the anus to the tail j poferior, wrhen placed at the end
of the tail, near the caudal fin.
The caudal fin is fituated vertically, at the extremi¬
ty of the body. It is equal, or entire, when its rays
are of equal length; lanceolated, when the rays in the
middle are longer than the others ; cmarginale, when
they are fhorter than the others ■, bifid, when they are
very fhort; trifid, when the fin is divided into three
lobes} coalefcing, wrhen united with the dorfal and anal
fins 5 cufpidated, when attenuated at the apex, or ter*,
minating in a fetaceous point j fetiferous, when a fili¬
form appendage proceeds from the divifion.
Internal
Chap. II.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Anatomy
of Fithes.
Internal Parts.
Anatomy
of Fifhes,
Skeleton.
I. The SKELETON of a fiih is the aflemblage of bones
which conftitutes the frame-work of its body. The
number of thefe bones is not uniform in each indivi¬
dual, but varies according to age and fpecies. They
may be conveniently divided into thofe of the head,
thorax, abdomen, and fins.
The head contains a confiderable number of bones j
that of the perch, for example, has eighty. As the
limited nature of our plan precludes minute fpecifica-
tion, we fhall only indicate a few of the moft impor¬
tant. The Jhull covers the whole head, its fides fre¬
quently forming the fockets of the '..yes, the temples,
and the cheeks. The upper and lower jaw-bones are
placed on the fore part of the head. The upper is
more or lefs of an arched form. In fome filhes it is
wanting, and its place fupplied by a portion of the
fkull. The lower jaw is ufually arched or triangular,
and its length regulates that of the fnout, or roltrum.
The bones of the palate are,'Tor the moft part, four, viz.
two on each fide of the fauces, oval, and nearly plane,
often crowded with teeth, or rough with tubercles, or
furrowed tranfverfely, the bafe of the one conneifted
with the apex of the other. The gills are attached to
thefe officles on each fide by a cartilage. The opercu¬
lar bones are fituated at the hind part of the jaws, on
each fide of the head, and behind the eyes. In fome
fpecies, they form a part of the upper jaw. The hyoid
bone is an oflicle fituated between the two fides of the
lower jaw, ferving as a bafis for the tongue, prefenting
the figure of a V, and occafionally furnilhed with a
hook.
The thorax is a cavity principally formed by the
vertebrae, the fternum, the clavicles, and the fcapulae.
The vertebree form the back-bone, which reaches from
the Ikull to the extremity of the tail. They are ftrong-
er and thicker towards the head, and grow weaker and
more llender towards the tail. Each fpecies has a de¬
terminate number of vertebrae, which grow with the
body. They are furnilhed with tranfverfe and fpiny
p roc dies, the former of which are marked by tranfverfe
lines, by the number of which, it is fuppofed, the age
of fifties may be known. The fpinal marrow is con¬
tained .in the canal which pafles through the vertebra?.
The Jle mum in filhes is not cartilaginous, as in other
animals, but always bony. Its form varies confider-
ably, being fometimes triangular, fometimes rounded
before, and pointed behind, but moft frequently of a
rhomboidal figure. It occupies the fore part of the
thorax, and clofes that cavity. The clavicles are two
bones fituated tranfverfely behind the openinp- of the
gills 5 and are fometimes formed by two officles united.
1 hey are attached to the firft vertebra. Thefcapulce
are two flat, rhomboidal, or arched bones, fituated on
the lateral fide of the body, under the polterior margin
of the clavicles, and ferving as a bafe to the peftoral
fins. \\ hen the fcapulae are wanting, the pe&oral fins
are attached to the fternum, or to the margin of the
clavicles.
^ I he abdomen forms a cavity always largefr than that
of the thorax, extending from the extremity of the
latter to the anus. It is encompaffed by the ribs
and the ojja pelvis. The ribs are bony arches,
fituated obliquely on the lateral parts of the abdomen,
having their upper extremity articulated with the ex¬
tremity of the tranfverfe procelfes of the vertebrae.
Their number is very variable. In thofe fpecies which
are without ribs, the abfence of the latter is compen-
fated by the length and dire&ion of the tranfverfe pro-
cefies of the vertebrae. The ojfa pelvis are two bones
which defend the vifeera contained in the abdomen.
The ventral fins are ufually attached to their pofterior
margin. When thefe fins are wanting, or when they
are attached under the throat, or on the thorax, the
ojfa pelvis are alfo wanting. The tail is compofed of
certain bones, which terminate the vertebral columm
The proceffes of each vertebra of the tail are incident
to great variety in refpeft of number and dimenfions.
The fins are formed of a certain number, of ofiicles,
connefted to one another by firm membranes. The
dorfal and anal fins are fupported by the inter-fipinous
bones [ojfa interfipinofa), which lie between the pointed
procefles of the vertebrae, and are connefted with them
by a ligament. The rays of the anal fin have nearly
the fame conformation as thofe of the dorfal.
2. The muscles are an affemblage of fmall bundles ofMufcley
fldhy fibres, partly red, and partly whitilh, enveloped
in a common membrane. The firft of thefe is called
the fitjhij portion of the mufclc, the fecond, the tendon.
Each mufcle thus compofed, is fufceptible of contrac¬
tion and dilatation. The former is accompanied by
a vJfible fwelling, hardening, wrinkling, and ftiorten-
ing of the mufcle, and the latter by its elongation, ex-
panfion, and recovery of its former foftnefs and flexi¬
bility. Its force, in general, depends on the quantity
of fibrous matter which enters into its compofition, and
its moving power on the length and fize of the fibres.
The mulcles vary much in refpett of number, fize, and
fituation. There are two which proceed from the head
to the tail, along the fides of the body, and thence de¬
nominated lateral mufcles. Each of thefe feems to be
compofed of feveral tranfverfe mufcles, which are fimi-
lar and parallel. There are four fituated at the cau¬
dal fin, namely, three fuperior, and one inferior. Of
the two former, one is flraight, and two are oblique.
The fourth occupies the half of the lower extremity of
the tail. There are likewife four at each pettoral fin,,
namely, two ereflors and two deprejfors ; the two former
fituated on the external furface of the clavicles and
fcapulae, and the two latter under thefe parts. Each
ventral fin has three mufcles, one creftor and two de-
preflors ; the firft placed over the whole external fur-
face of the os pelvis, and the two latter on the internal
furface of the fame part. The carinal mufcles of the
back and tail are flender, and clofely united, occupy¬
ing the fpace that is left between the lateral mufcles.
Their number is always proportioned to that of the
dorfal fins. Fifties, for example, which have no dorfal
fin, ha%re but one pair of carinal mufcles, thofe which
have one dorfal fin, have two pairs, and thofe which
have two dorfal fins, have three pairs, viz. one pair
between the firft and fecond fin, another between the
two fins, and a third between the fecond dorfal and the
caudal fin. The proper inter-fpinous mufcles are thofe
whofe office it is to raife or deprefs the dorfal and anal
fins. Each inter-fpinous ray is furniihed with four,
two ereftors, and two depreflbrs. The dilating niufcle
of the branchioftegous membrane is fmall, and attached
by its anterior extremity, partly under the angle of the
lower
71
72 T C II T II V
Anatotny lovi’er jaw, aiid partly to the Tides of the os pelvis. It
/)F ^;u‘es- is fixed to the branchial membrane by as many tendons
as there are tendons in the membrane.
Brain and 3. Organs and VISCERA.—The brain of fifhes is a
other or- very fmall organ, relative to the fize of the head. It is
6 divided into three equal lobes, of which the two an¬
terior are contiguous j the third being placed behind,
and forming the cerebellum. Thefe thiee lobes are
furrounded by k frothy matter, refembling faliva. In
this region the optic and olfactory nerves are eafily
difeovered.
The ce/bp/irtgus, or gullet, begins at the bottom of the
throat, and defeends, in a ftraight line, to the upper
orifice of the ftomach. It is membranous, fmooth, and
lined with a mucous humour.
TheJiomach is a membranous fack, fometimes cylin¬
drical or fpherical, and fometimes divided into two
lobes.
The fwimming, or air-bladder, or found, is an ob¬
long, white, membranous bag, fometimes cylindrical,
fometimes elliptical, and fometimes divided into two
or three lobes, of different lengths. It is ufually fitu-
ated between, the vertebrae and the ftomach, and in¬
cluded within the peritonceum. In fome fillies it com¬
municates with the ftomach, and in others, with the
oefophagus. The flat fifhes are unprovided with this
organ.
'the intejlines, which i* man are placed tranfverfely,
have a longitudinal pofition in fifhes, and are all con-
nefled with the fubftance of the liver. They are in
general very fhort, making only three turns, the laft
of which terminates in a common outlet or vent. The
appendices, or fecondary inteftines, are very numerous,
compofing a groupe of worm-like proceffes, all ulti¬
mately terminating in two large canals, opening into
the fir ft inteftine, into which they difeharge their pe¬
culiar fluid.
The liver is commonly of a yellowifh colour. It is
lituated on the right or left fide, or in the anterior
region of the abdomen, of whofe cavity it fills about
two thirds. It is fometimes fimple, and fometimes di¬
vided into two, three, or more lobes. It ufually con¬
tains a large portion of oil or fat.
The gall-bladder is oval or oblong, and lies under the
right fide of the liver. It communicates with the
ftomach or the inteftines, by means of the cyftic duff:
and the choledochic canal.
The fpleen varies in form and pofition. Sometimes
it is all of a piece 5 fometimes divided into many lobes,
which adhere only by very ilender filaments. In fome
individuals it is black, in others it has the red hue of
clotted blood. It is placed near the backbone, and at
,a place where it is fubjeft to an alternate conftri&ion
and dilatation, from the preffureof the air-bag, which is
fituated in its neighbourhood.
Aim oft all fifhes are provided with the urinary blad¬
der. Its form is nearly oval. It terminates under the
tail; and has no communication wuth the reBum.
The kidneys are two flat bodies, of a pyramidal form,
as long as the abdomen, and of a reddifh colour. They
are attached to the vertebrae, feparated from the cavity
of the abdomen by the peritonceum, and frequently pro¬
longed from the diaphragm to the region of the uri¬
nary bladder.
The diaphragm is a wdfite and fhining membrane-
3
O L O G Y, Chap. It.
which feparates the thorax from the abdomen. This Anatomy
partition is partly fiefhy and partly tendinous. Hfhes
“1 he peritonaeum, or membrane irfveiling the con- * ~ 1 *
tents of the abdomen, is thin and of a blackifh colour.
The ova, in the females, are difpofed into two large
oblong bodies, one on each fide of the abdomen *, and
the milt or foft-roe, in the male, appears in a fimilar
form in the fame part.
The pericardium is a fmall bag which contains the
heart.
The heart is a vifeus fituated on the fiernum, under
the pofterior gills. It varies confiderably in form, be¬
ing fometimes flat, frequently triangular or pyramidal,
&c. Its politic* is not tranfverie, as Artedi has al¬
leged, but longitudinal, as in quadrupeds. It confifts
of one ventricle and one auricle. The fides of the
former are rugofe, and exhibit many fmall cavities.
The latter is a very flender mufcular bag, with a larger
cavity than that of the ventricle, and forming the com¬
munication betu-een the heart and
The venous Jinus. The capacity of this laft is ftili
greater than that of the auricle. Its poiition is tranf-
verfe, correfponding to that of the diaphragm. It com¬
municates v.'ith the auricle by a large aperture, and
receives at the other end three large trunks of veins.
The aorta is an artery attached to the apex of the
heart, and fending out numberlefs branches to the gills,
on which it is fubdivided into ramifications fo minute as
to efcape the eye unlefs aflifted by a glafs.
The blood of fifhes is red, and the red particles are
not round as in the mammalia, but oval as in the am¬
phibia.
Dr Monro’s elaborate defeription of the abforbent
fujlem in fifhes, is thus (fated by Dr Shaw in the fenirth
volume of his General Zoology.
“ On the middle of the belly, immediately below
the outer Ikin, a lymphatic veffel runs upw-ards from
the vent, and receives branches from the Tides of the
belly and the fin below the vent ; near the head this
lymphatic paffes between the tw?o pe<ftoral fins, and
having got above them, receives their lymphatics: it.
then goes under the jun<fture of the tw-o bones which
form the thorax, where it opens into a network of very
large lymphatics wdiich lie clofe to the pericardium,
and almoft furrounds the heart : this net-work, befides
that part of it behind the heart, has a large lymphatic
on each fide, which receives others from the kidney,
runs upon the bone of the thorax backwards, and when
it has got as far as the middle of that bone, fends off a
large branch from its infide to join the thoracic du<ft ;
after detaching this branch, it is joined by the lympha¬
tics of the thoracic fins, and foon after by a lymphatic
which runs upon the fide of the fifh j it is formed of
branches, which give it a beautiful penniform appear¬
ance. Befides thefe branches, there is another fet lying
deeper, which accompanies the ribs ; after the large
lymphatic has been joined by the above-mentioned vef-
lels, it receives others from the gills, orbit, nofe, and
mouth : a little tjelow the orbit another net-work ap¬
pears, confifting in part of the veffels above deferibed,
and of the thoracic duff:: this net-work is very com¬
plete, fome of its veffels lying on each fide the mufcles
of the gills, and from its internal part a trunk is fent
out, which terminates in the jugular vein.
“ The laffeals run on each fide of the mefenteric ar¬
teries,
Chap. III.
Phyfiology teries, anaflomoilng frequently acrofs thofe veffels : the
I ^ receptacle into which they enter is very large in pro-
trf FiXef5 Port*on to them, and confilhs at its lower part of two
’ - y—- ■ branches, one of which lies betw-een the duodenum
and the Itomach, and runs a little w’ay upon the pan¬
creas, receiving the lymphatics of the liver, pancreas,
lower part of the ilomach, and the lacfeals from the
greatefl part of the fmall intelfines ; the other branch
of the receptacle receives the lymphatics from the reft
of the alimentary canal. The receptacle formed by
thefe. two branches lies on the right fide of the upper
part of the Itomach, and is joined by fome lymphatics
in that part, and allb by fome from the found and gall¬
bladder : the thoracic du£l takes its rife from the re¬
ceptacle, and lies on the right fide of the oefophagus,
receiving lymphatics from that part ; and running up.
about half an inch, divides into two dubts, one of
which paffes over the oefophagus to the left fide, and
the other goes ftrait upon the right fide, palTmg by the
upper part of the kidney, from which it receives fome
fmall branches, and foon afterwards is joined by a
branch from the large lymphatic that lies above the
bone of the thorax, as formerly mentioned : near this
part it likewife fends off a branch to join the dudf of
the oppofite fide •, and then, a little higher, is joined
by thofe large lymphatics from the upper part of the
gills and from the fauces.
“ The. thoracic du£t, after being joined by thefe
73
veffels, communicates with the net-work near the orbit, Fhyfio'ogy
where its lymph is mixed with that of the lymphatics Haj\n,C^f|es
from the polterior part of the gills, and from the fupe- of p-£jies_
rior fins,, belly, &c. and then from this net-wrork a vel- y—j
fel goes into the jugular vein juit below the orbit.
This laif vefl’el, which may be called the termination
of the whole fyltem, is very fmall in proportion to the
net-work from which it rifes •, and indeed the lymphatics
of the part are lo large as to exceed by far the fize of
the fanguiferous velTels.
“ The thoracic duft from the left fide, having palled
under the oefophagus from the right, runs on the iniide
of the vena cava of the left fide, receives a branch
from its fellow' of the oppofite fide, and joins the large
lymphatics which lie on the left fide of the pericardium,
and a part of thofe which lie behind the heart, and
afterwards makes, together with the lymphatics from
the gills, upper fins, and fide of the filh, a net-work,
from which a veiTel paffes. into the jugular vein of this
fide : in a word, the lymphatics of the left fide agree
exaflly with thofe of the right. Another part of the
fyilem is more deeply feated, lying between the roots
of the fpinal proceffes of the back-bone. This part
confitls of a large trunk that begins from the low'er
part of the filh, and as it afcends receives branches
from the dorfal fins and adjacent parts*t>f the body : it
goes up near the head, and fends a branch to each,
thotacic du6t near its origin.”
ICHTHYOLOGY.
CHAP. III. PHYSIOLOGY AND HABITUDES OF FISHES.
MOST of the obfervations which belong to this fac¬
tion may be referred to the general topics of refpiration,
externalfenfes, motion, nouriJJ.ment, reproduBion, and
duration.
i. Refpiration.
ileTpiration This important animal function is performed, in
performed fi{iies> by
means of gills, which fupply the place of
J&1 c‘ lungs. Though all fillies live in water, the prefence of
air is not lefs neceffary to their exiftence than to our
own. If a carp, for example, be put into a large vale
of water, from ivhich the air is extracted by the air-
pump, a number of bubbles are obfervable on the fur-
face of the filh’s body ; foon after, the animal breathes
fwifter and with greater difficulty; it then rifes to the
furface to get more air j the bubbles on its furface be¬
gin to difappear ; next, the belly, wdiich was fwollen,
will fuddenly fall, and the fiffi fink to the bottom, con-
vulfed and expiring. For the fame reafon, if the ex¬
ternal air be excluded from a fmall pond by a fufficient
and durable covering of ice, the filh within it will be
killed : or if a hole be made in the ice, before it be too
late, they will all come near it for a frefli fupply of
air. In ordinary cafes, a filh in the water firft receives
a quantity of that element by the mouth, from which
it is driven to the gills $ thefe clofe, and prevent the
water fo fwrallow'ed from returning by the mouth, at
the fame time that their bony covering prevents it”
from palling through them, until the proper quantity
of air has been drawn from it. The covers then open,
and give it a free paffage : by which means the gills al¬
lb are again opened, and admit a freffi body of water.
Vol. XI. Part I.
Should the free play of the gills be fufpended, or their
covers kept from moving, by a firing tied round them,
the filh would foon fall into convulfions, and die in a
few minutes. Though the branchial apparatus be conq-
prifed in a fmall compafs, its furface, if fully extended,
would occupy a very confiderable fpace, fince that of the
common Ikate is equal to the furface of the human body.
This fingle fa£l may convince us of the numberlefs con¬
volutions and ramifications in which the included water
is elaborated and attenuated in the courfe of giving out
its air in the refpiratory procefs. This procefs, in filhes,
as in the human fubjedl, is carried on during fleep, and
is repeated about twenty-five times in a minute.
Atmofpheric air, though in fmall quantities, is GJiange
thus imparted to the blood at the ramifications of produced
the gills, without, however, depriving it of a large h on the
lhare of the hydrogenated and carbonized fubllances air‘
furniffied by the aliments; and, confequently, without
communicating to it fo much of the vermilion tinge as
is obfervable in warm-blooded animals with lungs.
Hence the oily quality of the blood of fiffies, and the
greafy congeftions which take place in their livers, and
in the abdominal regions of animals whofe refpiration is
flaw or fcanty. The aft of breathing is, in reality,
a fpecies of combuflion; and the temperature of animals
in whofe fyflem this combuftion is imperfeftly perform¬
ed, is neceffarily low. As that of fiffies is little elevated
above the mean temperature of water, fome fpecies, as
eels and gudgeons, are occafionally benumbed by the
winter’s cold, and remain concealed in the mud or
fand, without motion, food, or breathing, till the
warmth of fpring roufes them from their torpor, As
K the
74
Fhyfio'ogy
und
Habitudes
of Fi(hec.
Senfe of
feeing.
I C H T H Y
tlie bottom of the fea, however, probably preferves a
pretty equal degree of heat at all times, the myriad
tribes which inhabit it are permanently fecured again!!
the inclemency of the feafon. The tardy circulation
of the blood in filhes may likewife, in fome meafure,
depend on their mode of refpiration. The heart of the
carp contradls only thirty-fix times in the courfe of a
minute, or about half as often as that of a man. In
the carnivorous Ipecies of fifties, as the ftiark, pike, fal-
mon, &c. the heart is comparatively larger, the circu¬
lation more rapid, and the breathing more powerful.
Active, robuft, and courageous, they are alfo lefs en¬
cumbered wuth fat, and their liver is lefs bulky than in
the other fpecies. It deferves to be remarked, how'
ever, that the blood in fifties, after being thrown by the
heart into the ramifications of the gills, is colledted a-
gain by a vaft number of fmall veins, fomewhat in the
lame manner as in the mammalia j but inllead of re¬
turning to the heart agaip, thefe veffels unite and form
a defeending aorta, without the intervention of an auri¬
cle and ventricle, a circumftance which may alfo ma¬
terially contribute to the flownefs of the circulation.
For fome time it was believed, that the cartilaginous
fifties were provided with internal lungs, an idea which
has been abandoned by later phyfiologifts, who have
proved, that the fuppofed lungs are only a peculiar
modification of gills. To the want of lungs we may
aferibe the w7ant of voice : for, though fome kinds of
fifties, as thofe of the genus balifies, when feized, dif-
charge a quantity of air and wrnter with a ruffling noife,
and the rubbing of the fins on the feales fometimes pro¬
duces an indiftinc! rattling found ; yet both are very
different from any thing like audible language that can
be underftood among the individuals of a fpecies.
2. External Senfes.
That fifties poiTefs the faculty of feting, is evident
from the accuracy with which they diredl their motions
to the objefls of their purfuit. Their organs of vifion,
too, are admirably adapted to the circumffances of their
condition. As their eyes are not placed in the fore¬
part, but in the fides of the head, they cannot look, at
the fame time, with both on one objedl, fo convenient¬
ly as quadrupeds. Their optic nerves, accordingly, are
not confounded with one another, in their middle pro-
grefs betwixt their origin and the orbit, but the one
pafles over the other without any communication 5 fo
that the nerve which comes from the left fide of the
brain, goes diftinftly to the right eye, and vice verfa.
As fifties are continually expofed to injuries in the un¬
certain element in which they refide, and as they are in
perpetual danger of becoming a prey to the larger ones,
it was neceffary that their eyes fhould never be ftiut 5
and as the cornea is fufficiently waftied by the element
in which they live, they are not provided with eye-lids *,
yet, as in the current itfelf, the eye muff be expofed to
feveral injuries, it is defended by a firm pellucid mem¬
brane, being a continuation of the fame tranfparent
cuticle which covers the ref! of the head, and which,
being infenfible and deftitute of velfels, is not liable to
obflrudlions and opakenefs. We may likewife obferve,
that the optic nerve and cryftalline lens are larger than
in other animals, that the choroides is compofed of two
feparate membranes, and that all thefe parts are difte-
rently modified and arranged, according to the manners
O L O G Y. Chap. III.
and habits of different fpecies. Thofe filhes which un- t’lvyfiology
dertake long voyages, and traverfe much fpace in a ^
ihort time, as the trout, falmon, falvelin, &c. have the 0f p[(liec
conformation of the eye like that of birds ; whofe fight >—■ j
is very acute. Were we, indeed, to form our judge¬
ment of the power of vifion in fifties merely from the
external appearance of their eyes, we lliould conclude,
that it is far from perfedf, and that the fmall convexity
of the cornea would occafion very little refra&ion in
the rays of light 5 but this defedl is fufficiently com-
penfated by the llrufture of the cryftalline lens, which
is almoft fpherical, and more denfe than, in terreftrial ani¬
mals. In its natural ftate, it is tranfparent, and not
much harder than a jelly *, and it forms that little hard
pea-like fubftance which is found in the eyes of fifties
after boiling. As the rays fall on this convex humour,
undergo a powerful refraflion, gradually approach one
another, and unite at the axis of the eye, where they
form their impreflions. In moft fifties the eyes are
naked 5 but thofe of the !kate tribe are diftinguiflied
by a digitated curtain, which hangs over the pupil,
and which may exclude the light when the animal
refls; and, in the genera Gadus and B/ennhts, the
eyes are covered with an internal nictitating mem¬
brane.
That fifties poffefs the fenfe of hearing, has been al- Hearing,
ternately maintained and denied by the moft celebrated
naturalifts, fince the days of Ariftotle. Among the
moderns, Artedi, Linnaeus, and Govan have contended
for the non-exiftence of this faculty, although fome
very ordinary fafts naturally lead to an oppofite con-
clufion. It is well known that fifties are affedted by
noife, and that they feem to be alarmed at loud ex-
plolions. On the coaft of Brittany, they are frequent¬
ly chafed into nets by the found of a drum 5 in China,
by that of the tam-tam ; and in ponds, they have been
taught to affemble at the ringing of a bell. Thefe
founds, however, it has been alleged, produce certain
changes or vibrations in the water, which are feen by
the animals, or wfiich affedl them in fome way diffe¬
rent from adling on the organ of hearing, an organ
which naturalifts and anatomifts had long laboured in
vain to difeover. As the eruptions of Etna are fome¬
times felt at Malta, and an earthquake will fometimes
vifibly agitate the fea, at the diftance of many leagues,
it is fuppofed that fmaller commotions in the atmofphere
may communicate fimilar impreflions to the finny tribes,
independently of the medium of hearing. The labo¬
rious Klein fpared no pains in fearching for fome hid¬
den organ, by which he hoped to demonftrate that
fifties are not more deftitute of the faculty of hearing
than other animals; but though his inveftigations proved
fruitlefs, wre are indebted to him for many curious ob-
fervations on the number and figure of the fmall bones
which are to be found in the head of various fpecies.
Geoffroi alfo made fome important difeoveries, but
without arriving at decifive refults. At length, the
abbe Nollet proved, that water is a condudlor of found,
and that even the tones and articulation of the human
voice may be tranfmitted through its medium. All
that now remained to fet the queftion completely at
reft, was to detedl the parts of the auditory organ in
fifties, and thefe the celebrated Camper has diflindlly
revealed in confequence of numerous diffe£lions. For
his particular defeription of the figure and mechanifm
Chap III. ICHTHYOLOG Y.
Pbyfiology 0f the whole apparatus, we muft refer our readers to
bitudes ^ ^event^ volume of the Harlem Memoirs, and to a
of Fiihe' PaPer which he has inferted in one of the volumes of
■ the 'Journal des Spavans Etrangers. Suffice it for the
prefent to note, that this curious organ is contained in
the cavity of the head, and that it confifts of three fe-
micircular, cartilaginous canals, and an elaftic bag,
which includes one or two very moveable officles, float¬
ing in a jelly more or lefs thick, and flightly adhering
to the contiguous parts. The moment that the vibra¬
tion of the water, which is analogous to that of the air,
is communicated to the filli’s head, the impreffion is
tranfmitted to the officles, which, afting in the ratio
of their mafs multiplied by the force of the impulfe,
impart their movement to the whole of the elaftic bag
and to the femicircular canals. The fentient principle
is more or lefs alive to the aflion of the officles on the
nerves, that is to fay, in Camper’s own language,
“ that the fifh perceives found, but found peculiar to
the watery element.” Hunter, who obferved the fame
organs in the head of fifties,, remarks that their ftru&ure
varies in different fpecies. His minute and ingenious
obfervations on this fubjecft are publilhed in the 77th
volume of the Philofophical Tranfaftions. “ Fifties,
particularly of the fkate kind, (fays Dr Shaw) have a
bag at fome diftance behind the eyes, which contains a
fluid, and a foft cretaceous fubftance, and fupplies the
place of the veftibule and cochlea : there is a nerve dif-
tributed upon it, fimilar to the portio ?nollis in man :
they have femicircular canals, vrhich are filled with a
fluid, and communicate with the bag : they have like-
wife a meatus externus, wffiich leads to the internal ear.
The cod-fifti, and others of the fame fliape, have an or¬
gan of hearing fomewhat fimilar to the former j but in-
ftead of a foft fubftance contained in the bag, there is
a hard cretaceous ftone.”
Touch. 'J'he fenfe of touch is probably very imperfe£t in
fifties, becaufe it refults from the contadl and immediate
application of the furface of fome objefl to that of the
animal, and all parts of the body are not equally fit to
be applied to the furface of foreign fubftances. The
hand alone, wffiich is divided into feveral flexible and
moveable parts, and is capable of being applied to dif¬
ferent portions of the fame furface, at the fame time,
feems peculiarly deftined to convey the ideas of fize
and form, and even it would ill difcharge fuch an office,
if its contatl with objefts ftiould be intercepted by any
intermediate fubftance, as hair, feathers, fliells, fcales,
&c. A rough and hard Ikin blunts the fenfe of touch,
wffiile a fine and delicate one renders it more lively and
exquifite. Hence, we may prefume, that fifties, which
are deftitute of palmated extremities, are incapable of
recognizing the forms of bodies. Befides, as they are
inverted with a rough fldn, which is frequently cover¬
ed with tubercles, or numberlefs fcales, they appear to
be unfufceptible of that delicacy of feeling which nature
has beftowed on many of the quadrupeds.
Take. Jn the mouth of man, and of thofe animals which
are endowed with fenfibility of tajle, there are number¬
lefs nervous papillae, large, porous, conftantly fupplied
with an abundance of lymph, and covered with a de¬
licate fkin, or inferted in (heaths of very unequal
■* lengths. The favorous matters are arrefted by thele
afperities, diluted by the lymph, and abforbed by the
pores, which convey them to the nervous papillae, on
wffiich they aft as ftimulants. The tongue is the pnn- Phyfiology
cipal feat of this fyftem of organs, and is extremely fuf- ^ uqV|
ceptible of impreffion, being compofed of fleftiy fibres, pj^Y
encompafled by a medullary tiffue. In fifties, how’ever, ' y——
few pores have been difcovered in the interior region of
the mouth, the lymph is conftantly carried off by the
paffage of the water, the tongue is fometimes imperfeft
and fometimes cartilaginous, and the palate is general¬
ly hard and bony. If to thefe circumftances we add
the w’ant of maftication, we may juftly infer, that fifties
are nearly deftitute of the difcriminating powers of
tafte. Accordingly, they are remarked for voracity,
rather than for particular relifties 5 and they will often
fwallowr fubftances which can afford them no nourifli-
ment.
The organ of fmelling, on the other hand, is large ; Smelling-
and the animals have a power of contrafting and dila¬
ting the entry to it as they have occafion. All have
one or more noftrils ; and even thofe which have not
the holes perceptible wffiffiout, yet have the proper for¬
mation of the bones for fmelling within. The olfac¬
tory nerves, wffiich are extended over the noftrils, are
probably the inftruments by which they are enabled to
diftinguiffi their food. A fifti will difcover a worm
that is throwm into the water, at a confiderable di¬
ftance ; and that this is not done by the eye, is irfrani-
feft from the confideration, that after the fame worm
has remained for fome time in the water, and loft its
fmell, no fifties will come near it 5 but if you make fe¬
veral little incifions into it, fo as to let out more of the
odoriferous effluvia, the creatures again approach it.
“ We may frequently obferve them, (fays the intelli¬
gent naturalift quoted above) allowing themfelves to be
carried down wdth the ftream, that they may afcend
again leifurely againft the current of the water; thus
the odoriferous particles fwimming in that medium, be¬
ing applied more forcibly to their organs of fmell, pro¬
duce a ftronger fenfation.”
3. Motion.
Mod fifties prefent us wdth the fame external form, Motions of
being (harp at either end, and fwelling in the middle, ^ies ex~
whereby they are enabled to traverfe their native fluid Tjmely ra“
with greater cafe and celerity. We wifely endeavour
to imitate this peculiar ftiape in the conftruftion of vef-
fels defigned to fail wdth the greateft fwiftnefs; yet, the
progrefs of a machine moved forward in the water by
human contrivance, is nothing to the rapidity of an
animal formed to refide in that element. The large
fifties are known to overtake a ftiip in full fail with the
greateft cafe to play round it, without effort, and to
outftrip it at pleafure. The flight of an arrow is not
more rapid than the darting of a tunny, a falmon, or a
gilt-head, through the water. It has been calculated
that a falmon w ill glide over 86,400 feet in an hour,
and 24 feet in a fecond, that it wdll advance more than
a degree of the meridian of the earth in a-day, and
make the tour of the w'orld in the courfe of fome
weeks. Every part of the body feems exerted in this
difpatch; the fins, the tail, and the motion of the
wffiole back-bone affift progreffion 5 and it is to that
flexibility of body which mocks the effort^ of art, that
fifties owre their great velocity.
The chief inftruments in a fifti’s motion are its fins, Inftruments
air-bladder, and tail. With at haft two pair, and threeof motion
K 2 Angle
76 I C H T H Y
Phyfiology fingle fins, it will migrate with great rapidity, and take
d voyages of a thouiand leagues in a feafon, without in-
of^Fifhe'5 dicating any vifible fymptoms of languor or _ fatigue.
‘ y ’■ But it does not always happen, that filhes w'bich have
the greatefl n '.mber of fins, have alfo the fwifteft mo¬
tion : the (hark, for example, which is reckoned one
of the fwifteft fwimmers, wants the ventral fins*, while
the haddock, which has its full complement of fins, is
more tardy in its progrefs.
The fins ferve not only to afiifi: the animal in pro-
grellion, but in riling or finking, in turning, or even
in leaping out of the water. I o anhver thefe purpofes,
the peftoral fins, like oars, ferve to pufh the animal
forward, and have, therefore, not unaptly, been com¬
pared to the wings of a bird. By their help and con¬
tinued motion, the flying-filh is fometimes feen to dart
out of the water, and to fiy above a hundred yards.
The pe&oral fins likewife ferve to balance the head,
when it is too large for the body, and prevent it Irom
tumbling prone to the bottom, as happens to large-headed
fillies, when the peftoral fins are cut off. 1 he ventral
fins, which lie flat in the water, in whatever fituation
the fifli may be, ferve rather to raife or deprefs the bo¬
dy, than to aflift its progreflive motion. The dorlal
fin a£ls as a poifer, in preferving the animal’s equili¬
brium, at the fame time that it aids the forward move¬
ment. The anal is defigned to maintain the vertical or
upright pofition of the body.
By means of the air-bladder, fiflies can increafe or
diminilh the fpecific gravity of their body. When
they contraff it, or prefs out the included air, by means
of the abdoqainal mufcles, the bulk of the body is di-
roinithed, its -weight in proportion to the wrater is in-
creafed, and the fi(h fwims eafily at a great depjth. On
relaxing the operation of the abdominal mufcles, the
fwimming-bladder again acquires its natural fize, the
body increafes in bulk, confequently becomes lighter,
and enables the fifli to fwim eafily near the furface. So
filhes which have no air-bladder, or thofe whofe blad¬
der has been injured, keep always at the bottom.
Laftly, the tail may be regarded as the dii effing
jnftrument of motion, to wdiich the fins are only fub-
fervient. To illuftrate all this by a Ample experiment
 If we take a live carp, and put it into a large veffel,
the fifli, wdien in a (late of repofe, wdll be feen to fpread
all its fins, and to reft on the peftoral and ventral near
the bottom ; and, if it fold up either of its pefforal fins,
it will incline to the fide on wdiich the folding takes
place. When it defires to have a retrograde motion,
ftriking with the pe&oral fins, in a contrary dire&ion,
effectually produces it. If it defires to turn, a blow
from the tail fends it about ; but if the tail ftrike both
ways, the motion is progreflive. If the dorfal and ven¬
tral fins be cut off, the fifli reels to the right and left,
and endeavours to fupply its lofs by keeping the reft of
its fins in conftant exercife. If the right pectoral fin
be cut off, the fifli leans to that fide j and, if the ven¬
tral fin on the fame fide be cut away, it lofes its equi¬
librium entirely'. When the tail is removed, the fifli
lofes all motion, and abandons itfelf to the impulfe of
$he water.
The (limy glutinous matter which is fecreted from
j.he pores of rooft fiflies, not only defends their bodies
from the immediate contaft of the furrounding fluid,
but facilitates their progreffive motion.
O L O G Y. Chap. TIT.
The pelagian tribes of fiflies, which traverfe large Phyfiology
portions of the ocean, as the falmon, tunny, and feveral ,, ,and
fpecies of conjpheena, gadus, Jparus, Jciarrw, 6ce. are o{; Fiaies_
furniflied with large and ftrong fins, to enable them to  ^——4
ftruggle againft large waves and rapid currents *, whereas
thofe which frequent the (bores and frefli waters have
their fins fmaller and weaker *, while thofe with foft fins
feldom expofe themfelves to the fury of the ftorm, and
confine themfelves to depths that are not affefted by
the molt impetuous winds, A more ample explanation
of thefe particulars will be found in Borelli’s work de
Mutu Animalium.
Notwithftanding the aftonifliing agility of their move¬
ments, fifties often remain in a ftate of inaftivity and
fupinenefs, till roufed by the calls of hunger or love,
or ftimulated by the dread of an approaching enemy.
The periodical and extenfive migrations of certain tribes
of filhes are not irreconcileable with this remark, fince
the v’ant of food, or the important occupation of breed¬
ing, may induce them to change their ftation. But we
cannot give implicit credit to the relations of thofe na-
turalifts, w’ho, copying from one another, affefl on this
fubjeft the language of wmnder and myftery. In re-Reputed
gard to the reputed migrations of immenfe fhoals ofm,£ration
herrings from the polar regions to the fouth of Europe,cloubte(1'
and which have been generally aferibed to the depre¬
dations of the cetaceous tribes, we may be allowed to
alk, w!hy thefe fmall fifties proceed feme hundred leagues
beyond the reach of their enemies, and why they re¬
turn in winter to the very haunts of their gigantic de-
ftroyers? If it be alledged, that thefe monftrous ani¬
mals drive them into bays and inlets j why do they
equally abound in the North fea and the Baltic,
which are not frequented by whales ? If mere want of
food compels the herrings to detach their crowded co¬
lonies *, how happens it that the migration always
takes place at the fame time, and at the fame feafon of
the year ? It is difficult to conceive, that their (lock
of provifions (hould regularly be exhaufted at the year’s
end? Belides, if the arctic pole be the native country
of the herrings, as has been ufually fuppofed, they (hould
make their appearance, like birds of paffage, in nume¬
rous troops at certain feafons, and very few or none
{hould be feen during the reft of the year. Yet it is
well known, that great quantities, of them are caught
in Norway, during the whole of dimmer; in the fame
country, and in Swedifti Pomerania, the filhery is very
produftive from January to March j on the c«aft of
Gothland, from O&ober to December; in.the north
of Holland, in February, March, and April; and in
Sweden, in the middle of winter. That part of the
migrating ffioal regularly directs its courfe to the coaft
of Iceland, is an affertion unfupportable by refpe&able
teftimony. Horrebow, who paffed fome years on that
iftand, affirms, that a fingle herring will fometimes not
be feen for many years; and Olaffsen, Atgidius, Otho-
Fabricius, and others, corroborate his affertions.
To account, then, for the movements of the herring,
cod, tunny, anchovy, &c. it is in vain to have recourfe
to the rapacity of the whale, or to the urgent preffure of
hunger ; and lead of all {hould we adopt the marvel¬
lous tales of periodical voyages, performed with the utmoft
order and exa&itude. M. Bloch explains in a mucl>
more fimple and natural manner the arrival and difap-
pearance of the refpe&ive (heals. According to him,
herrings
Chap. III. I C H T H Y
Phyho ogy herrings have the fame propenfity as other fifties, and
a.n(l ufually live in the depths of the water, till ftimulated
65 ^ t^ie ^e^re reproducing their fpecies. They then
■ of !'S' quit their retreat, and fuddenly appear in places where
they were not formerly feen : and, as the fpawning time
occurs fometimes fooner, and fometimes later, accord¬
ing to the temperature of the w’ater, and the age of the
fillies, w’e can eafily conceive why thofe fpecies which
are reputed migratory, ftiould be obferved at different
times. Thofe lea fifties which afcend rivers in fpring,
only return to their feveral haunts in autumn. The
herrings are, doubtlefs, guided by an analogous inftindf;
and if wre may be allowed to fuppofe, that they fome¬
times fpawn more than once in the courfe of the year,
we ftiall be at no lofs to account for the circumltances
of their wandering.
cic us,
4. Nourijhment.
Among fifties, as among quadrupeds and birds, fome
fearch for their food in the mud ; others live on worms,
infefts, or marine plants. The former have their ante¬
rior extremity adapted to the extra&ion of peculiar
juices from the earth ; the latter have the conforma¬
tion of their jaws or teeth fuited to the capture and
Molt fillies deftrudlion of their appropriate prey. The greateft
carnivorous number of fpecies, however, are carnivorous and ex-
and vora- tremely voracious, fubfirting chiefly on other fifties, and
frequently not fparing even their own offspring. When
taken out of the water, and almoft expiring, they will
often greedily fwallow the very bait which lured them
to their ruin. In the fequel, we ftiall have occafion to
adduce fome ftriking inftances of the violent and indif-
criminate appetite of feveral fifties. The digeftive power
of their ftomach is no lefs remarkable, and feems to
increafe with the quantity of food received into it.
This food, though reduced to a gelatinous ftate, ufually
preferves its natural form ; a circumftance wdiich leads
us to conclude, that the procefs of digeilion is perform¬
ed by the folvent power of fome particular menftruum,
and not by any trituration.
Fifties, in‘general, manifeft a predile£lion for wftiat
ever they can fwallow poffelfed of life. Some that have
very fmall mouths, feed on worms and the fpawn of
other fifti: others, whofe mouths are larger, feek larger
prey j it matters not of w-hat kind, whether of another
or their owm. Thofe with the largell mouths, purfue
almoft; every thing that has life; and often meet each
other in fierce oppofition, and the vidlor devours his
antagonill. Thus are they irritated by the continual
defire of fatisfying their hunger j and the life of a fifti,
from the fmallelt to the greateft, is but one feene of ho-
ftility, violence, and evafion. The fmaller fry, which
{land no chance in the unequal combat, refort to thofe
(hallows, w’here the greater are unable or too heavy to
purfue. There they become invaders in turn, and live
on the fpawn of large fifties, which they find floating
on the furface of the water, till they are imprifoned and
leifurely devoured by the muffel, oyller, or feallop,
which lie in ambufti at the bottom.
Notwithftanding the aftoniftiing voracity of fifties, fome
of them are capable of fuffering at lead the apparent want
of food for a long time. This is particularly the cafe with
the gold and filver fifties which are kept in vafes, and
which feem to enjoy perfeft health, though deprived
of fuftenanee for months. But they may probably feed
tut caa
tear ab-
Sinence.
O L O G Y. " 77
on minute invifible infers, or be endowed with the Pfiyfio o^y
power of decompofing water, and of converting its ele- ^ ^pU(jes,
ments into the means of fubiiftence. Much, in faCl, 0l p-,^^
remains to be difeovered on the interefting fubjeft of the ——y  *-
food of fifties •, for while the incelfant craving and glut¬
tony of fome are obvious to the molt fuperficial obferva-
tion, the methods by which others are maintained in
exiilence have only been furmifed by conjecture.
Meanwhile, it is of importance to remark, that in the
water, as on the land, nature has nicely adjufted the
balance of deftruftion and renovation, thus providently
guarding againft an overwhelming accumulation of pu¬
trid carcafes, and multiplying,- at the fame time, the
fources and centres of vitality and animal enjoy¬
ment.
5. ReproduEUon.
In moft, if not in all fifties, there is a difference in
fex, though Bloch and others make mention of indivi¬
duals, which feemed to unite the two fexes, and to be
real hermaphrodites. The number of males, it has
been remarked, is about double that of females j and
were it not for this wife provifion of nature, a large
proportion of the extruded eggs w7ould remain unfecun¬
dated. A few fpecies, indeed, as the eel, blenny, &c.
are viviparous ; hut by far the greater number are pro- Moft fifhes--
duced from eggs. Thefe laft compofe the roe or ova- oviparous.,
ries of the females, which lie along the abdomen. The
milt of the males is difpofed along the back-bone, in
one or two bags, and conlifts of a whitifti glandular
fubftance, which fecretes the fpermatiq fluid. Though
the hiftory of the generation of fifties be ftill involved
in confiderable obfeurity, it feems to be afeertained,
that no fexual union takes place among the oviparous
kinds, and that the eggs are fru&ified after exclufion.
They are of a fpherical form, and confiit of a yolk, a
white part, and a bright crefcent-like fpot, or germ.
The yolk, which is ufually furrounded by the white,
is round, and not placed in the middle, but towards
one of the fides •, and the clear fpot, or embryo, is fi-
tuated between the yolk and the white. In this fpot
there is obfervable, on the day after fecundation, a
moveable point, of a fomewhat dull appearance. On
the third day, it affumes the appearance of a thickilli
mafs, detached on one fide, and on the other ftrongly
adhering to the yolk, and prefenting the contour of the
heart, which, at this period, receives an increafe of
motion, while the difengaged extremity, which forms
the rudiments of the tail, is perceived to move at inter¬
vals. On the fourth day, the pulfations of the heart
and the movements of the wftiole body occur in quicker
fucceflion. On the fifth, the circulation of the hu¬
mours in the veffels may be difeerned, when the fifti is
in a particular pofition. On the fixth, the back-bone
may be difthnftly recognifed. On the feventh, two
black points, which are the eyes, and the whole form
of the animal, are vilible to the naked eye. Although
the yolk gradually diminifties as the embryo enlarges,
the included animal cannot yet ftretch itfelf at length,
and makes a curve with its tail. Its motions are then
fo brilk, that when it turns its body, the yolk turns
with it j and thefe motions become more and more fre¬
quent, as the moment of birth, wftiich happens be¬
tween the feventh and ninth day, approaches. By re¬
peated ftrokes of the tail, the covering of the egg at
length...
'78
rhyfiology lengtli gives way, and the fxfh comes forth, firft by the
Habitudes ta^* re^ouhling its efforts, till it detach its head j and
of Firhes then it moves nimbly, and at liberty, in its new ele-
>«—Y—j ment. Such, at lead, are the refults of fome particu¬
lar obfervations : but it is obvious, that they muft vary
condderably according to circumilances •, particularly,
that the fpawn mud continue in the egg date in fome
fpecies longer than in others, and this in proportion to
the animal’s fize. The embryo falmon, for inftance,
continues in the egg from the beginning of December
to the beginning of April, and the carp not above
three weeks.
Fifties have different feafons for depofiting their
fpawn. Some which live in the depths of the ocean,
are faid to choofe the winter months ; but, in general,
thofe with which we are acquainted, choofe the hotted;
months in fummer, and prefer fuch water as is fome-
what tepified by the beams of the fun. They then
leave the deepeft parts of the ocean, which are the
voided, and fhoal round the coafts, or fwim up the
frefh-water rivers, which are warm as they are compa¬
ratively fhallow, depofiting their eggs where the fun’s
influence can mod; eafily reach them, and feeming to
take no farther charge of their future progeny.
Of the eggs thus depofited fcarcely one in a hundred
brings forth an animal, as they are devoured by all the
leffer fry w’hich frequent the ftiores, by aquatic birds
near the margin, and by the larger fifh in deep water.
Still, however, the fea is amply fupplied wdth inhabi¬
tants ; and, notwithftanding their own rapacity, and
that of various tribes of fowls, the numbers that efcape
are fufficient to relieve the wants of a confiderable por¬
tion of mankind. Indeed, when we coniider the fe¬
cundity of a Angle fifti, the amount Vvill feem aftonifh-
Number of ing. If we diould be told, for example, that a Angle
eggs im- being could in one feafon, produce as many of its kind
as there are inhabitants in England, it would flrike us
with furprife ; yet the cod annually fpawms, according
to Lewenhoeck, above nine million of eggs contained
in a Angle roe. The flounder is commonly known to
produce above one million •, and the mackarel above
ffve hundred thoufand 5 a herring of a moderate flze
will yield at leaft ten thoufand j a carp, of 14 inches
in length, contained, according to Petit, two hundred
and Axty-two thoufand, two hundred and twenty-four •,
and another, 16 inches long, contained three hundred
and forty-two thoufand, one hundred and forty-four ; a
perch depoAted three hundred and eighty thoufand, Ax
hundred and forty ; and a female fturgeon, feven mil¬
lion, Ax hundred and Afty-three thoufand, two hun¬
dred.—The viviparous fpecies are by no means fo fruit¬
ful ; yet the blenny brings forth twro or three hundred
at a time, all alive and playing round the parent toge¬
ther.
Some naturalifts have fufpe£ted, that there are fiflies
which undergo certain metamorphofes in the early pe¬
riod of their exiftence, like the tadpoles of frogs. Ma-
demoifclle Merian, in her fplendid work on the Infefts
of Surinam, even defcribes frogs, which are transform¬
ed into fifties. Spelmann makes mention of aquatic
animals of an ambiguous nature, which he met with at
all feafons of the vear, and which he terms
and Schranck and Laufenti have remarked in the Ty-
rolian lakes particular races of animals, which feem to
form a gradation between tadpoles and branchioftegous
Chap. III.
fifties. Perhaps they are larvae, or imperfeft animals, Pfayfiology
whofe developement is Aill obfcure ; yet it is not im- a.na
probable that fome fifties may undergo transformations
analogous to thofe of young frogs and falamanders.
The hiftory of the ojlracion and diodon families will
warrant fuch a fuppofition ; and the Jiren lacertina of
Linnaeus feems to be alike connedled with reptiles and
fifties.
For feveral curious and interefting experiments rela¬
tive to the artificial fecundation of the fpawn of fifties,
we muft refer our readers to M. Jacobi’s Memoir, in-
ferted in the Berlin Tranfaclions for 1764. By pref-
fing the contents of the milt of falmon and trout on the
fpawn of thefe fifties, he iucceeded in rendering the
ova fruitful, and obtained live fifti. Among thefe were
feveral monfters, fuch as trouts with two heads, others
in the form of a crofs, &c. none of which lived beyond
fix weeks, exhaufting in that time the juices of their
own ftomach, and the yolk of the egg to which they
W’ere attached.
6. Duration.
It is extremely difficult to afcertain the precife term
which nature has afligned to the exiftence of thofe crea--
tures which inhabit a medium different from our own.
It is probable, that the life of fifties which efcape the
numerous fnares that are laid for them, is confiderably
longer than their mere fize would feem to indicate. In
the firft llages of their exiftence, their growth is, no
doubt, rapid ; but their fibres quickly become hard, and
lefs fufceptible of extenfion. When newfty excluded
from its egg, the fifti grows four lines in the ftiort fpace
of eight hours ; but three weeks at leaft elapfe, before
it acquire an additional line. Nor is the rate of growth
at all equal in different fpecies. Thus a carp attains
only to the length of fix or feven inches in three years,
and to the weight of twelve pounds in ten years. The
growth of the tench is ftill more tardy, fince twelve
years are required to give it the length of twenty -
inches.
There have been two methods devifed for determin¬
ing the age of fifties, the one, by the circles of the
fcales, the other, by the tranfverfe feftion of the back¬
bone. WTen a fifti’s fcale is examined through a mi-
crofcope,. it will be found to confift of a number of cir¬
cles, one tvitbin another, in fome meafure refembling
thofe which appear on the tranfverfe leftion of a tree,
and which are fuppofed to afford the lame information.
For, as in trees, we can tell their age by the number
of their circles, fo in fifties, we can tell theirs by the
number of circles in every fcale, reckoning one ring
for every year of the animal’s exiftence. By this me¬
thod, the count de Buffon found a carp, whofe fcales
he examined, to be not lefs than a hundred years old.
Gefner adduces an inftance of one of the fame age, and
Albertus of one more than double that period.—The
age of the ficate and the ray, which are deftitute of
fcales, may be known by the other method, which con-
fifts in feparating the joints of the back-bone, and then
minutely obferving the number of rings which the fur-
face where it was joined exhibits. But whatever degree Great age
of precifion we may attach to fuch evidence, we have0l f0me
no reafon to doubt the great age of fome fifties. Thole fifties,
perfons who have ponds often know the oldeft by their
lliperior fize, and ether indications. The carp which
1 were
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Chap. IV. I C H T H Y
Apodal wctd bred in the ditches of Pont-Chartrain, are quoted
Fifties. as exceeding a hundred tfnd fifty years } and
v_ thofe in the royal garden^xif Charlottenburg, in Pruflia,
are faid by Bloch to have their heads overgrown with
mofs. Ledelius alleges, that in fome pools in Lufatia
there are carp about 200 years old. At Manheim,
there is the Ikeleton of a pike, 19 feet in length, and
which is faid to have weighed, when alive, 350 pounds.
It was caught at Kayferlautern, in 1497 J anc^ a Greek
infcription on a brafs ring, inferted at the gills, an¬
nounced that it had been put into the pond by the em¬
peror Frederick II. that is to fay, 267 years before it
was taken. Some fpecies, however, are known to have
a much fhorter exiftence j thus, the eel ufually lives
about 15 years; the bream and the tench, from 10 to
I 2, and the fifteen-fpined ftickle-back feldom furvives
two.—The comparative fimplicity of their ftruflure,
the flexibility of their frame, the llrength of their di-
geftive power, their want of fenfibility, and the equal
CHAP. IV. SYSTEMATIC
1HE Linnsean orders of fiflies have been inftituted
from the fituation, prefence, or abfence of the ventral
fins.
1. Such as are entirely deflitute of thefe fins, are
termed pifces apodes, apodal or footlefs fillies.
2. The jugulares, or jugular, are thofe which have
ventral fins, placed more forward than the peftoral fins,
or under the throat.
3. The thoracici, or thoracic, include th'ofe whofe
ventral fins are placed immediately under the peftoral
fins, or on the breaft.
4. The abdominales, or abdominal, comprife thofe
whofe ventral fins are fituated behind the peAoral fins,
or on the abdomen.
5. There ilill remains a particular tribe, denominat¬
ed cartilaginei, which, as their name imports, have a
cartilaginous inllead of a bony Ikeleton. This tribe was
by Linnaeus feparated from the reft, on the millaken
idea, that the individuals which compofe it were fur-
niflied both with lungs and gills, and fliould be ranked
in the clafs of amphibious animals.
The genera which pertain to the preceding orders are
determined by the number of rays in the branchiofte-
gous membrane, the condition of the teeth, the figure
of the body, and of other remarkable parts.
The charatfters of the fpecies are taken chiefly from
the number of rays in the fins, wdfich differs in the dif¬
ferent fpecies. ■ But, as the precife enumeration of thefe
rays is fometimes a matter of difficulty, and, as they
are likewife fubjefi to variation, it is neceffary to have
recourfe to other marks, and to adopt, as fubfidiary
charafters, the form and fituation of particular fins, the
proportion of the head to the body, the condition of
the lateral line, the number of the vertebrae and
ribs, &c.
I. APODAL.
The fifties of this order approach very near to the
amphibia, and fome of them even referable the ferpent
tribe. They have a fmooth llippery ikin, which is, in
O L O G Y. 7c
temperature of the element which they inhabit, prob'a- Apodal
bly all contribute to the longevity of fifties. The fame , *
caufes may, perhaps, exempt them from many difeafes [);reafes>
wffiich are incident to other races of animals. Yet we know
for certain, that they are occafionally fubjeft to indifpofi-
tion and diftempers. Before the fpawning feafon, they
undergo a change of their external covering, analogous
to tnoulting amongft the feathered tribes ; their fsales
and Ikins are renewed, and the colours of the more beau¬
tiful kinds affume more frefti and vivid hues. But this
annual change is not effected without evident fyniptoms
of languor, decline, and fuffering. Some kinds of fal-
mon trout are liable to a leprous affedlion, the carp to
fmallpox, and the eruption of fmall tumours on the
head and back, the perch to dropfy, eels to a cutaneous
diforder which often proves fatal, and moft fpecies to
ulcerated livers, or injured vifeera, from the worms and
infe&s of various deferiptions which multiply within,
them.
EXPOSITION OF FISHES.
general, naked, or covered in fome fpecies only, with
fmall, foft, and diftant feales. Their body is long and
ilender ; they have teeth in the jaws, and live in the
fea ; but fome are found in rivers and Handing waters.
They feed on other animals.
Genus I. Murjena., Murjena.
Head fmooth ; noftrils tubular ; eyes covered by the
common integument ; gill membrane ten-rayed ; bo¬
dy nearly cylindrical, fmooth, and flippery; dorfal,
caudal, and anal fins united; fpiracles behind the
head or pedloral fins.
Roman murcena, or murey. No peel oral fins ; body helena,
eel-ffiaped, and variegated; fpiracle on each fide the
neck.—The colour of this fiffi is a dufky-greenifh
brown, diverfified with dull yellow patches, and form¬
ing a kind of obfeure net-work. The head is rather
fmall; the mouth moderately wide, and the teeth ffiarp.
The fins are of a dulky colour, with whitifti fpots.
The murey is capable of living with equal facility in
freffi or fait water, though principally found in the lat¬
ter, efpecially on the coafts of the Mediterranean. It
attains to a fize at leaft equal, if not fuperior to the
common eel, which it much refembles in its manners
and voracity. The Romans prized it as an exquifite
luxury, and kept it in appropriate refervoirs.
Snake, eel, or fea ferpent. Snout lengthened; X.2a\0phls.
pointed, and finlefs; body round. The head of this
fpecies is long and flender, the gape very wide, the
teeth very ffiarp, and the colour a very pale yellowifti
brown above, and bluiffi white beneath. It is a native
of the Mediterranean and northern feas, where it often
arrives at a very confiderable fize, and has probably gi¬
ven rife to the marvellous tales of huge fea ferpents in
the northern ocean.—The angnilla ophis, or fpotted eel
of Shaw, feems to be a diftindt fpecies, or elfe a mark¬
ed variety, being fpotted with brown, and chiefly found
in the Indian feas, though fometimes alfo in the Medi¬
terranean, &c.
Common eel—The lower jaw longer than the u^-angulllaj
Per,
8o
1 C H T H Y O L O G Y.
Apodal
Filhes.
conger.
per j body olive-brown above, fomevvhat filvery beneath.
1'he figure and appearance of this fpecies are too well
known to require a particular defcription. It is a na¬
tive of almoil all the waters of the ancient continent,
frequenting not only rivers but ilagnant pools, and oc-
Cafionally fait marlhes and lakes, in fpring it is found
even in the Baltic and other feas. In lome places near
the mouths of the Baltic, they are taken in fuch abund¬
ance that they cannot be uied freth, but are fmoked
end falted, and conveyed by waggon-loads into Saxony,
Sileiia, &c. We are told that 2000 have been taken
in Jutland at a lingle fweep of the net, and 60,coo in
the Garonne in one day, by a Angle net. It is gene¬
rally alleged that the eel cannot bear the water of the
■Danube } and it is rarely found either in that river or
the Wolga, though very common in the lakes and
rivers of Upper Aullria. Its ordinary iize is from
two to three feet, though it has been known to attain
to the length of fix feet, and to weigh fifteen pounds.
Dale and others mention fome of uncommon magni¬
tude, but which were probably congers. Though im¬
patient of heat and cold, the eel can live longer out
of the wTater than any other fith, and is extremely te¬
nacious of life, as its parts will move a confiderable
time after it has been fkinned, and cut into pieces. It
fometimes quits the water, and wanders about mea¬
dows and moift grounds in quell of particular food, as
fnails, wTorms, &c. It is alfo faid to be fond of new-
fown peas, arid to have fometimes taken refuge from fe-
vere froits in adjoining hay-ricks. Its ufual food con-
fills of water-infe£ts, worms, and the fpawn of filhes.
It will alfo devour almoft any decayed animal fub-
flance. It is viviparous, producing its young about
the end of fummer ; though both eggs, and ready-form¬
ed young are occafionally obferved in the fame indivi¬
dual. Its Ikin, which is proverbially flippery, from the
large proportion of mucus with which it is furnifired,
ferves, in fome countries, from its toughnefs and pellu-
cidity, as tackle for carriages, &c. and glafs for win¬
dows. Though we learn from Athenaeus, that the
Sybarites exempted from every kind of tribute the vend¬
ers of eels, the Romans feem to have held this filh
very cheap as an article of food. In modern times it
is reckoned highly nutritious, though lomewhat diffi¬
cult of digellion, and hurtful wffien taken to excefs.
Conger eel.—Two tentacula at the roltrum, the la¬
teral line whitilh and dotted. The firlt of thefe cha¬
racters is not conftant. But the conger may be di-
Itinguilhed from the common eel by other marks, fuch
as its darker colour, larger eyes, its fiiorter lower jaw,
and the greater lize to which it ufually attains. Speci¬
mens from the Mediterranean have fometimes been
taken of the length of ten feet, and of the weight of
more than a hundred pounds. It is likewife an inha¬
bitant of the northern feas, and of thofe which furround
fome of the American illands. The conger is only an
occafional vifitant of frelh water, frequenting the
mouths of rivers in fpring. In the mouth of the Se¬
vern incredible quantities of the fry are taken in April,
under the name of elvers. In its full-grown ftate the
conger is alfo reckoned a ufeful article of food in many
parts of Europe. The great quantities that are taken
on the coaft of Cormvall are chiefly exported to Spain
and Portugal. Much of their abundant oil is drained
away in the procefs of drying, the weight being re-
2
Chap. IV.
duced nearly eighty per cent. Congers are extremely Apodal
voracious, preying on other fiffies, and on various kinds ^
of cruftacea, particularly on the fmall crabs during ^
their foft ihate after they have call their Ihell.
Southern murcena.—No pectoral fins \ brown, with echidna.
black variegations ; depreifed head and very turgid neck.
'I his fpecies, which inhabits the fouthern ocean, has a
repulfive appearance, gnwvs to a very confiderable fize,
and affords excellent food.
"1 he Jlrcn.— Pefftoral fins like hands with fourJiren.
fingers, gill membrane with three pinnatifid bones.
This is the Jiren lacertina of former editions of the
Syffem of Nature. It is peculiar to the muddy fwamps
of South Carolina, preys on ferpents, which it feizes
and holds writh its ftrong and firm teeth. It is fome¬
times a foot and a half in length •, its heart has but one
ventricle •, it has ribs and a bony tail ; and is fo fragile,
that if caff on the ground it breaks into three or four
pieces.
The other fpecies are, colubrina, fergens, myrus, gut¬
tata, caca, catenata, reticulata, africana, %ebra, tnelc-
agris, and viridis.
Gen. 2. Synbranchus.
Bodyeel-fliaped; no pectoral fins j fpiracle fingle beneath
the neck.
Synbran
chus.
Marbled fynbranchus.—Olive-brown, marbled with tnarmora*
1 tus.
blackilh fpots; the body yellow beneath. Native of,
the frelh waters of Surinam.
Plain fynbranchus.—Of a plain unvariegated brown immacula*
colour. A native of Surinam. tus
Gen. 3. Monopterus.
Body eel-fhaped 5 noflrils placed between the eyes $ fin
cadal.
Monop¬
terus.
Javan monopterus.—Livid brown or blackilb, with javanicus.
a very fharp-pointed tail. This fifti, which has the
appearance and habits of a muraena, is a native of the
Indian feas, and very common about the coalts of Java,
where it is coniidered as an excellent food,
Gen. 4. Gymnotus. GjImotus
Head with lateral opercula; two beards or tentacula
on the upper lip j eyes covered by the common in¬
tegument ; gill membrane five-rayed ; body com-
preffed, without dorfal fin (in moft fpecies), but cari-
nated by a fin beneath.
Carapo gymmtus.—Brown, with the vent-fin of the carapo;
length of the attenuated tail, and the upper jaw7 longer
than the lower. This filh is a native of the American
feas, and is laid to be moft frequent about the coaft of
Surinam. Its ordinary length is from one to two feet.
It is reckoned excellent by the South Americans.
EleEirical gymnotus, or cramp-fijh.—Without feales cle£lricits,
or dorfal fin j the caudal very obtule, and joined to the
anal fin. This fith bears a confiderable refemblance to a
large eel, though fomewhat thicker, and commonly of
an uniform blackifti-brown. It was firft announced to
the philofophers of Europe on account of its remark¬
able eleclrical or galvanic properties, in 1677, by
Richer, who was commiffioned by the French Acade¬
my to make fome mathematical obfervations in Cay¬
enne.
Chap IV.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
81
Ap dai enne. It would be tedious to recite all the remarks and
Fillies, experiments of fucceed’mg obfervers, which confpire to
' prove the voluntary eletfricity of the gymnotus, which,
however, occahonally exhibits fome variations from the
phenomena of common eleftricity. If a perfon touches
the animal with one hand, in fuch a manner as to irri¬
tate it confiderably, while the other is held at a fmall
ditlance from it in the water, he will experience as
, ftrong a (hock as from a charged Leyden phial. The
{hock is alfo readily communicated through a circle of
eight or ten perfons at once, the perfon at one extre¬
mity putting his hand in tb water near the fiih, while
the Other touches the animal. It is by this extraordi¬
nary faculty that the gymnotus fupports its exihence,
the fmaller filhes and other animals which happen to
approach it being inftantly ftupified, and then falling
an eafy prey. It is even capable of depriving thole
who approach it in its native waters, of fenfe and mo¬
tion. It is a native of the warmer regions of Africa
and America, in which lafl it inhabits the larger rivers,
particularly thofe of Surinam. In Africa, it is faid
to occur chiefly in the .branches of the Senegal. In
the 65th volume of the Philofophical Tranfadlions, our
readers will find an accurate defcription of the external
form of the eleftrical gymnotus, by the late ingenious
Dr Garden, and one equally accurate of its internal
llruclure by the celebrated Mr John Hunter.
acui. Needle gymnotus. Naked, with finlefs tail and belly,
the anal fin of fixty rays, terminating before it reaches
the tip of the tail. The only European fpecies yet
difcovered, being a native of the Mediterranean, and
defcribed by Brunnich in his hiftory of the filh of Mar-
feilles.
To the fame genus belong fafciatus^ albas^ albifrons,
rojlratus, notopterus, and ajiaticus.
Trichiurus Gen. 5. Trichiurus.
Head ftretched forwards, with lateral gill covers; teeth
enfiform, femi-fagittated at the points, the fore teeth
the large!! ; gill-membrane feven-rayed ; body com-
prefied and enfiform, with a fubulate and finlefs tail.
which have fore teeth and grinders. Of three fpeci- Apodal
mens examined by Dr Black, one had fix rows of grin- Dfnes.
ders in the upper jaw, and as many in the lower ; ano- v
ther had fix rows above, and lour below ; and a third
had five above, and three below. The difpofition and
llrudlure of all the teeth are excellently adapted for
breaking and comminuting the crabs, lobilers, fcallops,
large whelks, &c. which this voracious animal grinds
to pieces, and fwallows with the {hells. When caught,
it fallens on any thing within its reach. Schonfelde
relates, that it will feize on an anchor and leave the
marks of its teeth behind ; and we are informed by
Steller, that one which he law taken on the coal! of
Kamtfchatka, feized with great violence a cutlafs with
which it wYas attempted to be killed, and broke it in
pieces as if it had been made of glafs. The filhermen,
dreading its bite, endeavour as foon as pofiible to beat
out its fore teeth, and then kill it by linking it on the
head. Its flat and grinding teeth are often found in a
foflil Hate, and known by the name of bufonites, or
toad-Jlones, to which many fuperilitious virtues were
formerly aferibed. ’1 he fea wolf grows to a very con-
fiderable flze, being frequently four, and fometimes
even feven feet in length. It has fmall feales and a la¬
teral line, though defcribed by mol! naturalifts as delli-
tute of both. It commonly frequents the deep parts of
the fea, in the northern regions of the globe, and fome
parts of the Britilh coafts, approaching the fhores in
t0 depofit its fpawn among the marine plants.
It fwims flowly, and with th; ferpentine motion of the
eel. Owing to its forbidding appearance, it is not ge¬
nerally brought to market ; but the filhermen, the
Greenlanders, and the Scotch find it excellent food.
The latter call it the fea cat, and take oft' the head and
fkin before dreftxng it. The frigofus is now generally
admitted to be only a variety of the preceding.
Smaller wolf fijh.—With very lharp cartilaginous minor.
teeth. Inhabits the coal! of Greenland.
Panther wolf fifh—Yellow, or fulvous, fpotted pantkeru
brown. In other particulars it agrees with the com-^j.,
mon fpecies. Native of the northern feas.
lepturus. Silvery trichiurus, or gymnogafer.—The lower jaw
longer than the upper. This filh is diftinguifned by
the Angularity of its Ihape, and the lilver brilliancy of
its colour. It is from two to three feet long, very vo¬
racious, and a rapid fwimmer. In the purfuit of its
prey, it fometimes leaps into fmall veflels which happen
to be failing by. It frequents the rivers and larger
lakes of South America, and is alfo faid to occut in
fome parts of India and China.
indicus. Indian or electrical trichiurus.— Jaws of equal
length. Inhabits the Indian feas, and is faid to poflefs
a degree of eledfrical power.
Anarchi- Gen. 6. Anarchicas.
chas.
Head fomewhat obtufe ; fore teeth both above and be¬
low, conical, diverging, ftrong ; fix or more grin¬
ders in the under jaw, and palate rounded ; gill-
membrane fix-rayed, body roundilh, caudal fin dif-
tine!.
lupus. Wolf fijb, fea wolf or ravenous wolf f /h.—Of a
blackilh gray colour, the fides, anal and caudal fins,
and abdomen lighter. This is one of the few fifties
Vol. XI. Part I.
Gen. 7. Odontognathus. „ ,
Odontogna*
Mouth furnilhed with a ftrong moveable lamina or1*1115*
procefs on each fide of the upper jaw; gill-membranev
five-rayed.
dculeated odontognathus.—Abdomen aculeated. Na- aculeatus.
tive of the American feas, and common about the
coafts of Cayenne, where it ranks among the edible
fifties.
Gen. 8. Triurus.
Snout cylindrical; one tooth in each
anal fin extended beyond the tail.
Triurus.
jaw ; dorfal and
Commerfonian triple-tail.—The branchial orifice c^°~ commer
fed at pleafure by a valve. In general appearance and r ••
fize it refembles a herring. It is diftinguiftied from the^ *
whole clafs of fifties by the circumftance noted in the
fpecific charadler. Native of the Indian feas.
Gen. 9. Ammodytes. .
J Ammo-
Head compreffed, narrower than the body; upper lip
doubled, the lower jaw narrow, and pointed; teeth
L fmall
82
Apodal
Fifties.
tobianus.
Ophidium.''
barbatum.
imberbe.
Stromateus.
fatok.
paru.
tine reus.
urgenteus.
xiger.
ICHTHYOLOGY
Chap. IV.
fmall and fiiarp •, gill-membrane feven-rayed ; body
long, roundifh, with very fmall fcales} tail difthift.
Sand launce, or fand eel.—The lower jaw longer
than the upper. A native of the northern parts of Eu¬
rope, commonly frequenting the coafts, and lying im¬
bedded in the fand, in the fummer months, at the depth
of half a foot, or a foot, with its body rolled into a
fpiral form. In this fituation it is taken at the recefs
of the tide, either for bait, by the filhermen, or as an
article of food, being regarded as a delicacy. It lives
on worms and fmall fillies, not even excepting its own
fpecies ; and it is itfelf preyed on by the porpoife, and
larger filhes, particularly by the mackerel. Moll of
the older ichthyologiils have erroneoufly reprefented it
as deflitute of fcales, and Klein has improperly divided
it into two fpecies.
Gen. 10. Ophidium.
Head fomewhat naked 5 teeth in the jaws, palate, and
fauces ; gill-membrane feven-rayed, patulous; body
fword-lhaped.
Bearded ophidium.—Four cirrhi on the lower jaw.
This fpecies, which is frequent in the Mediterranean
and Red feas, growrs to ten or twelve inches long, is of
a filvery hue, with a lhade of pink, and marked with
irregular linear fpots j its Ikin is covered with foft ob¬
long fcales, adhering at their anterior edge. Accord¬
ing to Belon, the Romans prized its Helh, W’hich is
white, but rather coarfe.
Beardlefs ophidium.—JawTs beardlefs *, tail rather ob-
tufe} in other refpe&s, much allied to the former. In¬
habits the Mediterranean, and has alfo been taken near
Weymouth.
Virie/e, aculeatum, and majlacembalus, the other fpe¬
cies, are but imperfectly known.
Gen. 1 r. Stromateus.
Head compreffed 5 teeth in the jawrs and palate j body
oval, broad, and flippery j tail bifid.
Striped Jlromateus.—Marked with tranfverfe undula¬
ted bands. This fpecies, which is beautifully variega¬
ted, inhabits the Mediterranean and Red fea, and is
known to the modern Romans by its fpecific appella¬
tion.
Baru Jlromateus.—Gold-coloured back, and filvery
abdomen. General fize, that of a turbot. Much ef-
teemed as a food. Native of South America and Tran-
quebar. The cumarca of Gmelin’s Linnaeus feems to
be only a variety of this.
jdjh-co/oured Jlromateus.—Tail forked, the low7er
lobe longer than the upper. Native of the Indian feas,
and ferved at table, as a dainty, under the name of
pampet.
Silver Jlr omateus.—With the lobes of the tail equal.
Nearly allied to the preceding, a native of the fame
feas, and equally eileemed as an article of food.
Blach Jlromateus.—Entirely of a blackifh colour.
This alfo frequents the Indian feas 5 but is feldom pre¬
pared for the table, on account of its colour and the
circumflance of its feeding on wood-lice, which are
fometimes found in its mouth.
Apodal
Gen. 12. XlPHIAS. Fifties.
Head with the upper jaw terminating in a fword-fhaped ^
fnout ; mouth without teeth; gill-membrane eight-
rayed ; body roundilh, and fcalelefs.
Common or Sicilian fwordjijh.—The dorfal fin ?A-gladius.
tenuated at the hind part. The body of the fword-fifh
is long, round, and gradually tapers towards the tail;
the head is flattiih, and the mouth wide, both jaws ter¬
minating in a point, but the upper ftretched to a great
diftance beyond the lower, forming what is commonly
called the /word, by which it pierces and kills the
fmaller kinds of fillies. It fometimes meafures twenty
feet in length, and is of an a£iive and ravenous difpoli-
tion. The method of taking it, defcribed by Strabo,
exa&ly agrees with the modern praftice. A man af-
cends one of the cliffs that overhang the fea, and as
foon as he fpies the filh, gives notice by voice or fignal
of the courfe it takes. Another perfon in a boat
climbs up the mail, and on feeing the filh, directs the
rowers to it. The moment that he thinks they have got
within reach, he defcends and taking his fpear in his
hand, llrikes into the filh, which, after wearying itfelf
with its agitations, is feized and dragged into the boat.
Its llelh is much efteemed by the Sicilians, who cut it
in pieces and fait it. The pieces from the belly and
tail are moll efteemed, and the faked fins are fold un¬
der the name of callo. The fword-filh is frequently
found in the Mediterranean, efpecially on the coafts of
Sicily, where the male and female ufually appear 'In
pairs. It alfo occalionally occurs in the northern feas,
and fometimes in the Pacific ocean; but Atlian errone¬
oufly afferts that it is at the fame time a frelh water
filh, and an inhabitant of the Danube.
BroadJinnedfwordjijh.—Diftinguifhed from the ^rt-p^typte-
ceding by a very broad back fin, and very long lharp-r«.r.
pointed thoracic appendages. Found not only in the
Brafilian and Eaft Indian feas, but alfo in the Northern
ocean. It is faid to have frequent combats with whales.
The bottom of an Eaft Indiaman was pierced by a filh
of this fpecies, in fuch a manner, that the fword was
driven through almoft to its bafe, and the animal killed
by the violence of the effort. The wood, together
with the fword imbedded in it, is now in the Britilh
Mufeum. When this fpecies does not exceed four feet,
it is confidered as an eatakde filh ; but it is found of
the length of twenty feet, and fometimes even much
longer.
Short fnouted fword-fjh.—Blackilh ; with fnout oimahaira,
middling length, and two bony tubercles on each lide
of the tail. Refembles the common fword-filh, except
that the fnout is much fhorter and thicker.
Gen. 13. SteRNOPTYX. Sternoptyx.
Head obtufe ; mouth turning up; teeth very fmall; no
gill-membrane ; body compreffed, without vifible
fcales ; breaft carinated, and folded both ways ; ab¬
domen pellucid.
Tranfparent fernoptyx.—Silvery; with carinated
breaft, and pellucid abdomen; two or three inches long,
broad, and compreffed, the back riling into a lharp
edge, and the abdomen terminating in a carina. Na¬
tive of the American feas.
Gen, 14.
Chap. iV.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Apodal
Fifhes. Gen. 14. Leptocephalus.
Leptoce- Head narrow 5 body very thin, and compreffed $ no
phalus. pe&oral fins.
morri/ii. Morris launce, or Anglefea morris.—Firft difcovered
on the coaft of Anglefea by Mr Morris, and defcribed
by Pennant under his name. Four inches in length 5
the head very fmall j the body extremely thin, and al-
moft tranfparent.
Stylepho- Gen. 15. Stylephorus.
rus.
Eyes pedunculated, Handing on a fhort thick cylinder j
fnout lengthened, direfted upwards, retradlile to¬
wards the head by means of a membrane ; mouth
without teeth ; gills three pair beneath the throat 5
pectoral fins fmall $ dorfal, the length of the back 5
caudal, fhort, with fpiny raysj body very long, com-
preffed.
The general colour of this fifii is a rich filver, except
on the flexible part belonging to the roflrum, which is
of a deep brown j the fins and caudal procefs are alfo
brown, but not fo deep as the part juft mentioned.
There is no appearance of fcales on this fifh. From
the very lingular figure and fituation of the eyes, I
have given it the generic name of Jlylephorus, and as
the trivial name cannot be taken from any circumfiance
more properly than from the extraordinary thread-like
procefs of the tail, I have applied to it the title of
ehordatus. It is a native of the Weft; Indian feas, and
wTas taken between Cuba and Martinico, near a fmall
clufter of little iflands about nine leagues from fliore,
where it was obferved near the furface. The whole
length of this uncommon animal, from the head to the
extremity of the caudal procefs, is about 32 inches^
of which the procefs itfelf meafures 2 2.”
II. JUGULAR.
Jugular
Fifties.
chordatus. Chordated Jhjlephorus.—Silvery ; with an extremely
long caudal thread. We fhall here tranfcribe Dr Shaw’s
defcription of this very extraordinary fpecies.
“ The roftrum or narrow part w7hich is terminated
by the mouth, is conneUed to the back part of the
head by a flexible leathery duplicature, which permits
it to be either extended in fuch a manner that the
mouth points diredlly upwards, or to fall back, fo as
to be received into a fort of cafe formed by the upper
part of the head. On the top of the head are placed
the eyes, which are of a form very nearly approaching
to thofe of the genus cancer, except that the columns
or parts on which each eye is placed, are much broader
or thicker than in that genus ; they are alfo placed clofe
to each other, and the outward furface of the eyes when
magnified, does not Ihow the leaft appearance of a re¬
ticulated ftru&ure. The colour of the eyes, as well as
of the columns on which they Hand, is a clear chefnut
brown, with a fort of coppery glofs. Below the head,
on each fide, is a confiderable compreffed femicircular
fpace, the fore part of which is bounded by the cover¬
ing of the gills, which covering feems to confift of a
Angle membrane, of a moderately ftrong nature. Be¬
neath this, on each ftde, are three fmall pair of bran¬
chiae. The body is extremely long, and comprefled
very much, and gradually diminifties as it approaches
the tail, which terminates in a firing or procefs of an
enormous length, and finifhes in a very fine point.
This firing, or caudal procefs, feems to be ftrengthened
throughout its whole length, or at leaft as far as the
eye can trace it, by a fort of double fibre or internal
part. The pedloral fins are very fmall, and lituated
almoft immediately behind the cavity on each fide the
thorax. The dorfal fin, which is of a thin and foft
nature, runs from the head to within about an inch of
the tail, when it feems fuddenly to terminate, and a
bare fpace is left of about a quarter of an inch. I am,
however, not altogether without my doubts whether it
might not, in the living animal, have run on quite to
the tail, and whether the fpecimen might not have re¬
ceived fome injury in that part. From this place com¬
mences a fmaller fin which conftitutes part of the cau¬
dal one. The caudal fin itfelf is furnithed wfith five re¬
markable fpines, the roots or originations of which may
be traced to fome depth in the thin part of the tail.
The fifhes of this order have theirventral fins fitu^
ated before the peftoral fins, and, as it were, under the
throat. They are moftly inhabitants of the fea. Their
body is fometimes covered wfith fcales, and fometimes
not. With a very few exceptions, they have fpines in
the dorfal and anal fins $ and their gills have bony
rays.
Gen. I. CallioNYMUS. Calliony-
mus.
The upper lip doubled 5 eyes near each other •, the
gill-membrane fix-rayed ; two breathing apertures
in the hind part of the head ; opercula clofe} body
fcalelefs j ventral fins very diftant.
Gemmeous dragonet.— The firft: ray of the firft dorfal hjra.
fin as long as the body. In this beautiful fpecies, the
pupils of the eyes are of a rich fapphire, the irides of a
fine flame colour ; the pedloral fins light brown, and
the body yellow, blue, and white. “ The blue,” fays
Mr Pennant, “ is of an inexpreflible fplendour j the
richeft coerulean, glowing wfith a gemmeous brilliancy;
the throat black.” Dr Tyfon has defcribed it, in the
24th volume of the Philofophical Tranfaftions, under
the improper appellation of the yellow gurnard. It
grows to the length of 10 or 1 2 inches ; the body is
flender, round, and fmooth ; and the membranes of all
the fins extremely thin and delicate. It is found as far
north as Norway and Spitzbergen, and as far fouth as
the Mediterranean, and is not unfrequent on the Scar¬
borough coafts, where it is taken by the hook, in 30
or 40 fathoms water. It is often found in the ftomach
of the cod fifh. Its fleih is wfiiite, and well flavoured.
Rondelet compares it to that of the gudgeon. Pont-
oppidan, who never faw it, afferts, wfith his ufual cre¬
dulity, that it can fly in the air to the diftance of fe-
veral mufket (hot.
Sordid dragonet.—The rays of the firft dorfal fin dracuncu-
fhorter than the body. In moft other refpecls, it agrees Aj-.
v.’ith.the preceding.x
This genus likewife comprifes indie us, baikalenjis,
ocellatus, fagitta, and japoniens.
Gen. 2. UraNOSCOPUS. Uranofc-o.
pus.
Head deprefled ; rough and large, mouth turned up ;
the upper jaw fhorteft ; gill-membrane papillary and
^ L 2 '• dentated; .
84
Jugular
Fiflies.
fcaber.
I C H T H Y
dentated •, with fix rays, gill-covers membranaceous
, and ciliated 5 anus in the middle of the body.
Bearded flar-gazer.—Back fmooth j ufual length
ab- 'Ut 1 2 inches. 'L he head is large, fquarifh, and co¬
vered with a bony cafe. The mouth is wide, and opens
in an almoft vertical direction. The eyes are fituated
very near each other on the top of the head. A long
cirrhus or beard extends beyond the lips, which are
thdmfelves edged with fmaller ones ; frequenting (hal¬
lows near the fitores 5 it lies concealed in the mud, ex-
pofing only the tip of the head, and waving its beards
in various directions, and thus decoying the fmaller
fifties and marine infefts, which miftake thefe organs
for w7orms. It is faid to fleep during the day. Is found
chielly in the Mediterranean. Its flefh is white, but
tough, coarfe, and meagre.
O L O G Y.
above the peCloral fins.
japomcus. japanefe J}ar-ga%er. —Back rough, with a feries of
fpinous fcales. Body roundifti ; yellow above j wdiite
underneath. Native of the coafts-of Amboyna.
Trachinus. Gen. 3. TRACKINGS.
Head (lightly rough, compreffed j gill-membrane fix-
rayed ) inferior plate of the gill-covers ferrated $
vent near the breaft.
draco. Dragon weaver. Somewhat filvery hue, with tranf-
verfe yellowifti (freaks •, the firft: dorfal fin black, and
and five-rayed : 6f a lengthened ftiape, much compref¬
fed, and covered wuth fmall deciduous fcales. The
mouth and eyes, in refpeft of pofition, referable thofe
of the ftar-gazer. The ufual length of this fi(h is from
10 to 12 inches. It frequently imbeds itfelf in the
fand, and if trodden on, endeavours to wound the ag-
greffor wdth the fpines of its firft; dorfal fin. The punc¬
tures are very troublefome and painful, though it does
not appear that the fpines contain any poifonous mat¬
ter. It feeds principally on marine infeCfs, worms,
and fmall fifties, and is very tenacious of life, being ca¬
pable of exifting many hours out of the water. From
this circumftance the French call it vive and viver,
wrhich w^e have corrupted into weaver. It frequents
not only the Mediterranean, but the northern feas, and
is found abundantly on the coalts of Holland and Eaft
Friezeland. Its flefti is wTell flavoured, eafy of digef-
tion, and highly efteemed by the Dutch. The great¬
er w’eever, deferibed by Pennant, hardly deferves to be
confidered as a diftind fpecies.
ojbeckii. OJbeckian weaver. White, (potted with black ; both
jaws of equal length. Native of the Atlantic ^ found
about the ifle of Afcenfion, &c. and deferibed by Of-
beck in his voyage to China.
Gadus. 4- GADUS.
Head fmooth \ gill-membrane wdth feven round rays j
body oblong, wdth deciduous fcales \ fins covered wdth
a common (kin ; more dorfal and anal fins than one •,
the rays not prickly j the pedforal fins attenuated to
a point.
* With three dorfalJins, cirrhi at the mouth.
Kglfinus. Haddock. Whitiih ; the tail bilobated, the upper
jaw the longeft. Another diftinguilhing character may
be deduced from the large black fpot on each fide
Chap. IV.
Superftition aftigns this mark Jugular
to the impreflion which St Peter left with his finger Fiflies.
and thumb, when he took the tribute out of the mouth v
of a fifli of this fpecies, and which has been continued
to the w'hole race. The haddock is ufually of a mo¬
derate lize, meafuring about 18 inches or tw’o feet in
length, and the heft for the table weighing from two
to tour pounds. It is found in the northern feas in
prodigious ftioals, vifiting particular coafts at dated (ea-
fons, and for the moll part attended by immenfe
quantities of dog-fifh, which, with feals, and other in¬
habitants of the ocean, are its conllant devourers. Its
food confifls of fmall fiflies, worms, crabs, and fea
infefts, and it fattens on herrings. In January, it de-
pofits its fpawn on the fuci near the (hore, and is out of
feafon till May. Its flefli is white, firm, delicate, and
eafy of digeftion.
Doife. Varied, with an even tail, and upper jaw callarias.
longeft. Somewhat fmaller than the haddock, feidom
exceeding the wreight of two pounds. Its colour is
fubjeft to vary with age and feafons. It inhabits the
northern feas, the Baltic, and the Pflediterranean. Otto
Fabricius found in its ftomach the fea-fcorpion, fand-
eel, crabs, and difterent fpecies of fea-worms. It (pawns
in January and February, is taken both by the line and
net, and is reckoned delicate eating.
Common cod.—Tail nearly equal, the firft ray of the morhua.
anal fin armed with a fpine. This well-know n and im¬
portant fpecies, which yields food and wealth to large
diftridls of country, is found in immenfe Ihoals. It
meafures from two to three feet long, is of a cinereous
colour, with yellowifh (pots above and white below,
and has larger fcales than the other fpecies of this
genus. The young are fometimes reddifli, with orange-
coloured fpots. It feeds on fepite, crabs, and fiflies, not
even fparing its own fpecies, catching at any (mall body
it perceives moved by the wrater, and throwing up
wTat it does not digeft. Its range of climate lies prin¬
cipally between the latitudes 50° and 66°. The great
rendezvous of cod is on the banks of Newfoundland,
and the other fand-banks that lie oft the coafts of Cape
Breton, Nova Scotia, and New England. This fiftr
likewife abounds off the Hebrides, Ireland, the coaft of
Flolland, &c. and is generally fatted and moft numer¬
ous where the greatefl: fea runs. In our feas they be¬
gin to (pawn in January; though fome continue in
roe till the beginning of April. As they recover foon-
er after fpawning than moft other fifli, it is cuftomary
to take fome good ones all the fummer. When out of
feafon they are thin-tailed and loufy j and the lice
chiefly fix themfelves on the infide of their mouths.
Thofe mod efteemed for the table are of a middling-
fize, and are chofen by their plumpnefs and roundnefs,
efpecially near the tail, by the depth of the furrow be¬
hind the head, and by the regular undulated appear¬
ance of the (ides, as if they were ribbed. The glutin¬
ous parts about the head lofe their delicate flavour after
it has been four-and-twenty hours out of the water.
The fi(h itfelf dies on being removed from falt-w^ater,
or put into frefti. The fiftiermen are well acquainted
with the ufe of the air-bladder, and dexteroufly perfor¬
ate the living fifli with a needle, in order to let out the
air j for without this operation the fi(h could not be
kept under water in the well-boats, and brought frefti
to market. The founds, when falted, are reckoned a
delicacy,
Chap. IV.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Jugular delicacy, and are often brought in this date from New-
, Ftflics. foundland. Tlie Icelanders prepare from this part of
the fifh a fpecies of ifinglafs. Pennant makes men¬
tion of a cod taken at Scarborough in 1755, which was
five feet eight inches in length, and weighed 78
pounds. But the general weight of thefe fiih in the
Yorkfhire feas is from 14 to 40 pounds.
iufcus. Bib.—The firft ray of the ventral fin fetaceous ;
about a foot long j body deep, and fides compreffed ;
eyes covered with a loofe membrane, fo as to be blown
up at the pleafure of the animal. The mouth is fmall,
and under the chin is a cirrhus about an inch long.
Native of the European feas, and prized as an article of
food.
barbatus. Whiting pout.—Seven pun&ures on each fide of the
lower jaw. Much deeper in proportion to its length
than any of the genus, rarely exceeding a foot in
length ; and one of that fize being nearly four inches
• in the broadeft part. Inhabits the Mediterranean and
northern feas ; burrows in the fand, and feeds on the
blenny, falmon, and even young crabs. Its flelh is
white and delicate, but fomewhat dry.
tmnutus. Boor.—Vent in the middle of the body. Little
more than fix inches long •, a fmall beard on the chin,
and the eyes covered with a loofe membrane. The
abdomen is lined with a black peritonaeum. The poor
is fuppofed to feed chiefly on worms and infebls, or on
the young and foft teftaceous animals. It occurs in the
Baltic and Mediterranean, and in fome parts of the
northern feas. It is reckoned a wholefome food, but is
not fit for being falted or dried.
blennidi- Blennoidgadus.—With didaclyle ventral fins. Has
des. the habit of a whiting, and frequents the Mediterra¬
nean.
faida. Saida gadus.—Bluifh, wuth brown back, white abdo¬
men, and the fecond ray of the ventral fins terminating
in a long briftle. Length about eight inches. Eatable,
but dry and juicelefs. A native of the White fea.
* * Three dorfalJins, and no cirrhi.
virens. Green gadus.—Greenifh back and forked tail. Near¬
ly refembles the pollack. Abounds in the northern
feas.
merlan- Whiting.—White •, the upper jaw longefl. Ufual
gus. length about ten or twelve inches, and the largeft fel-
dom exceeding twenty. Specimens from four to eight
pounds in weight have been taken in the deep water at
the edge of the Dogger bank. It is a fifh of an ele¬
gant make ; the body rather long, and covered with
fmall round filvery fcales ; the head and back are of a
pale brown, and the fides are {lightly {Leaked with yel¬
lows Though found in the Baltic, it is much more
numerous in the north feas, and appears in Ihoals on
the coafts of Holland, France, and England, during
the fpring, keeping at the dillai «< of from half a mile
to three miles from the fliore. The whiting feeds on
fmall crabs, worms, and young fifties, and is particular¬
ly fond of fprats and young herrings, with which the
fiftiermen generally bait for it, and in default of them,
with pieces of frefti herring. This fpecies begins to
fpawn at the end of the year, and continues to the be¬
ginning of February. Its flefti is white, tender, and
delicate j but infipid when the fifti is out of feafon.
The chief time of the whiting fifhery in France is in
January and February, though in England and Holland Jugular
it is pra6lifed at a much later period. ,
Coaljifh.—The under jaw longefl:, the lateral car})0na
ftraight. When full grown, this fpecies will frequent- ■
ly meafure two feet and a half in length, and four or1
five inches in breadth, and is diftinguiftied from its
congeners by its very dark or black colour, though
the young are brown or olive. It is of an elegant
tapering ftiape, with a pretty large and forked tail.
It inhabits the Baltic, the northern, and Mediterranean
feas, and fwarms round our rocky and deep coafts, par¬
ticularly thofe of Scotland and the Orkneys, affording
by its fry, lubfiftence to numbers of the poor. In its full
grown (fate it is coarfe food.
Pollack.—The under jaw7 longeft, the lateral linepollachius,
curved. This fpecies is broad, and of a brown colour;
feeds chiefly on fmall fifties, efpecially launces; and
feldom grows to a very large fize, though fome have
been taken at Scarborough wdiich weighed nearly 28
pounds. It is found in the Baltic and northern fea,
and is very common on many of our rocky coafts.
During fummer it is feen frolicking on the furface of
the water, and will.bite at any thing that appears on
the top of the waves. It is reckoned a good eating
fifti.
* * *
With two dorfalJins.
llake.—Beardlefs; the under jaw longeft. Con- merlucci*
fiderably lengthened, meafuring from one to two feet;us-
the body pale afti-colour on the back, and whitifti on
the fides and abdomen. This fifti, wdiich is very vora¬
cious, frequents the Mediterranean and northern fea1:.
Its flefti is eatable and flaky, but little efteemed. It is
falted and dried as food for the lower orders of people.
One of the moft confiderable hake-fiftieries is carried
on about the coafts of Brittany, both by the hook and
net. It is pra&ifed chiefly by night. The baits prin¬
cipally ufed are launces, fardines, and other fmall fifties.
Ling.—Bearded; the upper jaw7 longeft. Long and wo/z/uk
{lender ; the fides and back fometimes of an olive hue,
and fometimes cinereous ; abdomen and ventral fins-
W'hite, and the tail marked near the end with a tranf-
verfe black bar, and tipped with white. Its ordinary
length is from three to four feet, but it wall fometimes
grow to feven. It is an inhabitant of the northern
feas, chiefly frequenting .deep w7ater, living on fmall
fifties, Ihrimps, &c.; and depofiting its fpawm in June,
among the fuci in oozy bottoms. In the Yorkftiire
feas, it is in perfection from the beginning of February
to the beginning of May, during which feafon the liver
is very wdiite, and abounds w7ith a fine flavoured oil.
In many places ling is falted both for exportation and
home confumption. An excellent ifinglafs is prepared
from its found.
I.everian gadus.—Somewhat cinereous, wuth ocellated 1
whitifti {pots. Suppofed to be a native of the Southern eveil'
ocean. us'
Whitijh gadus .-—Bearded ; ventral fins didadyle and albidus.
elongated. Inhabits the Mediterranean.
Toad gadus.—Bearded; gill-covers with thjee fpines; tau.
the firft dorfal fin with three rays. Native of the Ame¬
rican and Indian feas.
Burbat.—Bearded; the jaws of equal length. Body /ota
much lengthened, fomewhat cylindrical, of a brownith-
yellow
'nan*
1
mujlela.
cimbrius.
mediter-
raneus.
brofme.
BJennius.
gabrita.
cri/latus.
cornutus.
ocellar is.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Chap. IV.
yellow colour, and wliite below; but tbe (hades vary at
different feafons, and in different individuals. It is a
fre(h-water fi(h, affe&ing clear lakes and rivers ; feed¬
ing voracioufly on all the fmaller fifties, as well as on
frogs, worms, and aquatic infedts $ (pawning in the
fined feafon of the year, and rapidly attaining to full
growth. The larged which are taken in England rare¬
ly exceed the weight of three pounds ; but in fome
parts of Europe they are found of more than double
that weight, and of the length of three feet and more.
They occur in great plenty and perfedlion in the lake
of Geneva, and are by no means rare in many places
in Europe, Siberia, and India. In England it frequents
the lakes of the northern counties, fome of the Lincoln-
(liire fens, and the rivers Witham and Trent. Its fledi
is white, delicate, and eafy of digedion ; and its liver,
when in feafon, is reputed a peculiar dainty. Aldro-
vandus makes mention of an old German countefs who
expended the greated part of her income in the pur-
chafe of this difti. According to Black the burbot
filhery once proved fo produ&ive in the Oder, that the
fatted were cut into narrow thongs, which were dried,
and ufed as matches.
IVeafel gadus, Jive-bearded cod, or whi/ilejijh.—Five
cirrhi; the fird dorfal fin incomplete. Grows to near¬
ly 19 inches : feeds on the tedaceous and crudaceous
marine animals 5 depofits its fpawn in autumn 3 is
covered with mucus and very thin fcales 3 and is of
a brownidi yellow colour, with black fpots, and white
below. The tricirratus and the rujicus are only vari¬
eties of this fpecies.
Cimbrian gadus.—Four cirrhi 3 fird dorfal fin in¬
complete, with the fird ray hadated. Nearly allied to
the preceding. Native of the Atlantic and northern
feas.
brown broad dorfal fin, marked by a black ocellated Jugular
fpot. Length about fix or eight inches. Inhabits the * ‘fo08, ,
Mediterranean, among the rocks and fea-plants near
the (hore. Its flefh is meagre and not much edeemed.
Fafdated b/entiy.—Two limple cirrhi between thefafeiatus.
eyes 3 the vent fin with 19 rays. Native of the Indian
feas.
Salient blenny Brown, dreaked with black, with •3./aliens.
fimple cirrhus on the head, and very large pe&oral
fins. Obferved by Commerfon about fome of the
fouthern iflands, particularly thofe of New Britain. It
was feen fwimming by hundreds 3 and, as it were, flying
over the furface of the water, occafionally fpringing up
and down with great rapidity among the rocks.
Gattorugine.—Small palmated fins on the eyebrowsgaltorugU'
and nape. Inhabits the Mediterranean and Atlantic 3 ne%
and is reckoned eatable.
Supercilious blenny.—With palmated fuperciliaryfupercilio-
cirrhi, the lateral line curved. Grows to the lengthfus.
of about twelve inches 3 is viviparous 3 and inhabits the
Indian feas.
Tentaculated blenny—A fimple cirrhus over the eyes, tentacular
and a large ocellated fpot on the back fin. Nearly al- r{Sm
lied to the horned fpecies 3 and is found in the Medi¬
terranean.
Simous blenny.—With a very fmall cirrhus over the/mus.
eyes 3 dorfal fin united behind to the caudal fin, and
crookad lateral line. Length about three inches and
a half. Defcribed by Swief, from a fpecimen in the
mufeum of the Peterburgh Academy.
Hale blenny, or forked hake.—Noftrils fome what phycis.
crefted, a cirrhus on the upper lip, and two dorlal fins.
Grows to be eighteen inches long ; inhabits the Medi¬
terranean, and occurs on the coaft of Cornwall. Im¬
properly claffed by Pennant among the gadi.
* * * * With one dorfalfin.
* * Head plain, or crefilefs.
Mediterranean gadus.—Two cirrhi on the upper
lip, and one on the lower. Native of the Mediterra¬
nean. Confidered by La Cepede as a blenmus.
Torfk, or tvfk.—Mouth bearded 3 tail oval and acute.
About twenty inches in length 3 colour of the head
duficy, of the back and fides yellow, of the belly white.
Inhabits the northern feas, about the Shetland iflands,
and is not obferved lower than the Orkneys. Both
barrelled and dried, it forms a confiderable article of
commerce.
Gen. 5. Blennius.
Head (loping, and covered with fcales 3 gill-membrane
fix-rayed ; body lanceolate; ventral fins with two
fpinelefs proceffes, the anal fin detached.
* Math crefied head.
Crefiedblenny—Creft: tranfverfe, and (kinny. Length
about four or five inches 3 body long, comprefled, and
llippery. The creft ereSed or depreffed at pleafure.
Inhabits the European feas, and is (ometimes found
about the rocky coafts of Great Britain.
Pz/ttrt/Tr.—-Longitudinal fetaceous creft between the
eyes. Native of the Indian feas.
Horned blenny.—-Simple ray between the eyes ; and
fingle dorfal fin. Inhabits the Indian feas.
Ocellated blenny.—Bluellh-green 3 fubfafeiated with
1
Trifurcated blenny, or trifurcated hake.—Brown trifurca^
with white lips, and three-rayed open ventral fins./aj-.
Much allied to gadus tau; was firft difeovered by Mr
Davies near Beaumaris, and defcribed by Mr Pennant
as a gadus.
Fundulated blenny.—Whitifh, fcaly, with irregular
brown points, and elongated ventral fins. Head large 3 tus.
fize about five inches. Defcribed from a fpecimen in
the Paris mufeum.
Smooth blenny.—The lateral line curved, and ido-pholis.
bifid. This fpecies, which frequents the northern and
Mediterranean feas, lying among (tones and fea-weed,
and occafionally entering the mouths of rivers, wall
grow to the length of feven or eight inches, but is
ufually much fmaller. It bites fiercely, when firft taken,
and is fo tenacious of life, that it may be kept 24 hours
out of water. It feeds on (mailer fifties and their
fpawm, as well as on inell-fifh, fea-infefts, &c. It fe
fmooth, and covered with mucus. Being a coarfe fifli,
it is principally ufed as bait.
Brfcian blcnny.—Olivaceous, with brown and rvhitifti bofcianus.
clouds 3 vent in the middle of the body. Very much
allied to the preceding. Native of the American feas,
and very common in the bay of Charleftown. It has
its name from M. Bofc, by whom it was difeovered.
Gunnel, /potted blcnny, or butter fifii.—The Aoxizlgemellus.
fin marked with ten ocellated black fpots. ^ About
nine or ten inches in length 3 head (mall, body com-
preffed,
Chap. IV.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
87
Thoracic
Fillies.
mujlelaris.
viviparus.
lutnpcnus.
ramnus.
murcenoi-
des.
Kurtus.
indicus.
prefled, and the colour of tlie body yellow-brown,
clouded and freckled with deeper fpecks. This fpecies
inhabits the Baltic, Mediterranean, and northern feas.
Though coarfe, it is often dried and eaten by the
Greenlanders. The number of fpots on the back fin
varies from nine to twelve.
Weafel blenmj.—The anterior dorfal fin three-rayed.
Native of the Indian feas.
Viviparous hlenmj.—Two tentacula at the mouth. Is
fometimes found of the length of a foot, or even of 15
inches. Of a fomewhat flender form, with a fmooth
flippery fkin, covered with fmall fcales of a yellowilh
olive colour, paler beneath, and marked on the upper
parts by feveral moderately large dufky fpots, forming
a kind of bars on the dorfal fin and over the back.
The rays of all the fins are foft. This fpecies is a lit¬
toral fiih, frequenting the coafts of the Mediterranean,
Baltic, and northern feas; fometimes entering the mouths
of rivers, and feeding like its congeners on the fmaller
fifties, infefts, &c. Its ova are hatched internally, and
the young acquire their perfect form before the time of
their birth. Not lefs than two or even three hundred
of thefe have been fometimes obferved in a Angle fifti.
When the latter is advanced in its pregnancy, it is
fcarcely poflible to touch the abdomen without caufing
the immediate exclufion of fome of the young, which
are immediately capable of fwimming with great viva¬
city. It probably breeds more than once in the courfe
of the year j at lead naturalifts have afligned different
feafons to the production of its young. Its flefh is
white and fat ; but a prejudice has been entertained
againft it, becaufe the bones, like thofe of the gar-fifh,
become green by boiling. According to the obferva-
tion of Linnaeus, they are alfo phofphorefcent in the
dark.
jdreolated hlcnny.—Yellowifh, with fubcylindric bo¬
dy, marked on the back by brown patches. Inhabits
the deep fandy Ihores of the Mediterranean, and con¬
ceals itfelf among fuel, ftones, &c. Sometimes grows
to 10 or 12 inches.
Frog blenmj.—Brown, wTith obfeurely fix-cleft ven¬
tral fins, and gular cirrhus. Native of the northern
feas and of the Swedifii lakes ^ in habit refembling the
gadus tau. Is not eatable, and is faid to frighten avvay
other fifh.
Murienoidbienm/.—Gill-membrane three-rayed j ven¬
tral fins one-rayed, with very minute fpines. Body
compreffed, fword-ftiaped, fmooth, and without vifible
fcales. Defcribed by Swief from a fpecimen in the
Mufeum of the Peterfburgh academy.
Gen. 6. Kurtus.
Body carinated above and below, back elevated, gill-
membrane two-rayed.
Indian hurtus.—Silvery with gold-coloured back.
Inhabits the Indian feas. Length, including the tail,
about ten inches, and the greateft breadth fomewhat
more than four- inches. Feeds on fhell-fifti, fmall
crabs, &c.
III. THORACIC.
a noracie
generally voracious, preying on other fifties; they are
moftly inhabitants of the lea 5 and their (kins, with a , ^ ‘^ies-
few exceptions, are furnilhed with leales. None of them
are viviparous.
Gen. 1. Cupola. Caepola,
Head roundith and compj-effed j mouth turnfrig up, a
fingle row of curved teeth •, gill-membrane fix-rayedp
body fword-lhaped and fcalelefsj the abdomen fcarce¬
ly fo long as the head.
Common bandjijh ribband-Jifh, or tape-fi/K— taenia*.
Caudal fin attenuated, head very obtufe. Very thin,
and almoft tranfparent, fo that its vertebrae are vifible.
Grows to the. length of four or five feet. It fwims
tvith rapidity, and haunts the muddy or weedy Ihores
of the Mediterranean. Scarcely eatable, having little
or no flefti.
Rube/cent band-Jifh.—Caudal fin attenuated, jaws rubefeens* .
pointed. A rare fpecies, and not very diftinflly de¬
fcribed by authors. It is faid to inhabit the Mediter¬
ranean.
The other fpecies are tracJnjptera and hermanniana.
Gen. 2. Gymnetrus. Gymnetrus^
Body very long and compreffed j teeth numerous and
fubulate ; gill-membrane four or five-rayed $ anal fin
wanting.
Afcanian gymnetrus.—Silvery, fpeckled longitudi-
nally with brown points, and with the ventral cirrhi
dilated at the tips. This Angular fifh, which is but im¬
perfectly defcribed in the leones Rerum Natura/ium of
Profeffor Afcanius, is diftinguilhed by the peculiar con¬
formation of its ventral fins, which have more the ap¬
pearance of long fingle rays or proceffes terminated by
a fmall ovate and expanded tip. It is faid either to
precede or accompany the ftioals of herrings in the nor¬
thern feas, and is popularly denominated king of the
herrings. That defcribed by Dr Shaw from a draw¬
ing and notes in the poffeffion of Dr Ruffel, is perhaps
either a variety or fexual difference of the afeanian.
Hawhinfan or Blochian gymnetrus.—Bluilh, filvery, hawkenil*
with oblique, linear, brown bands, and rounded fpots,
red fins, and four long ventral proceffes. Defcribed
by Dr Bloch, from a drawing communicated by J.
Hawkins, Efq. In general appearance, much allied
to the other kinds of gymnetrus; from which, how'ever,.
it is readily diftinguifhed by its two pair of ventral pro-
cefles with their finny extremities, and large diftant
round fpots on the body. A native of the Indian feas.
A fpecimen w^as thrown on the coaft of Cornwall in
February 1798.
Cepedian gymnetrus.—Defcribed by La Cepede, from lanceQla.
a coloured Chinefe drawing, therefore very imperfectly tus
known.
G,en. 3. VANDELLIUS. Vandellius,
Body very long and fvvord-fhaped ; gill membrane five
or fix-rayed ; teeth fubulate, and thofe in front lar-
geft.
Lufitanian vahdel.—Silvery, with forked tail. Oc- lufuanicus
The fifties of this order have the ventral fins at the curs, though very rarely, in the Mediterranean and
breaft, or nearly under the peftoral fins. They are Atlantic fea?. It has been fometimes taken near Lif«
bom.
88 I C H T £[ Y
Thoracic bon. Dr VTandelli confiders it as nearly related to the
, genus trichiurus. There is in the Britifh Mufeum a
dried fpecimen, which is four feet eight inches in length,
the breadth three inches and a half, and the thicknefs
very flight in proportion.
Gen. 4. Echeneis.
Head oily, naked, and depreffed, flat above, and emar-
ginated, tranfverlely fulcated, and the fulci ferratedj
gill-membrane ten-rayed •, body fcaleiefs.
remora. Mediterranean remora, or fncking-fijlj.—~Tail fork¬
ed ; head with eighteen ftriaj or bars. This number,
however, is fubjett to vary, and cannot be fafely af-
fumed as a certain charafter. Grows to the length of
about eighteen inches, and is ufually of an uniform
brown colour. It is remarkable for the apparatus on
its head, by which it firmly adheres to rocks, (hips, or
animals, being incapable of fwimming eaiily to any
confiderable diflance. From this adhefive property
arofe the marvellous account of the ancients, who al-
ledged that the remora could arreft a ihip under full
fail in the midfi: of the ocean. They alfo pretended,
that it completely lubdued the paflion of love. Five
individuals of this fpecies have been found faflened to
the body of a fingle (hark. The latter fiih, it is faid,
will not fwailow them. The Indians of Cuba and Ja¬
maica formerly kept and fed fucking-fid.es for the pur-
pofes ol catching others. The owner, on a calm morn¬
ing, would carry one of them out to fea, fecured to his
canoe by a fmall but ftrong line, many fathoms in
length } the creature faftened on the firft fifli in its
way. The Indian, meanwhile, loofened and let go the
line, which was provided with a buoy to mark the courfe
which the fucking-fiflr had taken •, and he purlued it
in his canoe, until he perceived his game to be nearly
exhaufted. Fie then gradually drew the line towards
the fliore, the remora fiill fo inflexibly adhering to his
prey, as not eafily to be removed. Oviedo fays, he has
known turtle taken by this mode, of a weight that no
fingle man could fupport. This fpecies inhabits the
ocean and the Mediterranean. Its flefli is faid to tafte
like fried artichokes.
neucrates. Indian remora, or longcjl fucking-jijh. Tail entire j
24 bars on the head. Occurs more frequently in the
Indian and American leas than in thofe of Europe, and
is very common about the Mozambique coaft, where
it is uied in catching turtle. It is found of the length
of two or three feet, or even of feven. The upper parts
of the body are olive green, and the under parts are
whitifh. Its flelh is-tough and meagre.
lineata. Lineated re?nora.—Tail wedge-fuaped 5 head with
ten bars, two longitudinal white lines on each fide of
the body. Inhabits the Pacific ocean.
Coryphaena. Gen. 5. CORl PH.SCNA.
Flead much floping and truncated ; gill membrane five-
rayed ; the dorfal fin of the length of the back.
hippurus.
Common coryphene, or dolphin. Forked tail. In¬
habits the Mediterranean, Indian, and Atlantic feas,
often appearing in large ihoals, playing round Ihips,
and eagerly devouring any articles of food that happen
to be thrown overboard. It will even Ivvallow indi-
geftible fuhftances, fuch as iron nails, &.c. Like its
2
O L O G Y. Chap. IV,
congeners, it exhibits fplendid and vivid hues in the Thoracic
water, being of a bright and beautiful blue-green, ac- *~lf1ie8,
companied by a golden glofs. When taken out of v
the water, this fine combination of colouring gradually
vanilhes with the principle of life. Its ordinary length
is about three feet ; but it is often feen of four, or even
five feet in length. It is firong and voracious, purfuingthe
fmaller fillies, and efpecially perfeculing the flying-filh.
In fpring and autumn it frequents (bores, to depofit its
fpavvn. As its flelh is much efieemed, it is taken both
with the line and net. Though popularly called dol¬
phin, it is not to be confounded with the delphinus of
the ancients.
Of the following, which more or lefs referable the
preceding, the hiftory is too obfcure to detain us ;
equifetis, plumieri, c cent lea, pentadudyla, novacula, chry-
furus, pompihis, fofciolata, velifera, pfittacus, fcombe-
roides, acuta, Jima, Virens, hemiptera, branckiojlega,
japonica, clypeata, lineata, and JinenJis.
Gen. 6. Macrocerus. Macrocerut
Head and eyes large j body at the hind part attenuated
into the tail.
Long-tailed imminfet. Two dorial fins, of which the mpejlru*
firft has the firft ray toothed at the back. This is the
corypheena rupejlris of Linnaeus.—-It chiefly occurs a-
bout the coafis of Greenland and Iceland, where it is
regarded as a dainty. The head is large and thick,
and the body is covered with rounded fcales, each of
which is furnilhed with a toothed carina, ending in a
pointed tip, fo that the hand is wounded by drawing it
over the filh from the tail towards the head. When ta¬
ken, its body fwells, as if with rage, and its eyes projeft
in a hideous manner.
Gen. 7. GOBIUS. Gohiiw.'
Head fmall, wfith two approximated pores between the
eyes, one pore placed before the other j gill-mem¬
brane four-rayed ; body fmall, comprefied on both
fides, covered with fmall fcales, and furnifhed with
a pimple behind the vent ; the ventral fins coalefcing
into an oval lhape \ two dorfal fins.
Common, or black goby, fea gudgeon, or miller''s- niger.
thumb. Fourteen rays in the fecond dorfal fin. Grows
to the length of fix inches. The body is wedge-lhaped,
foft, and llippery, and overfpread with fmall dulky or
blackilh fpecks.—This fpecies is faid to affix itfelf to
the rocks by the union of its ventral fins in the form of
a funnel, from w’hich circumftance it is fometimes call¬
ed rock-fjh. It is a native of the Mediterranean and
fouthern feas, frequenting the (bores in the beginning
of fummer, when it depofits its fpawn. It is edible,
but not held in particular eftimation.
To this numerous genus alfo belong bicolor, cruenta-
tus, paganellus, arabicus, nebulofus, eleotris, aphya,
minutus, jo%o, pe&inirofris, fchlojferi, melanurus, bod-
daerti, lagocephalus, cyprinoides, lanceolatus, bofeii, c<e-
rulens, broujfoneti, plumieri, ocellaris, ater, and anguil-
laris.
Gen. 8. Gobiomorus. Gobiomo.
rus.
Habit as in the preceding genus j ventral fins difiinft.
Southern gobiomore. Qobrius Jlrigatm of Linnaeus. QUjirti}itt
Blue
Chap. IV. I C H t H Y 0 L O G Y.
Thoracic Blue gfeen, xvitli red fpots ; wIiitiiTi beneath
negated with yellow, and the fins with red.-
the fouthern ocean.
Fifhes.
; head va-
-Native of
Gen. 10. ScORPiEVA.
89
Thoracic
Fifhes.
Cottirt.
Gen. 9. Cottus.
Ilead broader than the body, and armed with fpines $
eyes vertical, furnilhed with a ni£Htating membrane $
gill-membrane fix-rayed ; body round, without fcales,
attenuated towards the tail 5 dorfal fins more than one,
tataphrac- Mailed or armed bull-head, or pogge. Covered with
tus. a hard cruft j two bifid warts on the roftrura ; head fur¬
nilhed with cirrhi below. General length about five or
fix inches. The head large, bony, and rugged •, the
body oftagonal, and covered with a number of ftrong
bony crufts.—Frequents the European feas, and is
plentiful on our own coalts, living on w orms and water
infe£ts, particularly young crabs, and fpawning in the
month of May. It is dreffed for the table, but not
efteemed a luxury.
quadricer- Four-horned bull-head, with four bony tubercles on
nis. the head.—Native of the Mediterranean, Baltic, and
northern feas. Ufed chiefly as a bait.
grunniens. Grunting bull-head. Throat dragged with cirrhi \
body naked.—When firft taken, it utters, like fome of
the gurnards, a kind of abrupt grunting found, by the
fudden expulfion of air from the internal cavities,
through the gill-covers and mouth. It is reckoned ef-
culent but the liver is faid to be hurtful. Native of
the Indian and American feas.
Jcorpius. lafh er bull head, or father-lajher. Several fpines on
the head j the upper jaw rather longer than the lower.
Inhabits the Mediterranean, and the northern ocean of
Europe and America.—It is very ftrong, fwims with
great rapidity, and is very voracious, preying on the
blennies, cod, herring, falmon, as well as on fmaller
fifhes and infedls. It is very frequent in Greenland,
where it fometimes attains to the length of fix feet,
and where it is much reliflied as an article of food. It
is faid to be able to live a confiderable time out of wTa-
ter, having the power of doling the gill-covers fo as to
exclude the effeds of atmofpheric air. Like the grunt¬
ing bull-head, it utters a ftrong found when firft
taken.
go to. River bull-head, or miller's thumb. Smooth, with
two fpines on the head.—Inhabits the clear rivers and
brooks of Europe and Siberia, generally lying on the
gravel, or concealing itfelf beneath the ftones, preying
on wmrms, w^ater infeds, and very young fifties. It
depofits its fpawn in March or April. In this country
its length feldom exceeds three inches and a half; but
in other parts of Europe it feems to arrive at a fuperior
fize, and is even found of the length of feven inches.
It is of a yellow olive colour, has a large head, flippery
fkin, and tapers to the tail. It is moft readily caught
during the night, and its flefli, which growrs red by
boiling, is efteemed good and wholefome.
injuliator, In/idious bull-head. Head marked above by fharp
lines, and on each fide by two fpines.—Native of the
Arabian feas, in which it conceals itfelf under the fand,
and fprings on fuch of the fmaller fifhes as happen to
approach its haunts.
To this genus alfo appertain japonicus, majji-
licnjis, monoptenjgius, madagafcarienfis, niger, and au-
Jlralis.
VOL. XI. Part I.
Head large, aculeated, cirrhated, obtufe, fcalelefs, andScorpaena.
fubcompreffed j eyes approximated •, teeth in the
jaws, palate, and fauces j gill membrane feven-ray-
ed y body flefhy y one dorfal fin, long y the firft rays
fpinous.
Porcine fcorpana, little fea fcorpion, or fea devil.—porcus.
Cirrhi at the eyes and noftrils. Common in the Medi¬
terranean. Seldom exceeds a foot in length. Wounds
with the fpines of its dorfal fin. Flefh tough, and
fcarcely eatable.
Rufous fcorpcena, or larger fea fcorpion.—Two cirrhifcrofa.
on the under lip. Larger than the preceding, being
fometimes four feet in length. It preys not only on
the fmaller fifhes, but, occafionally, on marine birds.
Inhabits the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and northern
feas.
Horrid fcorpcena.—Scattered over with callous tu-/zomytf
bercles. Of a very uncouth and forbidding afpeft.
Meafures from 12 to 15 inches in length, and inhabits
the Indian feas.
Flying fcorpcena.—Thirteen rays in the dorfal fin ; V0Htanu
fix cirrhi, the pedloral fins longer than the body. Like
fillies of the exocaetus and trigla genus, it ufes its pec¬
toral fins for the purpofes of occafional flight. Native
of the rivers of Japan, Amboyna, &c. where it is rec¬
koned excellent food.
Befides the preceding, naturalifts reckon plumieri,
cotnmerfonii, bicapillata, brachiata, aculeata, barbaia,
antennata, capenjis, fpinofa, and americana.
Zeusi
Native olinjidiator*
Gen. it. Zeus.
Head comprefied, and Hoping; upper lip arched with
a tranfverfe membrane ; tongue fubulated ; gill mem¬
brane with feven perpendicular rays, the loweft tranf¬
verfe y body compreffed, thin, and fhining, the rays
of the firft dorfal fin ending in filaments.
Braflian dory.—The fecond ray of the dorfal and vomer.
anal fin very long. Of a rhomboidal fliape, about fix
or eight inches long, very thin, and fcalelefs. Native
of the American feas, and fometimes feen in thofe of
the north of Europe. Edible, but not much in re-
queft.
In/idious dory.—With a narrow mouth,
the rivers and frefh waters of India.
Indian dory.—The tenth ray of the dorfal and the fe- //
cond of the anal fin longer than the body. Native of^ US‘
the American and Indian feas.
Ciliated dory.—With fome of the rays in the dorfal cv'/Wx.
and anal fin very long. Native of the Indian feas.
Common dory.—'.The tail rounded ; a brown central^/,
fpot on each fide of the body ; two anal fins. Grows^
to nearly 18 inches in length, and weighs from 10 to
12 pounds. The head is abrupt, the mouth wide, the
back much arched, and ftarniftied with a row' of ftrono-
fmall prickles. The body is covered with very minute
fcales, dufky brown above, and of a Ihining greenifli
yellow' on the fides. ‘ We are indebted (fays Mr Pen¬
nant) to that judicious aftor and bon vivant, the late
Mr Quin, for adding a moft delicious filh to our table,
who overcoming all the vulgar prejudices on account of
its deformity, has effeclually eftablilhed its reputation.’
M The
9^
Thoracic
Fifbe?.
aper.
op ah.
quadratus.
Fleuronec-
^es.
hppoghf-
nts.
zynogtof-
jus.
pjaiejfa.
I e H T H Y
Tke dory is extremely voracious, and, when firft taken,
makes the fame kind of found, as the gurnards and
fcorpaenas. It is a native of the Mediterranean, Atlan¬
tic, and northern feas. It is jfifhed on the fouthern
coafts of England 5 but the largeft are found in the bay
of Bifcay.
Red dory.—Tail even; body reddlfli. Refembles the
preceding, but is much fmaller. Native of the Medi¬
terranean.
Opch dory.—Tail fomewhat lunated $ body reddiflr,
with white fpots. This beautiful fpecies meal’ures from
four to five feet in length •, the general colour fome-
times a brilliant filvery green, and fometimes a bright
gold colour, variegated with pretty numerous, and mo¬
derately large, oval white fpots $ while the fins and tail
are bright fcarlet. It is the %cus luna of Linmeus.
Found, though rarely, in the Mediterranean and north¬
ern feas.
Square dory.—Tail even-, body cinereous, with tranf-
v*rfe dulky bars. Native of the coafls of Jamaica.
Gen. 12. Pleuronectes.
Head fmall 5 eyes fpherical, both on the fame fide of
the head, and near each other ; mouth arched ; jaws
with teeth, and unequal j gill-membrane, with four
to feven rays; the gill-cover, in mod of the fpecies,
confiding of three plates j body comprefled, carina-
ted j the one fide fomewhat convex, anfwering to
the back j the other, of a paler colour, to the belly j
the vent nearer the head than the tail.
The filhes of this genus are remarkable for having
both eyes on one fide of the head -, and they are divid¬
ed, into two feftions, according as they have the eyes
towards the right, when the animal is laid with its co¬
loured fide upwards, with its abdomen towards the fpec-
tator \ or to the left, when the fifh is in the fame fitua-
tion.
* With eyes towards the right.
Halibut.—The whole body fmooth. Dufky above,
pure white beneath. Narrow in refped! to its length.
Individuals have been taken on the Engliih coaft, which
weighed from 200 to 300 pounds j and the Icelanders
have caught fome which weighed 400 pounds. Olafsen
mentions, that he faw one w'hich meafured five ells ;
and we are told by the Norwegian fifhermen, that a
fingle holibut will fometimes cover a whole fkiff. This
fpecies, then, is more entitled to the epithet maximus,
than that to which it is applied. Though it inhabits
the Mediterranean, it arrives at a larger fize in the
northern feas of Europe and America. It is fo voraci¬
ous, that it devours rays, crabs, haddocks, and even
lump-fifh, of which itfeems to be vejy fond. The part
of the body neareft the fins, is fat and delicate, but
forfeitingthe reft of the fifh is regarded as coarfe
food. The Greenlanders cut it into thin flips, and dry
them in the fun. This fifh depofits its fpawn in fpring,
among rocks near the fhore.
Smaller holibut.—Body fmooth, oblong j teeth ob-
tufe tail roundifh. Very like the preceding, but fmall¬
er, and more reliftred as an article of food. Native of
the northern feas.
Rlalfe.—Body fmooth, with fix tubercles on the
head. Readily diftinguilhed by its very broad and flat
O L O G Y. Chap. IV.
fliape, its pale brown colour above, and the orange-co- Thoracic
loured fpots with which it is marked. One of eight or , *t
nine pounds is reckoned a large fith, though inftances
occur of their weighing 15 pounds. They fpawn in
the beginning of May, and are common in the Baltic
and northern feas. The beft are faid to be taken off
Rye, on the Suffex coaft, and near Holland. They
are in confiderable requeft in the fifh-market, though
far inferior to the foie and turbot.
Flounder.—With a .rough lateral line, and a feries oijlcfus.
fpines at the bafe of the fins. Eafily diftinguifhed from
the reft of the genus by the fpecific charatfter ; and very
generally known, as it inhabits every part of the Bri-
tifti fea, and even frequents our rivers at a confiderable
diftance from fait water. It likewife occurs in the
northern, Baltic, and Mediterranean feas. In fize, it
is much inferior to the plaife but it affords a light and
wholefome food.
Dab.—Scales ciliated; fmall fpines at the origin o{limand«r
the dorfal and anal fins \ teeth obtufe. Of a very-
broad, ovate ftiape, yellowifh brown above, and white
beneath. Inhabits the fame feas as the plaife and floun¬
der 5 but is lefs common, of a fmaller fize, and more
prized as an article of food.
Smear-dab, ox kit.—Yellowifli brown, with fmoothlavis.
fcales ; five dufky fpots, white beneath. Caught on
the Cornifh coaft.
Long dab.—Body oblong and rough, lateral line limando-
ftraight and broad. Much longer than the dab. In- ides.
habits the northern feas, and is efteemed at table.
Rofe-coloured flounder.—Colour of a delicate rofe j rofeus.
and general proportions thofe of a flounder. Taken in
the Thames, and preferved in the Leverian mufeum.
Sole.—Body oblong and rough j upper jaw longeft.yjj/fff.
More narrow and oblong than any other of the genus.
Sometimes grows to the length of more than two feet,
and to the weight of eight pounds. Its general fize,
however, is much fmaller. Thofe of moderate fize are
generally in moft requeft for the table j and, next to
the turbot, are reckoned the moft delicate of the genus.
The foie is an inhabitant of the northern, Baltic, Me¬
diterranean, and American feas. On the weft coaft of
Great Britain it attains to a much larger fize than on
the eaft. The principal fole-fifhery is at Brixham, in
Torbay.
Smooth foie.—White, tranfparent, with fmall, dn\r\) diaphanuf
deciduous fcales. Found about the coafts of Cornwall,
where it is called lanternflfh.
** With eyes towards the left.
Whiff.—Body broad and rough. Native of fiitpunfiatus.
northern fea.
Pearl.—Body fmooth ; pale brown above, marked rhombus.
by fcattered yellowuih, or rufous fpots, and w’hite be¬
neath. Refembles the turbot, but is inferior in fize.
Native of the European feas.
Turbot, or bret; pleuroneBes tnaxitnus of Linnaeus.— tubercular
Body rough. This fifh, which is reckoned fuch deli-^j-,
cate eating, is found both in the Mediterranean and
and northern feas. It is broader and fquarer than any
of the genus, except the pearl, and is of a dark brown
above, marbled with blackifh fpots of different fizes,
and white beneath. Like the reft of this genus, the
turbot generally lies in deep water, preying on worms,
fhell-fifh, fmall fifhes, S^c. It is taken in great quan¬
tities
Chap. IV.
Thoracic titles about the northern coafts of England, as well as
, 0n thofe of France, Holland, &c. They are fo ex-
" v tremely delicate in their choice of baits as not to touch
a piece of herring, or haddock that has been I 2 hoars
out of the fea. Though the turbot and holibut are
often confounded in our markets, the former may be
eafily recognifed by the large, unequal, and obtufe tu¬
bercles on its upper part.
In this numerous genus are alfo claffed trichoda£hj/usy
•zebra, plagiufa, ocellatus, rondeletii, iinguatula, glacia~
Us, plalejfoides, argenteus, barbatus, tnarmoratus, pa-
voninus, lineatus, bihneatus, ornatus, dentatus, macro-
lepidotus, pqffer, papillofus, argus, Jlellatus, and japo-
nicus.
Chsttodon. Gen. 13. CH/F.TODON.
Head fmall $ mouth narrow, with retra£lile lips j
teeth generally fetaceous, flexible, moveable, equal,
very numerous, and clofe ; eyes round, fmall, verti¬
cal, and furnifhed with a militating membrane j gill-
membrane from three to fix-rayed j body broad, thin,
comprefled, covered with hard fcales, and coloured j
dorfal and anal fins rigid, flelhy, fcaly, and general¬
ly terminated with prickles.
To avoid much unnecefiary repetition, we fhall ob-
ferve, in general, that upwards of 60 fpecies of chseto-
dons have been diftin£tly afcertained •, that they are
moftly natives of the American and Indian feas *, that
they are diftinguifhed by the great depth and highly
compreffed form of the body, which is often beautiful¬
ly variegated by tranfverfe, oblique, or longitudinal
bands, and covered with ftrong fcales, finely denticula¬
ted on the margins j and that the dorfal and anal fin
are remarkably broad, and, in many fpecies, of an un-
ufual length.
One of the moft remarkable fpecies of this genus is
the rqflratus, rqftrated or beaked chcetodon, with an en¬
tire tail, nine fpines in the dorfal fin, an ocellated fpot
on the fides, and the beak cylindrical. It is of a
roundilh-ovate fliape, about fix or eight inches in length,
of a whitilh colour, with a dulky tinge on the back,
and marked by fine tranfverfe and nearly equi-difiant
brown bands, with milk-white edges. It is a native of
the freflr waters of India, and feeds principally on flies
and other finall winged infe&s which hover about the
furface of its native waters. When it fees a fly at a di-
$ance, alighted on any of the plants in the (hallow wra-
ter, it approaches very flowly, and with the utmoft cau¬
tion, coming as much as poflible perpendicularly nn-
der the objeft. Then putting its body in an oblique
direftion, with the. mouth and eyes near the furface,
it remains a moment immoveable. Having fixed its
eyes directly on the infect, it darts at it a drop of wa¬
ter from its tubular fnout, but without (hewing its
mouth above the furface, from which only the drop
feems to rife, and that with fuch effefl, that, though at
the diflance of four, five, or fix feet, ft very feldom
fails to bring its prey into the wrater. With the clofefl;
attention the mouth could never be difeovered above
the furface, although the filh has been feen to fpout fe-
veral drops fucceflively, wdthout leaving the place, or
in the fmalleft apparent degree moving its body. This
very lingular mode of attacking its prey was reported
to M. Home!, governor of the hofpital at Batavia, and
fo far excited his curiofity, that he ordered a large tub
ICHTHYOLOGY. 91
to be filled with fea-water, and had fome of the hikes Thoracic
caught and put into it. When they were reconciled to ,
their confinement, he caufed a (lender (lick, with a fly
faftened at the end, to be placed in fuch a manner ©11
the fide of the veffel, as to enable the fiih to (trike it ;
and it wras not without inexpfeflible delight, that he
daily faw them exercifing their (kill in (hooting at it,
with amazing force, and feldom mifiing their mark.
This faculty is poflefled by a few other fpecies belong¬
ing to very different genera. The flefliof the roftrated
chaetodon is white and vvell-tafted.
Angel chcetodon, or angel-jijh of Catefby, is of a fine catefben°
gold-green colour, with the fcales covered by fmaller
ones. The pedloral, ventral fins, and tail, are of a vi¬
vid orange ; and the dorfal and anal, violet-blue at the
bafe, and bright crimfon towards the tips.—It is com¬
mon off Carolina and the Bahama ides, where it is
much elleemed for its delicacy.
Imperial chcetodon, is a magnificent fpecies, growing imp erat or
to the length of a foot or more. Its ground colour is a
golden-yellow, which is longitudinally, though fome-
what obliquely, ftriped with very numerous bright blue
parallel rays. It is a native of Japan, and faid to be fu-
perior to the falmon in flavour.
Sea bat, or bat chcetodon, furpaffes all the other fpecies vefpertilio.
in the great extent and breadth of the dorfal and anal
fin, both which nearly equal the body itfelf in fize, and
are of a fomewhat triangular (hape.—It is a native of
Japan.
Redjlriped chcetodon, is diftinguiffied by numerousfetifer.
red flripes on the body, and an eye-fiiapai fpot and
bridle on the dorfal fin.
Three-coloured chcetodon, is golden-yellow on the tricolor.
fore-part, jet} black behind, except the tail, which is
yellow, and red near the end, wdrile the edges of the
gill-covers, and of all the fins, are bright red.
Gen. 14. ACANTHURUS. Acanthurus
Teeth fmall, and in mod; fpecies lobated *, tail aculeated
on each fide. This genus comprifes fuch fpecies of
the Linnaean chcetodon as, in contradiflion to the
principal character of that genus, have moderately
broad and ftrong teeth, rather than (lender and feta¬
ceous ones.
Unicorn acanthurus. Gray-brown ; writh a frontal unicornis*
horn projecting over the fnout, and two fpines on each
fide of the tail. Of the length of three feet or up¬
wards. Its horn-diaped procefs is ftrong and conical,
terminating rather obtufely.—It is a native of the In¬
dian and Arabian feas, in the latter of wdiich it isufual-
ly feen in (lioals of two or four hundred, fwimming
with great ftrength, and feeding principally on the dif¬
ferent kinds of fea-weed. It is Angular that fo remark¬
able a fifli fliould have been entirely overlooked by Lin-
nmus, even in the twelfth edition of the Syjlema Na-
turce.
The other fpecies are denominated na/us, teuthis, ni¬
gricans, mil it arts, triojlegus, harpurus, fohal, nigrofuf-
cus, aclulles, lineatus, umbratus, jneleagris, and velifee..
Eques.
Gen. 15. Eques.
Teeth in feveral rows •, body banded.
American knight-fjh. Chcetodon lanceolaius, Lin. americn*
Body oblong 5 yellowifti, with three black bands, the mis.
M 2 / fir ft
92
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Chap. IV.
Thoracic acrofs the eyes, the fecond acrofs the thofiix, and
tjihcs. the along the body. Native of the American
leas.
Trichopus.
Gen. 16. Trichoyus.
Body comprelfed j ventral fins, with a very long fila¬
ment.
A ftriking difpofxtion of colours Kkewife diflinguifh-
es, the chrijfurus, or gold-tailedfparus, which is found
in the feas of South America. Its general complexion
is a bright rofe-red, which is deepeft on the back ; a
gold yellow ftripe runs on each fide from the gills to
the tail, and a fecond on each fide of the bottom of the
abdomen.
Thoracic
Fifties.
goramy.
arabicus.
fatyrus.
pallafii.
monodac-
tylus.
Goramy trbehopus. Rufefcent, with a filvery cart
on the fides •, and the fecond ray of the ventral fins ex¬
tremely long. Native of the frefin waters of China,
where it is much prized as an article of food.
Arabian trichopus. Labrus gal/us, Lin. Greenifh,
with violet and blue (tripes, and fecond ray of the
ventral fins very long. Native of the Arabian feas.
Satyr trichopus. With finking forehead, projecting
chin, and extremely long, fingle rayed, ventral fins.
Native of the Indian feas.
Valla fan trichopus. Labrus trichopterus, Lin. Brown,
with pale undulations, a black fpot on each fide of the
body and tail, and long {ingle-rayed ventral fins. Na¬
tive of the Indian feas.
Monodaciile trichopus. Silvery, with brownifh back,
and fhort, fingle-rayed, rigid ventral fins. Native of
the Indian feas.
Gen. 17. Sfarus.
Strong cutting or canine teeth, with obtufe and clofe-
fet grinders ; lips double ; gill membrane five-rayed,
gill covers fcaly j body compreffed, lateral line cur¬
ved behind j pedtoral fins rounded.
ftmata.
erythn-
nus.
fafeiatus.
chlorou-
rus.
Of this very extenfive genus, moft of the fpecies are
exotic *, and their hiftory is very imperfe&ly known.
Confiderable confufion takes place with refpedl to the
charafters by which they ought to be diferiminated
from the labri, a family to which they are much allied.
We (hall briefly notice only a few of the moft ftriking
and beft known fpecies.
Gilt-head, has a lunulated fpot between the eyes.
A more permanent character may be affumed from the
fix cutting teeth in each jaw. This fpecies is about 15
inches long, but fometirnes of a much larger fize. It
is of a filvery bluifli caft, with gold-coloured browm,
and fometimes with feveral brownifh longitudinal ftripes.
The body is broad and thin, and the back elevated.
The gilt-head is a native of the Mediterranean, Atlan¬
tic, and Indian feas ; frequenting deep water on bold
rocky fhores •, and living chiefly on teftaceous animals.
It is faid to fleep at ftated times, and to be very fufeep-
tible of cold. The Greeks and Romans reckoned it a
moil delicate morfel, and the former held it to be con-
fecrated to Venus.
Rofe fparus, is remarkable for its beautiful rofe -red
colour. In fize and fhape, it refembles the perch. It
is a native of the Mediterranean and Indian feas, in the
latter of which it is faid to acquire noxious qualities.
Fafdated fparus, is of a fquarifh elongated fhape j
with tranfverfe dufky bands, and the fins edged with
black. It is a native of Japan.
Green-tailedfparus, is a native of the American feas,
and a highly elegant fpecies j having its yellowiih and
large feales crofled by a green band, green fins, and
rofe-coloured gill-covers. The green tail is ftrongly lu¬
nulated, and marked by minute pale fpecks.
Spinedfparus, has the dorfal fpines recumbent, and fpinifer.
the five in the middle filiform, and elongated. It is of
a reddiih filvery hue, with the back and the lines on
the body dufky ; fhape ovate •, and length, a foot and
a half. It inhabits the Red fea $ and is reckoned a de¬
licious fiih for the table.
_ Squirrel fparus, Jquirrel-ffh, or grunt.—G ray-brown,
with large feales bordered with yellow, and head mark¬
ed longitudinally by numerous blue and yellow lines.
According to Bloch, the bine lines alfo run along the
body. Native of the American feas. It is the perca
formofa of Linnaeus.
Infidious fparus.—Red, yellowifh on the fides ; tail infuliator.
fub-forcipated. Length about ten inches. Native of
the Indian feas, wdiere, through its long tubular fnout,
it (hoots a drop of water at the infedts on which it feeds,
in the fame manner as the roftrated chaetodon.
Galilccan fparus.—Greenifh, with whitiih abdomen, galilatus.
Very common in the lake of Genefareth, and therefore
fuppofed to have been the principal fpecies in the mira¬
culous draught of fifties recorded by St Luke.
Desfontaine')s fparus.—V/ith 23 rays in the dorfal desfonta-*
fin, 11 in the anal, and a black fpot on the gill-covers, nii.
Inhabits the warm waters of Cafia in Tunis, which, in
January, are about 30 degrees of Reaumur’s thermo¬
meter above the freezing point; but it is alfo found in
the cold and brackilh waters furrounding the date plan¬
tations at Tozzar.
Argus fparus.—Of a filvery blue ; with many ocel- arFUS
lated brown fpots. A very elegant fpecies, of which the
native country is uncertain.
Climbing fpat'us.—Olive-green, with yellowilh zh&o-fcandcns*
men, and gold-coloured eyes. Length about a fpan ;
fkin covered by a blackilh mucus. “ This fifti (fays
Dr Shaw) is remarkable for its powrer of climbing,
which it performs by the afliftance of the fpines of its
gill-covers, moving itfelf at pleafure up the ftems of
trees grownng near the waters it frequents, In this fi-
tuation it was obferved in the month of November 1791,
at Tranquebar, by Lieutenant DaldorfF, w’ho communi¬
cated its defeription to Sir Jofeph Banks. It was feen
afeending a fiflure in the ftem of the palm called boraf-
fus flabellifer, growing near a pool of water, and was
oblerved to move itfelf forwards by alternately apply¬
ing the fpiny fides of the gill-covers to the fides of the
fiffure, aflifting itfelf at the fame time by the fpines on
each fide of the tail, and had already afeended to the
height of more than five feet above the water when it
■was firlt obferved : it was found to be very tenacious of
life, moving about on dry fand, many hours after it was-
taken.”
Gen. 18. Scarus. S.arus,
Inftead of teeth, the jaws are eminent, crenated, and
bony, with a toothed margin ; gill-membrane five-
rayed, gill-cover entire, lateral line generally branch-;
ed.
Cretan
Chap. IV.
I C II T H Y
Thoracic
Fifties*
cretenfu.
yiridis*
rivulatus.
Jlellatus.
croicenjis.
pjittacus.
Cretan“-Green, yellowith beneath, with very
large fcales, ramified lateral line, and fublimated tail.
Native of the Mediterranean and Indian Teas. Com¬
mon about Crete.
Green /earns.—Yellowiih-green ; with large fcales,
edged with green"; lateral line interrupted towards the
tail. Native of the Japanefe feas.
Rivulated/earns.—Bluilh, fpotted with black, and
marked by longitudinal yellow undulations. Native of
the Red fea.
Stellated /earns.—Oval, blackilh ; variegated with
fubhexagonal pale rings. Native of the Arabian
feas.
Red/earns.—Rofe-red, with filvery abdomen. Na¬
tive of the Indian feas.
Parrot /earns.—Greenith, marked with yellowilh
lines, and with the edges of the fins, abdominal band,
and variegations of the head, blue. Native of the Ara¬
bian feas.
- purpura-
tus.
niger.
ghobban.
/errugi-
tieus.
/ordidus.
harid.
/chloj/eri.
Purpled /earns.—Dull-green, with three longitudinal
ferrated purple bands on each fide, and blue abdomen.
Native of the Arabian feas.
Black /earns.—Ovate-oblong ; blackilh-brown, with
red lips, and the margin of the fins greenilh-blue. Na¬
tive of the Arabian feas.
Blue-Jlriped /earns.—Whitilh, with the fcales mark¬
ed by tranfverfe bluilh bands, and double lateral line.
Native of the Arabian feas.
Ferruginous /earns.—Brown-ferruginous, with the
jaws and margins of the fins green, and tail even. Na¬
tive of the Arabian feas.
Sordid [earns.—Brown-ferruginous, with darker-co¬
loured fins, and riling, even tail. Native of the Ara¬
bian feas.
Scahj-tailed /earns.—Tail-forked, the middle of its
back befet with fcales. Native of the Arabian feas.
Schlo/ferian/earns.—Gold-coloured, with five dulky
fpots on each fide, brownilh back, and nearly even tail.
Native of Java.
Gomphofus. Gen. 19. Gomphosus.
Jaws lengthened into a tubular fnout; teeth fmall, thofe
in the front larger.—This genus, inftituted by La
Cepede, contains two fpecies, both natives of the
Indian feas, and both ^agreeing in the remarkable
form of the mouth, which confills of a tubular pro-
cefs,. fomewhat truncated at the tip.
caruleus. Blue gompho/us.—Entirely blue. About the five of a
tench.
varugatus Variegated gompho/us.—Variegated with red, yellow,
and blue. Smaller than the preceding.
I'abrus- Gen. 20. Labrus.,
Teeth acute ; lips not doubled ; gill-membrane fix-ray¬
ed ; gill-covers fcaly ; the rays of the dorfal fin fur-
nilhed behind with a filiform procefs ; the pectoral
fins acuminated ; and lateral line llraight.
From this very numerous genus, the diferimination of
which has never been accomplilhed with accuracy, wre
ca 1 afford to felett only a few fpecies.
zeylani- Ceijlone/e labrus, or Ceylon wra/e.—Green, purplifh
cuf> beneath, with blue head, and gill-covers variegated with
O L O G Y. - 93;
purple. This beautiful fifil is a native of Ceylon, where Thoracic
it is reckoned edible. _
Jaculator, or /hooting labrus.—Gray, clouded with • »
yellow ; five tranfverfe dulky bands •, and lower jaw*7
longer than the upper. Darts wrater on its prey, like
the roftrated chaetodon and infidious fparus. Native of
the Indian feas.
Scare labrus,—Whitilh, mixed with red ; with tranf- [earns.
verfe appendages on each fide of the tail. Native of
the Mediterranean ; where it feeds principally on fuci,
and fwims in Ihoals. It was in high efteem with the
ancients as a food, and confidered by the Romans as one
of the principal delicacies of the table.
Ballon labrus, or ballon wra/'e.—Yellow, with ful- ball anus.
vous fpots, reflex lips, andramentofe dorfal fin. Weighs
about five pounds. Appears annually In great Ihoals off
Filey-bridge, near Scarborough.
Ancient labrus, ancient wrajfe, or old wife.—Beak tinea.
bent upwards ; end of the tail circular. Size and habit
of a tench. Native of the European feas, and ufually
found in deep waters, about rocky coalls. Liable to
vary much in colour.
Parrakeet labrus.—Green, with three longitudinalp/ttacu*
red ilripes on each fide, and yellow dorfal fin marked las.
by a longitudinal red band. A beautiful fpecies, which
inhabits the American feas.
Beauti/ul labrus.—Red, with longitudinal, interrupt-J^'^o/^jy
ed, flexuous, blue ftreaks; and fins edged with blue.
Jurella labrus.—Sides bluifli, both marked by a Ion- julis.
gitudinal, fulvous, and dentated band. Length about
eight inches, and form fomewhat lengthened. Occurs
in flioals in the Mediterranean. The more ancient ich-
thyologifts erroneoufly confidered it as poifonous, and
as the molt beautiful of the finny tribes.
Gen. 21. Ophicephalus. Ophicepha*
Head coated with diflimilar fcales; body elongated.
Pundated ophicephalus.—Dulky, paler beneath, withpunBatus.
the head pierced by pores, and the body fpeckled with-
black points. Length about ten inches. Frequents
rivers and lakes in India ; and is reckoned a delicate
and vvholefome food.
Striated ophicephalus.—Dulky, with the abdomenflriatus.
and fins ftriated with dulky and wdiitilh variega¬
tions. Length abovt twelve inches. Native of In¬
dia ; inhabiting lakes, and equally efteeraed with the
former as food.
Gen. 22. LoNCHURUS. Lonchurus,
Head fcaly ; ventral fins feparate ; tail lanceolate.
Beardedlonchurus.—Ferruginous-brown; with flight-barbatus*
ly lengthened nofe ; two beards at the lower jaw ; and
the firft ray of the ventral fins elongated into a
brittle. Length about twelve inches. Native of Su¬
rinam..
Gen. 23. SciiENA. Sc'sena,
The whole head covered with fcales; gill-membrane
fix-rayed ; a furrow on the back, in which the dorfal
fin is feated.
Molt of the fpecies of this genus are exotic, and but
obfeurely known.
Cirrlufc.
cirrh'ifa.
Jabrax.
I C H T H Y
Cirrhofc or beardedfciaetui, has the upper jaw longer
than the lower, and a beard on the latter. It has the
habit of a carp, and meafures from one to two feet.
Native of the Mediterranean. Was valued by the
Greeks and Romans as an article of food.
Da fie fcnvma, or baffe. Perea /abrav of Liu.—Sub-
argenteous, with brown back, yellowiih-red fins, and
- dufky tail. Habit of a falmon. Native of the Me¬
diterranean and northern Teas; frequently entering
rivers. Known to the ancients by the names of la-
brax and lirpus, and greatly prized, particularly by
the Romans.
?erca. Gen. 24. Perca.
Jaws unequal, armed with (harp-pointed and incurved
teeth •, gill-covers confiding of three plates, of which
the uppermod isferrated j gill-membrane.feven-rayed,
the lateral line following the arch of the back •, the
feales hard and rough ; fins fpiny 5 and vent nearer
the tail than the head.
• y Common perch. The fecond dorfal fin with 16 rays,
3 ’ of a brown olive, fometimes accompanied by a dight
gilded tinge on the fides, and commonly marked by
five or fix broad, blackidi, tranfverfe bars. This well
known fidi ufually meafures from ten inches to two
feet, and weighs from two to four pounds, though
fome have weighed eight, nine, or ten pounds. The
perch inhabits clear rivers and lakes in mod parts of
Europe, haunts deep holes in gently flowing rivers,
fpawns early in fpring, is of a gregarious difpofition,
very voracious, and fo tenacious of life, that it may be
carried to the didance of 60 miles in dry draw, and yet
furvive the journey. It feeds on aquatic iniedls and
the fmaller fithes, and is preyed on by the pike, eel, &c.
Its flefli is firm and delicate, and was held in repute at
the table of the ancient Romans. In fome of the nor¬
thern countries a fort of ifinglafs is prepared from the
fkin.
iucioperca, Sandre perch.— The fecond dorfal fin with 23 rays j
of a larger fize, and more like a pike than the preceding.
Native of clear rivers and lakes in the middle parts of
Europe.
cernua. Ruffe Perc]l\ or r/#*—fin vvlth . 27 ™ys> of
which 15 are fpiny. Length from fix to eight inches,
and fliape more (lender than that of the common perch.
Feeds on worms, infedls, and young fiihes, and is fre¬
quently preyed on by the pike, larger fiflies, and aqua¬
tic fow ls. Spawns in March and April 5 inhabits clear
rivers in many parts of Europe, efpecially towards the
north j and affords excellent food.
tufilla. Small perch. Body ovate, compreffed, rough. Scarce¬
ly exceeding the length of an inch and a half. Native
of the Mediterranean.
marina. Sea perch.—The dorfal fin with 15 fpiny rays^and
14 foft ones •, the body variegated with dufky lines.
Colour red, marked with dufky tranfverfe lines on the
fides. Inhabits the Northern, Mediterranean, and At¬
lantic feas, and is in high efieem for the table.
25. Holocentrus.
tins. Habit of the genus perca 5 gill-covers fealv, ferrated,
and aculeatedj feales in moil fpecies, hard and rough.
fogo. Sogo holocentrus.—Silvery red, with longitudinal
yellow lines on each fide. A highly beautiiul fpecies,
O L 0 G Y. Chap. IV.
about a foot in length. Native of the Mediterranean, Thoraci.:
Indian and American feas, and confidered as an excel- . a
lent fifli for the table. .
Spur-gllied holocentrus.—Subargenteous, with brown- c dicar ifcr.
iflr back, large feales, and fpurred gill-covers. Native
of Japan.
Surinam holocentrus.—Brownifh ; with yellowiffr/i/nha-
clouds, redhead, and anterior gill-covers ciliated with menfis.
fp.’nes. Native of Surinam, where it is reckoned one
of the bell fithes which the country produces.
26. BoDIANUS. Bodianus.
Habit of the genus perca ; gill-covers fcaly, ferrated
and aculeated \ feales in mod fpecics fmooth.
Purple-bached bodian.—Gold yellow, with purple bodianus.
back. Shape like that of a trout; length about 14
inches. Native of the South American feas.
Five-fpined bodian.—Rofe-coloured, with filvery sin-pentacan-
domen, and dorfal fin yellow on the fore part. Native thus.
of the Brafilian feas. Accounted good food.
Jya bodian.—Red, with filvery abdomen, fingle- aya.
fpined gill-covers, and lunated tail. This highly
beautiful fpecies is faid to grow to the length of three
feet. It is found in the Brafilian feas, and regarded as
a delicacy. _ .
Large fealed bodian.—Gray brown, with large round- meter ole-
ed feales ^denticulated at the edges. Length about zpidotus.
foot. Native of the Raft Indies.
Spotted bodian.—Olivaceous yellow, with blue [^o\.^tnaculatue
and reddifh fins. Native of Japan.
Louti bodian. Oblong lanceolate, with fmallilh vio- loUti.
laceous fpots, and fins edged wdth yellow. Native of
the Arabian feas. t . ,
Palpebral bodian.—Somewhat ferruginous, with ochxe-po‘pebra-
coloured eyes, prote&ed by a moveable yellow valve.
Shape nearly that of a perch. Native of the feas about
Amboyna.
Silvery bodian.—Silvery, with bluifti back. Native argenteuu
of the Mediterranean.
Jpua bodian.—Red, with the back fpotted, the body apua.
fpeckled, and the fins edged with black. Native of the
Brafilian feas.
Guttated bodian, jew-Jifh, or Jacob iverjlen.—YeVguttatus.
lowiffi brown, with body and fins marked by fmall
ocellated deep brown fpots. Native of the Indian and
American feas. Efteemed as an edible filh.
Zebra bodian.—X<t\\ov\bs, with the body marked by %ebra.
tranfverfe, and the head by longitudinal, brown bands.
Native of Japan.
Rogaa bodian.—Blackifh rufefeent, with black fins, rogaa.
Native of the Arabian feas.
Lunated Blackiftt ferruginous, with bVich lunulatus.
fins, whitifh traniparent towards the back part. Na¬
tive of the Arabian feas.
Black and white bodian .—Silvery, with irregular, tnelanoteu.
tranfverfe, black bands. Native of the Indian feas. cus.
Star-eyed bodian.—Silvery, with yellowiih back, m&jlellijer;
orbits fpiny beneath. Native of the feas about the Cape
of Good Hope.
Gen. 27. Gasterosteus.
Head oblong and fmooth, the jaws armed with (mail
teeth 5 tongue fhort and obtufe \ palate fmooth •, eye*-
moderately lized, fcarcely prominent, lateral j gilt'
membrane
Gallerofte-
us.
Ghap. IV. I C H T H Y
Thoracic membrane fix or ieven-rayed *, gill-cover confifting
Fiflies. 0£ two plateSi rounded and firiated ; body at the
tail cavinated at both fides, and covered with fhields,
diftinct prickles before the dorfal fin j the back and
lateral line parallel and ftraight 5 the ventral fins
behind the pectoral, but above the Iternum.
acu/eatus. Common Jlich'eback, bonjfick/e, floarpUng, &c. with
three fpines on the back. Length two inches, or three
at mqft. In the early part of iummer, the gills and
abdomen are of a bright red, the back a fine olive
green, and the lides filvery. Lives only two or three
years, is very active and very voracious, devouring the
young and fpawn of other fiihes, worms, infedts, and
their larvae. The flronger inhabitants of the waters
fhun it on account of its fpines j but it is infefted by
inteftinal worms. In April and May it depofits its
fpawn in fmall quantities on aquatic plants, efpecially
on the white and yellow water lily. It occurs very
commonly in ponds, rivers, and marfhes, and in fome
parts, as about Dantzic and the fens of Lincolnfliire in
extreme profufion. At Spalding, according to Mr
Pennant, they appear in the Welland once in feven or
eight years in fuch amazing flioals that they are ufed as
manure, and a man has got for a confiderable time four
{hillings a day by felling them at the rate of a halfpenny
per buftiel. - • ‘
faltatrix SkippingJlicblebach.—Eight dorfal fpines connected
by a membrane. Native of the feas about Carolina,
. . where it is often obferved {kipping out of the water.
pungihcus. Smaller or ten-fpinedJlick/eback. Ten dorfal fpines.
The number of fpines is fomctimes only nine, and
fometimes, though rarely, eleven. This is fmaller than
the common fpecies, feldom exceeding an inch and
three quarters. It is found both in feas and lakes, and
enters the mouths of rivers in fpring.
fpinachia. fifteen-fpinedfiickleback. Fifteen dorfal fpines. From
five to feven inches long, of a {lender form, with the
head produced, and fonftewhat tubular. Frequents {hal¬
low places in the European feas, and preys on marine
infedls, and the fpawn and fry of other fillies.
pm are!la. Minute Jlickleback.—Four lerrulated fpines at the hind
part of the head ; the lateral ones as long as the abdo¬
men. Native of India.
To the fame genus belong/G/wnrz/j-, carol inns, ca~
hadus.
Scomber. Gen. 28. SCOMBER.
Head comprefied and fmooth ; gill-membrane feven-
rayed ; body fmootb, the lateral line carinated be¬
hind, often fpurious fins towards the tail.
* Spinous fillets dijlintl.
(bomber. Common mackrel.—With five finlets. Its ordinary
length is from 12 to 16 inches, though it has fometimes
been found of a much greater fize. Its elegant fliape
and the beauty of its colouring are too well known to
require particular defcription, and its qualities as an
edible fiflr have been long duly appreciated. It dies
very foon after it is taken out of the water, exhibits for
a Hiort time a phofphoric light, and partly lofes the
brilliancy of its hues. It is very voracious, and makes
great bavock among the flioals of herrings. It dwells
in the European and American feas, chiefly affefh’ng
the regions within the Ardlic circle, and appearing at
O L o G Y. v 95
ftated feafons about particular ranges of coaft. Its al- Thoracic
leged migrations, like thofe of the herring, begin to be , Fll^ie5' ,
queflioned by lorne acute obfervers, and it is more pro¬
bable that it refides at the bottom of the waters during
winter at no great diftance from the places where it vi-
fibly abounds iu fummer. A film grows over its eye
in winter, when it probably conceals itfelf in muddy
bottoms, and becomes torpid. Ic is very prolific, and
depofits its fpawn among the rocks about the month of
June. The tendcrnefs of its flefli renders it unfit for
carriage in a frefh ftate j but in Cornwall, and feveral
parts of the continent, it is preferved by faking and
pickling. Caviar is prepared from the roes on the coafts
of the Mediterranean j and the celebrated garum of the
Romans is faid to have been a condiment prepared
from this fifli.
Coly mackrel.—Bright green and azure. Somewhat collas.
fmaller than the preceding, which it very much refem-
bles. Found on the coafts of Sardinia.
Bornto mackrel.—Seven inferior finlets; body mark-^e/^/^fx.
ed on each fide by four black lines. Refembles the
tunny, but is more {lender. Frequents the Atlantic
and tropical feas, perfecuting flying fifties and other
fpecies, and tormented in turn by internal worms.
"Tunny.—Eight finlets above and below. Ufual length thynnus,
about two feet, but fometimes grows to eight, or even
ten. The upper part of the body is of a dufky blue,
and the abdomen filvery. The tunny is gregarious,
and inhabits the Mediterranean, Northern, Indian, and
American feas, preying with fiercenefs on all kinds of
fmaller fifli, and perfecuting the mackrel and flying
fifli. The Greeks and Romans admired its flefli, though
rather coarfe, and eftabliflied their tunny-fiflieries on
various parts of the Mediterranean coaft, where this
Ipecies is ftill taken in great quantities. The fmaller
fithes are chiefly fold frefh, and the larger cut in pieces
and faked.
* * Spurious Jinlels connate*
Scad or Horfe mackrel.—Dorfal fin recumbent, la-trachurus*
teral line marked. Length from 1 2 to 18 inches. Na¬
tive of the European feas, and nearly equal to the com¬
mon kind in point of flavour.
We forbear to enumerate feveral other Ipecies w'hich
have been recently defined, but whofe hiftory is ftill
very incomplete, and ftiall terminate this abridged ac¬
count of the genus by the
Pilot mackrel, or pilot JiJh •, gajlerojleus duElor of auElor\,
Linnaeus. Silvery blueifli, with four tranfverfe blue
bands j four dorfal fpines, and tail barred with black.
Length about 18 inches; general fliape that of the
tunny, but the head much ftiorter. Inhabits the Ame¬
rican and Indian feas, and has its name from often
fwimming near or before fliarks, which, it is faid, it
guides to its prey.
Gen. 20. CentrogASTER. Centrogao ■
y fter.
Head comprefled, fmooth ; gill-membrane generally
feven-rayed \ body depreffed and fmooth j fins fpiny j
ventral fins united by a membrane, which is furnifti-
ed with four acute fpines and fix foft rays.
Browni/h centrogajler.—Brownifh, whitifli beneath ;fufcefcens.,
tail fomewhat forked. Native of the Japanefe fi*as.
argenta-
tus.
equula.
rhombeus,
Mullus.
I C H T H Y
Silvery esntrogitjer.—Silvery, with a large brown
fpot on the nape, and a blackilh one On the dorfal fin.
Native of the Japanefe i’eas.
Saddled ccntrogaj}erand dorfal fin connate.
Native of the Arabian feas.
Rhombic centrogajle’r.i—Ventral fins one-rayed. Na¬
tive of the Red fea. v
Gen. 30. Mullus*
O L O G Y. chap. IV.
Ylying gurnard.—Sextuple iingefS, CGnfie&ed by a Abdominal
membrane. A highly Angular and beautiful fpecies, , ^
which inhabits the Mediterranean, Atlantic, and In- \,Qiyant
dian feas, where it fwims in thoals, and frequently flies
Out of the water to a confiderable diltance.
The Carolina, alata, fninuta, cavdlone, panel at a,
adriatica, pini, chabrontera, cuculus, lucerna, lineata,
qjiatica, and evolans, alfo belong to this genus.
Head comprelfed, (loping, covered with feales *, feyes
oblong, approximated, and vertical, with a nictitat¬
ing membrane ; noitrils fmall ahd double; jaws and
palate rough, with Very fmall teeth *, tortgue (hort,
narrow, fmobth and motionlefs; gill-membrane three-
rayed $ gill covers confiding of three finely flriated
plates } the aperture moderate *, body round, donga--
ted, red, with large and deciduous feales.
harbatus, Redfurmullet—Two cirrhij the body red. Length
from 12 to 15 inches •, colour a fine rofe-red, with an
olive tinge on the back, and a filvery hue towards the
abdomen. It is found in the Mediterranean and north¬
ern feas, is very flrong and aClive, and feeds principally
on fmaller fifties, worms, and infeCts, The Roman epi¬
cures expended large fums in purchafing this fifth for
their tables $ Contemplated, with inhuman pleafure, the
changes of its Colours, during its flow expiration ; and
feafted on it with delight, when it was dreffed with rare
and coftly fauces.
furmule- StripedfurthulIet.—dYwo cirrhl, and light-yellow7 Ion-
tus gitudinal lines. Nearly refembling the preceding, and
equally delicate as a food. Inhabits the Mediterra*
nean, and is fometimes found in the Atlantic.
The other fpecies are japonicus, auriflamma, iridic
cus, bandi, vittatus, trifafeiatus, bifafeiatus, maculatus,
aureovittatus, and imberbis.
Trigla. Gen. 31. TrIGLA,
Head large, mailed, with rough lines j eyes large,
round, and placed near the top of the head $ gape wide,
palate ahd jaws fet with acute teeth J hoftrils double j
gill-aperture large 5 cover confiding of one radiated
aculeated plate ; gill-membrane feveti-rayed j body
covered with fmall feales *, back ftraight, with a
longitudinal furrow, fpiny on both fides ; lateral line
near the back, draight, belly thick *, ventral and
peCtoral fins large j at each of the latter free and ar¬
ticulated finger-lhaped proceffes.
cataphrac- Mailed Double fingers, fnout forked, and
la. elongated j body mailed j length about I 2 inches. Na¬
tive of the Mediterranean.
lyra. Piper Triple fingers j noflrils tubular )
length from one to two feet j bright rofe-red, filvery
beneath. Native of the European feas; confidered as
an excellent fifti for the table.
gurnardus Gray gurnard.*—Triple fingers j back marked with
black and red fpots $ length of the preceding. Native
of the European feas, and not uncommon about our own
coafts. Feeds on teftaceous and cruftaceous animals,
fpaw ns in May and June, and is good eating.
hirundo. Tub jifh, or fapphirine gurnard.■^-Tlx'vplc fingers, la¬
teral line aculeated. Size of the gray gurnard. Native
of the European feas. Occafionally fprings out of the
water to fome diflance.
Gen. 32. TraCHICHTHYS. Trachkh-
Head rounded in front j eye large $ mouth wide, tooth- th^S‘
lefs, defeending ; gill-membrane furniftied with eight
rays, of which the four lowermoft are rough on the
edges $ feales rough $ abdomen mailed with large
carinated feales.
Southern trachichthys.-—Mailed abdomen. The whole aujlralir,
of this curious filh is ftrongly coated, and of a bright
pink ferruginous colour. It is a native of the coafts of
New Holland, and is minutely deferibed by Dr Shaw7,
in his Naturalifts Mifcellany, and in the fourth volume
of his General Zoology •, a w7ork from which we have
derived much afliftance in the compilement of the pre-
fent article.
IV. ABDOMINAL.
The fifties of this order have the ventral fituated be¬
hind the pectoral fins, or on the abdomen. They are
moftly inhabitants of the frefti waters.
Gen. I. COBITIS. Cobitis,
Head fmall, oblongj and fcalelefs $ eye ifl the upper*
part of the head $ nape flat $ gill-membrane from
four to fix-rayed j gill-covers formed of a fingle
plate, (hutting clofe below; body covered with mu¬
cus and fmall deciduous feales, and variegated with
bands and fpots, almoft equal; the tail towards the
caudal fin being a little narrowed ; back ftraight,
with a fingle fin *, lateral line fcarcely vifible j vent
near the tail, and the tail rounded.
Common, or bearded Six beards *, head fmooth* barbatuleh
and compreffed. About three inches in length $ mouth
fmall, toothlefs, and placed beneath. Common in clear
rivulets in mahy parts of Europe. Lives on aquatic
infers, worms, &c. Spawms in fpring, is very proli¬
fic, dies very foon after being taken out of the water,
and even where placed for any length of time in (till
w7ater. It is very delicate eating, but quickly lofes its
fine flavour.
Spiny loche, or the armed loehe.—Six beards, a fpirte teenia.
below the eyes. Refembles the preceding, and is found
in various parts of Europe, concealing itfelf below
ftones, feeding on worms, aquatic infefls, and the fpawn
and fry of fifties. It is about five inches long, is tena¬
cious of life, utters a hiding found when handled, and
is feldom eaten by man.
Great loche.—Eight beards *, a fpine above the eye. foffilis.
The larged of the genus, inhabiting large lakes, and
marflies in the midland countries of Europe. Reftlefs
on the approach of ftormy weather.
The other known fpecies are heterochta and ja-
POTIICQ*
Gen. 2.
1
Chap. IV.
Gen. 2. Akableps.
Anableps. Head fomewhat depreffed j mouth terminal; teeth fmall,
and placed on the jaws j eyes protuberant, with
double pupils j gill-membrane fix-rayed.
tetroph-
tbalmus.
Tour-eyed anableps* Colitis analleps of Linnaeus.—-
Yellowiih-gray, with longitudinal black lines on each
fide. Length from fix to eight or ten inches. Its
ICHTHYOLOGY. 97
kind. Taftes like an eel, and is much reliilied by the Abdominal
Americans. ^ ^ies- ,
T he other fpecies are denominated militarise bagre,
hertsubergu, inermis, galeatus, nodofus, bimacu/atus, faf-
ciatus, clarias, quadrimaculatus, erythropterus, batra-
chus, fojjilis, vittatus, atherinoides, afotus, mystus, an-
guillaris, undecimalis, cornutus, felis, cous, carinatus,
doc mac e chilenjis, and bajad.
Amia.
CMlva.
Slums.
general appearance like that of a loche j but its eyes
differ from thofe of every known filh, each being ap¬
parently divided into two diftindt eyes, united in a com¬
mon receptacle j on difledtioU, however, this obfervation
is found to apply only to the anterior half of the organ.
This fifh is a native of South America, principally fre¬
quenting the rivers of Surinam, near the fea-coafts.
Gen. 3. Amia.
Head bony, naked, rough, and furnilhed with futures j
teeth acute, and clofe in the jaws and palate; twfo
beards at the nofe j gill membrane twelve-rayed j
body fcaly.
Carolinian amia.—With a black fpot at the tail;
fmall, of a roundifh form, and feldom eaten. Inhabits
Carolina.
Gen. 4. Silurus.
Head naked, large, broad, and compreffedj mouth fur-
nifhed with beards j gape and throat wide; lips thick $
jawrs dentatedj tongue thick, fmooth, and very fhort;
eyes fmall $ gill-membrane furnifhed with from four
to fixteen rays j body elongated, comprelfed, fcale-
lefs, covered with vifcid flime j lateral line near the
back} the firft ray of the pedloral fins, or of the dor-
&1 fin, fpiny, and dentated backward.
giants.
Sly, or European Jilurus.—One foft dorfal fin } fix
beards. Grows to the length of eight, ten, or even fif¬
teen feet, and to the weight of three hundred pounds}
but its ordinary fize is from two to three or four feet.
It is fiuggifli, and ufually lies half imbedded in the foft
bottoms of the rivers which it frequents, with its mouth
half-open, moving about its beards, which the fmaller
fillies millaking for w’orms, lay hold of, and are entrap¬
ped. It inhabits the larger rivers of Europe, as well
as fome parts of Alia and Africa, but is in no high ef-
timation as a food.
ileElricus. Elc&ricJilurus.—With one adipofe dorfal fin, and
fix beards. About twenty inches long, very broad in
the fore-part, depreffed, and of a cinereous colour, wdth
fome blackifh fpots towards the tail. Is found in fome
rivers in Africa, and wdien llruck, gives a galvanic
fhock, though not fo firong as that from the torpedo
and gymnotus. It is ufed as food.
jdfcitic Jilurus.—Brown, afli-coloured beneath, with
beards longer than the body} forked tail, and eleven
rays in the anal fin. The young of this fpecies are ex¬
cluded in the form of large ova, the integuments of
which they foon break, but adhere to the parent till
the yolk is confumed. Native of India.
Cat Jilurus.—'i he hinder dorfal fin adipofe ; twenty
rays in the anal fin, &nd eight beards. Inhabits the fca
and rivers of North America, preying on all kinds of
fmaber fifhes, and not fparing even thole of its own
VOL. XL Part I.
afeita.
talus.
Gen. 5. Platystacus. PLtyftacus.
Habit of filurus •, mouth beneath, bearded with cirrhi}
body fcalelels, deprefled j tail long, compreffed.
Acetabulatedplatystacus. Silurus afpredo of Linnaeus, cotylepho-
Grows to the length of a foot or more, has a very un- rus.
couth appearance, and is remarkable for the many fmall
acetabular proceffes, or fuckers, with which the body
is befet. Native of the Indian feas and rivers.
Smooth plati/stacus.—Eight beards, and plain abdo-Af=uax.
men. Very like the preceding, but wants the abdo¬
minal fuckers.
Wartedplatystacus.—Brown, marked above by \on-verruco-
gitudinal warted lines, with ftiort anal fin. Smaller,/^*
and lefs elongated than the two preceding. Native of
the Indian feas.
Eel-Jhaped platystacus.—Brown, with longitudinal anguilla-
white ftripes, and the fecond dorfal, anal, and caudal r/x.
fin united. Length twelve or fifteen inches. Native
of the Indian feas.
Gen. 6. LoRICARIA. ILoricaria.
Head fmooth, depreffed; mouth without teeth, and re¬
tractile } gill-membrane fix-rayed; body covered with
a hard cruft.
Ribbed loricaria. Silurus cojlatus of Linnceus.—~Yzl.cojlata.
lowifh brown, mailed with a fingle row of ftiields on each
fide j tail forked. This is a fpecies of great ftrength
and boldnefs, which infliCts very painful and dangerous
wounds with its fpines. It is a native of the Indian
fcnd American feas.
firmed loricaria.—One dorfal fin, two beards} length cata-
about ten or twelve inches. Much allied to the Tprz-pbraSa.
ceding, but has a rounded tail. Native of the Ameri¬
can feas.
Soldier loricaria. Silurus callichthys of Linnaeus.— callich-
Brown ; with depreffed rounded head, double row oftbys.
feales on each fide, and x-ounded tail. Native of South
America, where it is in Confiderable efteem as a food.
Speckled loricaria.—Yellow, with brownifti back j pun Slat a.
double row of feales on each fide j fins fpeckled with
black j and forked tail. Only five or fix inches long,
but very elegant. Native of the rivers of Surinam.
Toothed loricaria.—Lengthened} yellowilh brown }dentata.
with toothed, bearded mouth, and flightly pointed
fnout. Native of the Indian feas.
Yellow loricaria. Loricaria plecojlomus of Linnoeuc.—Jlava.
Yellow, fpotted with brown } two dorfal fins} and tail
marked by tranfverfe bands. Native of the Indian feas.
Gen. 7. Salmo.
Salmo.
Head fiwaoth and compreffed} mouth large-} lips fmall}
tongue white, cartilaginous, and moveable} eyes
middle-fized } lateral teeth in the jaws and tongue}
gilt-membrane furniftied with four to ten rays; gill-
N cover
98
Abdominal cover confiiting of three plates j body elongated,
t i;iilCS covered with round feales minutely ftriated 5 back
llraight; lateral line ftraight, and near the back j
hinder dorfal fin adipofe ; ventral fins matry-rayed.
Mofl of the filhes of this genus frequent pure and
rapid ftreams, a few of them inhabit the fea, but enter
rivers for the purpofe of depofiting their fpawn in
fpring, and return to the fea in autumn. They feed
on infefts and other fifhes, and their flefh is much re-
lifhed as a food. We (hall confine our notices to a few
of the mod: important and remarkable fpecies.
falar. Commonfalmon.—The upper jaw projecting beyond
the under. The general length of the falmon is from
two and a half to three feet ; but is faid to be fome-
times found the length of fix feet, and Mr Pennant
mentions one of 74 pounds weight as the largeft he ever
heard of. The general colour of both fexes is a filvery
gray, of a much darker call on the back j the fides of
the male are marked with many final], dufky and cop¬
per-coloured fpots, wdiile the markings on the female are
larger, more diftant, and roundilh, orlunated. The male
is alfo of a more {lender form than the female. This lifh,
which is fo highly eileemed for the delicacy of its
flavour, and which forms fuch an important article of
commerce, occurs chiefly in the fait and frefh waters of
the northern regions, being unknown in the Mediter¬
ranean and other warm climates; but frequenting fome
of the rivers in France, which empty themfelves into
the ocean, and being found as far north as Greenland
and the northern parts of North America. It quits the
fea at certain periods to depofit its fpawn in the gravelly
beds of rivers, often afeending to a great diftance from
their mouths, forcing itfelf againftthe moil rapid flreams,
and leaping with furprifing agility over catarafls of a
confiderable height. On the river Liffey, the falmon
are often obferved to fall back before they furmount the
cataraft, which is 19 feet high; and bafkets are placed
near the edge of the flream to catch them in their fall.
At the falls of Kilmorack in Scotland, where the fal¬
mon are very numerous, the country people are ac-
cuflomed to lay branches of trees on the edge of the
rocks, and thus intercept fuch of the fifh as mifs their
leap. Alongfide one of thefe falls the late Lord Lovat
ordered a kettle full of w’ater to be placed over a fire,
and many minutes had not elapfed before a large falmon
made a fali'e leap and fell into it. When the falmon
enter the frelh water in winter, they are more orlefs in-
fefted with the falmon-loufe, {Lcrncea falmonea Lin.)
and are then reckoned to be in high feafon. Thefe in-
fecls, however, foon die and drop off, and the fifh be¬
comes lean at fpaw’ning time. The male and female
unite in forming a receptacle in the fand or gravel,
/■ about 1 8 inches deep, for the ova, and having covered
up the latter, which are not hatched till the enfuing
f pring, haften to the fait water much emaciated, and foon
recover their plumpnefs. The fry appear about the end
of March, and are five or fix inches in length, in the be¬
ginning of IVJay, when they are called falmon fmelts or
fmouts. The firft flood fweeps them in immenfe fwarms
into the fea. About the middle of June, the largeft of
thefe begin to return into the rivers. Towards the end
of Jifly, they are called gilfe, and weigh from fix to
nine pounds. Their food is other fifh, infefls, and
worms; but as no food is found inr their ftomach during
Chap. IV.
{pawning time, it is probable that they negledl it during Abdominal
that feafon. The fifliing feafon commences in the Tweed Fl^ies> i
on the 30th of November, and ends about old Michael- v
mas day. A particular account of this fifhery occurs in the
third volume of Pennant’s Biitifh Zoology, to which
we beg leave to refer our readers.—“ A perfon of the
name of Graham (fays Mr Bingley), who farms the fea-‘
coaft fifhery at Whitehaven, has adopted a fuccefsful
mode of taking falmon, which he has appropriately de¬
nominated falmon-hunting. When the tide is out, and
and the fiih are left in {hallow waters, intercepted by
fand banks, near the mouth of the river ; or when they
are found in any inlets up the Ihore, where the wTater is
not more than from one foot to four feet hi depth, the
place where they lie is to be difeovered by their agitation
of the pool, This man, armed with a three-pointed
barbed ipear, wfith a {haft of 15 feet in length, mounts
his horfe, and plunges, at a fwift trot, or moderate gal¬
lop, belly deep, into the water. He makes ready hisfpear
with both hands ; when he overtakes the falmon, he
lets go one hand, and with the other ftrikes the fpear,
wfith almoft unerring aim, into the fifh : this done, by
a turn of the hand he raifes the falmon to the furface of
the water, turns his horfe head to the fnore, and runs
the falmon on dry land without difmounting. This
man fays, that by the prefent mode he can kill from 40
to 50 in a day : ten are however no defpicable day’s
wmrk for a man and horfe. His father was probably
the firft man that ever adopted this method of killing
falmon on horfeback.”—In the inteftinal canal of fal¬
mon is often found a fpecies of tcenia, about three feet in
length ; and Dr Bloch mentions, that in a fpecimen
which had been three weeks dead, he found one of thefe
worms ftill living.
Gray falmon ^ or gray.—With afh-coloured fpots, the ertox.
extreme part of the tail equal. Weighs from 13 to 20
pounds. The head is larger in proportion than in the
preceding fpecies; it is a ftrong filh, and does not afeend
the frefh water tillAuguft, w’hen it rulhesup wfith great
violence, and is feldom taken.
Salmon trout, fea trout, or hull trout.—Marked with trutta,
black ocellated fpots, the middle browniih, fix dots on ‘
the peftoral fins. The general appearance very like
the common falmon, but feldom equal to it in fize.
Like the falmon, it inhabits the European feas, pafling
into rivers to depofit its fpawn. Its flefti, too, is of
equal delicacy. The vifeid mucus which covers the
{kin poffefles the quality of exhibiting phofphoric light.
Common trout.—With red fpots, the lower jaw rz-fario»
ther longer than the upper, The general length of this
fpecies is from 1 2 to 15 or 16 inches; the ground co¬
lour yellowiih gray, darker on the back, and marked
on the fides by feveral ftraggling, round, bright-red
fpots, each furrounded by a tinge of pale blue gray.
The colouring however, is fubjeft to confiderable variety.
The trout is a common inhabitant of European ftreams
and lakes, preferring thofe that are clear and cold,
living on worms, fmall fifhes, and aquatic infefts and
their larvae. Like the falmon, it occafionally fprings
over obftacles in its courfe. It ufually fpawns in Sep¬
tember, or October. Thofe which are in moft requeft
for the table, are natives of the cleareft waters.—The
gillaroo trouts which are found in the lakes of Galway,
in Ireland, are not fpecifically different from the com¬
mon, but their ftomachs acquire an extraordinary de-
gree
ICHTHYOLOGY
Chap. IV.
Abdominal gree of thicknefs and mufcular force, a circumftance
Ft flies, which is afcribed to their living much on fliell-filh, and
v ~ ' /wallowing fmall ftones.
bucho Hucho Oblong, two rows of teeth in the
palate, marked with (lightly blackiih (pots. More
(lender (haped than the common falmon, and its flelh
not fo firm. Inhabits the Danube, the Bavarian and
Aullrian lakes, and the rivers of Ruffia and Siberia.
alpinus. Alpine- trout, or c/iarr.—Back black, fides bluilh,
belly reddiih yellow. Length about a foot, In great
requeft for the table. Native of the Alpine lakes and
rivers, as well as of thofe of Germany, Lapland, Swe¬
den, &c. Found in fome of the lakes of Cumberland and
Wefimoreland, Loch-Leven in Scotland, &c.
faheli/ius Salvelin trout', or red charr.—About a foot in length,
J the upper jaw longed. Inhabits nearly the fame regions
as the preceding, and is equally edeemed for the deli¬
cacy of its davour.
eperlanus. Smelt falmon, or fmeh ; fpirling or fparling of the
Scotch.—Head tranfparent, 17 rays in the anal fin.
Ot ao elegant, tapering form, and of a very peculiar
flavour, which fome compare to rufnes, others to violets,
and others to cucumbers. It varies in length, from fix
to 12 inches, inhabits the feas of Europe, and afeends
rivers for the purpofe of (pawning, early in fpring. In
the Thames and the Dee, however, they are taken in
great quantities in November, December^ and Jan¬
uary. There is a fmaller variety which abounds in the
north of Europe.
lavaretus. Gvoiniad falrnon, ox gwiniad.—The upper jaw long¬
ed, 14 rays in the dorlal fin. Refembles a trout, but
is thicker in proportion. Inhabits the lakes of the Al¬
pine parts of Europe, and thofe of Cumberland, Wales,
and Ireland. It occurs alfo in Loch Lomond, in Scot¬
land, where it is called powan. A fiflrerman at Ulls-
water is faid to have taken between feven and eight
thoufand of this fpecies at one draught. Its umal
length is from ten to twelve inches. According to
Dr Bloch, the gwiniad alfo inhabits the northern fea,
and the Baltic.
nlbula Marcenula falmon.—Jaw’s without teeth, the under
one longed. Length about fix ii dies j drape like that of a
trout, but more (lender. Native of feveral of the Eu¬
ropean lakes, and much edeemed as a food. At Loch-
maben, the only place in Scotland where it occurs, it is
called iuvangis. According to tradition, it was brought
to Lochmaben, from England, in the time of Robert
Bruce.
tbvmallus Grayling falmon, or ///?§-.—Upperj aw the long-
^ ’ed, 23 rays in the dorfal fin. About the length of 18
inches. Frequents the clearer and colder rivers in many
parts of Europe and Afia, particularly thofe which-flow
through mountainous countries. It is an elegant fpecies,
voracious, and of quick growth 5 fpawns in April and
May ; has white, firm, and fine flavoured flefh, and is
confidered to Ibe in highed feafon in the middle ot win¬
ter.
To this genus alfo belong lenoh, nelina, taifnen, ery-
thrinus, phinoc, falmulus, fcJiiejfermiilleri, geedenii, fal-
marinut, carpio, lepechini, lacufris, umbla, argentinus,
arflicus, ft agnails, rivalis, Jlroemii, four us, tumbil,
fattens, gratnlandicus, dentex, gibbofus, nolatus, bimacu-
latus, immaculatus, cyprmoides, niloticus, agyptius, pul-
verulentus, anafomus, rhombeus, gaferopelecus, falca-
tus, fafeiatus, friderici, unimaculatus, melanurus, fuh
ICHTHYOLOG Y. 49
vus, migratorius, autumnalis, wartmdnm, rofratus, Abdominal
nafus, marcena, peled, pidfehan, mudfehan, fchokur, I l^ies' ,
miilleri, vimba, oxyrhinchus, leucichthys, and edentulus.
Gen. 8. Acanthonotus. Acamho-
notus.
Body elongated, without dorfal fin. Several fpines on
the back and abdomen.
Snouted acanthonotus.—Gray, with the back tranf- nafus.
verfely barred with brown. The only known fpecies of
this genus. The fpecimen deferibed by Bloch meafured
two feet and a half. Native of the Indian feas.
Gen. 9. Fistularia.
Fiftularia*
Snout cylindrical, with jawrs at the apex ; gill mem¬
brane feven^rayed.
Slender fftularia, or tobacco-pipe fjh.—Tail bifid and iabacaria*
fetiferous. Length three or four feet, lhape refernbling
that of an eel pthe head about nine inches long, from the
eyes to the tip of the mouth. From the middleof the fur-
cature of the tail, proceeds a very long and thickifli
bridle, like whalebone, which gradually tapers to a
very fine point. The fpine of this lingular fifli is alfo .
of a very peculiar drudiure, the fird vertebra being of
immoderate length, the three next much (horter, and
the red gradually decreafing as they approach the tail.
It inferts its long (nout into the hollows of rocks, under
dones, &c. to lay hold on the fmaller filhes, worms,
and fea infedts on which it chiefly feeds. Inhabits Ame¬
rica and Japan, and is edible.
Chinefe fifularia, or chinefe trumpet yf/Zx—Simple chinenfs.
rounded tail. Body thicker in proportion than in the
preceding fpecies. Native of the Indian feas, though
its foflil irnpreflions have been found under the volcanic
drata of Monte Boka, near Verona.
Paradoxical fftularia.—Finely reticulated, withparadoxt*
(lightly prominent lines, and lanceolate tail. Length
from two to four inches, body angular, and the whole
fi(h bearing a clofe refemblance to a Syngnathus. Na¬
tive of the Indian feas.
Gen. 10. Esox. Efox,
Head fome what flat above j mouth and gullet wide} jaws
dentated, unequal; the upper plane, under pundtured;
tongue broad and loofe ; palate fmooth; eyes round,
middle fized, and lateral; nolkils double; near the
eyes rays; body elongated, covered with hard feales,
convex above, compreffed at the fides; lateral line
ftraight, neareft the back, fcarcely confpicuous; dor¬
fal and anal fins very (hort and oppofite.
Sea-pile, ox fpit-ffh.—Two dorfal fins, the anterior^hyrana,
fpiny. Of a filvery bluifli colour, du(ky on the back,
and (lightly tinged with yellow on the head and about
the gills. Grows to the length of nearly two feet.
Inhabits the Mediterranean and Atlantic; and has
fomewhat the flavour of the cod*
Bonyfcaledpike.—Upper jaw the longed, feales bony. .
This lad chara£ler gives it a very Angular appearance.
It attains to the length of three to four feet, inhabits the
American lakes and rivers, is very voracious, and is an
excellent fi(h for the table.
Common pike or pickerel.—Snout depreffed, and nearly luc\utk
equal. Head very flat; the teeth very (harp and nu¬
merous, being difpofed not only in front of the upper
N % jaw,
IOO
Abdominal jaw, but in both fideS of the lower, in the roof of the
, mouth, and often on the tongue, amounting to at leaft
700. The ordinary colour of this fuh is pale olive gray,
tleepeli on the back, and marked on the lides by feveral
yellowifh fpots j the abdomen is white, (lightly fpotted
with^lack. According to Pennant, the largeft fpeci-
men of Englifh growth weighed 35 pounds. Thofe of
Lapland fometimes meafure eight feet. It is a prover¬
bially voracic as fpecies. “We have known one, (fays Mr
Pennant), that was choaked by attempting to fwallow
one of its own fpecies that proved too large a morfel.
Yet its jaws are very loofely connefted, and have on
each fide an additional bone like the jaw of a viper,
which renders them capable of greater diftenfion when
it fwallows its prey. It does not confine itfelf to feed
on fifh and frogs $ it will devour the water rat, and
draw dowm the young ducks as they are fwimming about.
In a manufcript note, which we found, p. 244, of our
copy of P/ott's Hiftory of Staffordjlnre, is the following
extraordinary fa£I : “ At Lord Gower's canal at
Trentham, a pike feized the head of a fwan as (he was
feeding under water, and gorged fo much of it as kil¬
led them both. The fervants perceiving the fwan with
its head under water for a longer time than ufual, took
the boat, and found both fwan and pike dead;”—The
fmaller fifties manifeft; the fame uneafineis and horror
at the prefence of the pike, as little birds at the fight
of the hawk or owl. If we may credit fome natu-
ralifts of name, the longevity of the pike is not lefs
remarkable than its voracity. Rzaezynflci, in his Na¬
tural Hiftory of Poland, tells us of one that was 90
years old j butGefner relates, that in the year 1497, one
was taken near Hailburn, in Swabia, with a brazen
ring affixed to it, on which were thefe words in Greek
chara&ers : “ I am the fiftr which was firft of all put
into this lake by the hands of the Governor of the
Univerfe, Frederick the Second, the 5th of O&ober
behne. 1230.”—The pike (pawns in March and April, and is
faid to be of very quick growth.
Garpihe, gar-jijh, or hornjifh.—Both jaws fubulat-
ed. General length from two to three feet, the body
(lender, and the belly flat. The back is of a very fine
green, beneath which is a rich changeable blue and
purple caft, while the (ides and belly are of a bright
filver colour. The jaws are very long and (lender, and
the edges of both are armed with numerous (hort (len¬
der teeth. Native of the European feas, arriving in
(hoals on the Britifh coafts, preceding the mackrel.
The fpine and bones acquire a green colour by boiling,
notwithftanding which it is eaten with perfeft fafety.
The other fpecies are barracuda, vulpes, malaban-
cus, fynodus, hepfetus, argenteus, gymnocephalus, braji-
lienjts, chirocentrus, chinenjis, aureoviridis, becuna, fail-
Polypterus. rus, cepedianus, chilenfis, viridis, and Jiomias.
Gen. II. Polypterus,
uiloticus- Gill-membrane fingle-rayed j dorfal fins numerous.
Nilotic polypterus.—Green, with the abdomen fpot¬
ted with black. Of a long and ferpentine (hape, the
body being nearly cylindrical, and covered with ftrong
and adhering fcales. The peftoral and ventral fins are
attached by a fcaly bafe j and the dorfal, to the num¬
ber of 16, 17, or 18, and of an ovate (hape, run along
the whole length of the back. Native of the Nile, and
Chap. IV.
one of the bed fifties which that river produces, but Abdominal
very rare. The Egyptians call it bichir. , Ftflies.
Gen. 1 2. Elops. EJops.
Head fmooth ^ numerous fmall teeth in the margin of
the jaw and in the palate j gill-membrane with 30
rays, and armed in the middle externally with five
teeth.
Saury elops, great faury, fein-fifh, or fea gaily-wafp.faurus*
—The tail armed above and below writh a (pine. A-
bout 14 inches long, and has fome refemblance to a
falmon, but wants the adipofe fin. Native of the A-
merican feas.
Gen. 13. ARGENTINA. Argentina,
Teeth in the jaws and tongue j gill-membrane eight-
rayed j vent near the tail j ventral fins with many
rays.
Pearl-bladdered argentine.—Anal fin nine-rayed. A fpbyrena,
fmall brilliant fi(h, inhabiting the Mediterranean, and
affording, by its air-bladder and fcales, fome of the befl:
kind of filvery matter ufed in the preparation of artifi¬
cial pearls.
The other fpecies are glojfodonta, Carolina, and mack-
nata.
Gen. 14. Atherina. Atherlna,
The upper jaw fomewhat flat ; gill-membrane fix-rayed,
a filvery ftripe along the fide.
Mediterranean atherine.—About I 2 rays in the anal hepfetus,
fin. An elegant fpecies, of the length of fix or feven
inches, and (haped like a fmelt. Native of the Medi¬
terranean and Red feas. Alfo found on the coaft of
Southampton, where they are often called by the name
offmelts.
To the fame genus belong menidia, fkama, japonic a,
brofonii, and pinguis.
Gen. 15. Mugil. MugiL
Lips membranaceous, the under one carinated wdthin y
no teeth, but a denticle above the opening of the
mouth 5 gill-membrane 7-rayed j gill-covers fmooth,
rounded j body w'hitilh.
Mullet, or common mullet.—Five rays in the firft ccphalus,
dorfal fin.— Length from 1 2 to 16 inches j colour blu-
i(h gray, darker on the back, and filvery on the abdo¬
men. Very common in the Mediterranean and north¬
ern feas, chiefly haunting the (hallows near the (hores,
and feeding on marine worms, infe&s, and plants. It
likewife occurs in the Indian and Atlantic oceans. In
the fpring and early fummer months, it afcends rivers.
The roe is often prepared into an inferior kind of ca¬
viar, called botargo; and the fifh itfelf, though not fa-
(hionable in our own country, is reckoned excellent for
the table. In plentiful fealbns, it is dried and falted.
The other fpecies are crenilabis, alhula, malabaricus,
tang, plumieri, cceruleomaculatus, chilenfs, and chanos.
Gen. 16. Exocoetus. Exocoetus.
Head fcaly, no teeth j jaws convex on both fides $ gill-
membrane ten-rayed j body whitilh, belly angulat-.
ed ; peftoral fins very long, adapted to flying j the
rays carinated before,
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Qceanis.
Chap. IV.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
K?I
Abd'imin.il
Fifhes.
vohtans.
txiliens.
mefoga-
Jier.
commerfo-
Oceanic Jlying JiJh.—Abdomen carinated on both
fides. Of a bright filver colour, gradually deepening
into purplifli brown on. the back •, the pe&oral fins duf-
ky, the dorfal and anal yellowilh, and the ventral
fins and tail reddiih. It is a native of the American
and Indian feas, but is occafionally obferved in the
Mediterranean •, and Pennant mentions an inftance of
its being feen about the Britifli coafts. The largenefs
of the air-bladder, and the peculiar ftrufture of the
mouth, which can be clofed while the jaws are open,
afiift its power of flight.
Mediterranean fiying-Jifh.—The ventral fins reaching
to the tail. The general length of this fpecies is from
12 to i 5 or 16 inches*, and its general fhape is not
unlike that of a herring, to which it is alfo compared
as an eatable fifh. It is of a bright filvery call, with a
blue or dufky tinge on the upper part. It is frequent¬
ly obferved in the Mediterranean and Atlantic, fome-
times fingly, and fometimes in Ihoals. During the de¬
cline of its flight, it fometimes falls into {hips ; the
height, however, at which it generally exercifes its
flight, is about three feet above the furface of the wa¬
ter. From the length and fize of the peftoral fins, it is
enabled to continue this motion through the air to the
diilance of 200 or 300 feed, when the fins becoming
dry, it is again obliged to have recourfe to the water.
Here it is perfecuted by the dorado, bonito, dolphin,
and other predacious fifhes, while, in its aerial career,
it is equally harafled by the gull and the albatrofs*.
American Jhjing fiJh.—Silvery bluiih, with the ven¬
tral fins fituated on the middle of the abdomen. Na¬
tive of the Atlantic ocean.
Commer/onian flying-fijh.—With a dark blue fpot on
the dorfal fin. Native of the Indian feas.
Polynemus.
Gen. 17. Polynemus.
Head comprefled and fcaly $ fnout very obtufe and pro¬
minent ; gill-membrane with five or feven rays, fe-
parate finger-like procefles at the pe£loral fins.
fiebcius.
'Paradife polyneme, the Jifh of Paradife, or mango-
fjh.—Seven fingers, and forked tail. Grows to the
length of about 1 2 or 15 inches, and the thoracic fila¬
ments are very long, the outer ones often extending be¬
yond the tail, and the others gradually (hortening. It
inhabhs the Indian feas, and is reckoned by much the
moft delicate fifh at Calcutta.
Plebeian polyneme.^-Yivt fingers, the firfl reaching
beyond the vent, the others gradually Ihorter. Refem-
bles a mullet, except that the head is much blunted.
It fometimes meafures upwards of four feet, is a native
of the Indian and American feas, and is confidered as
an excellent fifh for the table
^uinquarius, niloticus, decadaBylus, indicus, tetra-
daBylus, virginicus, commer/onii, and plumieriy compofe
the reft of the genus.
CJupea. Gen. iS. Clupea.
Head comprefled j mouth comprefled, and denticulat¬
ed within y jaws unequal, the upper furnifhed with
ferrated fide-plates ; tongue fhort, rough, with teeth
turned inwards j eyes middle-fized, round and mar¬
ginal ; gills internally fetaceous, their covers confift-
ing of three m four plates, the membranes eight-
rayed j body comprefled, elongated, covered with Vi dominal
fcales, lateral line ftraight, near and parallel to the ^ 11^es- ,
back $ under part of the abdomen forming a ferrated "v "'”
ridge ; ventral fins often with nine rays, caudal long
and forked.
Herring.—Without fpots ; the under jaw the long-barengus^
eft. In lize, this well-known fifli is found to vary very
confiderably, though the general length may be reckon¬
ed from 10 to 1 2 or 13 inches. The back is of a dufky
blue or greenifh, and in the recent or living fifh, the
gill-covers are marked by a reddith or violet-coloured
fpot. The fcales are rather large, and adhere flightly.^
The fins are rather fmall, and the tail is much forked.
In moft fpecimens, the anal fin has 17 rays. The her¬
ring inhabits the northern feas of Europe, and the At¬
lantic ocean, and is feldom found farther fouth than the
coaft of France. Its food principally confifts of fmall
fifties, fea worms, and a minute fpecies of crab, cancer
halecum, which abounds in, the Norwegian feas. When
it has fed on this laft, its inteftines are filled with the
red ova of the infeft, and is unfit for being failed. At
fpawning time its ftomach is always empty, which feems
to indicate that, like the falmon, and lome other fifties,
it is, at that feafon, quite negligent of food. Herrings
fpawn at different feafons, fome in fpring, fome in fum-
mer, and fome in autumn, when they approach our
ftiores in immenfe ftioals. But the reality of their long
and periodical migrations is by no means afcertained.
On the contrary, it is more probable, that, like the
mackrel, they pafs the winter in deep water, or in the
foft mud at the bottom, at no very great diftance from
the ftiores. They are, in faft, found about fome of
the European coafts at almoft every feafon of the year;
and the alleged rapidity of their northern voyages great¬
ly exceeds the fwifteft progrefs of which they are capa¬
ble. They are the ceafelefs prey of feveral of the ceta¬
ceous tribe of animals, of various fifties, and of different
forts of fea fow-1, particularly of the gannet, or folan
goofe., Notwithftanding the great importance of this
fifti to the inhabitants of modern Europe, we find no
certain defcription of it in any of the Greek or Roman
writers. The Dutch engaged in the herring-fiftiery in
1164, and the difcovery of the pickling procefs is af-
cribed to William Beuhelen, of Biervlet, near Sluys.
He died in 1397 ; and Charles V. in honour of his me¬
mory, paid a folemn vifit to his tomb.
Pilchard.—Silvery, with duflcy back, and \a.rgtpdchardtt&.,
ftrongly adherent fcales. Very like the preceding, but
fmaller and thicker, with larger fcales, and the dorfal
fin placed exadlly in the centre of gravity. Very fre¬
quent on fome of the European coafts. Uiually vifits
the ftiores of Cornwall in vaft flioals, about the middle .
of July, and difappears on the commencement of win¬
ter. On the 5th of Otftober, 1767, there were includ¬
ed in St Ives’ Bay 7000 hogftieads, each of which con¬
tained 35,000 fifti,. in all 24 millions.
-With 16 or 17 rays in the dorfal fin. Kfprattus,.
very fmall fpecies, like the fry of herring \ but it has a
ftrongly ferrated abdomen, and only 48 vertebrae in
the back-bone, whereas the herring has 56. Inhabits
the northern and Mediterranean feas, and approaches
the ftiores in countlefs fwarms, in autumn.
Shad.—Black fpots on the fides, the Ihout bifid. Inalofa^
general appearance refembles the pilchard ) but is much
larger,.
I 02
Abdominal larger, and much thinner in proportion. Native of the
, * 1^ies- Mediterranean and northern feas. In fpring, it afcends
~ rivers for the purpofe of depofiting its fpawn. Like the
herring, it dies almoft immediately on being taken out
of the water. Though prepared for the table in many
countries, it is rather coarfe and infipid.
tncrafico- slnchomj.—The upper jaw longed. Ufual length
his. from three to four inches, of a fomewhat lengthened
form, and covered with large, thin, and eafily decidu¬
ous fcales. Native of the Mediterranean, northern, and
Atlantic feas. Spawns from December to March. It
is in great requed as a pickle, the bones did'olving en¬
tirely in boiling. The principal anchovy filhery is
about the fmall idand of Gorgona, near Leghorn.
The remaining fpecies are malaharica, africana, Ji-
nenjis, thriffa, gigantea, atherinoides, fetirqftris, dorab,
tuberculiita, chnjfop tern, fafeiata, nafits, macroccphala,
and tropica.
"Cjpfinus. Gen. 19. CYFRINUS.
Without teeth ; mouth in the apex of the head, and bi-
fulcated $ gill-membrane three-rayed 5 body fmooth
and whitidi j ventral fins generally nine-rayed.
Mod of the cyprini inhabit the frefh waters, and are
much edeemed as food. They live on clay, mould,
worms, infedls, and leguminous and aquatic plants,
though fome of them alfo prey on other fidres. Mod
of them fpawn in April or May.
harlus. Barbel.—Anal fin feven-rayed, four beards; fecond
ray of the dorfal fin ferrated on both fides. Has fome¬
what the habit of a pike, and is ufually found in deep
and rapid rivers in mod of the middle and fouthern parts
of Europe. It is eafily didinguidied by its two pair of
long and unequal beards. Its ordinary length is from
18 inches to two feet. Though capable of fwimming
with drength and rapidity, it fometimes allows itfelf to
be taken by the hand by divers employed for the pur¬
pofe. It is a coarfe fifh ; and the roe is faid to operate
as an emetic and cathartic.
tarpio. Gzr/).—Anal fin nine-rayed, four beards, the fecond
ray of the dorfal fin ferrated behind. The mod com¬
mon colour of this fpecies is a yellowifh olive, much
deeper on the back, with a gilded tint on the fide. In
our own country it meafures from 12 to 16 inches in
length \ but in warmer climates attains to a much lar¬
ger fize, and fometimes weighs from 20 to 40 pounds.
It feeds chiefly on worms and water infefls, and fre¬
quents the lakes and fmall rivers in the fouthern parts
of Europe, ufually decreafing in fize the farther it is
removed into a northern region. It is very tenacious
of life, and may be kept for a confiderable time in any
damp place, though not immerfed in water *, and w^ell
authenticated indancesare quoted of its attaining to the
age of more than a century. It is faid to have been in¬
troduced into England about the year 1514. In Ger¬
many and Poland, it is cultivated as a confiderable ar¬
ticle of commerce. A carp of three pounds weight
will produce 237,000 ova, and one of nine pounds,
621,600. A green pigment is obtained from its bile,
and ilinglafs from its air-bladder. It is reckoned one
of the mod delicate of frefh-water fiflies, A variety
occurs in fome parts of Germany, with very large fcales,
and termed by Bloch rex cyprinor w.
gobio. Guugeon.—Anal fin eleven-rayed, two beards. Ge-
Chap. tV.
neral length from four to five or fix inches ; the body A 'lnmal
thick and fomewhat cylindrical, for the mod part of a s‘
pale olive brown above, the fides filvery, and the ab¬
domen white. This is a very prolific fpecies, a d de-
pofits its fpawn, at intervals, in the fpring. Inhabits
fmall lakes and gently flow’ing rivers in mod parts of
Europe, and is particularly abundant in fome parts of
Germany, efpecially in autumn. In requed for the
table.
Tench.—Anal fin with 2 5 rays *, tail entire 5 body tinea.
flimy \ two beards. The ordinary length of the tench
is about 12 or 14 inches; but it varies confiderably
both in fize and colour, according to its fituation. It
refides in dagnant w'aters with muddy bottoms, in mod
parts of the globe, depofits its minute greenilh ova in
May and June, is very prolific, of quick growth, and
is iuppofed by fome to hibernate in the mud of the wa¬
ters w’hich it inhabits. It is reputed a delicate fifh for
the table. In Mr Daniel’s Rural Sports, we find the
following remarkable paffage. “ A piece of water, at
Thornville Royal, Yorkflure, which had been ordered
to be filled up, and wdierein wmod, rubbifh, &.c. had
been thrown for years, was, in November, 1801, di-
refted to be cleared out. ■ Perfons were accordingly
employed, and, almod choaked up by w’eeds and mud,
fo little w’ater remained, that no perfon expefted to fee
any fith, except a few eels ; yet nearly 200 brace of
tench,- of all fizes, and as many perch were found.
After the pond was thought to be quite free, under
fome roots there fe^med to be an animal, w»hich w7as
conjeftured to be an otter ; the place wras furrounded,
and on opening an entrance among the roots, a tench
w'as found of a moft fingular form, having literally af¬
firmed the fhape of the hole, in which he had of courfe
for many years been confined. His length from fork
to eye, w’as tw7o feet nine inches ; his circumference,
almolt to the tail, was two feet three inches ; his weight
11 pounds, nine ounces and a quarter : the colour was
alfo fingular, his belly being that of a charr, or a ver¬
milion. This extraordinary filh, after having been in-
fpefled by many gentlemen, was carefully put into a
pond ; but, either from confinement, age, or bulk, it
at firft merely floated, and at laft, with dithculty, fwam
gently away. It is now alive and well.”
Crujidn—Anal fin ten-rayed, lateral line firaight. carcJfiu,s
Length from eight to ten inches; ihape very deep,
with confiderable thicknefs; colour deep olive yellow,
with a filvery tint on the abdomen. Inhabits ponds
and large fiagnant waters in many parts of Europe.
Grows flowly, and is much infefted by the lerncea cyprt-
nacea. Spawns but once in two years, and is in confi¬
derable eft.eem as an eatable fhh.
Golden carp, ox goldfifh. Two anal fins, the cau- auratuc,
dal tranfverfe and forked. This favourite ornament of
our houfes and gardens, is a native of the fouthern parts
of China, and exifts in its natural fiats in a large lake
in the province of Kiang, whence it has been diffufed
over the country, and cherifhed with fondnefs and at¬
tention. It is laid to have been firft introduced into
England in 1691. In its domsftic ftate, it is fubjedl to
very confiderable variations in colour, form, and even
number of fins. It may be fed with fine bread crumbs,
fmall w'orms, water-fnails, yolk of eggs dried and pow¬
dered, &c. and ll.ould be fupplied with a frequent
change of water.
6 Minou>.
I C H T H YOLO G Y.
Chap. TV.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
JQ3
Abdominal
Fifties.
phoxinus.
leucifcus.
rutilus.
orfus.
Anal fin eight-rayed ; a brown fpot at the
tail; body tranfparent. A fmall, but elegant and fa¬
miliar fpecies, frequenting the fmall gravelly ftreams
in many parts of Europe and Siberia, In our own
country it appears firft in March, and difappears about
the beginning of October, when it fecrets itfelf in the
mud. It is gregarious, and fond of warmth, often
fwimming in ihoals near the furface of the water, in
clear hot weather. It feeds on herbs and worms, is
very prolific, and of a delicate flavour, though feldom
prepared for the table, on account of its fmallnefs.
It is more frequently ufed as bait for other filhes.
Dace, or dare.—Eighteen rays in the anal, and nine
in the dorfal fin. Length from fix to eight or ten
inches. In manners, allied to the roach, and inhabits
lakes and rivers in many parts of Europe. Little
efteemed for the table.
Roach.—Anal fin with J 2 rays 5 ventral rays of a
blood-red colour. Silvery, with a caft of dull yellow,
more dulky on the upper parts ; fins red; Frequents
deep, ftill, and clear rivers in moft of the middle parts
of Europe, often appearing in large fhoals, preceded
by one or more, apparently ftationed as a kind of guard.
It fpawns about the middle of May, and is very prolific.
It ufually weighs about a pound, or a pound and a
half. Its flelh is white, firm, and well tailed, but not
held in any great repute.
Orf.—Thirteen rays in the anal fin. Length from
10 to 12 inches, or more. Refembles the gold-fifh,
and kept in fmall ponds on account of its beautiful ap¬
pearance. Native of many parts of Germany, Ruflia,
&c.
erythroph- Rud.—Anal fin with 15 rays ; fins red. About 8
tha/mus,. or 10 inches long. Native of feveral parts of Europe,
in lakes and rivers wuth a gravelly bottom. Reputed
edible, and in feafon in fummer.
jefes. Chub.—Fourteen rays in the anal fin \ fnout rounded.
Refembles the tench, but has a more lengthened form,
and a thicker head in proportion. Ordinary length
from 1410 18 inches. Native of many parts of Eu¬
rope, and not uncommon in Great Britain, occurring
chiefly in clear and rapid rivers. Rather coarfe and
unpalatable, and apt to acquire a yellow colour in
boiling.
alburnas. B/eah.—Twenty rays in the anal fin. Length five
or fix inches •, lhape flender j colour bright filvery.
From its fcales is prepared the filvery matter ufed in the
manufacture of artificial pearls.
brama. Bream.—Twenty-feven rays in the anal fin j the fins
brown. Of a very broad or deep lhape, and from two
feet to two and a half long. Of an olive hue, with a
pale or flelh-coloured tinge on the under parts. Inha¬
bits the lakes and rivers of many parts of Europe. As
an article of food, it is reckoned rather coarfe and infi-
pid.
Btfides the above, this genus likewife comprehends
the rondeletii, gibeho, blicca, bailer us, pomcranicus,Jim-
briatus, cirrhofus, falcatus, americanus, biorkna, farc-
nus, griflagine, bynni, bulatmai, capceta, caucus, mal-
chus, julus, buphthalmus, quadrilobus, tincaurea, ferru-
gineus, nigro-auratus, viridi-vlolaceus, punclatus, ama~
rus, ferlceus, capita, cultratus, cephalus, afpius, idus,
nafus, ferta, dobula, /aricqflrienjis, murfa, regius, la~
beo, leptocephalus, catqjlomus, ga/ian, clupeoides, gono-
rkynchus, aphya, and rivularis.
Gen, 20. MoRMTRUS. nous Fifties.
Snout produced; mouth terminal; teeth fevcral, and]y[ori^yr'us^
emarginated ; aperture without gill-cover; gill-mem¬
brane Angle-rayed ; body fcaly.
In confequence of Geoffroy’s recent inveftigationj,
this hitherto obfcure genus is ranked in the abdominal
order ; and the number of fpecies has been increafed
from three to nine. They are all natives of the Nile.
Anguilliform mornnjrus, has a lharp fnout, equal anyuil-
jaw's, 26 rays in the dorfal fin, and a bifid acute
tail.
The other fpecies arc kannume, oxyrhynchus, falahia,
bebe, herfe, cyprinoides, bane, and hqffelquijlii.
V. CARTILAGINOUS.
The filhes of this order have their fins furnilhed witlt
cartilaginous rays. Their lungs are more fimilar to the
gills of filhes than to the pulmonary fyllem of the mam¬
malia and amphibia ; and in fome of the genera are
found both lungs and gills.
Gen. I. OsTRACION. Oftracion,
Teeth pointing forward ; body mailed by a bony cover¬
ing.
Triquetral or three-Jided trunh-jijh.—Body triangu- triquetcr* ■
ISr and unarmed. This fpecies is of a trigonal lhape,
meafures about 12 inches in length, and except to with¬
in a fmall diftance from the tail, is completely enve¬
loped in a bony covering, divided into hexagonal fpaces.
Its prevailing colour is browm, with a white fpot in the
centre of each hexagon, which is alfo marked by fine
rays diverging from the centre to the edges. Native of
the Indian and American feas, and highly elteemed as
an eatable fiih among the Eall Indians.
The generic charafters of the trunk-filhes are readily
recognifed ; but the fpecific marks are not eafily afcer-
tained. Dr Shawr enumerates, in addition to the pre¬
ceding, trigonus, biaculeatus, cornutus, tricorms, qua~
dricornis, turritus, :oncatenatus, nafus, cubicus, melea-
gris, auritus,Jlnatus, tuberculatus, and gibbofus.
Gen. 2. Tetrodov. Tetrodcm,-
Jaws bony, divided at the tip ; body roughened be¬
neath ; no ventral fins.
The fillies of this genus, like the diodons, have the
power of inflating their body at pleafure, by means of
an internal membrane for that purpofe ; and during the
time of inflation, the fmall fpines difperfed over their
fides and abdomen are raifed in fuch a manner as to
operate as a defence againll their enemies. They are
chiefly natives of the tropical feas, though fometimes
feen in the higher northern and fouthern latitudes, and
are fuppofed to live principally on the cruJaceous and
tellaceous animals.
EleSlric tetrodon.—Body browm above, yellow on the elcElricus-,
fides, fea green beneath, and varied with red, green,
and white fpots. Length feven or eight inches. Inha¬
bits rocky places among the corals, in the Indian and
American feas; and, wThen touched, affects the hand
with a galvanic Ihock.
Occl/ated
$04
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Chap. IV.
Cartilagu Oceltated tetrodon.—Dull green; whitifh beneath,
nous F'ftes. wjra crefcent over the {boulders, and fpot on
jfce/lahis t^le ^ac^’ e^ge(i yellow. Inhabits the In-
dian feas, and fometimes the adjoining livers, particu¬
larly thofe of China and Japan. It is of a very poifon-
ous nature ; and the emperor of Japan prohibits his fol-
diers, under very fevere penalties, front eating it. The
fceleratus is alfo reputed highly noxious.
The other fpecies are /agocephalus, lincatus, hifpidus,
tejludineus, fpcngleriy honhenii, oblongus, LevigatusyJlel-
latus, pun&atus, meleagris, and rqjlratus.
J>lodon. Gen. 3. DioDON.
Jaws bony, undivided j body befet with moveable
fpines.
hyjlrix. Porcupine diodon.—Of a fpherical form, W’ith trian¬
gular fpines. Of a conliderable fize, fometimes mea-
furing two feet in length. It pofieffes the power of in¬
flating and contradling itfelf at pleafure, remarkable in-
ftances of which property it is faid to exhibit when ta«
. ken with a line arid hook. Its flefli is coarfe, though
fometimes eaten by the inhabitants of the Weft-Indian
iflands.
qhnga. Oblong diodon.—^NrOn. round fpines. Nearly allied
to the preceding, and confiuered as poifonous.
The remaining fpecies are denominated orbicularis^
plumieri, and liturofus.
"Cephalus. Gen. 4. CepHALUS.
Jaws bony ; body terminating abruptly, fo as to refem-
ble the head of a fifh;
brevis. Short fun-jijhy or Jhort diodon. Telrodon mola of
Linnseus.—Body fuborbicular, very fhort and broad,
terminating abruptly on the hind part, w'here it is
edged by a (hallow fin. The general colour brown,
with a filvery caft on the fides and abdomen. Native
of the northern feas, where it fometimes arrives at the
length of eight or even ten feet, and to the weight of
500 pounds. Alfo a native of the Atlantic and Ethi¬
opian fea. It is faid to exhibit a ftrong phofphoric
light during the night. The oblong is probably only a
variety of this fpecies, as La Cepfede has obferved inter¬
mediate gradations between the two. The variegated
is diftinguiflied by whitifh undulati>ns and fpots $ and
the pallafian by its filvery hue, brownilh back, and
fpiny carinated abdomen.
Syngnathus. Gen. 5. Syngnathus.
Snout fubcyllndrical, with terminal mouth *, body
lengthened, jointed, and mailed ; no ventral fins.
without a terminating fin •, body heptangular and tu- Cartilagi-
berculated. General length from fix to ten inches •,nous Fifties,
body much compreffed j colour greenilh brown, varied v *
with darker and lighter fpecks. In its living ftate, the
head and tail are carried nearly ftrait, but when dry or
contratted, it refembles the Ikeleton of a horfe. It is
a native of the Mediterranean, northern, and Atlantic
feas.
Foliated pipe JiJh.—Blackilh olive, with white fpecks,yb/rh/j//.
and leaf-fliaped appendages. Thefe laft are fituated on
very ftrong, rough, fquare fpines or procefles attached
to the back, tail, and abdomen, and give the whole
dnimal a very grotefque and anomalous appearance.
This curious fpecies is a native of the Indian feas j but
nothing particular feems to be known relative to its
habits or natural hiftory.
The ophidian, biaculeatus, pelagicus, cequorcus, and
barbarus, require no particular defeription.
Gen. 6. Pegasus. Pegafus.,
Mouth beneath, with a retradlile probofeis j upper jaw
elongated, denticulated, enfiform under the fnout and
linear $ gill-aperture Ample, placed before the pec¬
toral fins -y body compreffed, articulated with bony
incifures, and covered with a hard cruft j ventral
fins placed behind the pe&oral.
Little or dragon pegafus.—Snout conical. Only draconis.
three, or four inches long, with large pe&oral fins,
which enable it to fupport itfelf for fome moments in
the air, when it fprings occafionally over the furface
of the water. Native of the Indian feas.
Flying-pegafus.—Snout enfiform and denticulated, volans.
Length three inches. Native of the Indian feas.
Swimming pegafus.—Snout enfiform and unarmed, natans.
Length three or four inches •, more flender than the
preceding. Native of the Indian feas.
Gen. 7. Cektriscus. Centrifcus.
Head produced into a very narrow fnout j no teeth j
the lower jaw longeft j gill-aperture waving ; body
compreffed5 abdomen carinated j ventral fins united.
Mailed or Jhielded trumpet fjh.—Back fmooth, yi\\\\fcutatus,
a hard Ihield, like a thin plate j eight inches long.
Native of the Indian feas.
Snipe centrifcus.—Body fcaly and rough j tail Urdiifcolopax,
and extended. Smaller than the preceding. Native of ^
the Mediterranean and Indian feas. Ranked among
edible fifties.
Light-armed centrifcus—Half-ftiielded, filvery, with velitans.
fubrecumbent dorfal fpine. Length about two inches.
Native of the Indian feas.
mcus. Greatpipe-fjh, or longer pipe-ffh.—Caudal, anal, and
pe&oral fins radiated ; body hexangular. Generally
from twelve to fifteen inches long, but fometimes from
two to three feet ; of a very flender form, and of a
pale yellow’ifti brown colour, with broad alternate zones
of a deeper brown. In fpring, as in others of this genus,
the ova appear in an appropriate channel at the low’er
part of the abdomen, and the young are excluded from
them completely formed. Native of the European feas.
The typhle, or fnaHer pipeffh, feems to be only a va¬
riety.
bippocam- Sea-horfe7 or fea-horfe pipc-ffh.—'idiX quadrangular,
pus. ‘ {
Gen. 8. Balistes. Baliftes.
Head compreffed, and an apparent continuation of the
trunk, in fome fpecies, armed with a fpine between
the eyes $ mouth narrow $ eight teeth in each jaw j
the twro foremoft longer than the reft j three interior
teeth on both fides, refting againft as many lateral
ones 5 gill-aperture narrowq above the pedloral fins j
gill-covers wanting •, gill-membrane two-rayed 5 body
compreffed, carinated on the fides, with kales grow¬
ing on the Ikin, and rough with fliarp prickles.
Moll
Chap. IV.
Cartilagi- Moft of the fpecies of this gehQs are natives of the
tious Hflics. Indian and American feas. They can in fome degree
"~v inflate their alidomen by means of a ftrong bone, rough
■with fmall prickles, which lies under the Ikin. They
■" feed on other fillies. Some of them are very large,
and fome remarkable for the brilliancy and variega¬
tions of their colours. In general, they are reckoned
poifonous.
tnonoccros Unicorn jUe-jlJJ).—A fin of one ray on the head $
rays of the caudal fin carinated. The body is of an
oval form, from one to two feet long, and covered all
over with very minute fpines. The general colour is
gray, inclining to brown on the upper parts, and varied
with irregular wavings and fpots. Juft above the eyes
is a fingle fpine of confiderable length, a little recurved,
and ferrated on the hind part. Its food chiefly confifts
of cruftaceous and teftaceous animals.
taprifeus. Mediterranean jile-jijh.—Violet-gray, with red or
blue variegations, fingle ventral fin, and rounded tail.
Length of the preceding, and ftiape ovate. Almoft
the only fpecies found in the European feas. The rays
of the firft dorfal fin are fo continued as to a£! in con¬
cert with confiderable force in raifing the fin at the
•pleafure of the animal.
vetula. Ancient jile-Jifh, or old wife. Firft dorfal fin three-
rayed, ventral fin longitudinal; caudal bifid. Length
from one to two feet, or more, general colour yellowifti-
olive, paler beneath. Several blue ftreaks on the front
and cheek, and fome tranfverfe and longitudinal ftrips
on the body. This fpecies is fuppofed to have obtain¬
ed its name from the mouth, when viewed in front, or
from the flightly murmuring noife which it utters when
firft taken. t
undulatus Undulated Jile-Jifh.—Black, but waved by oblique
red lines. Obferved about the Ihores of Sumatra by
Mr Mungo Park.
The other forts deferibed by the moft recent ichthy-
ologifts are, hifpidus, tomenlofus, papillofus, chinenjis,
ringens, liturofus, Icevis, fanneratii, bicc/or, virefeens,
fafeiatus, unimaculatus, cinereus, maculatus, aculeatus,
vern/cofus, biacu/eatus, forcipatus, fgnatus, punlilatus,
capiftratus, kleinii, curajfavius, and affaf.
ICHTHYOLOGY. ic>5
and May. The Greenlanders boil the roe, which is Cartilagi-
Cyclop-
terus.
Gen. 9. Cyclopterus.
very large, and eat both it and the fifh. In' England, r‘ous Filhes,-
the latter is fometimes Hewed, but is flabby and infipid. ’ " v
The lump-fuckers are frequently devoured by feals,
W'hich leave the Ikins ; numbers of which, thus emptied,
may often be found in the fpring, along thofe diftridls
of Ihore -which are frequented by this fpecies, “ It is
eafy, (adds Mr Pennant), to diftinguilh the place
where feals are devouring this or any undluous fifh, by
a fmoothnefs of the water immediately above the fpot^’
The pavoninus, or pamnian fucker, agrees with this
fpecies in all particulars, except fize, and is therefore,
probably only a variety. The gibbofus of Willoughby,
or pyramidal fucker, feems alfo to belong to the fame
fpecies, and to be diftinguifhed only by the pyramidal
elevation of the back.
Small fucker naked ; fnout marked above the thlntllusi
mouth by three tubercles. A very Imall fpecies, which
inhabits the Atlantic ocean, and feems to be allied in
habit to the common lump-fifh. The body is comprefs-
ed, of a whitifti colour, and has two white unequal tu¬
bercles on each fide.
UnBuous or fiailfucker.•—Body naked j dorfal, anal, Uparis.
and caudal fins united. The length varies from five to
eighteen inches. The ftiape is elongated, thick, com-
prefled j the fkin thin and lax, and covered with a vif-
cid humour, like a fnail. It is brownifh, with darker
ftripes above, white beneath, and flightly yellow on
the head and fides. It inhabits the northern feas, and
fometimes afeends rivers.
Cornifh or jura fucker, or leffer fucking-ffh.—Ofcornubieit*
a purplifh brown colour, with lengthened front. About^J.
four inches long; fkin without feales, and flippery.
Native of the European feas. Found by Dr Borlafe on
the edaft of Cornwall, and by Mr Pennant in the found
of Jura.
Bimaculated fucker.—Body" without feales j pe floral bimacula-
fins placed very high ; a round black fpot on each tide tits.
of the ventral membrane. About an inch and a half
long ; the colour of the head and body fine pink. In¬
habits the fea about Weymouth.
The remaining known fpecies of this genus are, den-
tex, gelatinofus, ventricofus, Imeatus, and bifpinofus.
Head obtufe j mouth Handing forward ; tongue fliort
and thick *, jaws armed with fmall fharp teeth ; gill-
membrane four-rayed $ gill-cover of one plate j
body Ihort, thick, and fcalelefs ; ventral fins united
into an orbicular membrane.
lumpus. Lump-fucker, lump-fifh, fea-owl or cock paddle.—
Body angulated, with bony tubex-cle j grows to the
length of 19 inches, and to the weight of feven pounds.
It is of a deep and very thick ftiape, and fwims edge-
wife j the back is fhnrp and elevated, and the belly
flat. There are four rows of large tubercles, and the
whole fkin is rough with fmaller ones. On the upper
part of the back is a thick ridge, deftitute of fpines.
Beneath the pectoral fins is an oval aperture, furround-
ed wdth a fleftiy mufcular fubftance, edged with fmall
filiform procefies, which aft as clafpers. By means of
this organ it adheres very ftrongly to any thing it
pleafes. The belly is of a bright crimfon colour. In¬
habits the northern, American, and Indian feas. De-
pofits its orange-coloured ova near the Ihore in Aoril
Vol. XL Part I.
Gen. 10. LopHIUS. LophiuS,
Head depreffed j many fharp-pointed teeth; tongue
broad j and armed with teeth ; eyes on the upper
part of the head ; noftrils fmall; gills three j one
lateral aperture *, peftoral fins placed on the long
branchiae •, dorfal and anal fins oppofite, and near
the tail; body fcalelefs, covered with a thin and lax
fkin ; vent in the middle ; no lateral line.
The fifties of this genus are of a Angularly uncouth
appearance j the body being thick and fhapelefs j the
head exceflively large, and the fins Ihort and broad.
European or common angler, frogfijl), toadfi/h,pifcai^
fi/hing frog, fea-devil, &c.—Depreffed 5 head rounded!
The ordinary length of this fpecies is from two to four
feet, though it fometimes meafures fix or even feven
feet. Its form refembles that of a tadpole. The fkin
of the trunk is fmooth, but that of the upper parts
marked by various inequalities. The eyes are large
and wnitilh 5 the lower jaw is confiderably longer than
the upper. Two or three long, thread-like proceffes ’
O proceed
io6 I C H T H Y
Cartil: gi- proceed from the upper part of the head, and fome
nous Fiflies. fl10rter ones from the back, while the edges of the
body are fringed at intervals with fliorter appendages
of a fome what limilar nature. The upper furface is
brown, with deeper or pale variegations, and the under
furface whitilh. The frog-fifh inhabits the European
Teas; fwims flowly ; lies in ambulh, in (hallows, half-
concealed by fea-plants or mud, and decoying its prey
by moving its worm-like procelfes. It feeds on the
dog-fifh and fmaller filhes. The cornubien/is, cornijh,
or long angler, or fijhing frog of Mount's bay, defcribed
by Borlafe and Pennant, is fo nearly allied to this that
it may be regarded as only a variety.
hijlno. Harlequin angler, or American toadfjb.—Compreffed;
of a yellowifh brown colour, with irregular blackifli
fpots, and beards on the head and body. This, which
is one of the moll grotefque and lingular of filhes, is a
native of the Indian and American feas, growing to
the length of ten or twelve inches, and in manners re-
fembling the European angler.
The other fpecies are, muricatus, vefperiiho, fnatus,
piBus, marmoratus, and commerfonii.
Aocipenfer. Gen. 11. AcciPENSKR.
Head obtufe ; mouth placed under the head ; retraflile,
toothlefs; four beards under the fnout and before the
mouth.
The filhes of this genus are among the largell of the
tribe. They are all inhabitants of the fea, though fome
occalionally afcend rivers in great Ihoals. All the
fpecies are large, feldom meafuring, when full grown,
lefs than three or four feet in length. Their flelh is
reckoned delicate and nutritious; and they form a very
conliderable article of commerce on the banks of the
Cafpian fea, and many parts both of Europe and Ame¬
rica. They feed principally on worms and other filh.
Jlurio. Common furgeon.—Snout obtufe ; the tranfverfe di¬
ameter of the mouth equal to the longitudinal ; the
beards on the fnout near the end of it ; lips bifid. Of
a long, (lender, and pentagonal form, attaining fome-
times to eighteen feet in length, and weighing five
hundred pounds. The whole length of the body is
covered by five rows of large, Itrong, and bony tuber¬
cles, rounded at the bafe, radiated from the centre,
and teiminated above by a (harp curved point in a re-
verfed direction. The whole Ikin, on the upper parts
and (ides, is alfo roughened with very fmall tubercles
of a fimilar ftru6ture. The general colour is cinereous
above, and whitifh or yellowilh beneath. Though gene¬
rally a lluggilh filh, it fometimes fprings out of the wa¬
ter with great force. It feeds on filhes, particularly
the herring, falmon, mackrel, and coal-filh. It fpawns
in fpring, and is amazingly prolific, Lewenhoeck having
found in the roe of one of them 150,000,000,000 ova !
It inhabits the ocean, the Mediterranean, and the Red,
Black, and Cafpian feas, efpecially fuch parts of them
as are not remote from the aelluaries of large rivers,
which they occafionally afcend in great multitudes. In
fome of the rivers of Virginia they are fo numerous
that fix hundred .have been taken in two days merely
by a pole, with a firong hook fixed to the end of it.
The flelh is very delicate, white, and firm, and when
roalled, is faid to referable veal. In this country it is
ufually ferved in a pickled ftate, being imported from
O L O G Y. Chap. IV.
America and the Baltic. It is fometimes, however, arvaip'-
taken in our rivers in the falmon-nets. The llurgeonwais tnlies.
was a filh in high repute w ith the Greeks and Romans,
and according to Pliny, was brought to table with
much pomp, and ornamented with flowers, the Haves
who carried it being alfo ornamented with garlands,
and accompanies by mufic. Caviar is made of the
dried and faked roe. The Ikin makes a good covering
for carriages.
Sterlet Jlurgeon.—Browmilh, with the fides fpotted rutbenus.
with pale red, and the body fhielded above by a triple
feries.of tubercles. The fmallefl: and moll delicate fpecies
of the genus. Native of the Cafpian fea, found alfo
in the Volga and Ural, and occafionally in the Baltic.
In feafons when this filh happened to be unulually dear,
Prince Potemkin paid three hundred rubles for a Angle
tureen of fterlet foup, w'hich formed the mere prelude
to his repaft.
Ifnglafs furgeon, or beluga.—Snout very obtufe, hufo*
tranfverfe diameter of the mouth lefs than the longitu¬
dinal ; beards near the mouth ; lips not cleft. Larger
than the common fpecies, and fometimes meafuring
2 5 feet in length. The tubercles are fmaller than
thofe of the furio, and feem to fall off wdth age. In¬
habits the northern, Cafpian, and Mediterranean feas.
Ifinglas is prepared from its found or air-bladder, and
an inferior fort from the Ikin, tail, Itomach, and intef-
tines. See Ichthyocolla.
To thefe may be addedand fellatus; the firft
perhaps only a fmaller variety of furio, and the latter
diftinguilhed by the liar-like marks on its head.
Gen. 12. Chimera. . Chimera.
Head lharp-pointed ; fpiracles folitary, in four divifions
under the neck ; mouth under the head ; upper lip v
with five divifions; fore teeth like cutting-teeth, two
in each jaW; body long, with a Angle fpine on
the back ; the tail ending in a briille, and longer
than the relt of the body.
Sea-monfer, northern chinuera.—Punctured folds be- nionfroja,
low the fnout. A Angularly grotefque fpecies, inhabit¬
ing the northern and Atlantic ocean ; frequenting the
deeped recedes, preying on fmaller filhes and mollufca
and tedacea ; and rarely approaching the Ihore, except
during the breeding feafon. It is from three to four
feet long, of a lengthened and compreffed form, tapering
to the tail, wkich is produced into a long and flender
filament. The head and eyes are very large ; and at
the bafe of each ventral fin, in the male, is a lengthen¬
ed procefs, rough with numerous (harp prominences in
a reverfed direction. The whole body is of a yellowT-
brown above the lateral line, and of a bright filvery
colour beneath it, variegated with numerous irregular
deep browm or blackifli fpots and patches. Its flelh is
confidered as coarfe and uneatable.
Elephant ff, or fouthern chimecra.— Snout produ-
ced beneath into an inflefted lip. Native of the fou-c^WJ>
them feas.
Gen. 13* Squalus. Squalus.
Head obtufe, from four to feven femilunar fpiracles on
the fides of the neck ; eyes oblong, half covered,
placed before the temporal opening ; mouth in the
under part of the head, armed with feveral rows of
ferrated
Chap. IV.
Cartilagi- ferrated niarp-pointed teeth, fome of which are move-
noui Fifhe-. ai,3ej fome fixed, and of different forms *, body ob-
' v f°ng> round, rough, with (lender prickles; ventral
fins', for the mod part, lefs than the peroral, clofe,
placed about the vent, and in the males about the
organs of generation.
The animals which compofe this tribe are entirely
marine, and more frequent in the hot than in the tem¬
perate climates. In general they are folitary, and often
wander to great diftances, devouring almotl every thing
that comes in their way, and that they are capable of
fwallowing. Some of them will follow' veifels feveral
hundred leagues for the carcafes and offals. They
fometimes attain to an enormous fize, as they often
weigh from one to four thoufand pounds each. Some
few fpecigs are gregarious, and live on the molluica
and other marine worms. They are all viviparous, and
like the rays, protrude their young in pellucid horny
cafes, terminated at the four corners by long, flender
filaments, and wdhch are generally found twilled round
corallines, fea-weed, and other fixed fubftances. Their
tfefh is ib tough, coarfe, and unfavoury, that even the
young are hardly eatable. Their bodies emit a phof-
phoric light in the dark.
canicula. 'Panther flmrk, greater or flatted dog-fifh.—Nof-
trils furrounded by a fnlall lobe, and a vermiform ap-
v pendage, ventral fins feparated. ’Ihree or four feet
long brownifh, with red or black fpots •, body cylin¬
drical, but compreffed at both extremities ; fkin rough,
and when dried, ufed for polifliing and other purpofes.
Inhabits the fea almoft everywhere. The female breeds
frequently, and brings about nineteen young at a
time.
catulus. Spotted Jharh, or lejjer /potted dog/Jh.—Noflrils
furrounded by a fmall lobe and a vermiform appen-
dage ; ventral fins united. Length from two to three
feet. Colour pale brick-red, with very numerous, fmall
dufky fpots. Very common in the European feas, very
voracious, and a great annoyance to the fifhermen. Ac¬
cording to Pennant, it breeds from nine to thirteen
at a time. Its liver is faid to be highly noxious, in¬
ducing long continued llupor, fucceeded by an univer-
fal itching and lofs of the cuticle.
galeus. Tope.—Teeth nearly triangular, and denticulated on
the upper margin Grows to five feet or more, is
round and elongated, and often weighs upwards of 27
pounds. It is of a lighter or darker cinereous hue
above, and whitifh below'. It fmells very rank, and is
fo bold as to purfue its prey to the very edge of the
fliore. It inhabits the European ocean, and is fre¬
quently feen about the Britifh coafts.
Ttsygtxna% Hammer-headed /hark, or balance-fijh.—Head very
broad and tranfverfe, fomewhat in the fhape or a ham¬
mer. This deformed fpecies meafures from five to fif¬
teen or feventeen feet. The body is rather flender,
and fomewhat cylindrical ; the head dilated on each
fide to a great extent, with the eyes which are very
lar^e, placed at each extremity. It is brown above^
and paler, or whitifh beneath. Native of the Medi¬
terranean and Indian feas, where it attacks fuch as are
accidentally exoofed to its fury, or are incautioufly
bathing or hvimming in its neighbourhood. The na¬
tives of Otaheite, trufling to their dexterity in fwim-
ndng, appear to hold it in contempt.
107
Heart-headed [hark.—Head very broad and heart- Carti .^i-
fhaped. In other refpe&s greatly allied to the pieced- ou' Hihcs.
ing, but is much more rare, and chietiy inhabits the^^^
South American feas.
Blue /hark.—Sides of the tail fmooth, a cavity o'.glaucus.
the back of the tail. Of a more flender and elegant
fliape than the other fpecies, meafures from ten to four¬
teen feet, is of a blue-green above and white be¬
neath.. It is very bold and voracious •, inhabits the
European feas, and frequents feveral of the Bntdh
coafts, efpecially thole of Cornwall, during the pilchard
feafon.
Porbeagle /hark.— A longitudinal fold on each iAccornubt’-
of the tail. Length from three to eight feet; fhape
round, except near the tail, where it is depreffed ; co¬
lour deep on the back, and white or lilvery beneath.
Inhabits the fea about Cornwall. The monen/s, or
Beaumari's /bark of Pennant, is now regarded only as
a variety of cornubicus.
Ba/king Jhark.—-With conical teeth, not ferrated. maximus.
Body ilender, and from three to tw elve yards in length,
of a deep lead Colour above, and white below. The
upper jaw is blunt at the end, and much longer than
the lower. The mouth is furnilhed with a great mul¬
titude of fmall teeth, of v'hich thofe in front are much
bent, and the remote ones conical and fharp pointed.
It has two dorfal, two pe&oral, two ventral fins, and
one fmall anal fin. This fpecies inhabits the northern
feas, and derives its name from its propenfity to lie on
the furface of the water, as if to balk in the fun, gener¬
ally on its belly, and fometimes on its back. It feeds
on fea-plants and medufae, and betrays none of that fe¬
rocity of difpofition which charadterizes mod of the
fhark tribe ; on the contrary, it feems fo little afraid
of mankind, as often to fuffer itfelf to be patted and
ftroked. Thefe animals frequent our feas during the
warm fummer months, and appear in (hoals on the
Welfh and Scottifh coafts, after intervals of a certain
number of years. They are obferved in the frith of
Clyde and among the Hebrides in fmall troops of feven
or eight, or more commonly in pairs, about mid fum¬
mer, and difappear about the latter end of July. They
fwim very deliberately, and generally with their upper
fins above water. Sometimes they may be feen fporting
among the waves, and fpringing feveral feet above the
furface. They are purfued and taken by the fifliermen
for the fake of the oil contained in the liver ; that vif-
cus fometimes weighing a thoufand pounds, and yield¬
ing eight barrels of oil, and two of ufelefs fediment.
When purfued, they do not quicken their motion till
the boat is almoft in contadl with them, when the har-
pooner ftrikes his weapon into the body, as near the
gills as he can. Sometimes they remain in the fame
place till the united (Length of two men is exerted to
force the inftrument deeper. Then they plunge head¬
long to the bottom, and frequently coil the rope round
their bodies, and endeavour to get rid of the harpoon
by rolling on the ground. Difcovering that thefe ef¬
forts are vain, they fwim with fuch (Length and rapi¬
dity, that one inftance has occurred of a balking fhark
towing to fome diftance a veffel of 70 tons burthen,
againft a frefti gale. They fometimes run off with 200
fathoms of line, and two harpoons in them, and will
emoloy the men from 12 to 24 hours before they are
fubdued. A large fi(h has afforded the captors a pro-
O 2 fit
ICHTHYOLOGY.
->
carcha-
I C H T H Y
fit of 20 pounds. u A male of this fpeeies (fays Dr
Shaw) was taken in the year i8oi, at Abbotfbury in
Dorfetfhire entangled in a filhing feine, and after a
violent refiftance, was dragged athore. It is faid to
have received 17 muiket-balls before it expired ; its
length was 28 feet, and its circumference in the thick-
ell; part about 20 feet ; its tail, from point to point,
near eight feet} the teeth, according to its proprietor,
who tooks the pains to count them, amounted to the
number of four thoufand.” The Ikin make excellent
fhagreen.
White Jljarh.—Triangular ferrated teeth. This fpe-
cies, fo remarkable for its powers of deftru&ion, is a
native of mod feas, but occurs more frequently in the
'warm than the cold latitudes. It arrives at the length
of more than 30 feet, and is rather thicker and broader
than moll of its congeners. The mouth is very wide,
and furnifhed on the margin of each jaw with from
three to fix rows of drong, flat, triangular, (harp-point¬
ed, and finely ferrated teeth, which can be raifed ©r
deprefled at pleafure. The general colour of the ani¬
mal is a pale alh, darker or browner on the upper
parts. So great is the drength of the tail, that a young
lhark of fix feet in length, is able by a droke of this
part to break a man’s leg j hence it is ufual for failors
to cut oft the tail the indant they drag a fhark on
board. Gillius quotes a fpecimen which weighed four
thoufand pounds, and another in whofe belly was found
an entire human body; and Muller afferts, that in one
taken at the ifle of St Margaret, there was found a
horfe which had probably been thrown overboard from
fome fliip. The fize of the foflil teeth of this fpecies,
fo often found in the ifle of Malta, &c. affords a con¬
vincing proof of the enormous fpecimens which have
once exifted. Sharks are the dread of failors in all hot
climates, where they condantly attend the Ihips in ex¬
pectation of what may drop overboard ; and a man
who has that misfortune is almoft inftantly devoured.
In the pearl-filheries of South America, every negro,
to defend himfelf againft thefe animals, carries with him
into the water a ftiarp knife, which, if the filh offers
to affault him, he endeavours to ftrike into its belly,
on which it generally fwims off. The officers who are
in the veffels keep a watchft.il eye on thefe voracious
creatures, and on difcovering them, (hake the ropes
faftened to the negroes, to put them on their guard.
Many, when the divers have been in danger, have
thrown themfelves into the water, with knives in their
hands, and haftened to their defence : but too often
all their dexterity and precaution have been of no
avail.
Saw-fnouted Jharh^ ©r faw-jijh.—With a long fiat
fnout, let with teeth on both iides through its whole
length. Inhabits the fouthem and northern oceans,
grows to fifteen feet in length, and is readily dif-
tinguilhed by its produced and faw-like fnout, which is
often preferved in mufeums.
acanthias. Picked Jhark, or picked dog-jijh.—Dorfal fin fpinous ;
body fomewhat round. Length from three to four feet ;
colour brownilh affi above and white beneath ; rough,
with minute prickles, hooked backwards. Common
in the European feas, efpecially about the coafts of
Scotland and Norway. When fplit and dried, it is
eaten by the common people.
Jquahna. ^ngel-Jhark} or angel-fijh,—PeCtoral fins vgy large
Chap.
IV,
frijlis.
O L O G Y.
and emarginated before. A deformed fpecies, with Cartiiagi-
large head and peCloral fins, and depreffed body, attain-novts Fifties.
ing to fix or eight feet in Length. It is a native of the v *
European feas, and is extremely voracious, fierce, and
dangerous. It produces twelve or thirteen young at a
birth.
The other known fpecies of this genus are vulpesy
J1 e/laris, mujlelus,fpwax, centrum, philippinus, cinereus,
fpinofus, ifabella, cirrhatus, barbatus, africanus, ocel-
latus, grifeus, americanus, fquamofus, denticulatus, punc-
tulatus, %ebra, gronovianus, tentaculatus, and fcmi-fa-
gittatus.
Spatularia.
Gen. 14. Spatularia.
Spiracles fingle on each fide of the neck, concealed by
a large gill-cover; fnout produced, and lhaped like a
fpatula ; mouth beneath the head, large, and fur-
niffied with (harp ferrated teeth.
Reticulatedfpatuiaria—In habit and appearance this reticulata
remarkable fpecies is allied to the (harks, but dif-
tinguiffied by its thin fnout, of the form of a fpatula,
and nearly equal in length to the whole remainder of
the animal. Its hiftory and manners are very imper-
fetftly known.
Gen. 15. R VA. Raia.
Spiracles on the under part of the neck, ten on each
fide, oblique ; mouth under the head, fmall, acumi¬
nated, as if continuous with the bread, tranfverfe
and dentated; body thin, depreffed, and of a rhom¬
boid figure.
The fpecies of this genus are entirely confined to the
fea, and, being deftitute of an air-bladder, live chiefly
at the bottom, generally in deep water, covering them-
felves in winter in fand or mud. They live on (liell-
fiffi, or other animal fubftances that fall in their wav.
Some of them become of a fize fo large as to weigh
twro hundred pounds and upwards. They feldom pro¬
duce more than one young at a time, which, as in the
(harks, is inclofed in a four-cornered capfule, ending in
(lender points, but not, as in the former, produced into
long filaments. The liver is large, and often produces
a great quantity of oil. They are moftly edible.
Torpedo, torpedo ray, cramp ray, cramp fijh, &c torpedo.
Wholly fmooth. The body of this fpecies is of a fome¬
what circular form, (lightly convex above, marked
along each fide of the fpire by feveral fmall pores, about
eighteen inches, or two feet in length, and for the mod
part of a pale reddiffi brown on the upper fmface,
fometimes marked by five large circular and dulky
fpots, and whitiih or fieffi-coloured beneath. It inha¬
bits moft feas, but feems to thrive bed in the Mediter¬
ranean, ufually lying in rvater of about forty fathoms
depth, in company with fome of its congeners. It
preys on fmaller fiffi, which it is fuppofed to ftupefy by
its eleflric or galvanic faculty. This property, which
has been fo much exaggerated both by ancient and mo¬
dern writers, is neverthelefs, fufficiently remarkable;
From fome experiments which were made by Mr Walfh
on a very flout and healthy filh, it appears that noJ’park
could be difcovered to proceed from it, and that pith-
balls were never found to be affeffed by it. When in-
fulated, it gave a (hock to perfons who were hkewife
infulated,
Chap IV.
Cartilagi¬
nous Fillies
batis^
oxynn-
chus.
miralelus,
infulated, and even to feveral who took hold of each
other’s hands *, this it did forty or fifty times fuccelTive-
ly, and with very little diminution of forces If touch¬
ed only with one finger, the ihock was fo great as to
be felt with both hands. Yet the animal was not able
to tranfmit the fliock acrofs the minuteft tra£l of air,
nor from one link of a fmall chain freely fufpended to
another, nor through an almoft invifxble feparation
made by a penknife in a Hip of tin-foil pafted on feal-
ing-wax.
Skate—Back fmooth in the middle, with one row of
fpines. Common in the European feas. The general
colour on the upper parts is a pale alh-brown, varied
with feveral dufliy undulations, and of the under parts
white, marked with numerous diftant black Ipines. In
the male, the pe&oral fins are bent towards their tips
or edges with numerous fmall fpines. In Oclober, the
Ikate is ufually poor and thin, but begins to improve in
November, and is reckoned to be in the highelt per-
feftion in May. Willoughby makes mention of a Angle
Ikate of twTo hundred pounds weight, which was fold
in the fiih market at Cambridge to the cook of St
John’s College in that univerfity, and was found fuffi-
cient to dine the whole fociety, confifting of more than
J20 perfons.
Sharp-nofed ray.—Ten aculeated tubercles along the
middle of the back. In lhape, refembles the preced¬
ing, but has a longer and (harper fnout in the form of
a (pontoon. Native of the Mediterranean and northern
feas.
Mirror ray.—Back and belly fmooth ; fpines at the
region of the eyes, and a triple row of them at the tail.
Each of the pedtoral fins is marked about the middle,
or near the body, with a large circular, eye-ihaped fpot,
confiding of a purplidi or dulky circle, with a whitifii
or yellowilh centre. Inhabits the Mediterranean.
Rough ray.—One row of prickles on the back, and
three on the tail, Greatly allied to the thorn-back j
and rough, with many fpines. Inhabits the Mediterra¬
nean and other feas.
Sting ray.—Body fmooth ; long ferrated fpine on
the fore part of the tail $ no dorfal fin. Shape fome-
what rhomboidal •, fnout pointed •, colour of the body
yellowifh olive above, and whitilh beneath. With its
long flattened fpine, which is finely ferrated in a reverfe
dire&ion on both fides, it is capable of inflicting very
fevere wounds. As it is annually caft, the new fpine
fometimes arrives at a confiderable lize before the old
one drops off, in which flate the animal has been oc-
cafionally defcribed as a diitintl fpecies. Though for¬
merly fuppofed to contain a very aftive poifon, this
weapon is found to be wholly deftitute of any venomous
quality. Inhabits the European, Red, and Indian leas,
and is ranked among the edible rays.
clavata. Thorn-back.—Prickly j teeth tuberculated $ a tranf-
verfe cartilage on the abdomen. Refembles the com¬
mon fkate, but is fomewhat broader in proportion, and
is eafily diflingui(lied from it by the very ftrong curved
fpines with which its upper fur face is covered. It is an
inhabitant of the Mediterranean and other feas, and
efteemed as a food. The thorn-back begins to be in
feafon in November, and continues fo later than the
fkate ; but the young of both are good at all times of
the year.
To complete the fpecific catalogue of this genus, we
ICHTHYOLOGY. i>o$
have to add fullonica, eg/anteria, actu, nigra, pi&a, ttn- Curtilagi-
duiaia, alba, marginaia, cliagrmea, aquila, guttata, faf-
data, lymna, ct/culus,fephen, tuberculata, poecilina, dia-
bolus, manatia, giorna, j'ahroniana, bankjiana, fimbnata,
maculata, bicolor, JinenJis, rhinobatos, thouiniana, djtd-
denjis, and cuvicri.
Petromy-
zon.
rubus.
^pajlinaca.
Gen. 16. Petromyzon.
Head more {lender than the body mouth larger above
than below ; teeth orange-coloured, hollow within,
furrounded with a fleihy rim, curved above, broad
below’ j feven fpiracles at the Tides of the neck •, a
firtulous opening at the back part of the head j no
peCloral or ventral fins.
Lamprey, great lamprey, or fea lamprey.—Mouth marinutz,.
within covered with papillae j the hinder dorfal fin le-
parate from the tail. In general appearance, approaches
nearly to the eel tribe, efpecially to the muraeme.
Though it fometimes exceeds three feet in length, the
Britilh fpecimens are ufually of inferior fize. Its gene¬
ral colour is a dull browniih olive, clouded with yel¬
lowifh w’hite variegations j the fins are tinged with dull
orange, and the tail with blue. On the top of the head
is a fmall orifice for the difcharge of the fuperfluous wa¬
ter taken in at the mouth and gills. Among the car¬
tilaginous fillies, none is fo deftitute of all appearance
of real bone as the lamprey, in which, the fpine itfelf
is no other than a mere foft cartilage, without any pro-
cefles or protuberances. The heart, inftead of being
inclofed in a foft pericardium, as in other animals, is
guarded by a ftrong cartilaginous one ; and the liver is
of a fine grafs-green colour. It inhabits the ocean, and
afcends rivers chiefly during the latter end of winter
and the early months of fpring. It is viviparous } and
the young are of flow growth. Though capable of
fwimming with rapidity, it is more commonly feen at¬
tached by the mouth to fame large ftone or other fub-
ftance, and that with fuch power of adhefion, that a
weight of more than twelve pounds may be raifed with¬
out forcing the fi(h to forego its hold. It is fuppofed
to live principally on w’orms and young fifti. Like the
eel, it is remarkably tenacious of life, the feveral parts,
when cut in pieces, continuing to move, and the head
ftrongly attaching itfelf for feveral hours to a ftone,,
though by far the greater part of the body be cut aw’ay
from it. “ As an article of food, (obferves Dr Shaw)
the lamprey has for many ages maintained its credit as
on exquifite dainty; and has uniformly made its appear¬
ance at the moft fplendid of our ancient entertainments..
The death of King Henry I. it is well known, is at¬
tributed to a too luxurious indulgence in this his fa¬
vourite diftr. It ftill continues to be in high efteem ;
and we are told by Mr Pennant, that the city of Glo-
cefter continues to fend yearly, at Chriftmas, a prefent
of a rich lamprey pye to the king, It fometimes hap¬
pens that the lampreys at that feafon are fo rare, that a
guinea is demanded for the price of a Angle fifh. They
are moft in feafon during March, April, and May, and
are obferved to be much more firm when frefh arrived
from fea than when they have been a confiderable time
in frefti water. They are found in feveral of the Bri-
tifh rivers, but that which is moft celebrated for them
is the Severn.”
LeJJer lamprey or lampern.—The hinder dorfal dnjluviatilisi.
angulated,
HO I C H T H Y
angulated. From. 10 to 15 inches long ; the back
nous r tfliey. brown or dufky, fometimes clouded, or mixed with
blue •, the upper part ot the body marked by numerous
annular lines, and the whole under ikies filvery. In¬
habits the Tea, and afcends, in fpring, moil of the Eu¬
ropean rivers, in which it is found much more frequent¬
ly and plentifully than the great lamprey. It is often
potted with the latter, and by fome preferred to it, on
account of its milder take. The Dutch purchafe vaft
quantities of this fpecies as bait for their cod and tur¬
bot fiiheries. In the river Bauiler, in Courland, great
quantities are taken from beneath the ice, with nets •,
they are much larger than thofe found elfewhere, and
are packed in fnowq and fent to any diftance 5 and,
tvhen put into cold water, recover themfelves. This
fpecies is fo tenacious of life, that it will live many days
out of the water.
bronchia- Minute lamprey or pride.—The hinder dorfal fin li-
t'15' near ; the lips behind lobated. Has a worm-like ap¬
pearance; meafures from four to feven inches in length;
is not obferved to adhere to other bodies ; inhabits the
European rivers, and is more frequent in the Ifis than
eliewhere, in England.
The remaining fpecies are pfanSri, ruber, fanguifugay
argenteus, plumbeus, and bicolor.
branchus. ^en' I7* GastroBRANCHUS.
Body eel-lhaped; mouth beneath, wdth numerous
peftinate teeth ; two fpiracles beneath the abdo¬
men.
ccecus. Blindgajlrobranchus. Myxincglutinofa, Lin.—Livid,
paler beneath ; with eight beards at the mouth. Re¬
moved to the clafs of fifhes, in confequence of Dr Bloch’s
accurate examination of its external and internal itruc-
ture. In general appearance, in the fituation of the
mouth, and in the orange colour of the teeth, it ap¬
proaches very near to the lamprey. But it is remark¬
able for the total want of eyes, no veilige of any fuch
organ being difcoverable by the moll attentive exami¬
nation. The body is deftitute of fcales, lateral line,
and fins, except that fhallow one which forms the tail.
Beneath the body, from head to tail, runs a double row
of equidillant pores. T ne fpiracles, which are a pair
of oval apertures, are fituated beneath the body, at fome
difiance from the head. This lingular fpecies is faid to
enter into the bodies of fuch filhes as it happens to find
on the filherman’s hooks, and which confequently have
not the power of efcaping its attack, and by gnawdug
its wray through the Ikin, to devour all the internal
parts, leaving only the bones and the Ikin remaining.
Such is its uncommon glutinous nature, that, if put in¬
to a large vefiel of fea water, it foon renders the whole
fo vifcid, as ealily to be drawn out into the form of
threads. It inhabits the northern feas, and feems alfo
to occur in thofe of the fouthern hemifphere.
Dombeyan gajlrobranchus —Head tumid. Much
larger than the European fpecies ; the head rounded,
and larger than the body ; four beards on the upper
lip, the number of thofe on the lower uncertain, the
fpecimen being defcribed in a dried Hate. Eyes and
nollrils imperceptible. Native of the South Ame¬
rican leas. Cbfcrved by M. Dombey, and defcribed
by La Cepede from the dried Ikin in the Paris mu-
feura.
2
O L O G Y., Chap. IV.
Before we conclude this article, it may be proper toNatu iza-
dired the reader’s attention to M. Nouel’s paper rela- tl0n;. ^
live to two methods of multiplying filhes. The firft con- ,of ^Ill!esq
fills in conveying from the lakes to the rivers, and from v"
the rivers to the lakes, fifh found only in one of them ;
the fecond, in introducing into frelh w'ater, as it were
infenfibly, and by means of artificial ponds, fifh produced
in fait water, giving the preference to thole Ipecies,
which by their habits and manner of living, might be
moll adapted to this kind of naturalization.
The firit of thefe methods has been fuccelsfully prac-
tifed in Germany, with regard to the lhad, in ponds
and clear ftagnant waters, with a bottom of land or
gravel. Perch and trout have, in like manner, been
conveyed into lakes and rivers in Scotland, and have
thriven remarkably well- The carp, which atfecls a
warm temperature, has been fucceflively introduced in¬
to the rivers and ponds of Pruflia, Denmark, and Eng¬
land. M. Poivre firll brought the gourami of Ben-
gal into the ille of France, where it has greatly mul¬
tiplied.
“ Our rivers, (fays this judicious writer), do not
contain more than about twenty indigenous fpecies, and
fome migratory filhes, which at certain periods of the
year afcend to a certain diftance from their mouths, or,
like the falmon, fwim towards their fources as far as
they can. The fmall rivers pollefs Hill fewer fpecies ;
the greatell part even are confined to the tench, the
trout, eels, and fome fmaller filh of little value. How
advantageous would it be to introduce into thefe rivers
a multitude of foreign filh, wBich, in thefe waters could
find aliment more agreeable to their talle, and which
would enjoy a temperature as analogous to their wants,
as favourable to their reproduftion i
“ The Seine, which I lhall take as an example,
nourilhes many fpecies of falmo and cyprinus: but how
many other filh of the fame kind might be propagated
in it ! If the Seine poflefs the falmon, it wants the
thymallus, the umber of Auvergne, the lavaretus, the
murcena oi Germany, the grilfe of Scotland, the pala
of Swifferland, the ferra of the lake of Geneva, &c.
Why Ihould not the carp of the lago di Guarda, and
the fchivart%-ritter of the lakes of Berchlloldgaden,
an excellent kind of falmon, highly praifed by Baron
de Moll, a naturalift of Salzbourg, fucceed in France,
if that bottom, to which they are moll attached, were
procured for them, at the foot of the Cevennes or the
Voges ? Why might they not be afterwards gradually
introduced into our fmall rivers ? Can it be believed,
that the numerous tribe of the trout kind, which fwarm
in the rivers of Scotland, would refufe to fupply our co¬
lonies with their fpecies ? No. There can be no doubt
that they would bring thither that fecundity, abun¬
dance, and riches, which render them fo valuable to
their native ftreams. The cafe would be the fame with
the boudelles and hiiglings prefented to us by the lakes
of Swiflerland, and with the gudgeon, the cyprinus
ballarus, and the falmo umbla, bred in the rivers of
Lower Germany. Let us open, then, with thefe coun¬
tries a philofophical and liberal exchange of the bell
filh of France for thofe of which wTe wilh to be pof-
feffed.”
Nature herfelf feems to point to the fuccefs of the
fecond method. In many inllances, falmon and ftur-
geon have habituated themielves to a frelh-water refi-
denee.
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Naturaliza-dence. Pallas dlfcovefed tlie iea-dog in the lake Bai-
of°F flies' ’ ant^ Liancourt found the herring in feveral of the
■ ^ rivers of North America. It likevvife deferves to be
remarked that the large plaife, tranfported from the
North fea to the ponds of Eafl Friefland, have increaf-
ed by myriads, and imparted great value to water which
was formerly unproduftive.
“ In the year 1799, (continues M. Nouel), I had
the honour of reading, in one of the fittings of the
National Inftitute, a memoir on the means and advan¬
tages of naturalizing the herring, a falt-water fifh, in
the waters of the Seine, near its mouth, &c. The ac¬
count of the proceffes for accomplilhing this end, which
I there pointed out, are not fufceptible of analyfis, and
cannot, therefore, be introduced into this effay ; it will
be fufficient for me to fay, that the report of Lacepede,
Cuvier, and Tefiier, was entirely in their favour. At
prefent, I am ftill more convinced of the efficacy of the
means which I then propofed; and I have no doubt
that, if artificial ponds were formed on the edges of
rivers, the experiment would be attended with complete
fuccefs. ‘ Every man, (fays Dr Franklin), who catches
a fifii, draws from the water a piece of money’. Let
not the maxims and example of this philofopher be loll
to poflerity ; let them rather produce fruit, like ftrong
and vigorous feed fown in a fertile foil. Having ob-
ferved in New England, that the herrings afcended
from the fea into one river of that country, while a
fingle individual was never feen in another river, fepa- Natuvaliza-
rated from the former by a narrow tongue of land, and
which communicated alfo with the fea, this philofopher 0 ‘ ies',
took the leaves of fome plants on which the herrings
had deposited their ova, already fecundated, and con¬
veyed them to the river which was deprived of the an¬
nual vifit of thefe fi(h. The faccefs of this experiment
furpafled his expectations; the ova were completely
productive; and the following year the river was peo¬
pled wdth a numerous (hoal of herrings, which, fince
that time, have continued to frequent it.
“ This fifii is not the only one which I which to fee
naturalized in frefii water 5 to the herring I would add
feveral fpecies of pleuroneBes—alfo the mullet, goby,
whiting, gar-fiffi, and perhaps, one or two fpecies of
the gurnard. I would pay the greatefi: attention poffi-
ble to the nature of the wrater proper for each fpecies.
I his happy choice is the principal condition, and that
which could enfure fuccefs; but I would feleft in par¬
ticular for this colonization, the fifii found in lakes,
which, though little known, are more numerous than
is commonly fuppofed, and ought to be fo.”
By the adoption of this plan, which is fufceptible of
more ample developement, fociety would gain an in-
crealed quantity of provifion, and the naturaliil would
multiply his opportunities of obfervation.
For the modes of preferving fifii in cabinets, fee
Preserving Fijh} means of.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Plate CCLXXIX.
Explanation of Terms.—a, (fig. 2.) pe&oral fins; b,
ventral fins ; c, c, anal fins; </, caudal fin, or tail;
e, c, e, dorfal fins ; f bony plates that cover the gills ;
g, branchioftegous rays and their membranes; //, lateral
or fide line.
Fig. 1. Anguilla Conger. Conger Eel.—Example of
apodal fifiies, in which the ventral fins are wanting.
The launce or fand-eel, the wolf-fifii, and fword-fifii,
belong to this order.
Fig. 2. The Haddock, an example of jugular fifiies,
in which the ventral fins £, are placed before the pec¬
toral fins a. To this order belong the dragouet, the
cod-fiffi, the blenny, &c.
Fig. 3. The Father-laffier, an example of thoracic
fifiies, in which the ventral fins are placed .beneath
the pefloral £ ; as in the bull’s-head, the dory, the
mackrel, the perch, &c.
Fig. 4. The Minow, an example of abdominal fifiies,
having the ventral fins a, placed behind the pedloral
fins b. To this order belong the falmon, the herring,
the carp, &c.
Fig. 5. The Dog-fifli, an example of cartilaginous
fifiies, in which the mufcles are fupported by cartilages
infiead of bones, and which breathe by means of aper¬
tures placed near the neck infiead of gills; a the lateral
apertures.
Fig. 6. Gijmnotus Eledricus, Electrical Gymnotus
or Cramp-fifh.
Fig. 7.^ Trichiurus Lepturus, Silvery Trichiurus.
Fig. 8. Anarchichas Lupus, Sea-wolf,
Fig. 9. Odontognathus Aculeatus.
Fig. 10. Ammodytes Tobianus, Sand-eel.
Fig. 11. Oplddium Barb a turn, Bearded Ophidium.
Plate CCLXXX.
Fig. 1 2. Sternoptyx Diaphana, Tranfparent Sternop-
tyx.
F|g. 13. Leptocephalus Morrijii, Morris Launce.
Fig. 14. Stylephorus Chordatus, Chordated Stylepho-
rus.
Fjg. 15. Ca/lionymus Dracunculus, Sordid Dragonet.
Fig. 16. branofeopus Scaber, Bearded Star-gazer.
Fig. 17. Trachinus Draco, Dragon Weever.
Fig. 18. Gadus Molva, Ling.
Fig. 19. B/ennius Pholis, Smooth Blenny.
Fig. 20. Kurtus Indicus, Indian Kurtus.
Fig. 21. Echineis Remora, Indian Remora, or Lon<r.
eft Sucking-fifti. &
Plate CCLXXXI.
Fig. 22. Coryphcena Hippurus, Dolphin.
Fig. 23. Macrourus Rupejlris, Long-tailed Imminfet.
Fig. 24. Cottus Scorpius, Laffier, Bull-head, or Fa-
ther-lafher.
Fig. 25. Scorpeena Antennata, Antennated Scorpaenav
Fig. 26. Zeus Faber, Common Dory.
Fig. 27. Pleuronecies Platejfa, Plaife.
Fig. 28. Chastodon Rqftratus, Beaked Clnetodon.
■^ig* 29* Acanthurus Unwornus, Unicorn Acanthurus.
Fig. 30. .
m2
ICHTHYOLOGY.
Fig. 30. Equts Am eric anus, American Knight-fifti.
Fig. 31. Trichopus Satyr us, Satyr Trichopus.
Plate CCLXXXII.
Fig. 3 2. Labrus Cyanopterus, Blue-finned Labrus. ,
Fjg- 33. Scievna Unimaculata, Single-fpotted Scieena.
Fig. 34. Perea Cernua, Ruffe, or Ruffe Perch.
Fig- 35* GajlerqfteusSpinachia,Fifteen-fpined Stickle¬
back.
Fig. 36. Mullus Auriflamma, Oriflamme Surmullet.
Fig- 37- Trachichthys Ait/lralis.
Fig. 38. Cobit is Tcenia, Spiny loche.
Fig- 39* Efox Aureo-viridis, Gold-green Pike.
Fig. ep.^hxocatus Volitans, Oceanic Flying-filh.
Plate CCLXXXIII.
Fig. 41. OJlracion Cornutus, Horned Trunk-fifh.
Fig. 42. Diodon Brevis, Short Sun-filh.
Fig. 43. Centri/cus Scolopax, Snipe Centrifcus.
Fig. 44. Pegafus Draconis, Dragon Pegafus.
Fig. 43. Accipenfer Hitfo, Ifinglafe Sturgeon.
Fig. 46. Squalus Canicula, Panther Shark.
Index.
INDEX.
Abdominal fiihes, order of,
Acanthonotus, characters of,
fpecies of,
Acanthurus, characters of,
fpecies of,
Accipenfer, characters of,
fpecies of,
Age of fifties,
Atnia, characters of,
fpecies of,
Ammodytes, characters of,
fpecies of,
Anarchichas, characters of,
fpecies of,
Anableps, characters of,
fpecies of,
Anatomy of fifties,
Anchovy, fee Clupea,
Ancient writers on fifties,
Angel-fjh, fee Chcetodon,
Apodal fifties, order of,
Argentina, characters of,
fpecies of,
Artedi, a writer on fifties,
Athcrina, characters of,
fpecies of,
B
Balijles, characters of,
fpecies of,
Band-fjh, fee Ccrpola,
Belongs hiftory of fifties,
Bleah, fee Cyprinus,
Blennio'ides,
Blennius, characters of,
fpecies of,
Bodianus, characters of,
fpecies of,
Body of fifties, form of,
Branchial opercles,
membrane.
Bream, fee Cyprinus,
Bullhead, fee Cottus,
C
Callionymus, characters of,
fpecies of,
p. 96.
99
ib.
V
ib.
I06
ib.
78> 79
97
ib.
81
82
81
ib.
97
ib.
68—73
102
-66
91
79
100
ib.
66
100
ib.
104
ib.
87
66
102
85
86
ib.
94
ib.
68
69
ib.
I02
89
83
ib.
Carp, fee Cyprinus, p
remarkably prolific,
Cartilaginous fifties, order of,
Capo la, characters of,
fpecies of,
Centrifcus, characters of,
fpecies of,
Centrogafer, characters of,
fpecies of,
Cephalus, characters of,
fpecies of,
Cluetodon, characters of,
fpecies of,
Charr, fee Sal mo,
red,
Chinefe trumpet-fifti, fee Fiflularia,
Circulation in fifties flow,
Clupea, characters of,
fpecies of,
Coalffh, fee Gadus,
Cobitis, characters of,
fpecies of,
Cod, common, fee Gadus,
Chub, fee Cyprinus,
Cock-paddle, fee Cyclopterus,
Conger eel, fpecies of muraena,
Coryphcena, characters of,
fpecies of,
hippurus or dolphin, hifto
ry of,
Cottus, characters of,
fpecies of,
Cramp-fifh, fee Gymnotus,
Cyclopterus, characters of,
fpecies of,
Cyprinus, characters of,
fpecies of,
. 102
ib.
103
87
ib.
104
ib.
I5.
104
ib.
91
ib.
97
ib.
99
74
101
ib.
84
96
ib.
84
102
80
88
ib.
ib.
89
ib.
80
*°5
ib.
102
ib.
E _
Echeneis, characters of, p. 88
fpecies of, ib.
remora, Angular hiftory of, ib.
Eel fnake,
common
D
Diodon, characters of, 104
fpecies of, ib.
Dolphin, fee Coryphcena, 88
Dory, fee Zeus, 89
Dragon weever, fee Trachinus, 84
Dragonet, fee Calliom/mus, 83
Duration or age of fifties, 78, 79
on, j-
r, 3
■ fee Murcena,
conger J
fand, fee Ammodytes,
Elops, characters of,
fpecies of,
Eques, characters of,
fpecies of,
Efox, characters of,
fpecies of,
Exocoetus, characters of,
fpecies of,
Eyes of fifties, anatomy of,
79
81
100
ib.
ib.
99
ib.
loo
ib.
69
Eile-fifh, fee Balifles, 104
Fins of fifties, yo
Fifhes, ancient writers op, 66
moderns, ib.
hiftory of, by Belon, ib.
Rondelet, 6?
. Aldrovandus, ib.
Willoughby, ib.
Artedi, ib.
arrangement of, by Klein, 67
Linnaeus, ib.
La Cepede on, ib.
Pennant, ib.
anatomy of, 68
form of the body of, ib.
head of, ib.
eyes of, 69
opercles of, ib.
branchial membrane of, ib.
trunk of, ib.
fins of, 70
fkeleton of, 71
mufcles of, ib.
vifeera of, 7 2
phyfiology of, 73
refpiration of, ibi
effeCts of air on, ib.
ICHTHYOLOGY
Plate C C L XXJX .
Plate C C PXXX .
> «
IMaU rCLXXXI.
,
K
t
\
Plate C C J j XXXHT.
Index.
FiJIjes, fenfe of feeing of, p. 74
hearing of, ib.
touch of, 75
tafte of, ib.
fmelling of, ib.
motions of, ib.
inftruments of motion of, ib.
migration of, 76
moflly voracious, 77
oviparous, ib.
eggs of, immenfe, 78
great age of fome, ib.
fyftematic expofition of, 79
orders of, ib.
Fijlularia, characters of, 99
fpecies of, ib.
Flounder, fee PleuroncBes, 90
Flying fifh, fee Exocoetus, 100
Gadus, characters of, 84
fpecies of, ib.
Gq/lerojleus, characters of, 95
fpecies of, ib.
Gqflrobraticlius, characters of, no
fpecies of, ib.
Gills, the organs of refpiration in
fifties, 73
Gilt-head, fee Spams, 92
greatly prized by the Greeks
and Romans, ib.
Gobiomorus, characters of, 80
fpecies of, ib.
Gobius, characters of, 88
fpecies of, ib.
Gold-JiJh, or gold-carp, fee Cyprinus, 102
Gotnphqfus, characters of, 93
fpecies of, ib.
Grayling, fee Sahno, 98
Gudgeon, fea, or goby, fee Gobius, 88
Gurnard, fee Trigla, 96
Gymnetrus, characters of, 87
fpecies of, ib.
Gymnotus, characters of, 80
fpecies of, ib.
H
Haddock, fee Gadus, 84
Hake, fpecies of gadus, 8 5
Head of filhes, anatomy of, 68
Hearing, fenfe of, in fillies, 74
Heart of filhes, anatomy of, 72
Herring, fee Clupsa, 101
hiftory of, ib.
firlt pickled, ib.
Halibut, fee PleuroneBes, 91
Holocentrus, characters of, 94
fpecies of, ib.
I
Ichthyology, definition of, 66
difficulties in the ftudy of, ib.
Imminfet, fee Macrourus, 88
Jugular filhes, order of, 83
VOL. XI. Fart I.
CHTHYOLOGY.
K
Knight-JiJh, fee Eques,
Kurtus, characters of,
' fpecies of,
P-91
.87
ib.
Labrus, characters of, 93
fpecies of, ib.
La Ce'pede, a writer on filhes, 67
his arrangement, ib.
Lamprey, or fea-lamprey, fee Petromy-
*on, 109
Leptocephalus, characters of, 83
fpecies of, ib.
Ling, fpecies of gadus, 84
Loche, fee Cobitis, 96
Lonchurus, characters of, 93
fpecies of, ib.
Lophius, characters of, 105
fpecies of, ib.
Loricaria, characters of, 97
fpecies of, ib.
Lump-JiJh, or lump-fucker, fee Cyclop-
terns, 105
M
Macrourus, characters of, 88
fpecies of, ib.
Mackrel, fee Scomber, 95
Membrane, branchial, 69
Menan, Mad. too credulous on the
transformation of fillies, 78
Metamorphofes of filhes, ib.
Miller's thumb, fee Gobius, 88
Modern writers on filhes, 66
Minow, fee Cyprinus, 102
Mormyrus, characters of, 103
fpecies of, ib.
Motion of fillies very rapid, 73
inftruments of, ib.
Migration of filhes doubted, 76
Monopterus, characters of, 80
fpecies of, ib.
Morris launce, fee Leptocephalus, 83
Mugil, characters of, 100
fpecies of, ib.
Mullus, characters of, 96
fpecies of, ib.
barbatus, elteemed much by
the Romans, ib.
Multiplication of filhes, methods pro-
pofed, no
Murcena, 79
helena, a Roman luxury, ib. .
Mufcles of fillies, 71
N
Nouel, M. his plan for the multipli¬
cation of fifhes, a 10
Nourijbment of filhes, 77
O
Odontognathus, characters of, 8r
jfpecies of, ib.
^3
Old-wife filh, fee Balftes, p. 104
Opercles, branchial, 69
Ophicephalus, characters of, 93
fpecies of, ib.
Ophidium, characters of, 82
fpecies of, ib.
Orders of filhes, characters of, 79
Organs of filhes, 72
OJlracion, characters of, 103
fpecies of, ib.
Ova of filhes, evolution of, 77
number of, immenfe, 78
are depofited in diffe¬
rent feafons, ib.
Pegafus, characters of, 10 4.
fpecies of, ib.
Perea, characters of, 94
fpecies of, ib.
Perch, fee Perea, ib.
elteemed by the Romans, ib.
Petromy’zon, characters of, 109
Ipecies of, ib.
Physiology of fillies, 73
Pike, fee Efox, 99
voracity of, 100
Pilot-m, fee Scomber, 93
Pilchard, fee Clupea, 101
Plaife, fee PleuroneBes, • 91
Platystachus, characters of, 97
' fpecies of, ib.
PleuroneBes, characters of, 91
fpecies of, ib.
Polynemus, characters of, 101
fpecies of, ib.
Polypterus, characters of, 100
fpecies of, ib.
R
Raia, characters of, 108
fpecies of, ib.
Ray, a writer on filhes, 66
Remora, or fucking-filh, fee Echeneis, 88
marvellous account of among
the, ancients, ib.
nRcproduBion of filhes, 77
Refpiration of filhes, 73
performed by gills, ib.
effeCts of on the air, ib.
Roach, fee Cyprinus, 102
Roe, or ova of fillies, 7 2
Salmo, characters of, 97
fpecies of, 98
Salmon hunting, ib..
trout, ib.
Saury, fee Flops, joq
Sand-eel, or land launce, fee Anmo-
dytes, 81
Scarus, characters of, 92
fpecies of, ib.
Scomber, characters of, 93
P Scomber}
U4
Scomber, fpecies of,
Scorpce?ia, characters of,
fpecies of,
Scorpion, fea, fee Scorpeena,
Sciccna, characters of,
fpecies of,
Sea-horfe, fee Syngnathus,
Sea-owl, fee Cjclopterus,
Sea-devil, fee Lophius,
Seeing, fenfe of, in nlhes,
Senfes, external, in fith.es,
Serpent, fea, fpecies of muraena,
Shad, fee Clupea,
Shark, fee Squalus,
Short fun-fifh, fee Cephalus,
Silurjts, characters of,
fpecies of,
Skate, fee Raw,
Skeleton of fifties,
Smelling, fenfe of, in fifties,
Smelt, fee Salmo eperlanus.
Soft-roe, or milt of fifties,
Sole, fee Pleuronectes,
Sparling and fpirling, fee Eperlanus,
Sparus, characters of,
fpecies of,
Spatularia, characters of,
fpecies of.
Sprat, fee C/upca,
Squalus, characters of,
fpecies of,
Stylephorus, characters of,
fpecies of,
Sternoptyx, characters of,
fpecies of,
Stickleback, fee Gafero%cus~,
Stromateus, characters of,
fpecies of.
• 95
89
ib.
ib.
93
94
104
105
ib.
74
ib.
79
101
106
104
97
ib.
108
71
75
99
73
9r
99
92
ib.
ic8
ib.
101
ic6
ib.
83
ib.
82
ib.
95
&2
HTHYOLOGY.
V*
I C
Sturgeon, fee Accipenfer,
remarkably prolific,
affords ifinglafs,
Sucking fjh, fee Echeneis,
Surmullet, red, fee Mullus,
highly efteemed by the
Romans,
Swimming or air-bladder, of fifties^
Sword-f [b, fee Xiphias,
Synbranchui, generic characters of,
fpecies of,
Syngnathus, characters of,
fpecies of.
System, abforbent, of fillies,
T
Tafe, fenfe of, in fifties,
Tench, fee Cypnnus,
Angular hiftory of one,
Tetrodon, characters of,
fpecies of,
Toad-fifh, fee Lophius,
Tobacco-pipe fifti, fee Fi/lulana,
Torpedo, fee Rain,
Torjk, fee Gadus,
Touch, fenfe of, in fifties,
Thorn-back, fee Ram,
Trachichthys, characters of,
fpecies of,
Trachinus, characters of,
fpecies of,
Trichiurus, characters of,
fpecies of,
Trichopus, characters of,
fpecies of,
Trig!a, characters of,
fpecies of,
Triurus, characters of,
106
ib.
ib.
88
96
ib.
72
82
80
ib.
104
ib.
72
75
102
ib.
103
ib.
105
99
108
84
75
xo8
96
ib.
84
ib.
81
ib.
92
ib.
96
ib.
81
Index.
Triurus, fpeciC^pf, P- 81
Trout, fee Salmo, 98
Trunk of fifties, ^9
Trunk-ffb, fee Ofracion, 103
Tunny, fee Scomber, 95
admired by the Greek* tnd
Romans,
Turbot, fee Pleurone&es, 91
Tujk, fee Gadus, 84
U
Unicornu,
Uranofcopus, characters of,
fpecies of,
V
Vandellius, characters of,
fpecies of,
Voracity of fifties, remarkable,
w
IVeever, dragon, fee Trachinus,
Whiting, 1 fee Gag
pout, $ _
Willoughby, a writer on fifties,
Wolf-fijh, or fea-vvolf, fee Anarchi-
chas,
fm alter,
panther,
Xiphias, characters of,
fpecies of,
Zeus, characters of,
fpecies of,
91
83
84
ib.
77
4
ib.
66
81
ib.
ib.
82
ib.
89
ib.
I C H
Tchttivo- ICHTHYOPHAGI, fish-eaters, a name given
phagi, to a people, or rather to feveral different people, who
Ichthype- wholly on fifties j the word is Greek, compounded
_ fia- , of r/M, pifeis, “ fifti,” and edere “ to eat.
^ The Ichthyophagi fpoken of by Ptolemy are placed
by Sanfon in the provinces of Nanqum and Xantong.
Agatharcides calls all the inhabitants between Carmama
* and Gedrofia by the name Ichthjophagu
From the accounts given us of the Ichthyophagi by
Herodotus, Strabo, Solinus, Plutarch, &c. it appears
indeed that they had cattle, but that they made no ule
of them, excepting to feed their fifti withal Ihey made
their houfes of large fifti-bones, the ribs of whales fer-
ving them for their beams. The jaws of thefe animals
ferved them for doors j and the mortars wherein they
pounded their fifli, and baked it at the fun, were nothing
elfe but their vertebrae. . ,T .
ICHTHYPERIA, an old term in Natural tlijtory,
which is applied by Dr Hill to the bony palates and
I c o
mouths of fifties, ufually met with either foffile, in fin- lekemld-
erk pieces, or in fragments. They are of the fame fub- Street
fiance with the bufonitse > and are of very various fi- Icon'!um
gures, fome broad and fliort, others longer and flender^   
fome very gibbofe, and others plainly arched. 1 hey
are likewife of various fixes, from the.tenth of an inch
to two inches in length, and an inch in breadth.
ICKENILD-STREET, is that old Roman highway,
denominated from the Icenians, which extended from
Yarmouth in Norfolk, the eaft part of the kingdom ot
the Iceni, to Barley in Hertfordftiire, giving name 111
the way to feveral villages, as Ickworth, Icklingham,
and Ickleton in that kingdom. From Barley Roy-
fion it divides the counties of Cambridge and Hert¬
ford. From Ickleford it runs by Trmg, croffes Bucks
and Oxfordftiire, paffes the Thames at Goring, and ex¬
tends to the weft part of England.
ICOLMKIL. See Iona.
ICONIUM, at prefent Cogm, formerly the capital
city
J
I c o
fconoclaf- cJty of Lycaonia in Afia Minor. St Paul coming to
. te^‘ Iconium (Ads xiii. 51. xiv. 1. &c.) in the year of
Chrilt 45, converted many Jews and Gentiles there.
It is believed, that in his firft journey to this city, he
converted St I'hecla, fo celebrated in the writings of
the ancient fathers. But fome incredulous Jews ex¬
cited the Gentiles to rife againft Paul and Barnabas,
lo that they were upon the point of offering violence
to them, which obliged St Paul and St Barnabas to
dy for fecurity to the neighbouring cities. St Paul
undertook a fecond journey to Iconium in the year
5 1 ; but we know no particulars of his journey, which
relate peculiarly to Iconium.
ICONOCLASTES, or Iconoclastte, breakers of
images 5 a name which the church of Rome gives to
all who rejedl the ufe of images in religious matters.—
I he word is Greek, formed from nnMr imago, and
x.\x?ai rtrmpere, “to break.”
In this fenfe, not only the reformed, but fome of
the eaftern churches, are called Iconoc/aftes, and efteem-
ed by them heretics, as oppofing the woriliip of the
images of God and the faints, and breaking their fi¬
gures and reprefentations in churches.
The oppofition to images began in Greece under the
reign of Bardanes, who was created emperor of the
Greeks a little after the commencement of the eighth
century, when the worfhip of them became common.
See Image. But the tumults occafioned by it were
quelled by a revolution, which, in 713, deprived Bar¬
danes of the imperial throne. The difpute, however,
broke out with redoubled fury under Leo the Ifaurian,
who iflued out an edidl in the year 7 26, abrogating, as
fome fay, the worfhip of images, and ordering all the
images, except that of Chrift’s crucifixion, to be re¬
moved out of the churches 5 but according to others, this
edict only prohibited the paying to them any kind of
adoration or worfhip. This edidl occafioned a civil war,
which broke out in the iflands of the Archipelago, and
by the fuggeilions of the priefts and monks, ravaged a
part of Afia, and afterwards reached Italy. The civil
commotions and infurre&ions in Italy Were chiefly pro¬
moted by the Roman pontiffs, Gregory I. and II. Leo
was excommunicated, and his fubjefts in the Italian
provinces violated their allegiance, and rifing in arms
either maffacred or banifhed all the emperor’s deputies
and officers. In confequence of thefe proceedings, Leo
allcmbled a council at Conftantinople in 730, which de¬
graded Germanus, the bifhop of that city, who was a
patron of images; and he ordered all the images to be
publicly burnt, and infli&ed a variety of fevere punifh-
ments upon fuch as were attached to that idolatrous wor¬
fhip. Hence arofe two fa£tions-$ one of which adopted
the adoration and worfhip of images, and on that account
were called iconoduh or iconolatrc?; and the other main¬
tained that fuch worfhip was unlawful, and that nothing
was more worthy the zeal of Chriftians than to demolifh
and deffroy thofe ilatues and pidlures which were the
uccafions of this grofs idolatry j and hence they were
ciifbnguifhed by the titles of iconomachi (from image,
and fixx,u I contend,) and iconoclq/ice. The zeal of Gre¬
gory II. in favour of image worfhip, was not only imi¬
tated, but even furpaffed by his fucceffor Gregory III.
in confequence of which the Italian provinces were torn
from the Grecian empire.
Goaftantine, called Vopronymns, from “ fter-
t 115 ] Ico
cus,” and “ name,” becaufe he was faid to have
defiled the f’acred font at his baptifm, fucceeded his
father Leo in 741> and in 754 convened a council at
Conftantinople, regarded by the Greeks as the feventh
oecumenical council, which folemnly condemned the
worfhip and ufe of images. Thofe who, notwithftand-
mg this decree of the council, raifed commotions in
the (fate, were feverely puniihed ; and new law's were
enaefed, to let bounds to the violence of monaftic rage
Leo IV. ivho was declared emperor in 775, purfued
the fame meafures, and had recourfe to the coercive
influence of penal laws, in order to extirpate idolatry
' out of the Chriftian church. Irene, the wife of Leo,
poifoned her hufband in 7804 aflumed the reins of
empire during the minority of her fon Conftantine,
and in 786 fummoned a council at Nice in Bithynia,
known by the name of the fecond Nicene council, which
abrogated the laws and decrees againft the new ido¬
latry, reftored the Worfhip of images and of the crofs,
and denounced ievere punifhments againft thofe who
maintained that God %vas the only object of religious
adoration. In this conteft, the Britons, Germans, and
Gauls, were of opinion, that images might be lawfully-
continued in churches, but they confidered the worfhip
of them as highly injurious and offenfive to the Su¬
preme Being. Charlemagne diftinguifhed himfelf as a
mediator in this controverfy : he ordered four books
concerning images to be compofed, refuting the rea¬
sons urged by the Nicene bifhops to juftify the Worfhip
of images, which he fent to Adrian the Roman pon¬
tiff in 790, in order to engage him to withdraw his ap¬
probation of the decrees of the laft council of Nice.
Adrian wrote an anfvver ; and in 794, a council of
300 bifhops, affembled by Charlemagne at Francfort
on the Maine, confirmed the opinion contained in the
four books, and folemnly condemned the worfhip of
images. In the Greek church, after the banifliment
of Irene, the controverfy concerning images broke out
anew, and was carried on by the contending parties,
during the half of the ninth century, with various and
uncertain iuccefs. The emperor Nicephorus appears
upon the whole to have been an enemy to this idola¬
trous worfhip. His fucceftbr, Michael Curopalates,
iurnamed Rhangabe, patronized and encouraged it. But
the feene changed on the acceffion of Leo the Arme¬
nian . to the empire ; who affembled a council at Con¬
ftantinople in 814, that abolifhed the decrees of the
Nicene council. His fucceffor Michael, furnamed BaL
bin, difapproved the worfhip of images, and his fon
Theophilus treated them with great feverity. How¬
ever, the emprefs Theodora, after his death, and du¬
ring the. minority of her fon, aflembled a council at
Conftantinople in 842, which reinftated the decrees of
the fecond Nicene council, and encouraged image
worfhip by a law. The council held at the fame place
under Photius, in 879, and reckoned by the Greeks
the eighth general council, confirmed and renewed the
Nicene decrees. In commemoration of this council, a
feftival was inftituted by the fuperftitious Greeks, call¬
ed thz feaf of orthodox;/. The Latins were generally
of opinion, that images might be fuffered as the means
of aiding the memory of the faithful, and of calling
to their remembrance the pious exploits and virtuous
anions of the perfons whom they reprefented j but
they detefted all thoughts of paying them the leaft
P 2 Jnarks
ICO [II
Iconodafte* marks of religious homage or adoration. The coun-
II cil of Paris, affembled in 824 by Louis the Meek, re-
•Icofandiia. ,|olved t0 a[[ow ufe 0f images in the churches, but
ieverely prohibited rendering them religious worftiip.
Neverthelefs, towards the conclufion of this century,
the Gallican clergy began to pay a kind of religious
homage to the images of laints, and their example was
followed by the Germans and other nations. How¬
ever, the Iconoclafts ftill had their adherents among
the Latins y the moft eminent of whom was Claudius
bilhop of Turin, who, in 823, ordered all images, and
even the crofs, to be call out of the churches, and
committed to the flames j and he wrote a treatife, in
which he declared both again!! the ufe and worlhip of
them. He condemned relicks, pilgrimages to the Holy
Land, and all voyages to the tombs of faints j and to
his writings and labours it was owing, that the city of
Turin, and the adjacent country, was, for a long time
after his death, much lefs infeded with fuperllition
than the other parts of Europe. The controverfy con¬
cerning the fanflity of images was again revived by
Leo bilhop of Chalcedon, in the nth century, on
occalion of the emperor Alexius,s converting the fi¬
gures of filver that adorned the portals of the churches
into money in order to fupply the exigencies of the
flate. The bifiiop obllinately maintained that he had
been guilty of facrilege j and publilhed a treatife, in
which he affirmed, that in thefe images there refided
an inherent fanflity, and that the adoration of Chri-
ilians ought not to be confined to the perfons.repre-
fented by thefe images, but extended to the images
thcmfelves. ' 1 he emperor affembled a council at Con-
llantinople, which determined, that the images of Chrift
and of the faints were to be honoured only with a re¬
lative worlhip-, and that invocation and worlhip w-ere to
be addreffed to the faints only as the fervants of Chrill,
and on account of their relation to him as their ma¬
iler. Leo, diffatisfied even with thefe abfurd and fu-
perllitious decifions, was fent into banilhment. In the
weliern church, the w-orlhip of images was difapproved
and oppofed by feveral confidcrable parties, as the Pe-
troboffians, Albigenfes, Waldenfes, &c. tUl at length
this idolatrous pradlice was entirely abolilhed in many
parts of the Chriftian world by the Reformation. See
Image.
ICONOGRAPHIA (derived from ukuv image,
and ye*<?» “ I defcribe), the defer!ption of images or
ancient llatues of marble and copper alfo of bulls and
femi-bulls, penates, paintings in frefco, mofaic works,
and ancient pieces of miniature.
ICONOLATRiE, or Iconolaters (from u**>t
and Mriva “ 1 worlhip,”) or Iconodu^i (from
and hxcu “ I ferve) •” thofe who worlhip images : A
name which the Iconoclaltes give to thofe of the Ro-
miffi communion, on account of their adoring images,
and of rendering to them the worlhip only due to God.
See Iconoclasts and Image.
ICOSAHEDRON, in Geometry, a regular folid,
confilling of 20 triangular pyramids, whofe vertices
meet in the centre of a fphere fuppofed to circum-
feribe if, and therefore have their height and bafes
equal: wherefore the folidity of one of thefe pyramids
multiplied by 20, the number of bafes, gives the folid
contents of the icofahedron.
JCOSANDRIA (from ei*o« “ twenty,” and
6 ] IDE
“ a man or huiband”) ; the name of the I 2th clafis in
Linneus’s fexual method, confilling of plants with her
maphrodite flowers, which are furnilhed with 20 o
more llamina, that are inferted into the inner fide of
the calyx or petals. See Botany, p. 192.
ICTINUS, a celebrated Greek ardhitedl who lived
about 430 B. C. built feveral magnificent temples, and
among others that of Minerva at Athens..
IDA, in Ancient Geography, a mountain fituated in
the heart of Crete where broadell j the highelt of all
the ifland; round, and in compafs 6c lladia (Stra
bo) ; the nurfing place of Jupiter, and where his tomb
was vifited m Varro's time.—Another Ida, a mountain
of Myfia, or rather a chain of mountains (Homer,
Virgil), extending from Zeleia on the fouth of the ter¬
ritory of Cyzicus to Leftum the utmoll promontory of
Troas. The abundance of its waters became the fource
of many rivers, and particularly of the Simois, Sca-
mander, iEfopus, Granicus, &c. It was covered with
green wood, and the elevation of its top opened a fine
extenfive view' of the Hellefpont and the adjacent coun¬
tries 5 from which reafon it was frequented by the gods
during the Trojan war, according to Homer. The top
was called Gargara (Homer, Strabo) ; and celebrated
by the poets for the judgment of Paris on the beauty of
the three goddeffes, Minerva, Juno, and Venus, to the
lall of whom he gave the preference.
IDAL1UM, in Ancient Geography, a promontory
on the call fide of Cyprus. Now Capo di Griego; with
a high rugged eminence riling over it, in the form of a
table. It was facred to Venus ; and hence the epithet
Idalia given her by the poets. The eminence wa<r
covered by a grove -, and in the grove was a little
town, in Pliny’s time extindl. Ida/ia, according to
Bochart, denotes the place or fpot facred to the god;
defs.
IDEA, the reflex perception of obje6ls, after the
original perception or imprefiion has been felt by
the mind. See Metaphysics, pajjim ; and Logic,
Part I.
IDENTITY, denotes that by which a thing is it-
felf, and not any thing elfe; in which fenfe identity
differs from fimilitude, as well as diverfity. See Meta¬
physics. f
IDES, in the ancient Roman kalendar, were eight
days in each month } the firil of which fell on the 13th
of March, May, July, andv Odtober; and on the 13th
day of the other months.—The origin of the^wmrd is
contefted. Some will have it formed from “ to
fee j” by reafon the full moon w^as commonly feen on
the days of the ides : others from e<Je; “ Ipecies, fi-
on account of the image of the full moon then
vifible: others from iduhtim or ovis iduhs, a name given
by the Hetrurians to a viflim offered on that day to
Jupiter: others from the Hetrurian word iduo, i. e.
divido ; by reafon the ides divided the moon into two
nearly equal parts.
The ides came between the Kalends and the
Nones j and were reckoned backwards. Thus they
called the 14th day of March, May, July, and Oflo-
ber, and the 1 2th of the other months, the pridie idus,
or the day before the ides j the next preceding day they
called the tertia idus; and fo on, reckoning always
backw-ards till they came to the Nones. 1 his method
of reckoning time is ftill retained in the chancery of
I D I [i
BlaclJI.
Comtncnt.
Rome, and in the kalendar of the Breviary.—The
ides of May were confecrated to Mercury : the ides
of March were ever efteemed unhappy, after Caefar’s
murder on that day : the time after the ides of June
was reckoned fortunate for thofe who entered into ma¬
trimony : the ides of Auguit were confecrated to Di¬
ana, and were obferved as> a feaft day by the flaves.
On the ides of September, auguries were taken for
appointing the magiftrates, who formerly entered into
their offices on the ides of May, afterwards on thofe of
March.
IDIOCY, a defeat of underftanding. Both idiocy
and lunacy excufe from the guilt of crimes j (fee
Crime, par. u/t.) For the rule of law as to lunatics,
which may alfo be ealily adapted to idiots, is, that fu-
riofus furore folum punitur. In criminal cafes, there¬
fore, idiots and lunatics are not chargeable for their
own. ads, if committed when under thefe incapacities :
no, not even for treafon itfelf. Alfo, if a man in his
found memory commits a capital offence, and before
arraignment for it he becomes mad, he ought not to
be arraigned for it: becaufe he is not able to plead to
it with that advice and caution that he ought. And
if, after he has pleaded, the prifoner becomes mad,
he fliall not be tried : for how can he make his de¬
fence ? If, after he be tried and found guilty, he lofes
his fenfes before judgment, judgment fhall not be pro¬
nounced $ and if, after judgment, he becomes of non¬
fane memory, execution (hall be flayed: for perad-
venture, fays the humanity of the Englifh law, had
the prifoner been of found memory, he might have al¬
leged fomething in flay of judgment or execution. In¬
deed, in the bloody reign of Henry VIII. a ffatute
was made, which enabled, that if a perfon, being com¬
pos mentisy flrould commit high treafon, and after fall
into madnefs, he might be tried in his abfence, and
fhoulder fuffer death, as if he were of perfedl memory.
But this favage and inhuman law was repealed by the
ffatute i & 2 Ph. & M. c. 10. For, as is obferved by
Sir Edward Coke, “ the execution of an offender is
for example, i/t poena ad paucos, met us ad omnes per-
veniat: but fo it is not when a madman is executed $
but fhould be a miferable fpe&acle, both againil law,
and of extreme inhumanity and cruelty, and can be
no example to others.” But if there be any doubt
whether the party be compos or not, this fhall be tried
by a jury. And if he be fo found, a total idiocy, or
abfolute infanity, excufes from the guilt, and of courfe
from the punifhment, of any criminal a6!ion commit¬
ted under fuch deprivation of the fenfes j but if a luna¬
tic hath lucid intervals of underftanding, he {hall an-
fwer for wha the does in thofe intervals, as if he had
no deficiency. Yet, in the cafe of abfolute madmen,
as they are not anfwerable for their adlions, they fhould
not be permitted the liberty of a£ling unlefs under pro¬
per controul j and, in particular, they ought not to be
fuffered to go loofe, to the terror of the king’s fubje61s.
It was the do&rine of our ancient law, that perfons
deprived of their reafon might be confined till they re¬
covered their fenfes, without waiting for the forms of
a commiffion or other fpecial authority from the crown $
and now, by the vagrant afts, a method is chalked out
for imprifoning, chaining, and fending them to their
proper homes.
The matrimonial contrail likewife cannot take place
17 1 1 n 1
in a (late of idiocy. It was formerly adjudged, that lower-
the iffue of an idiot was legitimate, and his marriage '
valid. A flrange determination ! fince confent is ab-
folutely requiiite to matrimony, and neither idiots
nor lunatics are capable of contenting to any things
And therefore the civil law judged much more fen-
fibly, when it made fuch deprivations of reafon a pre¬
vious impediment, though not a caufe of divorce if
they happened after marriage. And modern refolu-
tions have adhered to the fenfe of the civil law, by de¬
termining that the marriage of a lunatic, not being in
a lucid interval, was abfolutely void. But as it might
be difficult to prove the exadl flate of the party’s mind
at the adfual celebration of the nuptials, upon this ac¬
count (concurring with fome private family reafons *), * gee pr^
the flatute 15 Geo. II. c. 30. has provided, that the vatea&s,
marriage of lunatics and perfons under phrenfies (if^sGeo. II.
found lunatics under a commiflion, or committed to0,6,
the care of truftees under any a£t of parliament) before
they are declared of found mind by the lord chancel¬
lor, or the majority of fuch truftees, fhall be totally
void.
Idiots and perfons of nonfane memory, as well as in¬
fants and perfons under durefs, are not totally difabled
either to convey or purchafe, but fub modo only. For
their conveyances and purchafes are voidable, but not
actually void. The king indeed, on behalf of an idiot,,
may avoid his grants or other a£ls. But it hath been
faid, that a non compos himfelf, though he be after¬
wards brought to a right mind, fhall not be permitted
to allege his own infanity in order to avoid fuch grant :
for that no man fhall be allowed to ftupify himfelf, o?
plead his own difability. The progrefs of this notion
is fomewhat curious. In the time of Edward I. non
compos wras a fufheient plea to void a man’s own
bond: and there is a writ in the regifter for the alie¬
nor himfelf to recover lands aliened by him during his
infanity \ dum fuit non compos mentis fucc, ut dicity &c.
But under Edwrard III. a fcruple began to arife, whe¬
ther a man fhould be permitted to blcmifh himfelf, by
pleading his own infanity j and, afterwards, a defen¬
dant in aflize having pleaded a releafe by the plaintiff
fince the laft continuance, to which the plaintiff re¬
plied [ore tenuSy as the manner then was) that he was.
out of his mind when he gave it, the court adjourned
the aflize j doubting, whether as the plaintiff w^as fane
both then and at the commencement of the fuit, he
fhould be permitted to plead an intermediate depriva¬
tion of reafon ; and the queftion was afked, how he
came to remember to releafe, if out of his fenfes w hen
he gave it ? Under Henry VI. this way of reafoning
(that a man fhall not be allow’ed to difable himfelf, by
pleading his own incapacity, becaufe he cannot know
what he did under fuch a fituation) was ferionfly adopt¬
ed by the judges in argument y upon a queftion whe¬
ther the heir was barred of his right of entry by the
feoffment of his infane anceftor ? And from thefe loofe
authorities, which Fitzherbert does not fcruple to re-
jedl as being contrary to reafon, the maxim that a man
fhall not ftultify himfelf, hath been handed down as
fettled law : though later opinions, feeling the incon¬
venience of the rule, have in many points endeavoured
to reftrain it. And, clearly, the next heir or other
perfon interefted, may, after the death of the idiot or
non compos^ take advantage of his incapacity and avoid
I T) L [ 118 ] IDO
tlie graiit. And fo, too, if he purchafes under this
difabilitv, and does not afterwards upon recovering his
fenfes agree to the purchafe, his heir may either waive
or accept the eftate at his option. In like manner, an
infant may wave &ch purchafe or conveyance, when
he comes to full age 5 or, if he does not then a&ually
agree to it, his heir may waive it after him. Perfons,
u'fo, who purchafe or convey under durefs, may affirm
or avoid fuch tranfa&ion, whenever the durefs is ceaf-
ed. For all thefe are under the prote£Hon of the law;
which will not fuffer them to be impofed upon through
the imbecility of their prefent condition ; io that their
afts are only binding, in caTe they be afterwards agreed
to when fuch imbecility ceafes. Yet the guardians
or committees of a lunatic, by the ffatute 11 Geo. III.
c. 20. are empowered to renew in his right, under the
direttions of the court of chancery, any leafe for lives
or vears, and apply the profits of fuch renewal for the
benefit of fuch lunatic, his heirs, or executors. See
Lunacy.
IDIOM, among grammarians, properly fignifies
the peculiar genius of each language, but is often ufed
in a fynonymous fenle with dialed. I he word is
Greek, duipu. “ propriety formed of itiios “ proper,
own.”
IDIOPATHY, in P/iyJic, a diforder peculiar to a
certain part of the body, and not ariiing from any pre¬
ceding difeafe; in which fenfe it is oppofed to fym-
pathy. Thus, an epilepfy is idiopathic when it hap-
pens merely through fome fault in the brain; and
fympathetic when it is the confequence of fome other
diforder.
IDIOSYNCRASY, among phyficians, denotes a
peculiar temperament of body, whereby it is rendered
more liable to certain diforders than perfons of a dif¬
ferent conftitution ufually are.
IDIOT, or Ideot, in our laws, denotes a natural
fool, or a fool from his birth. See Idiocy.
The word is originally Greek, which prima-
rilv imports a private perjon, or one who leads a pii-
vate life, without any lhare or concern in the govern¬
ment of affairs.
^A perfon who has underftanding enough to meafure
a yard of cloth, number twenty rightly, and tell the
days of the week, &c. is not an idiot in the eye of
the law. But a man who is born deaf, dumb, and
blind, is confidered by the law in the fame ffate as an
idiot.
Idiot is alfo ufed, by ancient writers, for a perfon
ignorant or unlearned ; anfwering to ilhteratus or vn-
peritus. In this fenfe, Viftor tells us, in his Chroni-
con, that in the confullhip of Meffala, the Holy Gof-
pels, by command of the emperor Anaftafius, were cor¬
rected and amended, as having been written by idiot
evangelifts : Tanquam ab idiotis evangelijlis compojita.
IDLENESS, a reluftancy in people to be employed
in any kind of work.
Idlenefs in any perfon whatfoever is a high, of¬
fence again ft the public economy. In China it is a
maxim, that if there be a man wdio does not work, or
a woman that is idle, in the empire, fomebody mutt
luffercold or hunger : the produce of the lands not be¬
ing more than futficient, with culture, to maintain the
inhabitants ; and therefore, though the idle perfon
may thift off the want from himfelf, yet it muff in the
3
end fall fomewhere. The court zlfo of Areopagus at Idientis
Athens puniftied idlenefs, and exerted a right of examin- ^^
ing every citizen in what manner he fpent his time ;  Vk*.
the intention of which was, that the Athenians, known¬
ing they were to give an account of their occupations,
Ihould follow only fuch as were laudable, and that there
might be no room left for fuch as lived by unlawful
arts. The civil law expelled all iturdy vagrants from
the city ; and, in our own law, all idle perfons or va¬
gabonds, whom our ancient ftatutes deicribe to be
“ fuch as wake on the night and lleep on the day, Blachjk
and haunt cuftomable taverns and ale-houfes, and routs Comment.
about; and no man wot from whence they come, ne
whether they go or fuch as are more particularly
deferibed by ftatute 17 Geo. II. c. 5. and divided in¬
to three claffes, idle and dif orderly perfons, rogues and
vagabonds, and incorrigille rogues;—all thele are of¬
fenders againft the good order, and blemifties in the
government, of any kingdom. They are therefore all
puniftied, by the ftatute laft mentioned ; that is to
lay, idle and diforderly perfons with one month’s im-
prifonment in the houfe of correClion ; rogues and va¬
gabonds with whipping, and imprifonment not exceed¬
ing fix months; and incorrigible rogues with the like
diicipline, and confinement not exceeding two years 5
the breach and efcape from which confinement in one
of an inferior clafs, ranks him among incorrigible
rogues; and in a rogue (before incorrigible) makes
him a felon, and liable to be tranfported for feven
years. Perfons harbouring vagrants are liable to a fine
of forty (hillings, and to pay all expences brought up¬
on the parilh thereby : in the fame manner as, by our
ancient laws, whoever harboured any ftranger for more
than two nights, was anfwerable to the public for any
offence that fuch his inmate might commit.
IDOL, in pagan theology, an image, or fancied
reprefentation of any of the heathen gods.— ihis
image, of whatever materials it confifted, was, by cer¬
tain ceremonies, called confecration, converted into a
god. While under the artificer’s hands, it was only a
mere ftatue. Three things were neceflary to turn it
into a god ; proper ornaments, confecration, and ora¬
tion. The ornaments were various, and wholly defign-
ed to blind the eyes of the ignorant and ftupid multi¬
tude, who are chiefly taken with (how and pageantry.
Then followed the confecration and oration, which
were performed with great folemnity among the Ro¬
mans. See Image.
IDOLATRY, or the worlhip of idols, may be di-
ftinguilhed into two forts. By the firft, men adore the
works of God, the fun, the moon, the ftars, angels,
daemons, men, and animals : by the iecond, men wor-
ftrip the work of their own hands, as ftatues, pictures,
and the like : and to thefe may be added a third, that
by which men have worlhipped the true God under
lenfible figures and repreientations. This indeed may
have been the cafe with refpeft to each of the above
kinds of idolatry ; and thus the Ifraeiites adored God
under the figure of a calf.
The ftars w^ere the firft objefts of idolatrous wor-
ftiip, on account of their beauty, their influence on
the produftions of the earth, and the regularity of
their motions, particularly the lun and moon, which are
confidered as the moft glorious and refplendent images
of the Deity : afterwards, as their lentiments became
more
IDO [i
Idolatry, more corrupted, they began to form images, and to en-
lo'oiv.ur u:. ccx, :m ttie opinion, that by virtue of confecration, the
gods were called down to inhabit or dwell in their fta-
tues. Hence Arnobius takes occafion to rally the
P .r," for guarding fo carefully the ftatues of their
gods, who, if they were really prefent in their images,
! "t lave their worfliippers the trouble of fecuring
them from thieves and robbers.
As to the adoration which the ancient Pagans paid
to the ftatues of their gods, it is certain, that the wifer
and more fenfible heathens confidered them only as fim-
ple reprefentations or figures defigned to recal to their
minds the memory of their gods. This was the opinion
of Varro and Seneca : and the fame fentiment is clearly
laid down in Plato, who maintains, that images are
inanimate, and that all the honour paid to them has
refpeft to the gods whom they reprefent. But as to
the vulgar, they were ftupid enough to believe the fta¬
tues themfelves to be gods, and to pay divine worlhip
to ftocks and ftones.
Soon after the flood, idolatry feems to have been the
prevailing religion of all the world : for wherever we
call our eyes at the time of Abraham, we fcarcely fee
any thing but falfe worlhip and idolatry. And it ap¬
pears from Scripture, that Abraham’s forefathers, and
even Abraham himfelf, were for a time idolaters.
The Hebrew's were indeed exprefsly forbidden to
make any reprefentation of God : they were not fo
much as to look upon an idol : and from the time of
•the Maccabees to the deftruclion of Jerufalem, the
Jews extended this precept to the making the figure
of any man : by the law of Moles, they were obliged
to deftroy all the images they found, and were for¬
bidden to apply any of the gold or filver to their own
ufe, that no one might receive the leaft profit from
any thing belonging to an idol. Of this the Jew's,
after they had fmarted for their idolatry, were fo fal¬
lible, that they thought it unlawful to ufe any veflel
that had been employed in facrificing to a falfe god,
to warm themfelves with the wood of a grove after
it was cut down, or to flicker themfelves under its
lhade.
But the preaching of the Chriftian religion, where-
evcr it prevailed, entirely rooted otit idolatry 5 as did
alfo that of Mahomet, which is built on the worlhip
of one God. It muft not, however, be forgotten,
that the Proteftant Chriftians charge thofe of the
church of Rome with paying an idolatrous- kind of
worlhip to the pictures or images of faints and mar¬
tyrs : before thefe they burn lamps and wax candles j
before thefe, they burn incenfe, and, kneeling, offer
up their vows and petitions j they, like the Pagans,
believe that the faint to whom the image is dedi¬
cated, prefides in a particular manner about its (brine,
and w'orks miracles by the intervention of its image ;
and that if the image was deftroyed or taken away,
the faint would no longer perform any miracle in that
place.
IDOMENEUS, in fabulous hiftory, fucceeded his
father Deucalion on the throne of Crete. He accom¬
panied the Greeks to the Trojan war with a fleet of 90
(hips. During this celebrated war he rendered himfelf
famous by his valour, and flaughtered many of the ene¬
my. At his return from the Trojan war, he made a
vow to Neptune in a dangerous tempeft, that, if he
19 ] JED
efcaped from the fury of the feas and dorms, he would Idumaea
offer to the god whatever living creature firit prefented N
itfelf to his eye on the Cretan (bore. This was no other . ■_t
than his fon, who came to congratulate his father upon
his fafe return. Idomeneus performed his promile to
the god *, and the inhumanity and ralhnels of this fa-
crifice rendered him fo odious in the eyes of his fub-
je6ks, that he left Crete, and migrated in queft of a
fettlement. He came to Italy, and founded a city on
the coaft of Calabria, wbich he called Salentum. He
died in extreme old age, after he had had the fatis-
faftion of feeing his new kingdom flouriih and his
fubje&s happy. According to the Greek fcholiaft of
Lycophron, v. 1217, Idomeneus, during his abfence in
the Trojan war, intruded the management of his king¬
dom to Leucos, to whom he promifed his daughter
Clilithere in marriage at his return. Leucos at firft
governed with moderation, but he was perfuaded by
Nauplius king of Euboea to put to death Meda the
wife of his mailer, with her daughter Clilithere, and to
feize the kingdom. After thefe violent meafures he
ftrengthened bimfelf on the throne of Crete, and Ido¬
meneus at his return found it impolftble to expel the
ufurper.
IDUMiEA. See Edom.
JEALOUSY, in Ethics, is that peculiar unealinefs
which arifes from the fear that fome rival may rob us
of the affe&ion of one whom we greatly love, or fufpi-
cion that he has already done it. The firft fort of jea-
loufy is infeparable from love, before it is in poffeffion
of its objeft 5 the latter is often unjuft, generally mib
chievous, always troublefome.
Waters of Jealousy. See Waters.
IDYLLION, in ancient poetry, is only a diminutive
of the word eidos, and properly lignifies any poem of
moderate extent, without confidering the fubjeft. But
as the colleftion of Theocritus’s poems were called
Idyllia, and the paftoral pieces being by far the bell in ■
that colleftion, the term Idi/llion feems to be now ap¬
propriated to paftoral pieces.
JEARS or Geers, in the fea language, an affem-
blage of tackles, by which the lower yards of a Ihip
are hoifted along the mail to their ufual ftation, or
lowered from thence as occafion requires r the former
of which operations is called fwaying, and the latter
J{ rikivg.
JEBUSA2I, one of the feven ancient peoples of Ca¬
naan, defcendants of Jebufi, Canaan’s fon ; fo warlike
and brave, as to have (food their ground, efpecially in
Jehus, afterwards called Jerufalem, down to the time of
David, Judges i. 21. 1 Sam. v. 6.
JEDBURGH, a parliament town of Scotland, ca¬
pital of Tiviotdale or Roxburghfhire, is fitunted nearly
in the middle of the county, on the banks of the river
Jed, whence it derives its name. It is well built and
pormlous, and has a good market for corn and cattle.
On the weft fide of the river, near its junftion with
the Teviot, (land the beautiful ruins of an abbey
founded by David I. a part of which ancient pile (till
ferves for a parilh church.—Jedburgh is the feat of the
(heriff’s court and of a prelbytery. The population of
this town in 1793 was eftimated at 2000.
JEDDO, the capital town or city of the iilands of
Japan, where the emperor refides. It is open on all
ftdes, having neither walls nor ramparts j and the
houfes,,
Jeffreys.
‘ J E F [
Tefferfonia houfes are built with earth, and boarded on the out-
fide to prevent the rain from deftroying the walls. In
every ftreet there is an iron gate, which is fliut up in the
the night j and a kind of cuftomhoufe or magazine,
to put merchandifes in. It is a large place, being
nine miles in length and fix in breadth, and contains
1,000,000 of inhabitants. A fire happened in 1658,
which, in the fpace of 48 hours, burnt down 100,000
Iroufes, and in which a vaft number of inhabitants pe-
rifhed. The emperor’s palace and all the reft were re¬
duced to allies *, but they are all rebuilt again* The
royal palace is in the middle of the town*, and is defend¬
ed with walls, ditches, towers, and baftions. Where
the emperor refides, there are three towers nine ftories
high, each covered with plates of gold $ and the hall
of audience is faid to be fupported by pillars of maffy
gold. Near the palace are feveral others, where the
relations of the emperor live. The emprefs has a pa¬
lace of her own, and there are 20 fmall ones for the
concubines. Befides, all the vaffal kings have each a
palace in the city, with a handfome garden, and ftables
for 2000 horfes. The houfes of the common fort are
nothing but a ground floor, and the rooms are parted
by folding fcreens *, fo that they can make the rooms
larger or fmaller at pleafure. It is feated in an agree¬
able plain, at the bottom of a fine bay j and the river
w'hich croffes it, is divided into feveral canals. E. Long.
140. o. N. Lat. 35. 32. r , ,
JEFFER SONIA, in Botany, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the clafs pentandria, and order nionogyma.
The calvx is compofed of five fliort oval imbricated
leaves ; the corolla is monophyllous and funnel-ftiaped $
the margin hypocrateriform j the ftigma is quadrifid.
One fpecies only has been difcovered, Jtmpervircns,
which is a Ihrub with round, poliftied, fitining Items,
which climb on buflies and fmall trees. This ftirub is
very abundant in the woods of Georgia in North Ame¬
rica, where it wras difcovered by Dr Brickel, and it is
covered with bloflbms for many months of the year.
JEFFERY. See Geoffrey.
JEFFREYS, Sir George, Baron Wem, common¬
ly called Judge Jeffreys, w as the fixth fon of John Jef¬
freys, Efq. of Adlon in Denbighftrire *, and was edu¬
cated at Weftminfter fchool, whence he removed to
the Inner Temple, where he applied himfelf to the ftu-
dy of the law. Alderman Jeffreys, who was probably
related to him, introduced him among the citizens of
London, and he being a merry bottle companion,
foon came into great bufinefs, and was chofen their
recorder. He wTas aftenvards chofen folicitor to the
duke of York *, and in 1680 W'as knighted, and made
chief-juftice of-Chefter. At length, refigning the re-
corderftrip, he obtained the poll of chief-juftice of the
king’s-bench, and, foon after the acceflion of James II.
the great feal. During the reign of Ring Charles II.
he (howed himfelf a bitter enemy to thofe diffenting
minifters who, in that time of perfecution, were tried
by him : he was one of the greateft advifers and pro¬
moters >of all the oppreffions and arbitrary roeafures
carried on in the reign of James II. •, and his fangui-
nary and inhuman proceedings again Monmouth’s un¬
happy adherents in the weft will ever render his name
infamous. Whenever the prifoner was cf a different
party,, or he could pleafe the court by condemning him,
120] J E F
inftead of appearing, according to the duty of his office, Jeffrey?,
as his coiinfel, he would fcarce allow him to fpeak for ——y'-"’
himfelf", but would load him with the groffeft and
moft vulgar abufes, bnwbeat, infult, and turn to ridi¬
cule the witneffes that fpoke in his behalf $ and even
threaten the jury with fines and imprifonment, if they
made the keaft hefitation about bringing in the prifoner
guilty. Yet it is faid, that when he was in temper,
and matters perfedlly indifferent came before him, no
one became a feat of juftice better. Nay, it even ap¬
pears, that, when he was under no ftate influence, he
was fometimes inclined to protect the natural and civil
rights of mankind, of which the following inftance
has been given :—The mayor and aldermen of Brif-
tol had been ufed to tranfport convidied criminals
to the American plantations, and fell them by way of
trade. This turning to good account when any pil¬
ferers or petty r@gues were brought before them, they
threatened them with hanging *, and then fome offi¬
cers who attended, earneftly perfuaded the ignorant
intimidated creatures to beg for tranfportation, as the
only way to fave them j and in general their advice was
followed. Then, without more form, each alderman
in courfe took one, and fold him for his own benefit j
and fometimes warm difputes arofe between them about
the next turn. This infamous trade which had been
carried on many years, coming to the knowledge of
the lord chief juftice, he made the mayor defcend from
the bench and ftand at the bar, in his fcarlet and fur,
with his guilty brethren the aldermen, and plead as
common criminals. He then obliged them to give fe-
curities to anfw’er informations 5 but the proceedings
were flopped by the Revolution.—However, the bru¬
tality Jeffreys commonly ffiow7ed on the bench, where
his voice and vifage were equally terrible, at length
expofed him to a fevere mortification. A fcrivener of
Wapping having a caufe before him, one of the oppo¬
nent’s counfel faid he was a ftrange fellow, and fome¬
times went to church, and fometimes to conventicles;
and it was thought he was a trimmer. At this the
chancellor fired : “ A trimmer ? (faid he) 5 I have
heard much of that monfter, but never faw one. Come
forth Mr Trimmer, and let me fee your ffiape.” He
then treated the poor fellow^ fo roughly, that, on his
leaving the hall, he declared he would not undergo the
terrors of that man’s face again to fave his life, and he
ffiould certainly retain the frightful impreflions of it as
long as he lived. Soon after, the prince of Orange
coming, the lord chancellor, dreading the public re-
fentment, difguifed himfelf in a feaman’s drefs, in or¬
der to leave the kingdom j and was drinking in a cellar,
when this fcrivener coming into the cellar, and fee-
ing again the face which had filled him with fuch hor¬
ror, ftarted ; on which Jeffreys, fearing he was known,
feigned a cough, and turned to the wall with his pot
of beer in his hand. But Mr Trimmer going out, gave
notice that he w*as there : and the mob ruffling in leiz-
ed him, and carried him before the lord mayor, who
lent him with a ftrong guard to the lords of the coun¬
cil, by whom he w'as committed to the Tow'er, where
he died in 1689.—It is remarkable, (that the late coun-
tefs of Pomfret met with very rude infults from the po¬
pulace on the weffernroad, only becaufe flie was grand¬
daughter to the inhuman Jeffreys.
JEHOVAH,
%
JEN [ i
Jehovah JEHOVAH, one of the Scripture names of God,
fignifying the Behig who is felf-exiltent and gives exift-
Jenifa. ence to others.
So great a veneration had the Jews for this name,
that they left off the cuftom of pronouncing it, where¬
by its true pronunciation was forgotten. 'I hey call it
tetragrammaton, or “ the name with four letters ; and
believe, that whoever knows the true pronunciation of
it cannot fail to be heard by God.
JEJUNE style. See Style.
JEJUNUM, the fecond of the fmall guts j thus
called from the Latin jejunus, “ hungry }” becaufe
always found empty. See ANATOMY, N° 93.
JELLALJEAN, or Gelal^ean Calendar, Epo-
cha, and Tear. See Calendar, Epocha, and
Year.
JELLY, a form of food, or medicine, prepared
from the juices of ripe fruits, boiled to a proper con¬
fidence with fugar ; or the ftrong deco&ions of the
horns, bones, or extremities of animals, boiled to fuch
a height as to be ftiff and firm when cold, without the
addition of any fugar.—The jellies of fruits are cool¬
ing, faponaceous, and acefcent, and therefore are good
as medicines in all diforders of the primae vise, arifing
from alkalefcent juices, efpecially when not given alone,
but diluted with water. On the contrary, the jellies
made from animal fubitances are all alkalefcent, and
are therefore good in all cafes in which an acidity of
the humours prevails : the alkalefcent quality of thefe
is, however, in a great meafure taken off, by adding
lemon juice and fugar to them. There were formerly
a fort of jellies much in ufe, called compound jellies',
thefe had the reftorative medicinal drugs added to them,
but they are now fcarce ever heard off.
JiLir-Oat, a preparation of common oats, recom¬
mended by many of the German phyficians in all hec¬
tic diforders, to be taken with broth of fnails or Cray
fifii.—It is made by boiling a large quantity of oats,
with the hulk taken off, with fome hartlhorn (havings,
and currants, together with a leg of veal cut to pieces,
and with the bones all broken 5 thefe are to be fet over
the fire with a large quantity of water, till the whole is
reduced to a fort of jelly •, which when drained and c6ld
will be very firm and hard. A few fpoonfuls of this
are to be taken every morning, diluted with a bafon of
either of the above mentioned broths, or any other
warm liquor.
JEMPTERLAND, a province of Sweden, bounded
on the north by Angermania, on the eaft by Medal-
padia, on the fouth by Helfingia, and on the well by
Norway. It is full of mountains •, and the principal
towns are Reffundt, Lich, and JDocra.
JENA, a ftrong town of Germany, in the circle of
Upper Saxony, and in Thuringia, writh an univerfity.
It is feated on the river Sala, in E. Long, x 2. 4. N.
Lat. 51. o.
JENCAPORE, a town of Afia, in Indoftan, and
in the dominions of the Great Mogul, capital of a ter¬
ritory of the fame name. It is feated on the river
Chaul, in E. Long. 76. 25. N. Lat 30. 30.
JENCOPING, a town of Sweden, in the province
of Smaland, feated on the fouth fide of the lake Wer-
ter, with a ftrong citadel. The houfes are all built with
wood. E. Long. 14. 20.-N. Lat. 57. 22.
JEN IS A, a river of the Ruffian empire that runs
Vol. XL Part L
i ] JEN
from north to fouth through Siberia, and falls into the Jeniftoi
Frozen ocean. li
JENISKOI, a town of the Ruffian empire, in Si- •- n>ns'
beria, feated on the river Jenifa. It is large, populous,
and pretty ftrong $ and there are villages for feveral
miles round it. It is fubjedt to the Tungufians, who
are Pagans, and live chiefly on the above river. They
pay a tribute to the emperor for every bow, reckon¬
ing a man and a woman for one. The climate is ex¬
tremely cold j and no other fruits grow there but
black and red currants, ftrawTberries, and goofeberries.
Corn, butchers meat, and wild fowls, are very cheap.
E. Long. 92. 35. N. Lat. 57. 46.
JENKINS, Henry. See Longevity.
Jenkins, Sir Leoline, a learned civilian and able
ftatcfman of the 17th century, born in Glamorganftnre
about the year 1623. Being rendered obnoxious to
the parliament during the civil war by adhering to the
king’s caufe, he confulted his fafety by flight $ but re¬
turning on the Reftoration, he was admitted an advo¬
cate in the court of arches, and fucceeded Dr Exton
as judge. When the queen mother Henrietta died in
1669 at Paris, her whole eftate, real and perfonal, was
claimed by her nephew Louis XIV. : upon which Dr
Jenkins’s opinion being called for and approved, he
went to Paris, with three others joined with him in a
commiflion, and recovered her effefts •, for which he
received the honour of knighthood. He officiated as
one of the mediators at the treaty of Nimeguen, in
which tedious negociation he was engaged about four
years and a half; and was afterwards made a privy
counfellor and fecretary of ftate. He died in 1685 ;
and as he never married, bequeathed his whole eftate
to charitable ufes : he was fo great a benefadftor to Je-
fus College, Oxford, that he is generally looked on as
the fecond founder. All his letters and papers were
collecfed and printed in 1724, in two vols. folio.
JENNY WREN, a name given by writers on fong
birds to the wren. See Wren, ORNITHOLOGY Index.
JENTACULUM was, among the Romans, a
morning refreftnnent like our breakfaft. It was ex¬
ceedingly Ample, confiding, for the moft part, of bread
alone labouring people indeed had fomething more
fubftantial to enable them to fupport the fatigues of
their employment. What has been here faid may be
obferved of the Jews and Chriftians alfo. The Greeks
diftinguiftied this morning meal by the feveral names
of ct^irov, XK^dlia-f^og or though is
generally applied to dinner. See Eating and Dinner.
JENYNS, Soame, a diftinguiftied Englifli writer,
was born in Great Ormond-ftreet, London, in the year
1703-4. Sir Roger Jenyns, his father, was defcended
from the family of the Jenyns of Churchill in Somer-
fetftiire. The country refidence of Sir Roger was at
Ely, in the ifle of the fame name, where he turned his
attention to fuch kinds of bulinefs as rendered him moft
beneficial to his neighbours, for which amiable deport¬
ment in particular the honour of knighthood was con¬
ferred upon h m by William III. Our author’s mo¬
ther, a lady of rank, learning and piety, fuperintended
his education till it was neceffary to place him under a
tutor, for which purpofe a Mr Hill was taken into the
family, by whom he was inftrufted in the firft rudi¬
ments of language, with fuch other branches of know¬
ledge as were fuited to his years. At this time Mr
Q, Hill
Jenyns.
JEN [ 122 ] J E P
Hill was called to a fituation more advantageous, and cifion, and comes to the conclufion he means to efta- Jeofaife,
a Mr White fucceeded him in the office of tutor to bliffi by a regular chain of argument. His firft publi- jei'‘‘thah.
young Jenyns, a man eminent for his learning, taile, cation on account of which he was attacked, was his
and ingenuity, by whom he was qualified for attending Free Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of Evil ; but
the univerfity. i'1 a preface to the fecond edition he fully vindicated it
He was admitted into St John’s College, Cambridge, againft all the calumny, flander, and mifreprefentation
in the year 1722, under Dr Edmondfon, who was at which had been thrown out againft it, with that tem-
that time one of the leading tutors of the college, per and moderation which diitinguiffied him fo eminent-
Here his diligence and regular deportment did him the ly upon all occafions. His view of the Internal Evi-
greatell honour, and the drift difcipline obferved in dences of the Chriilian Religion was publiffied without
the college was perfeftly agreeable to his natural incli- his name in the year J776, which gave delight and fa-
nations. " After quitting the college, his winter red- tisfaftion to many eminent judges, and made converts
deuce was in London, and he lived in the country du- of numbers-who had been infidels before,
ring the fummer feafon, being chiefly employed in the JEOFAILE, (compounded of three French words,
profecution of fuch Rudies as were of a literary nature. 'J'ay faille, “ 1 have failed ’), a term in law, ufed for
His firft publication, a poetical effay on the art of dan- an overfight in pleading or other proceeding at law.
cing, appeared without his name in 1727 ; but he was The ffiowing of thefe defefts or overfights was for-
very foon difcovered, and it was confidered as a prefage raerly often praftifed by' the counfel \ and when the
of his future eminence. jury came into court in order to try the iilue, they find,
Soon after the death of his father, he wras chofen in This inqueft you ought not to take \ and after ver-
374.2 one of the members of parliament for the county dift they would fay to tne court, Jo judgment you
of Cambridge, and from this period he retained his ought not to go. But feveral ftatutes have been made
feat in the houfe of commons till the year 1780. The to avoid the delays occalioned by fuch fuggeftiqns; mid
'high opinion entertained by his conftituents of his par- a judgment is not to be flayed after verdift for mifta-
liamentary condudt, may be learned from the urianimi- king the Chriftian or furname of either of the parties,
ty of their choice *, for he never but once experienced or in a fum of money, or in the day, month, year, &c.
any oppofition. Fie was chofen one of the commiffion- where the fame are rightly named in any preceding
ers of the board of trade and plantations in 1755, record.
which office he retained till an alteration was made in JEPHI FI AH, judge of Ifrael, and fucceffor to Jair
the conftitution of ic by authority of parliament. He in the government of the people, was a native of Miz-
was married, firft to the only daughter of Colonel peh, and the fon of one Gilead by a harlot. I his Gi-
Soame, of Dereham in Norfolk, who died without iffue, lead having married a lawful wife, and had children by
and afterwards to the daughter of Henry Gray, E(q. her, thefe children drove Jeplnhah tiom his father s
of Hackney, who furvived him. He died himlelf of a houfe, faying that he Ihould not be heir with them,
fever, after a few days illnefs, on the 18th oi Decern- Jephthah retired into the land of Tob, and there he
ber, 1787, leaving no blue. became captain of a band of thieves and fuch other
His temper was mild, fweet, and gentle, which he people as he had picked up togetner. At that time,
manifefted indifcriminately to all. It was his earneft the Ifraelites beyond Jordan, feeing themfelves prftTed
wiffi never to give offence to any 5 yet he made fuch by the Ammonites, came to deme affiftance from
liberal allowances for diverlities of temper, that he was Jephthah j arid that he would take upon him the corn-
very rarely offended with others. He was punftual in mand of them. Jephthah at firll reproached them with
the difcharge of the duties of religion both in public the injuftice which they had done him, 01 at leaft whLh
and private, profeffing to be better pleafed with the they had not prevented, when he was forced from ri>
government and difcipline of the church of England father’s houfe. But as thefe people were very earneft in
than of any other in Chriftendom, which, however, he their requeft, he told them, that he would fuccour them,
confidered as capable of important alterations and provided that at the end of the war they would ac-
amendments, if it were previoully and deliberately de- knowledge him for their prince, j his they conlented
termined what thefe alterations fhould be. He poffef- to, and promifed with an oatn. .
fed an uncommon vein of the moft lively and genuine Jephthah, in the year of the world 2817, having
wdt, which he never made ufe of to wound the feelings been acknowledged prince of the Ifraelrtes in an allem-
of others, but was rather very much offended with thofe bly of the people, was filled with the ipmt of God,
who did, being convinced'that diftinguiffied endow- and began to get his troops together 5 to that end, he
ments of the mind are as much intended to promote the went over all the land which the children of lirael poi-
felicity of others, as of thofe who poffefs them. feffed beyond Jordan. At the fame time he made a
No man was ever a more genuine philanthropift, as vow to the Lord, that if he were fficcefs.ul again.! the
he felt moft fenfibly for the miferies of others, and ufcd Ammonites, he would offer up for a burnt-offering
every mean in his power to render them as happy as whatever fhould firft come out of his houle to meet
poffible. His indigent neighbours in the country he him. The battle being fought, Jephthah remained
viewed as a part of his family, in which light he con- conqueror, and ravaged all the land of Ammon. But
fidered them as entitled to his care and proteftion. As as he returned to his houfe his only daughter came
an author, Soame Jenyns certainly deferves a place out to meet him with timbrels and noth dances: where-
among thofe who have excelled, whether we view him as upon Jephthah tore his clothes, an iaic, as, my
a poet, or a writer of profe, in which latter capacity he daughter, thou haft brought me very low, for 1 have
ranks with the pureft and moft correft writers of the made a vow unto the Lord, and cannot fail in the per-
Engiffi language. He reafons with clofenefs and pre- formance of it.” His daughter anfwered, My fa-
J E R [ i
JtfpKtha'h ther, if thou haft made a vow unto the Lord, do with
ii. . me as thou haft promifed ; grant me only the favour
r1 en'1"a‘ that I may be at liberty to go up to the mountains, and
there for two months bewail my virginity with my
companions.” Jephthah granted her this liberty ■, and
at the end of two months, he offered up his daughter,
who died a virgin, a burnt-offering, agreeable to his
vow, according to the opinion of moft commentators.
In the mean time, the Ephraimites, jealous of the
vidlory obtained by Jephthah over the Ammonites,
pafl’ed the river Jordan in a tumultuous manner, came
and complained to Jephthah that he had not invited
them to this war, and threatened to fet fire to his
boufe. Jephthah anfwered them, that he had fent to
defire their ailiftance j but obferving that they did not
come, he put his life in his hands and hazarded a battle.
The Ephraimites not being fatisfied with thefe reafons,
Jephthah aflembled the people of Gilead, gave them
battle, and defeated them ; fo that there rvere two and
forty thoufand men of the tribe of Ephraim killed that
day. We knew nothing more in particular concerning
the life of Jephthab, only that he judged Ifrael fix
years, and was buried in a city of Gilead.
St Paul (Heb. xi. 32.) places Jephthah among the
faints of the Old Teftament, the merit of whofe faith di-
ftinguifhed them. But it muft be obferved, that there is
fomething fo extraordinary in Jephthah’s vow, that
notwithllanding the Scripture fpeaks of it in very plain
and clear terms, yet fuch difficulties arife concerning
it as perplex commentators. Some maintain, that
this daughter of Jephthah was not facrificed, as that
would have been a violation of the law' of Mofes j and
efpecially, when by the fame law he might have re¬
deemed his daughter for ten fhekels of filver : therefore
they contend, that it was fomething elfe Jephthah did
to his daughter, fuch as devoting her to a ftate of ce¬
libacy, or dedicating her to the fervice of God. On
the other hand, thofe who maintain the affirmative, or
that Jephthah’s daughter was aflually facrificed, urge,
that the times wherein Jephthah lived were fadly ad-
di£led to idolatry ; alfo the manner wherein he lived
before he was called to the affiftance of his country ; but
above all, the clear, evident, and exprefs meaning of the
text. They obferve, that vows of perpetual virginity
are inftitutions of a modern date j and had there been
no more in it, there would have been little occafion for
rending his clothes, and bemoaning himfelf as he did 5
befides the bitter lamentations made by herfelf, and by
all the daughters of Ifrael in fucceeding times. But if
ihe was facrificed, we may fafely and confidently aver
with Jofephus, who fays that ffie was, that this facri-
fice was neither lawful nor acceptable to God ; but, on
the contrary, an abominable crime, that might, not-
withftanding, have proceeded from a miftaken principle
of religion.
JERBOA, a fpecies of quadruped belonging to the
genus and refembling in fome of its charafters,
the moufe tribe. S: e Dipus, Mammalia fn</ex.
JEREMIAH (t/ii? Prophecy of), a canonical book
of the Old Feftament. rJhis divine writer was of the
race of the priefts, the fon of Hilkiah of Anathoth, of
the tribe of Benjamin. He was called to the prophetic
office when very young, about the 13th year of Jofiah,
and continued in the discharge of it about 40 years.
He was rot carried captive to Babylon with the "other
23 1 J E U
Jews, but remained in Judea to lament the defolation
of his country. He was afterwards a prifoner in E-
gypt with his difciple Baruch, where it is fuppoied he
died in a very advanced age. Some of the Chriftian
fathers tell us he was ftoned to death by the Jews, for
preaching again!! their idolatry ; and fome fay he was
put to death by Pharaoh Hophrah, becaufe of his pro¬
phecy againil him. Part of the prophecy of Jeremiah
relates to the time after the captivity of Ifrael, and be-
lore that of Judah, from the firft chapter to the 44th y
and part of it was in the time of the latter captivity,
from the 44th chapter to the end. The prophet lays
open the fins of Judah with great freedom and bold-
nefs, and reminds them of the fevere judgments which
had befallen the ten tribes for the fame offences. He
paffionately laments their misfortune, and recommends
a fpeedy reformation to them. Afterwards he predicts
the grievous calamities that were approaching, parti¬
cularly the 70 years captivity in Chaldea. He like-
wile foretels their deliverance and happy return, and
the recompenie which Babylon, Moab, and other
enemies of the Jews, ffiould meet with in due time.
There are likevvife feveral intimations in this prophecy
concerning the kingdom of the Meffiah ; alio feveral
remarkable vilions, and types, and hiftorical paffages
relating to thole times. The yzd chapter does not
belong to the prophecy of Jeremiah, but probably
was added by Ezra, and contains a narrative of the tak¬
ing pf Jerufalem, and of what happened during the
captivity of the Jews, to the death of Jechonias. St
Jerome has obferved upon this prophet, that his ftyle
is more eafy than that of Ifaiah and Hofea ; that he re¬
tains fomething of the rufticity of the village where he
was born j but that he is very learned and majeftic,
and equal to thofe two prophets in the fenfe of his
prophecy.
_ JERICHO, or Hierichus, in Ancient Geography, a
city of Judea j iituated between Jordan and Jerufalem,
at the diftance of 15b ftadia from the latter, and 60
from the former. Jofephus fays, “ the whole fpaee from
Jerufajem is deleft and rocky, and equally barren and
uncultivated from Jericho to the lake Afphaltites j
yet the places near the town and above it are extreme¬
ly fertile and delicious, fo that it may be juftly called a
divine plain, furpaffing the reft of the land of Canaan,
no unfruitful country, and furrounded by hills in the
manner of an amphitheatre. It produces opobalfa-
mum, myrobalans, and dates ; from the laft of which it
is called the city oj* palm-trees, by l\Toles. The place
is now called Raha ,■ and is fituated, INI. Volney in¬
forms us, <l in a plain fix or feven leagues long, by*
three wide, around which are a number of barren moun¬
tains, that render it extremely hot. Here formerly
wa.s cultivated the balm of Mecca. From the de-
feription of the Hadjes, this is a ffirub fimilar to the
pomegranate tree, with leaves like thofe of rue : it
bears a pulpy nut, in which is contained a kernel that
yields the refinous juice we call balm or balfam. At
prefent there is not a plant of it remaining m Raha •
but another fpecies is to be found there, called %ak-
houn, which produces a fweet oil, alfo celebrated for
healing wounds. This _ zakkoun refembles a plum-
tree , it has thorns four inches long, with leaves like
thofe of the olive tree, but narrower and greener, and
prickly at the end j its fruit is a kind of acorn, with-
Q. 2 out
Jeremiah..
Jericho.
J E R [i
Jerhfiot’n, out a calyx, under the bark of wiiich Is a palp, and
Jerome, ^en a nut, the kernel of which gives an oil that the
v’'"—v ' Arabs fell very dear j this is the foie commerce of Ra-
ha, which is no more than a ruinous village.
JERIMOTH. See Jarimuth.
JEROME, St, in Latin Hieronymus, a famous
doftor of the church, and the moft learned of all the
Latin fathers, was the fon of Eufebius j and was born
at Stridon, a city of the ancient Pannonia, about the
year 540. He Itudied at Rome under Donatus, the
learned grammarian. After having received baptifm,
' he went into Gaul, and there tranfcribed St^ Hilary’s
book de Synodis. He then went into Aquileia, where
he eontradfed a friendikip with Heliodorus, who pre¬
vailed on him to travel with him into Thrace, Pontus,
Bithynia, Galatia, and Cappadocia. In 372 St Jerome
retired into a defert in Syria, where he was perfecuted
by the orthodox of Melitius’s party, for being a SabeL
lian, becaufe he made ufe of the word Hypqftafis, which
had been uled by the council of Rome in 3^9' Phis
obliged him to go to Jerufalem ; where he applied him-
felf to the ftudy of the Hebrew language, in order to
receive a more perfedf knowledge of the Holy Scrip¬
tures j and about this time he confented to be ordained,
on condition that he Ihould not be confined to any par¬
ticular church. In went to Conftantmople to
hear St Gregory of Nazianzen ■, and the following year
returned to Rome, where he was made fecretary to Pope
Damafus. He then inftrudled many Roman ladies in
piety and the knowledge of the fciences, which expofed
him to the calumnies of thofe whom he zealouiiy re¬
proved for their irregularities •, and Pope Siricius not
having all the efteem for him which his learning and
virtue juftly entitled him to, this learned doftor left
Rome, and returned to the monaftery of Bethlehem,
where he employed himfelf in writing againft thofe
whom he called heretics, efpecially. againft Vigilantius
and Jovinian. He had a quarrel with John of Jerufa-
lem and Rufinus about the Origenifts. He was the
firft who w rote againft Pelagiusj and died on the 3®^
of September 420, at about 80 years of age. There
have been leveral editions of his w'orks \ the laft, wrhich
is that of Verona, is in 11 vols. folio. His principal
works are, 1. A Latin verfion of the Holy Scriptures,
diftinguiihed by the name of the Vulgate. 2. Commen¬
taries on the Prophets, Ecclefiaftes, St Matthew’s Gof-
pel, and the Epiftles to the Galatians, Ephefians, T.itus,
and Philemon. 3. Polemical treatifes againft Montanus,
Helvidius. Jovinian, Vigilantius, and Pelagius. _ .4. Se¬
veral letters. 5. A treatife on the lives and writings of
the ecclefiaftical authors w7ho had flouriftied befoie his
time. -St Jerome’s ftyle is lively and animated, and
fometimes fublime.
'Jerome of Prague, fo called from the place of his
birth, in Bohemia. He was neither a monk nor
clergyman, but had a learned education. Having em¬
braced the opinions of John Hufs, he began to pro¬
pagate them in the year 1480. In the mean time the
council of Nice kept a watchful eye over him, and
confidering him as a dangerous perfon, cited him to
appear before them and give an account of his faith.
In obedience to this citation, he went to Conftance j
but on his arrival, in 14I5> finding Hufs in prifon, he
fet out for his own countrj;. Being leized, however,
on the way, imprifoned, and examined, he was fo m-
24 ] J E R
timidated, that he retraced, and pretended to approve Jerony-
of the condemnation of Wickliff’s and Hufs’s opinions j mites,
but on the 26th of May 1416, he condemned that Jeilcy*
recantation in thefe terms : “ I am not afliamed to
confefs here publicly my weaknefs. Yes, with horror
I confefs my bafe cowardice. It was only the dread
of the punilhment by fire which drew me to confent,
againft my confidence, to the condemnation of the doc¬
trine of Wickliff and Hufs.” Accordingly fentence
w7as pafled on him •, in purfuance of which he w7as de¬
livered to the fecular arm, and burnt in 1416. . He wras
a perfon of great parts,-learning, and elocution.
JERONYMITES, or Hieronymites, a denomi¬
nation given to divers orders or congregations of reli¬
gious ; otherwife called Hermits of St Jerome.
JERSEY, an ifland in the Engliih channel, believed
to be the ifland called in the Itinerary Ccefarea, in
fucceeding times Augia, by us Gerfey, more frequent¬
ly It is fituated in the Englifti channel, 18
miles to the w?eft of Normandy, and 84 to the fouth
of Portland in Dorfetfliire, and in the time of the
Romans w'as called Ccefarea. It is not above 12
miles in length, nor much above 6 where broadeft,
which is at the two extremities. It is defended by
rocks and dangerous quickfands. On the north fide
the cliffs rife 40 or 50 fathoms high, which render it
inacceflible on that fide j but on the fouth the fhore is
almoft level with the water. In the w^eft part of the
ifland is a large trad of land once cultivated and very
fertile, but nowT a barren defert, caufed by the wefterly
winds throwing up fand from the bottom to the top
of the higheft cliffs. The higher lands are diverfified
by gritty, gravelly, ftony, and fine mould •, the lower
by a deep, rich, and heavy foil. The middle part ot
the ifland is fomewhat mountainous, and fo thick
planted with trees, that at a diftance it refembles one
entire foreft, though in walking through it there is
hardly a thicket or any other thing to be feen but
hedge-rows and orchards of apple-trees. ’Ihe valleys
under the hills are finely watered by brooks, and have
plenty of cattle and fmall fheep, with very fine wool,
and very fweet meat, which is afcribed to the fhort-
nefs of the grafs. The horfes are good for draught j
but few fit for the faddle. The ifland produces variety
of trees, roots, and herbs j but not corn enough for the
inhabitants, who therefore fend for it to England and
France, and fometimes to Dantzic. 1 he fields are
inclofed by great mounds of earth, raifed from 6 to 8
or 10 feet high, proportionably thick and folid, plant¬
ed with quickfets and trees. As the air of this ifland
is very healthy, thofe of the inhabitants who are tem¬
perate live to a great age : but the coaft is very fub-
jeft to iforms by wefterly winds, from which they have
no land to ihelter them nearer than North America ;
and there is a vaft chain of rocks about the ifland,
among which the tides and currents are fo ftrong and
rapid, that the navigation is dangerous to thofe who
are not perfeftlv acquainted with the coaft. T he
buildings of this ifland are generally of rag ftone but
fome of the wealthy inhabitants have their houfes front¬
ed with a reddifti white ftone, capable of being poliftied
like marble, and of which there is a rich quarry on a
hill called Montmado. The ordinary dwellings are
thatched. The churches are very plain buildings,
in oft of them with fquare fteeples $ and the com-,
»
J E R L 125 ] J E R
Jeifey. munion table is not at the eaft end, as in the Englifh
—v  churches, but placed juft under the pulpit. The
ftaple manufafture is knit ftockings and caps, many
thoufand pairs of which are weekly fold at St Helier to
the merchants •, alfo cyder, of which 25,000 hogfheads
have been made here in one year. Their/ principal
foreign trade is to Newfoundland ; whither, particu¬
larly in 1732, they fent 24 ftiips; thefe proceed
from thence to the Mediterranean to difpofe of their
fiih.
On the fouth of the ifland the fea feems to have en¬
croached upon the land (which, as we have before ob-
ferved, declines on that fide), and to have fwallowed
upwards of fix fquare miles, making a very beautiful
bay of about three miles long, and near the fame in
breadth. In the eaft corner of this bay ftands the town
of St Helier, very happily fituated. But the princi¬
pal haven is in the weftern corner of the bay, which
receives its name from it, being called St Alikin's.
There are, befides thefe, feveral other havens of lefs
note •, as, St Brelade’s bay, at the back of St Au-
bin’s ■, the great bay of St Ouen, which takes in the
greateft part of the weft fide of the ifiand, where the
largeft ftiips may ride in 12 and 15 fathoms, fafe
from all but eaft winds. La Crevafle is a port only for
boats \ Greve de Lecq and Port St John are alfo imall
havens on the north fide, where is likewdfe Bonnenuit.
On the eaft there is thq bay of St Catharine, and the
harbour of Rofel. To the fouth-weft lies the haven
de la Chauflee. The laft we fliall mention is the
port de Pas, a very little to the eaftwTard of St Aubin’s
bay.
The towns of St Helier and St Aubin, which, as al¬
ready mentioned, ftand both in the fame bay called
St Alikin's kaij, opening to the fouth, are about three
miles afunder. St Helier took its name from Elenus
or Helier, a holy man, who lived in this ifiand many
centuries ago, and was flain by the Pagan Normans
at their coming hither. He is mentioned among the
martyrs in the martyrology of Coutance. Plis little
cell with the ftone bed is ftill Ihown among the rocks ;
and in memory of him a noble abbey of canons regu¬
lar was founded in the little ifland in this bay, and
annexed to Cherburg abbey in Normandy in the reign
of Henry I. and fupprefl'ed as an alien priory. The
town of St Helier ftands at the foot of a long and
high rocky hill at the eaft end. It is a well-built and
populous place ; greatly improved and enlarged with¬
in the laft century •, and contains about 400 houfes,
moftly (hops, and near 2000 inhabitants. The market¬
place in the centre is Ipacious, furrounded with hand-
lome houfes, among which is the Cohue-Royale or court
of juftice. At the top of the market-place is a iiatue of
George II. of bronze gilt. The market is held on a
Saturday, and much frequented.
St Aubin at the w^eft end of the bay is principally
inhabited by merchants and mailers of ftiips, w'hom
the neighbourhood of the port has invited hither. It
is not more than half the fize of the other town,
though greatly increafed within thefe 100 years *, and
has a good ftone pier carried far into the fea, where
Ihips of confiderable burden lie fafe under the guns of
the adjoining fort.
The ifle of St Helier, more to the eaft in the fame
bay, is in circuit near a mile, furrounded by the fea at
or about every half flood. On the fite of the abbey Jerfey.
before mentioned is now Elizabeth caftle, one of the
largeft and ftrongeft fortreffes in Britain. Queen
Elizabeth began it, and gave it her name. Charles I.
enlarged, and Charles II. wrho was twice here, com¬
pleted it. It was the laft fortrefs that held out for
the king. It is the refidence of the governor and gar-
rifon, an4 occupies the whole ifle, from whence at
low water is a paffage called the bridge, half a mile
long, formed of fand and ftones. A citadel was begun
in the laft war on a hill, whence the caftle might be
bombarded, but fince the peace left off.
Mount Orgueil caftle, called alfo Gourray from the
neighbouring village of that name, lies to the fouth
of Rofel harbour in the bay of St Catharine. It wras a
place of ftrength before Henry V.’s time, and bid
defiance to the attempts of the French under the con-
ftable De Guefclin 1374 at the end of the reign of
Edward III. It was repaired by Queen Elizabeth,
but is now neglefted, yet preferves an air of grandeur
anfwering its name even in ruins. The afeent to its
top is by near 200 fteps; and from thence by a tele-
fcope may be feen the two front towers of the cathedral
of Coutance. The famous William Prynne was con¬
fined in it three years.
The ifland is divided into 12 parifties, which are fo
laid out that each has a communication with the fea ;
thefe are fubdivided into 5 2 vintaines, fo called from
the number of 20 houfes, which each is fuppofed to have
formerly contained, juft as in England 10 houfes ancient¬
ly made a tything. The whole number of inhabitants
is computed at about 20,000, of which 3000 are
able to bear arms, and are formed into regiments.
Their general review is on the fandy bay between the
two towns, when they are attended with a train of
above 20 brafs field pieces, and two fmall bodies of
horfe in the wings.
The chief officer is the governor, who has the cu-
ftody of his majefty’s caftles, with the command of the
garrifons and militia. The civil government is admi-
niftered by a bailiff, affifted by 12 jurats. They have
here alfo what they call an affembly of the ftates..
Thefe are convened by the governor or his deputy j the
bailiff confifts of himfelf and the jurats, the dean and
clergy, and the I 2 high conftables.
There were formerly many druidical temples and al¬
tars in Jerfey, fome remains of which are ftill to be
feen. The cromlichs are here called pouquelays, and
there are fome tumuli and keeps. Roman coins have
alfo been dug up in this ifland 5 and there are the re¬
mains of a Roman camp in the manor of Dilamant.
Chriftianity was firft planted here in the middle of
the 6th century, and the ifland made part of the fee
of Dol in Bretagne, and it is now governed by a dean.
Befides the abbey of St Helier, here were four priories,
Noirmont, St Clement, Bonnenuit, and le Leek, and a-
bove 20 chapels, now moftly ruined. During the laft
war this ifland,.together with that of Guernfey, became
an object off defire to France, whofe vanity, no lefs
than her intereft, was concerned in depriving Britain of
thofe laft remnants of her continental poffefllons. The
firlt attempt to atchieve this conqueft took place in
the year 1779. A force of 5000 or 6000 men ivas
embarked in flat-bottomed boats, and endeavoured to
land in the bay of St Ouen, on the firft of May. ly
J E R [ 126 ] J E R
Jerfey. this attempt they were fupported by five frigates and
1 other armed veffelsy but met with luch a vigorous
refiilance from the militia of the ifland, afiifted by a bo¬
dy of regulars, that they were compelled to retire
without having landed a fingle perfon. Much difcon-
tent and mutual recrimination took place among the
French naval and military officers on this failure ; and
though the expedition was reprefented by many as ill
concerted, and dellitute of every hope of fuccefs, ano¬
ther attempt was refolved on. Both the troops and
feamen that had been employed in the former expedi¬
tion were equally defirous of retrieving their honour*,
but they were for fome time prevented from making
any attempt of this kind by bad weather ; and, before
another opportunity offered, the fquadron which was
defigned to cover their defcent was attacked by Sir
James Wallace, who drove them affiore on the coait of
Normandy, filenced a battery under whole guns they
had taken Ihelter, captured a frigate of 34 guns, with
tw*o rich prizes, burnt twro other large frigates, and a
conliderable number of fmaller veffels.
Thus the fcheme of invading the ifiand of Jerfey
was totally difconcerted, and laid afide for that time,
but was refumed in the year 1781. The conduct of
this fecond expedition wTas given to the baron de
Rullecourt, who had been fecond in command when
the former attempt was made. He was a man of cou¬
rage, but fierce and violent in his difpofition, and feems
to have been very deficient in the prudence and conduct
necefl'ary for bringing any military enterprife to a fuc-
cefsful iffue. The force entruffed to him on the pre-~
fent occafion confided of 2000 men *, with whom he
embarked in very tempeftuous weather, hoping that
he might thus be able to furprife the garrilon. Many
of his tranfports, however, were thus difperfed, and he
himfelf, with the remainder, obliged to take fhelter in
fome illands in the neighbourhood of Jerfey. As foon
as the weather grew calmer, he feized the opportunity
of a dark night to effeft larding at a place called Grou-
ville, where he made prifoners of a party of militia.
Hence he proceeded with the utmoff expedition to
St Heller’s, the capital of the illand, about three miles
diftant. His arrival was fo unexpected, that he feized
on a party of men who guarded it, together with the
commanding officer, and the magilfrates of the illand.
Rullecourt then drew7 up a capitulation, the terms of
which were, that the illand ffiould be inilantly furren-
dered to the French, and the garrifon be fent to Eng¬
land ; threatening the town with immediate dcflruCiion
in cafe of non-compliance. It was in vain reprefented
to him that no ad of the deputy-governor and magi-
ftrates could be valid wffiile they remained in his power;
but, as Rullecourt fiill infilled they were obliged to
comply, leaf! his menaces Ihould have been carried into
execution. This point being gained, he advanced to
Elizabeth caftle in the neighbourhood of the town,
fummoning it to furrender in virtue of the capitulation
for the town and bland juft concluded. To this a pe¬
remptory refufal was given, and followed by fuch a vi¬
gorous difcharge of artillery, that he was obliged to
retire into the town. In the mean time the Britiffi
troops ftationed in the ifland began to affemble from
every quarter under the command of Major Pierfon ;
who, on being required by the French commander to
fubrnit, replied, that if the French themfelves did not,
i
within 20 minutes, lay down their arms, he would New
attack them. This being refufed, an attack w7as in- •”
ftantly made with fuch impetuofity, that the French
w7ere totally routed in lefs than half an hour, and dri¬
ven into the market-place, where they endeavoured to
make a ftand. Their commander, exafperated at this
unexpeifted turn of affairs, endeavoured to wreak his
vengeance on the captive governor, whom he obliged
to ftand by his fide during the whole time of the con-
flicb. This, however, vvas quickly over; the French
were broken on all fides, the baron himfelf mortally
wounded, and the next in command obliged to lurren-
der himfelf and the whole party prifoners ol war ; while
the captive governor efcaped without a wound. This
fecond difafter put an end to all hopes of the French
miniftry of being able to reduce the ifiand of Jerfey,
and was indeed no fmall mortification to them : 800
troops having been landed at that time, of which not
one efcaped. A monument was ere&ed at the public -
expence in the church of St Helier, to the memory of
Major Pierfon, to whom the deliverance of the ifiand
was owing ; but who unhappily fell in the moment of
vifrory, when only 24 years of age.
AH the landing places and creeks round the ifiand
are now fortified with batteries, and 17 or 18 watch-
hou'es are ere£ted on the headlands. Thefe are round
towers with embrafures for fmall cannon and loop-holes
for fmall mufketry ; the entrance by a door in the wall ■
out of the reach of man, and to be afcended by a lad¬
der afterwards drawn up. This ifiand, with thofe of
Guernfey, Sark, Alderney, and their appendages, were
parcel of the duchy of Normandy, and were united to
the crown of England by the firft princes of the Nor¬
man line. The language of the pulpit, and the bar, is
the French, which is alfo that generally fpoken by the
people at large. They are governed by their own
laws, which are for the moft part the ducal cuftoms of
Normandy, being colle&ed in an ancient book of cuf¬
toms intitled Le grand coujhimier. The king’s writ, or
procefs from the courts of Weftminfter, is here of no
force ; but his commiffion is. They are not bound by
any common a£ls of our parliaments, unlefs particular¬
ly named. All caufes are originally determined by
their own officers, the bailiff and jurats of the iflands.
But an appeal lies from them to the king and council
in the laft refort.—-Jerfey is an earldom in the Villiers
family.
Nevo JensEr, or, as it is commonly called, t/ie Jer-
feys (being two provinces united into one govern¬
ment), one of the united Hates of North America, ly¬
ing from 39 to 41 degrees of north latitude, and from
74 to 75 degrees 30 minutes longitude weft from Lon¬
don ; in length 160 miles, in breadth 52.
It is bounded on the eaft by Hudfon’s river and the
fea ; on the fouth by the fea ; on the weft by Dela¬
ware bay and river, which divide it from the ftates of
Delaware and Pennfylvania ; and on the north, by a
line drawn from the mouth of Mahakkamak river, n
latitude 41® 24', to a point on Hudfon’s river, in lati¬
tude 41*; containing about 832ofquare miles, equal
to 5,324,800 acres. New Jerfey is divided into 13
counties, which are fubdivided into 94 townffiips or pie-
cindls. In 1784, a cenfus of the inhabitants was made
by • rder of the legiflature, when they amounted to
140,435, of which 10,501 were blacks. Of thefc
blacks
H
J E R [ 127 ] J E R
Newjerfey,blacks 1939 only were {laves ; fo that tbe proportion of
" v " 1 {laves to the whole of the inhabitants in the ftate is as
one to 76. The population for every Iquare mile is 18.
As to the face of the country, foil, and productions,
the counties of Suffex, Morris, and the northern part
Bergin, are mountainous. As much as five-eighths of
molt of the fouthern counties, or one-fourth of the whole
ftate, is fandy and barren, unfit for cultivation. The land
on the fea coaft in this, like that in the moft fouthern
Hates, has every appearance of made ground. The foil
is generally a light fand and by digging, on an ave¬
rage, about 50 feet below the furface (which can be
done, even at the diftance of 20 or 30 miles from the
fea, without any impediment from rocks or {tones),
you come to fait raartli. This ftate has all the va¬
rieties of foil from the wTorft to the bed kind. It has a
greater proportion of barrens than any of the ftates.
The barrens produce little elfe but fhrub oaks and.
white and yellow pines. In the hilly and mountai¬
nous parts of the ilate, which are not too rocky for cul¬
tivation, the foil is of a ftronger kind, and covered in
its natural Hate with {lately oaks, hickories, chefnuts,
&c. &c. and, when cultivated, produces wheat, rye,
Indian corn, buck wheat, oats, barley, flax, and fruits
of all kinds common to the climate. The land in this
hilly country is good for grazing, and the farmers feed
great numbers of cattle for New York and Philadel¬
phia markets, and many of them keep large dairies.
The markets of New York and Philadelphia receive a
very confiderable proportion of their fopplies from the
contiguous parts of New Jerfey. And it is worthy of
remark that thefe contiguous parts are exceedingly well
calculated, as to the nature and fertility of their foils,
to afford thefe fupplies ; and the intervention of a great
number of navigable rivers and creeks renders it very
convenient to market their produce. Thefe fupplies
confift of vegetables of many kinds, apples, pears,
peaches, plums, ffrawfoerries,
fruits j cyder in large quantities
lity, butter, cheefe, beef, pork,
meats.
cherries, and other
and of the bell qua-
mutton, and the leffer
The trade of this ftate is carried on almoft folely
with and from thofe two great commercial cities, New
York on one fide, and Philadelphia on the other;
though it wants not good ports of its owm. The
articles exported, befides thofe already mentioned, are
wheat, flour, horfes, live cattle, hams, which are cele¬
brated as being the bell in the rvorld, lumber, flax-
feed, leather, and iron in great quantities in pigs and
bars. Formerly copper ore was reckoned among their
moft valuable exports ; but the mines have not been
worked fince the commencement of the late w7ar.
The iron manufaflures is the greateft fource of wealth
to the ftate. Iron works are erefted in Gloucefter,
Burlington, Morris, and other counties. The moun¬
tains in the county of Morris give rife to a number of
itreams neceflary and convenient for thefe works, and
at the fame time furnilb a copious fupply of wood and
ore of a fuperior quality. In this county alone are
no lefs than feven rich iron mines, from which might
be taken ore fufticient to fupply the United States ;
and to work it into iron are two furnaces, turn '-oiling
and flitting mills, and about thirty forges, containing
from two to four fires each. Thefe w'orks produce
annually about 540 tons of bar iron, 800 tons of pigs
beiides large quantities of hollow ware, flieet iron, and Newjerfey*
nail rods. In the whole ftate, it is fuppofed there is \ —
yearly made about 1 200 tons of bar iron, 1 200 do. of
pigs, 80 do. ot nail rods, exclufive of hollow ware,
and various other callings, of which vaft quantities are -
made.
The diamfler, manners, and cuftoms of the people
are various in different parts of the ftate. The inha¬
bitants are a colleflion of Low Dutch, German, Eng-
lifh, Scotch. Irifti, and New Englanders, or their de-
fcendants. National attachment and mutual conveni¬
ence have generally induced thete feveral kinds of peo¬
ple to fettle together in a body j and in this way their
peculiar national manners, cuftoms, and charafter, are
ftill preferved, efpecially among the lower clafs of peo¬
ple, who have little intercourfe with any but thole of
their own nation. Religion, although its tendency is
to unite people in thofe things that are effential to hap-
pinefs, occafions wide differences as to manners, cuftoms,
and even charafler. The Preflbyterian, the Quaker,
the Epifcopalian, the Baptift, the German and Low
Dutch Calvinift, the Methodift, and the Moravian,
have each their diftinguiftring characleriilics, either in
their worfhip, their difcipline, or their drefs. There is
ftill another very perceptible charafleriilical difference,
diftinft from either of the others, which arifes from the
intercourfe of the inhabitants with different ftates. The
people in Weft Jerfey trade to Philadelphia, and of
courfe imitate their faihions, and imbibe their manners,.
The inhabitants of Eaft Jerfey trade to New York, and
regulate their fafhions and manners according to thofe
'•of New York. So that the difference in regard to fa-
fliions and manners between Eaft and Well Jerfey, is
nearly as great as between New York and Philadelphia.
I he people of New Jerfey are generally induftrious,
frugal, and hofpitable. There are, comparatively, but
few men of learning in the Hate, nor can it be faid that
the people in general have a taile for the foiences. The
lower clafs, in which may be included three-fifths of the
inhabitants of the whole ftate, are ignorant, and are
criminally neglectful in the education of their children.
There are, in this ftate, about 50 Prefbyterian congre¬
gations, fubjeCl to the care of three prefbyteries, viz.
that of New York, of New Brunfwick, and Philadel¬
phia j 40 congregations of the Friends j 30 of the Bap-
tifts 25 of Epifoopalians ; 28 of the Dutch, befides a
few Moravians and Methodifts.
There are two colleges in New Jerfey; one at Prince¬
ton, called Najfau Hall; the other at Brunfwick, call¬
ed ^ueen's-college. The college at Princeton was firff
founded about the year 1738, and enlarged by Gover¬
nor Belcher in 1747. It has an annual income of about
900I. currency ; of which 200I. arifes from funded pub¬
lic fecurities and lands, and the reft from the fees of the
ftudents. There is a grammar-fchool of about 30 foho-
lars, conneCled with the college, under the fuperintend-
ance of the prefident, and taught by two mafters. Be¬
fore the late revolution this college was furnithed with
a philofophical apparatus worth 500I. which (except
the elegant orrery conftrufled by Mr Rittenhoufe) was
almoft entirely, deftroyed during the war, as was alfo
the library, which now confifts of between 2000 and
3000 volumes.—The charter for Queen’s-college at
Brunfwick was granted juft before the war, in confe-
quence of an application from a body of the Dutch
churchy.
J E R
t
J^ewjerfey.cliurcli. Its funds, raifed wholly by free donations, a-
‘ v  mounted foon after its eftablifliment to 4000I. j but
they were confiderably diminiihed by the war. The
ftudents are under the care of a prefident. This col¬
lege has lately increafed both in numbers and reputation.
There are alfo a number of flourilhing academies in this
Hate ; one at Trenton, another in Hakkenfak, others at
Orangedale, Freehold, Elizabeth-town, Burlington,
Newark, Springfield, Morriftown, Bordentown, and
Amboy: but there are no regular eftablilhments for
common fchools. The ufual mode of education is for
the inhabitants of a village or neighbourhood to join
in affording a temporary fupport for a fchoolmafter,
upon fuch terms as is mutually agreeable. But the
encouragement which thefe occafional teachers meet
with, is generally fuch as that no perfon of abilities
adequate to the bufinefs will undertake it, and of courfe
little advantage is derived from thefe fchools.
There are a number of towns in this ftate, nearly
of equal fize and importance, and none that has more
than 200 houfes, compadlly built.—Trenton is the lar-
geft town in New Jerfey. This town, with Lamber-
■ton, which joins it on the fouth, contain 200 houfes,
and about 1500 inhabitants. Here the Tegiflature
meets, the fupreme court fits, and the public offices
are'all kept, except the fecretary’s, which is at Bur¬
lington. On thefe accounts it is confidered as the ca¬
pital of the ftate.—Burlington ftands on the eaft fide of
the Delaware, 20 miles above Philadephia by -water,
and 17 by land. The ifland, which is the moft popu¬
lous part of the city, is a mile and a quarter in length,
and three quarters of a mile in breadth. On the ifland
are 160 houfes, 900 white and 100 black inhabitants.
There are trvo houfes for public worfhip in the town,
one for the Friends or Quakers, who are the moft nu¬
merous, and one for the Epifcopalians. The other
public buildings are two market-houfes, a court-houfe,
and the beft gaol in the ftate. Befides thefe,*there is an
academy, a free fchool, a nail manufactory, and an ex¬
cellent diftillery, if that can be called excellent which
produces a poifon both of health and morals.—Berth
Amhoy ftands on a neck of land included between Ra¬
ritan river and Arthur Kull found. It lies open to
Sandy Hook, and has one of the beft harbours on the
continent. Veffels from fea may enter it in one tide,
in almoft any weather Brunfwick was incorporated
in 1784, and is fituated on the fouth-weft fide of Rari¬
tan river, 12 miles above Amboy. It contains about
tioo houfes and 1620 inhabitants, ohe-half of which
are Dutch. Its fituation is low and unpleafant, being
on the bank of the river, and under a high hill which
rifes back of the town..—Princeton is a pleafant healthy
village, of about 80 houfes, 52 miles from New' York,
and 43 from Philadelphia.^—E/ixabeth town and New¬
ark are pleafant towns 5 the former is 15, and the lat¬
ter nine miles from New York. Newark is famed for
its good cyder.
The government of this ftate is veiled in a governor,
legifiative council, and general affembly. The gover¬
nor is chofen annually by the council and afferably
jointly. The legiilative council is compofed of one
member from each county, chofen annually by the
people. The general affembly is compofed of three
members from each county, chofen by the freemen.
The council choofe one of their members to be vice-
128 ] J E R
prefident, who, when the governor is abfent from the Jerfey,
ftate, poffeffes the fupreme executive power. The Jemfa erru
council may originate any bills, excepting preparing
and altering any money bill, w'hich is the. foie preroga¬
tive of the affembly.
The firft fettlers of New Jerfey were a number of
Dutch emigrants from New York, who came over be¬
tween the years 1614 and 1620, and fettled in the
county of Bergen. Next after thefe, in 1627, came
over a colony of Swedes and Finns, and fettled on the
river Delaware. The Dutch and Swedes, though not
in harmony with each other, kept poffeflion of the
country many years. In March 1664, Charles II.
granted all the territory called by the Dutch New Ne¬
therlands, to his brother the duke of York. And in
June 1664, the duke granted that part now called New
Jerfey to Lord Berkeley of Stratton, and Sir George
Carteret, jointly ; who, in 1665, agreed upon certain
conceflions with the people for the government of the
province, and appointed Philip Carteret, Efq. their
governor.—The Dutch reduced the country in 1672 $
but it was reftored by the peace of Weftminfter, Fe¬
bruary 9. 1674.
This ftate was the feat of W'ar for feveral years, du¬
ring the bloody conteft between Great Britain and
America ; and her Ioffes, both of men and property,
in proportion to the population and wealth of the
ftate, was greater than of any other of the thirteen
ftates.
Jersey, among woolcombers, denotes the fineft
wool, taken from the reft by drefling it with a Jerfey
comb.>
JERUSALEM, a very famous and ancient city,
capital of Judea or Paleftine, now a province of Turkey
in Afia. According to Manetho, an Egyptian hifto-
rian, it was founded by the fhepherds who invaded
Egypt in an unknown period of antiquity *. Accord-
ing to Jofephus, it was the capital of Mcdchifedek’sn z>
kingdom, called Salem in the book of Genefis : and
the Arabians affert, that it was built in honour of Mel-
chifedek by 12 neighbouring kings •, which when they
had done, he called it Jerufalem. We know nothing
of it with certainty, how'ever, till the time of King
David, who took it from the Jebufites, and made it
the capital of his kingdom, which it ever after conti¬
nued to be. It was firft taken in the days of Je-
hoafh, by Hazael the king of Syria, who flew all the
nobility, but did not deftroy their city. It was af¬
terwards taken by Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon,
who deftroyed it, and carried awray the inhabitants.
Seventy years after, permiflion wras granted by Cyrus
king of Perfia to the Jew's to rebuild their city, which
w’as done ; and it continued the capital of Judea (though
frequently fuffering much from the Grecian monarchs
of Syria and Egypt), till the time of Vefpafian emperor
of Rome, by whofe Ion Titus it w'as totally deftroyed f. f See Jeur.
It was, however, rebuilt by Adrian j and teemed like¬
ly to have recovered its former grandeur, being fur-
rounded w’ith walls, and adorned w'ith feveral noble
buildings the Chriftians alfo being permitted to fettle
in it. But this was a ftiort-lived change , fo that when
the emprefs Helena, mother of Conftantine the Great,
came to vifit this city, (he found it in the moft forlorn
and ruinous fituation. Having formed a defign of re-
ftoring it to its ancient luftre, Ihe caufed, with a great
deal
J E R [i
Jerufalem-deal of coft and labour, all the rubbifh that bad been
v ' thrown upon thofe places where our Saviour had fuffer-
ed, been buried, &c. to be removed. In doing this,
they found the crofs on which he died, as well as thofe
of the two malefadtors who fuftered with him ; and, as
the writers of thofe times relate, difcovered by a mira¬
cle that which had borne the Saviour of mankind. She
then caufed a magnificent church to be built, which in-
clofed as many of the fcenes of our Saviour’s fufferings
as could conveniently be done, and adorned the city
with feveral other buildings. The emperor .Julian is
faid to have formed a defign of rebuilding the temple of
Jerufalem, and of reftoring the Jewilh worlhip. This
fcherae was contrived on purpofe to give the lie to our
Saviour’s prbphecy concerning the temple and city of
Jerufalem ; namely, that the fir It (hould be totally de-
ftroyed, without one done being lelt upon another ; and
that Jerufalem ihould be trodden down of the Gentiles
till the times of the Gentiles were fulfilled. In this at¬
tempt, however, according to the accounts of the Chri-
ftian writers of that age, the emperor was fruitrated by
an earthquake and fiery eruption from the earth, which
totally deitroyed the work, coniumed the materials which
had been colledted, and killed a great number of the
workmen.
This event hath been the fubjeft of much difpute.
Mr Warburton, who hath publifhed a treatife exprefs-
ly on the truth of this fact, hath collected the follow¬
ing teftimonies in favour of it. The firlt is that of
A mini anus Marcelfinus, who tells us, “ Julian (hav¬
ing been already thrice conful), taking Salluft, pre¬
fect of the feveral Gauls, for his colleague, entered a
fourth time on this high magiflracy ; and although
his fallibility of the many and great events which
this year was likely to produce made him very
anxious for the future, yet he both pulhed on the va¬
rious and complicated preparatives for this expedition
with the utmolt application, and, having an eye in
every quarter, and being defirous to eternize his reign
by the greatnefs of his atchievements, he projedded to
rebuild at an immenfe expence the proud and magni¬
ficent temple of Jerufalem •, which (after many com¬
bats, attended with much bloodihed on both tides,
during the liege by Vefpafian) was with great diffi¬
culty taken and deflroyed by Titus. He com¬
mitted the conduct of this affair to Alypius of
Antioch, who had formerly been lieutenant in Bri¬
tain. When therefore this Alypius had fet himfelf
to the vigorous execution of his charge, in which he
had all the affifiance that the governor of the province
could afford him, horrible balls of fire breaking out
near the foundations, with frequent and reiterated at¬
tacks, rendered the place from time to time inacceffible
to the fcorched and blailed workmen ; and the victo¬
rious element continuing, in this manner, obfiinately and
refolutely bent, as it were, to drive them to a diftance,
Alypius thought bell to give over the enterprife.”
The next teflimony is that of Gregory Nazianzen.
Speaking of the emperor Julian, he lays, “ After
having run through a courfe of every other tyrannical
experiment againll the faith, and upon trial defeifing
all of them as trilling and contemptible, he at laft
brought down the whole body of the Jews upon us ;
whom, for their ancient turn to feditious novelties,
and an inveterate hatred of the Chrillian name, he
Vol. XL Part I.
29 ] J E It
chofe as the fitteft inftrument for his machinations. Jerafales.
Thefe, under a ffiow of great good-will, which hid
his fecret purpofe, he endeavoured to convince from
their facred books and traditions, which he took upon
him to interpret, that now was come the time fore¬
told when they (hould return to their own land, re¬
build their temple, and reftore the law to its ancient
force and fplendor. When thefe things had been
thoroughly infinuated, and heartily entertained (for
deceit finds eafy admittance when it flatters our paf-
fions), the Jews fet upon the work of rebuilding with
great attention, and pulhed on the projeeff with the
titmoft labour and application. But when, now driven
from their work by a violent whirlwind and a fudden
earthquake, they fled together for refuge to a certain
neighbouring church (fome to deprecate the impend¬
ing mifehief; others, as is natural in fuch cafes, to
catch at any help that prefents itfelf •, and others
again, enveloped in the crowd, were carried along
with the body of thofe who fled) j there are who fay,
the church refufed them entrance ; and that when they
came to the doors which were wide open but a mo¬
ment before, they found them on a fudden clofed by
a fecret and invilible hand ; a hand accuflomed to
work thefe wonders by tbs terror and confufion of the
impious, and for the fecurity and comfort of godly
men. This, however, is now invariably affirmed and
believed by all, that as they ftrove to force their way
in by violence, the fire which burft from the founda¬
tions of the temple, met and Hopped them. One
part it burnt and deflroyed, and another it defperate-
ly maimed, leaving them a living monument of God’s
commination and wrath againit finners. Thus the
affair paffed j and, let no man continue incredulous
concerning this or the other miraculous works of
C-od. But ftill the thing moft wonderful and iiluf-
trious was, a light which appeared in the heavens, of
a crofs within a circle. That name and figure which
impious men before eixeemed fo dilhonourable upon
earth, was now raifed on high, and equally obje&ed
to the common view of all men ; advanced by God
himfelf as the trophy of his viclory over unbelievers j
of all trophies the molt exalted and iublime. Nay
further, they who were prefent, and partakers of the
miracle we are now about to fpeak of, (how to this
very day the fign or figure of the crofswhich was then
marked or impreffed upon their garments. For at that
time, as thele men (whether fuch as were of us or
ftrangers) were Ihowing thefe- marks, or attending to
others who fhowed them, each prefently obferved the
wonder, either on himfelf or his neighbour j having a-
radiant mark on his body or on his garment, in which
there is fomething that, in ait and elegance, exceeded
all'painting or embroidery.”'
Notwithllanding thefe teflimonks, however, this
fa£t hath been flrenuoufly contefied by others; and
indeed it muff be owned that the teftimonies above
mentioned are by no means unexceptionable. In the
laff, particularly, the propenfity to the marvellous is fo
exceedingly great, that every one muff at firit fight
be :wuck with it. It is true indeed, the raoft mira¬
culous part of it, as it feemed to be to Grevorv,,
namely, the appearance of erodes upon the gavr ■
and bodies of feme of the people who were
njay be explained upon a natural principle • fi
K.
it*
uc k.
J E R
[ 130 ]
J
R
jerufakiK. are aRured that lightning will fometiines produce ef-
fe£ls of this kind * : but even this is no deciiive proof
of the authenticity of the relation •, though it cannot by
any means difcredit it, as ibtne think. On the whole,
however, it is not a matter of any confequence whether
this event happened with the circumllances above men¬
tioned or not. If Julian did make any attempt to re¬
build the temple, it is certain that fomething obftrudfed
the attempt, becaufe the temple was never actually re¬
built. If he made no fuch attempt, the prophecy of
our Saviour ftill holds good ; and it furely cannot be
thought to detraft from the merit of a prophecy, that
no body ever attempted to elude it, or prove it to be a
fallehood.
Jerufalem continued in the hands of the eaftern em¬
perors till the reign of the caliph Omar, who reduced
it under his fubjebtion. The Saracens continued in
poffeflion of it till the year 1099, when it was taken
by the Crufaders. They founded a new kingdom, of
which Jerufalem was the capital, which lafted 88 years
under nine kings. At laid this kingdom was utterly
ruined by Saladin 5 and though the Chriftians once
more got poffelhon of the city, they w?ere again obliged
to relinquifh it. In 12x7, the Saracens were expelled
by the Turks, who have ever fince continued in poffef¬
lion of it.
The city of Jerufalem, in its moff flourilhing Rate,
was divided into four parts, each inclofed with its own
walls; viz. 1. The old city of Jebus, which flood on
Mount Zion, where the prophets dwelt, and where
.David built a magnificent caftle and palace, which
became the refidence both of himfelf and fucceflbrs;
on which account it was emphatically called the City
of David. 2. The lower city, called alio the Daugh¬
ter of Zion^ being built after it ; on which flood the two
magnificent palaces which Solomon built for himfelf
and his queen ; that of the Maccabean princes; and
the {lately amphitheatre built by Herod, capable of
containing 80,000 fpeviators; the ftrong citadel, built
by Antiochus, to command and overtop the temple, but
afterwards razed by Simon the Maccabee, who reco¬
vered the city from the Syrians; and laftly, a fecond
citadel, built by Herod, upon a high and craggy rock,
and called by him /hitonia. 3. The newr city, moft-
ly inhabited by tradefmen, artificers, and merchants;
and, 4. Mount Moriah, on which was built the fo famed
temple of Solomon, defcribed in the iixth and feventh
chapters of the fecond book of Kings ; and, fince then,
that rebuilt by the Jews on their return from Babylon,
and afterwards built almoft anewr and greatly adorned
and enriched by Herod.
Some idea of the magnificence of this temple may
be had from the following confiderations. 1. That
there were no lefs than 163,300 men employed in the
work. 2. That notwithlfanding that prodigious num¬
ber of hands, it took up feven whole years in build¬
ing. 3. That the height of this building was 120
cubits, or 8 2 yards, rather more than lefs ; and the
courts round it about half as high. 4. That the
front, on the eaft fide, was fuftained by ramparts of
j'quare Rone, of vaR bulk, and built up from the val¬
ley below, which lafl was 300 cubits high, and be¬
ing added to that of the edifice amounted to 420
cubits; to which, if we add, 5. The height of the
principal tower above all the reft, viz. 60, will bring
2
it to 480 cubits, which, reckoning at tivo feet to a Jerufalem.
cubit, wdi amount t(. 960 feet; but according to the
length of that mealure, as others reckon it, viz. at two
feet and an haft, it will amount to 1 200 feet; a pro¬
digious height this from the ground, and fuch as
might well make Jofephus fay, that the very defign of
it was lulRcient to have turned the brain of any but
Solomon. 6. Thefe ramparts, which were railed in
this manner, to fill up the prodigious chafm made by
the deep'valley below7, and to make the area of a fuf-
ficient breadth and length for the edifice, were xoco
cubits in length at the bottom, and 800 at the top,
and the breadth of them JOO more. 7. The huge
buttrefles which lupported the ramparts were of the
fame height, fquare at the top, and 50 cubits broad,
and jutted out 150 cubits at the bottom. 8. The
Hones, of which they were built, were, according to
Jofephus, 40 cubits long, 12 thick, and 8 high, all
of marble, and fo exquilitely joined, that they leemed
one continued piece, or rather po'ithed rock. 9. Ac¬
cording to the fame Jewilh hiftorian, there were 1453
columns of Parian marble, and twice that number of
pilafters; and of fuch thicknefs, that three men could
hardly embrace them, and their height and capitals pro¬
portionable, and of the Corinthian order. But it is
likely Jofephus hath given us thefe twro laft articles from
the temple of Herod, there being nothing like them
mentioned by the facred hiftorians, but a great deal
about the prodigious cedars of Lebanon ufed in that no¬
ble edifice, the excellent workmanlhip of them adapted
to their feveral ends and deiigns, together with their
gildings and other curious ornaments. The only thing
more we ftiall venture to add is, what is affirmed in
Scripture, that all the materials of this ftupendous fabric
were finifhed and adapted to their feveral ends beiore
they wrere brought to Jeruialem, that is, the ftones in
their quarries, and the cedars in Lebanon ; fo that
there was no noife of axe, hammer, or any tool, heard
in the rearing of it.
At prefent Jerufalem is called by the Turks Cud-
fembanc, and Coudfherijf; and is reduced to a poor
thinly inhabited town, about three miles in circumfe¬
rence, fituated on a rocky mountain, furrounded on
all fides, except the north, with fteep afeents and deep
valleys; and thefe again environed with other hills,
at fome diftance from them. In the neighbourhood
of the city there grew fome corn, vines, olives, &.c.
The ftately church eredled by the emprefs Helena, on
Mount Calvary, is ftill Handing. It is called the church
of the fepulchre ; and is kept in good repair by the
generous offerings of a ccnftant concourfe of pil¬
grims, who annually refort to it, as well as by the
contributions of feveral Chriftian princes. The walls
of this church are of Hone, and the roof of cedar ; the
eait end inclofes Mount Calvary, and the weft the holy
fepulchre : the former is covered with a noble cupola,
open at top, and fupported by x6 maflive columns.
Over the high altar, at the eaft end, is another ftately
dome. The nave of the church conftitutes the choir;
and in the infide aide are Riown the places where the
moft remarkable circumftances of our Saviour’s paf-
fion v\ere tranfadfed, together with the tombs of God¬
frey and Baldwin, the cv\o firft Chriftian kings of Je-
rulalem. In the chapel of the crucifixion is Ihown
the very hole in the rock in which the crofs is faid to
have
J E R [ 13
ufilem.have been fixed. The altar in this chapel hath three
“v~”" croffes on it ; and is richly adorned, particularly with
four lamps of immenfe value that hang before it, and
arc kept conllantly burning. At the well end is that
of the fepulchre, which is hewn in that form out of
the folid rock, and hath a fmail dome lupported by
pillars of porphyry. The cloifter round the fepulchre
is divided into fundry chapels, appropriated to the fe-
veral forts of Chriftians who refide there ; as Greeks,
Armenians, Maronites, Jacobites, Copts, AbylTmes,
Georgians, &c. and on the north-weft fide of it are
the apartments of the Latins, who have the care of
the church, and are forced to refide conftantly in it $
the Turks keeping the keys of it, and not fuffering
any of them to go out, but obliging them to re¬
ceive their provifions in at a wdcket. At Eafter there
are fome grand ceremonies performed in the church,
reprefenting our Lord’s paflion, crucifixion, death,
and refurreftion, at which a vaft conecurfe of pil¬
grims commonly affift. For a particular account of
them, we refer the reader to Dodors Shaw and Po-
cocke.
On Mount Moriah, on the fouth-eaft part of the
city, is an edifice called Solomon's Temple, Handing on
or near the fame fpot as the ancient 5 but when or by
whom ereded is uncertain. In the midft of it is a
Turkifh mofque, where the Jewiftr fandum fandorum
is fuppofed to have flood. The building, which Dr
Pococke thinks mult have been formerly a Chriftian
church, is held in the utmoft veneration by the Turks.
The city is now under the government of a fangiac,
who refides in a houfe faid to have been that of Pon¬
tius Pilate, over-againft the cafile of Antonia built by
Herod the Great. Many of the churches ereded in
memory of fome remarkable goipei-tranfadion, have
been fince converted into mqfques ; into fome of which
money will procure admittunce, but not into others.
Both the friars and other Chriftians are kept fo poor
by the tyranny of the government, that the chief fup-
port and trade of the place conlifts in providing ftran-
gers with food and other accommodations, and felling
them beads, relics, and other trinkets, for which they
are obliged to pay confiderable fums to the fangiac, as
well as to his officers ; and thofe are feldom fo well
contented with their ufual duties, but they frequently
extort fome freffi ones, efpecially from the Francifcans,
whofe convent is the common receptacle for all pil¬
grims, and for which they have confiderable allowan¬
ces from the pope, and other crowned Leads, befides
the prefents which ftrangers generally make them at
their departure. The moll remarkable antiquities in
the neighbourhood of Jerufalem are, x. The pools of
Bethefda and Gihon *, the former 1 20 paces long, 4c
broad, and at leaft eight deep, but now without wa¬
ter ; and the old arches, which it ftill difeovers at the
weft end, are quite dammed up : the other, which is
about a quarter of a mile without Bethlehem-gate, is
a very (lately reliek, ! 06 paces long, and 60 broad,
lined with a wall and plafter, and ftill well ilored with
water. 2. The tomb of the Virgin Mary, in the val¬
ley of Jehofhaphat, into which one defeends by a mag¬
nificent flight of 47 fteps. On the right hand as one
goes down, is alio the fepulchre of St Ann the mo¬
ther, and on the left that of Jofcph the hufhand, of
i ] J E S
the virgin-mother : fome add likewife that of Jehoia- Jerufifte-n,
him her father. In all thefe are ere£led altars for priefts , J6*1
of all forts to fay mafs, and the whole is cut into the
lolid rock. 3. The tomb of King Jehofhaphat, cut
likewife into the rock, and divided into feveral apart¬
ments 5 in one of which is his tomb, which is adorned
with a {lately portico and entablature over it. 4. That
commonly called Abfalotn's pillar or place, as being ge¬
nerally fuppofed to be that which he is faid to have
ereifted in his life-time to perpetuate his memory, as
he had no male-iffue. The place, however, both with¬
in and without, hath more the refemblance of a fe¬
pulchre than any thing elfe : though we do not read
that he was buried there, neither do the people here
affirm that he was. There is a great heap of Hones
about it, which is continually increafing •, the fuperfti-
tious Jews and Turks always throwing fome as they,
pafis, in token of their abhbrrence of Abfalom’s un¬
natural rebellion againft fo good and holy a parent.
The ftruflure itfelf is about 20 cubits fquare, and 60
high, riling in a lofty fquare, adorned below with four
columns of the Ionic order, with their capitals, enta¬
blatures, &c. to each front, from the height of 20
to 40 cubits, it is fomewhat lefs, and quite plain, ex¬
cepting a fmail fillet at the upper end ; and from 40 to
the top it changes into a round, which grows gradual¬
ly into a point, the whole cut out of the folid rock.
There is a room within, confiderably higher than thq
level of the ground without, on the lides of which are
niches, probably to receive coffins. 5. A little eaft-
vvard of this is that called the tomb of Zechariah, the
fon of Barachiah, whom the Jews flew between the
temple and the altar, as is commonly fuppofed. This
fabric is all cut out of the natural rock, ] 8 feet high,
and as many fquare ; and adorned with Ionic columns
on each front, cut out likewife of the fame rock, and
fupporting a cornice. The whole ends in a pointed
top, like a diamond. But the mofl curious, grand,
and elaborate pieces, in this kind, are the grotts with¬
out the walls of Jerufalem, fly led the royal fepulchres ;
but of what kings is not agreed on. They confift of
a great number of apartments, fome of them fpacious,
all cut out of the folid marble rock ; and may juftly
be pronounced a royal work, and one of the moft
noble, furprifing, and magnificent. For a particular
account of them we nruft refer the reader, for want of
room, to Pococke’s Travels. In the neighbourhood
of Jerufalem is a fpot of ground, about 30 yards long
and 15 broad, now the burying-place of the Arme¬
nians, which is fhcwn as the Aceldama, or Field of
Blood, formerly the Potters Field, and fince ilyled
Catnpo Sanclo, or the Holy Field, purchafed with the
price of Judas’s treafon, for the burial of ftrangers. It *
is walled round, to prevent the Turks abufing the bones
of Chriftians j and one half of it is taken up by a
building in the nature of a charnel houfe. Befides the
above, a great many other antiquities in the city and
its environs are fhown to ftrangers j there being fcarce
any place or tranfatlion mentioned either in the Old or
New Teftament, but they (how the very fpot of ground
where the one flood, and the other was done ; not on¬
ly here, but all over Judaea.
JFSI, an ancient town of Italy, in the territory of
the church, and in the marca on march of Ancona,.
R 2 with
Tefib
■T E S [ 1.32 ] .T E S.
Jeluits.
I
To.mdation
of the or-
tler.
2
Confirmed
by the
pope, and
irom wfhat
motives.
with a bilhop’s fee. It is feated on a mountain, near
a river of the fame name, in E. Long. 12. 20. N. Lat.
43- 50.
.1 ESSO, Jedso, or Tadfor a largo ifland of Afia,
to the north of Niphon, and laid to be governed by a
prince tributary to the empire of Japan •, but is very
little known to the Europeans, fo that nothing can be
laid with certainty concerning it.
JESSES, ribbons that hang down from garlands
or crowns in falconry ; alfo fliort Itraps of leather fa-
itened to the hawk’s legs, and fo to vervels.
JESTING, or concife wit, as diitinguifhed from
continued wit or humour, lies either in the thought,
or the language, or both. In the firft cafe it does
not depend upon any particular words, or turn of the
expreflion. But the greateft fund of jells lies in the
language, i. e. in tropes or verbal figuresthofe
afforded by tropes confiff in the metaphorical fenfe of
the words, and thofe of verbal figures principally turn
upon a double fenfe of the fame word, or a fmiilitude of
found in different words The third kind of jokes, which
be both in the fenle and language, arife from figures of
lentences, where the figure itfelf confifts in the fenfe,
but the wit turns upon the choice of the words.
JESUITS, or the Society of Jf.svs ; a fanrous reli¬
gious order of the Romifii church, founded by Ignatius
Loyola. See Ignatius.—The plan which this fana¬
tic formed of its conffitution and laws was fuggefted,
as he gave out, and as his followers ftill teach, by the
immediate infpiration of heaven. But notwithfiand-
ing this high pretenfion, his defign met at firft with
violent oppofition. The pope, to whom Loyola had
applied for the fanction of his authority to confirm the
inftitution, referred his petition to a committee of car¬
dinals. They reprefented the eftablifhment to be un-
neceffary as well as dangerous, and Paul refufed to
grant his approbation of it. At laft, Loyola removed
all. his fcruples by an offer which it was impoffible for
any pope to refill. He propofed, that befides the
three vows of poverty, of chaftity, and of monaftic
obedience, which are common to all the orders of re¬
gulars, the members of his fociety fhould take a fourth
vow of obedience to the pope, binding themfelves to
go whitherfoever he fhould command for the fervice
of religion, and without requiring any thing from the
holy fee fox„ their fupport. At a time when the papal
authority Tiad received fuch a fhock by the revolt of fo
many nations from the Romilh church *, at a time when
every part of the popifh fyftem was attacked with fo
much violence and fuccefs, the acquifition of a body
of men, thus peculiarly devoted to the fee of Rome,
and whom it might fet in oppofiticn to all its enemies,
was an objebl of the higheft conl'equence. Paul in-
ftantly perceiving this, confirmed the inftitution of the
Jefuits by his bull, granted the moft ample privileges
to the members of the fociety, and appointed Loyola
to be the firft general of the order. The event hath
fully jullified Paul’s difeernment, in expecting fuch be¬
neficial confequences to the fee of Rome from this in-
ilitulion. In lefs than half a century, the fociety ob¬
tained eftablilhments in every country that adhered to
the Roman catholic church : its power and w?ealth in-
creafed amazingly the number of its members became
great j their character as well as accomplilhments
-were ftill greater ■, and the Jefuits were celebrated by
3
the friends and dreaded by the enemies of the Ro- Jefuits.
milh faith as the moft able1 and enterpriiing order in v
the church.
The conftitution and laws of the focicty were per¬
fected by Laynez and Aquaviva, the two generals who
fucceeded Loyola ; men far fuperior to their mafter in
abilities and in the fcience of government. They
framed that fyftem of profound and artful policy which
diftinguifhes the order. The large infufion of fanati-
cifm mingled with its regulation ihculd be imputed to
Loyola its founder. Many. circumitances concurred
in giving a peculiarity of charatfer to the order of
Jefuits, and in forming the members of it not only to
take greater part in the affairs of the world than any
other body of monks, but to acquire iuperior infiuence
in the conduct of them. 3
The primary object of almoft all the monaftic orders T'^objecft
is to ftparate men from the world, and from any con- |jer
cern in its affairs. In the iblitude and filence of theiar. °
cloifter, the monk is called to work out his own fal-
vation by extraordinary acts of mortification and pie¬
ty. He is dead to the world, and ought not to mingle
in its tranfadtions. He can be of no benefit to man¬
kind but by his example and by his prayers. On the
contrary, the Jefuits are taught to coniider themfelves
as formed for adfion. They are chofen foldiers, bound
to exert themfelves continually in the fervice of God,
and of the pope his vicar on earth. Whatever tends
to inftrufl the ignorant, whatever can be of ufe to re¬
claim or to oppofe the enemies of the holy fee, is their
proper object. That they may have full leifure for
this active fervice, they are totally exempted from
thofe fundtions the performance of which is the chief
bulinefs of other monks. They appear in no procef-
fions ; they pradtife no, rigorous aufterities ; they do
not confume one half of their time in the repetition
of tedious oftices : but thqy are required to attend to
all the tranfadtions of the world, on account of the
influence which thefe may have upon religion ; they
are dire died to ftudy the difpofitions of perfons in
high rank, and to cultivate their friendihip ; and by
the very conftitution as well as genius of the order, a
fpirit of adtion and intrigue is infufed into all its
members. 4
As the object of the fociety of Jefuits differed from Pecunari-
that of the other monaftic orders, the diverfity wastNAlt’
no lefs in the form of its government. The other or-1
ders are to be conlidered as voluntary affociations, in
which whatever affects the whole body is regulated by
the common fuffrage of all its members. The execu¬
tive power is veiled in the perfons placed at the head
of each convent or of the whole fociety } the legifla-
tive authority refides in the community. Affairs of
moment, relating to particular convents, are determi¬
ned in conventual chapters ; fuch as relpedt the wLole
order are confidered in general congregations. But
Loyola, full of the ideas of implicit obedience, which
he had derived from his military profeftion, appointed
that the government of his order ihould be purely mo¬
narchical. A general, chofen for life by deputies from
the feveral provinces, poffeffed powrer that was fupreme
and independent, extending to every perfon and to
every cafe. He, by his foie authority, nominated
provincials, re£tois, and every other officer employed
in the government of the fociety, and could remove
them
.T E S [ i
Jcfuit*. them at pleafure. In him was veiled the fcvereign
1  ' adminiftration of the revenues and funds of the order.
Every member belonging to it was at his difpofal 5
and by his uncontrollable mandate he could impofe on
them any talk, or employ them in what fervice loever
he pleafed. To his commands they were required to
Power of yield not only outward obedience, but to relign up to
the gene- him the inclinations of their own wills and the fenti-
ra^ ments of their own underftandings. They were to
Men to his injunclions as if they had been uttered by
Chrift himfelf. Under his direction they were to be
mere paflive inltruments, like clay in the hands of the
potter, or like dead carcafes incapable of refinance.
Such a Angular form of policy could not fail to imprefs
its chara&er on all the members of the order, and to
give a peculiar force to all its operations. There is
not in the annals of mankind any example of fuch
a perfedt defpotifm, exercifed not over monks Hurt up
in the cells of a convent, but over men difperfed among
tdl the nations of the earth.
As the conftitutions of the order veil in the general
fuch abfolute dominion over all its members, they care¬
fully provide for his being perfedlly informed with re-
fpedt to the cbaradler and abilities of his iubjecds.
Every novice who offers himfelf as a candidate for en¬
tering into the order is obliged to manifell his con-
fcience to the fuperior, or a perfon appointed by him *,
and is required to confefs not only his fins and defedfs,
but to difeover the inclinations, the paffions, and the
bent of his foul. This manifeftation muff be renewed
every fix months. The fociety, not fatisfied with pe¬
netrating in this manner into the innermoff receffes of
the heart, diredls each member to obferve the words
and adlions of the novices: they are conftituted fpies
upon their condudf, and are bound to difclofe every
thing of importance concerning them to the fuperior.
In order that this ferutiny into their character may be
as complete as pofiible, a long noviciate muff expire,
during which they pafs through the feveral gradations
of ranks in the' fociety ; and they muff have attained
the full age of thirty-three years before they can be
admitted to take the final vows, by which they become
profefled members. By thefe various methods, the fune-
riors, under vhofe immediate infpedtion the novices are
placed, acquire a thorough knowledge of their difpo-
fitions imd talents. In order that the general, who is
the foul that animates and moves the whole fociety,
may have under his eye every thing neceffary to inform
or dire£l him, the provincials and heads of the feveral
hoafes are obliged to tranfrnit to him regular and fre¬
quent reports concerning the members under their in-
fpeflion. Tn thefe they defeend into minute details
with refpe£t to the chara&er of each perfon, his abi¬
lities natural or acquired, his temper, his experience
in affairs, and the particular department for which he
is heft fitted. Thefe reports, when digefted and ar¬
ranged, are entered into regiffers kept of purpofe, that
the general may, at one comprehenfive view, furvey
the ftate of the fociety in every corner of the ear th ;
©bferve the qualifications and talents of its members •,
and thus choofe, with perfect information, the inftru-
ments which his abfolute power can employ in any fer¬
vice for'which be thinks meet to defline them.
As it was the profeffed intention of the order of
Jefuits to labour with unwearied zeal in promoting
3 1 J E S
the falvation of men, this engaged them of cot>rfe in JMusa¬
in any active fundlions. From their firft inftitution, ^
they confidered the education of youth as their peculiar p^grep 0f
province; they aimed at being fpiritual guides and the power
confeflors ; they preached frequently in order to in-ar.dinflu-
ftquct the people ; they fet out as miffionaries to con-eni;e oUhe
vert unbelieving nations. The novelty of the inftitu-0,a
tion, as well as the Angularity of his obja&s, procured
the order many admirers and patrons. I he governors
of the fociety had the addrefs to avail themfelves of
every circumftance in its favour ; and in a fiiort time
the number as well as influence of its members in-
creafed wonderfully. Before the expiration of the
fixteenth century, the Jefuits had obtained the chief
direction of the education of youth in every catholic
country in Europe. They had become the confeffors
of almoft all its monarebs ; a funftion of no fmall im¬
portance in any reign, but, under a weak prince, iu-
perior even to that of miniffer. ’Ihey were the fpi¬
ritual guides of almoft every perfon eminent for rank
or power. They poffeffed the higheft degree of con¬
fidence and intereff with the papal court, as the moft
zealous and able champions for its authority. The
advantages which an aflive and enterprifing body of
men might derive from all theie circumftances are ob¬
vious. -They formed the minds of men in their youth.
They retained an afeendant over them in their advan¬
ced years. They pofl'effed, at different periods, the
direffion of the moil confiderable courts in Europe.
They mingled in all affairs. They took part in every
intrigue and revolution. The general, by means of
the extenfive intelligence which he received, could re¬
gulate the operations of the order with the moft pej-
feift difeernment; and, by means of his abfolute power,
could carry them on with the utmofl vigour and ei-
feift. 7
Together with the power of the order, its w ealth Of its
continued to increafe. Various expedients were devi-weaIt}l'’
fed for eluding the obligation of the vow of poverty.
The order acquired ample poffeffions in every catholic
country ; and by the number as well as magnificence
of its public buildings, together with the value of its
property, moveable or real, it vied with the moff opu¬
lent of the monaftic fraternities. Beiides the iources
of wealth common to all the regular clergy, the Je¬
fuits poffeffed one which was peculiar to themfelves.
Under pretext of promoting the fuccefs of their mif-
fions, and of facilitating the fupport of their mifiiona-
ries, they obtained a fpecial licence from the court of
Rome to trade with the nations which they laboured
to convert. In confequence of this, they engaged in
an extenfive and lucrative commerce both in the Eait
and Weft Indies. They opened warehoufes in differ¬
ent parts of Europe, in which they vended their com¬
modities. Net fatisfied with trade alone, they imi¬
tated the example of other commercial focieties, and
aimed at obtaining fettlements. They acquired poftef-
ilon accordingly of a large and fertile province in the
fouthern continent of America, and reigned as foyereigns
over !ome hundred thouland fubje&. . 5.
Unhappily for mankind, the vaft inliuence -which Pernicious
the order of Jefuits acquired by all thefij different elfMs ©t _
means, has been often exerted with the moft pernicious
effect. Such was the tendency of that difci.pline ob- l0^‘ ’
ferved by the fociety in forming its members, and fuch
the
•I E S [ i j4 ] .1 E S
the fundamental maxims in its conftitution, that every
Jefuit was taught to regard the intereft of the order
as tile capital objeft to which every conuderation was
to be facrificcd. This fpivit of attachment to their or¬
der, the moft ardent perhaps that ever influenced any
body of men, is the characleriftic principle of the Je-
fuits, and ferves as a key to the genius of them policy
as well as the peculiarities in their fentiments and con¬
duct.
As it was for the honour and advantage of the fo-
ciety that its members thould polTefs an afcendant over
perl’ons in high rank or of great power ; the defire of
acquiring and preferving fuch a direction of their con-
duft with greater facility has led the Jefuits to pro¬
pagate a fyttem of relaxed and pliant morality, which
accommodates itleif to the paflions of men, which
juflifies their vices, which tolerates their imperfec¬
tions, which authorifes almolt every adtion that the
mod audacious or crafty politician would wilh to per¬
petrate.
As the profperity of the order was intimately con¬
nected with the prefervation of the papal authority,
the Jefuits, influenced by the fame principle of at¬
tachment to the interefts of their fociety, have been
the moft zealous patrons of thofe dodtrines which
tend to exalt eccleflaftical power on the ruins of civil
government. They have attributed to the court of
Rome a jurifdidtion as extenfiye and abfolute as was
claimed by the molt prefumptuous pontifl's in the dark
ages. They have contended for the entire indepen¬
dence of ecclefiaftics on the civil magiftrates. They
have publifhed fuch tenets concerning the duty of op-
poling princes who were enemies of the Catholic faith,
as countenanced the moft atrocious crimes, and tended
to diflblve all the ties which conned! fubjedls with their
rulers.
As the order derived both reputation and authority
from the zeal with which it flood forth in defence of
the Romilh church againft the attacks of the reform¬
ers, its members, proud of this diftindlion, have con-
lldered- it as their peculiar fundlion to combat the
opinions and to check the progrefs of the Proteftants.
They have made ufe of every art, and have employed
every weapon againft them. They have fet them-
felves in oppofition to every gentle or tolerating mea-
fure in their favour. They have inceiYantly ftirred up
again!! them all the rage of eccleliaftical and civil per-
lecution
Monks of Other denominations have indeed ventu¬
red to teach the fame pernicious dodlrines, and have
held opinions equally inconfiftent with the order and
happinefs of civil fociety. But they, from reafons
which are obvious, have either delivered fuch opinions
with- greater referve, or have propagated them with
lefs fucoefs. Whoever recolledls the events which have
happened in Europe during two centuries, will find
that the Jefuits may juftly be conlidered as refponlible
for mol! of the pernicious effects arifing from that
corrupt and dangerous cafuiitry, from thofe extrava¬
gant tenets concerning eccleliaftical power, and from
that intolerant fnirit, which have been the difgrace of
the church of Rome throughout that period, and
which have brought fo many calamities upon civil fo-
eiety.
But, amidft many bad confequences flowing from
the inllitution of this order, mankind, it mull be ac- Jefuhs.
knowledged, have derived from it lome conliderable ' ■
advantages. As the Jefuits made the education °fg0,ne9a(]
youth one of their capital objedts, and as their firll v inta^es
attempts to eftabliih colleges for the reception of flu- refu'.ting
dents were violently oppofed by the univerfities in dif- fi'om tl?e
ferent countries, it became neceffary for them, as the
mof! effectual method of acquiring the public favour, jgj.
to furpafs their rivals in fcience and induflry. This
prompted them to cultivate the fludy of ancient lite¬
rature with extraordinary ardour. This put them up¬
on various methods for facilitating the inllruclion of
youth ; and, by the improvements which they made
in it, they have contributed fo much towards the pro¬
grefs of polite learning, that on this account they have
merited w'ell of fociety. Nor has the order of Jefuits
been fuccefsful only in teaching the elements of lite¬
rature -y it has produced likewife eminent mafters in
many branches of fcience, and can alone boaft of a
greater number of ingenious authors than all the other
religious fraternities taken together.
But it is in the new world that the Jefuits have ex¬
hibited the moft wonderful dii’play of their abilities,
and have contributed moft efiedlually to the benefit of
the human fpecies. The conquerors of that unfortu¬
nate quarter of the globe had nothing in view but to
plunder, to enflave, and to exterminate its inhabitants.
The Jefuits alone have made humanity the objeft of 10
their fettling there. About the beginning of the 17th ?ctftement
century, they obtained admiftion into the fertile pro-ln^ara'
vince of Paraguay, which ftretches acrofs the fouth-^Ua^,
ern continent of America, from the bottom of the
mountains of Potofi to the confines of the Spanilh
and Portuguefe fettlements on the banks of the river
De la Plata. They found the inhabitants in a ftate
little different from that which takes place among men
when they firft begin to unite together ; ftrangers to
the arts, f’ubfifting precarioully by hunting or fifiring,
and hardly acquainted with the firft principles of fub-
ordination and government. The Jefuits fet them-
felves to inftruft and to civilize thefe favages. They
taught them to cultivate the ground, to rear tame ani¬
mals, and to build houfes. They brought them to
live together in villages. They trained them to arts
and manufaftures. They made them tafle the i’weets
of fociety, and accuftomed them to the bleffings of fe-
curity and order. Thefe people became the fubjefts
of their benefaftors, who have governed them with a
tender attention, refembling that with which a father
direfts his children. Refpefted and beloved almoft to
adoration, a few Jefuits prefided over fome hundred
thoufand Indians. They maintained a perfeft equa¬
lity among all the members of the community. Each
of them was obliged to labour, not for himlelf alone,
but for the public. The produce of their fields, to¬
gether with the fruits of their induftry of every fpe¬
cies, were depofited in common ftorehoufes, from which
each individual received every thing neceflary for the
fupply of his wants. By this inftitution, almoft all
the paftions which difturb the peace of fociety, and
render the members of it unhappy, were extinguifhed.
A few magiftrates, chofen by the Indians tbemfelves,
watched over the public tranquillity, and fecured obe¬
dience to the laws. The fanguinary puniftiments fre¬
quent under other governments were unknown. An
admonition
T
J E S
[
Jtfuits. admonition from a Jefuit, a flight mark of infamy, or
feme fingular oecafion, a few ladies with a whip,
were fufficient to maintain good order among thefe in¬
nocent and happy people.
But even in this meritorious effort of the Jefuits
for the good of mankind, the genius and fpirit of
their order have mingled and are difcernible. They
plainly aimed at eftablilhing in Paraguay an indepen¬
dent empire, fubject to the fociety alone, and which,
by the luperior excellence of its conftitution and po¬
lice, could fcarcely have failed to extend its dominion
over all the fouthern continent of America. With
this view, in order to prevent the Spaniards or Portu-
guefe in the adjacent fettlements from acquiring any
dangerous influence over the people within the limits
of the province fubjeft to the fociety, the Jefuits en¬
deavoured to infpire the Indians with hatred and con¬
tempt of thefe nations. They cut off all intercourfe
between their fubjefts and the Spaniih or Portuguefe
fettlements. They prohibited any private trader of
either nation from entering their territories. When
they were obliged to admit any perfon in a public cha-
ra6!er from the neighbouring governments, they did
not permit him to have any converfation with their
fubjedfs ; and no Indian was allowed even to enter the
houfe where thefe ft rangers refided unlefs in the pre¬
fence of a Jefuit. In order to render any communi¬
cation between them as difficult as poliible, they in-
dultrioufly avoided giving the Indians any knowledge
of the Spaniih or of any other European language ;
but encouraged the different tribes which they had
civilized to acquire a certain dialect of the Indian
tongue, and laboured to make that the univerfal lan¬
guage throughout their dominions. As all thefe pre¬
cautions, without military force, would have been in-
fufficient to have rendered their empire fecure and per¬
manent, they inftrufted their iubjedts in the European
arts of war. They formed them into bodies of cavalry
and infantry, completely armed and regularly difcipli-
ned. They provided a great train of artillery, as well
as magazines ftoved with all the implements of war.
Thus they eftabliffied an army fo numerous and well-
appointed, as to be formidable in a country where a
few fickly and ill-difciplined battalions compofed all
the military force kept on foot by the Spaniards or
i r Portuguefe.
Downfal Such were the laws, the policy, and the genius of
ot the order t]jjs f01-midable order; of which, however, a perfect
*' ' knowledge has only been attainable of late. Europe
had oblerved, for two centuries, the ambition and
power of the order. But while it felt many fatal ef-
fedts of thefe, it could not fully difeern the caufes to
which they were to be imputed. It was unacquainted
with many of the fingular regulations in the political
v conftitution or government of the Jefuits, which form¬
ed the enterprifing fpirit of intrigue that diitinguifh-
ed its members, and elevated the body itfelf to fuch a
height of power. It was a fundamental maxim with
the Jefuits, from their firft inftitution, not to publifli
the rules of their order. Thefe they kept concealed
as an impenetrable myftery. They never communi¬
cated them to ftrangers, nor even to the greater part
of their own members. They refufed to produce them
when required by courts of juftice; and, by a ftrange
folecifm in policy, the civil power in different countries
35 ] J E S
authorized or connived at the eftabliihment of an order
of men, whofe conftitution and laws were concealed
with a folicitude which alone was a good reafon for
having excluded them. During the profecutions late¬
ly carried on againft them in Portugal and France,
the Jefuits have been fo inepnfiderate as to produce
the myfterious volumes of their inftitute. By the aid
ot theie authentic records, the principles of their go¬
vernment may be delineated, and the fources of their
power inveftigated, with a degree of certainty and
precifion, which, previous to that event, it was impof-
fible to attain.
The pernicious effecls, however, of the fpirit and
conftitutipn of this order, rendered it early obnoxious
to iome of the principal powers in Europe, and gra¬
dually brought on its downfal. The emperor Charles V.
faw it expedient to check its progrefs in his domi¬
nions ; it was expelled England, by proclamation
of James I. in 1604; Venice, in 1606; Portugal, in
l1 S9 7 France, in 1764; Spain and Sicily, in 1767;
and totally fuppreffed and aboliffied by Pope Clement
XIV. in 1773.
JESUITS bark. See Cinchona, Botany Index;
and for its hiftory and properties, fee Cinchona and
Materia Medic a Index.
JESUS the Son of Sirach, a native of Jerufalem,
compofed about 200 B. C. toe Book of Ecclefiafticus,
called by the Greeks II;*v*«ge1es, “ replenkhed with vir¬
tue who alfo quote it under the title of the Wifdom
of Solomon the fan of Sirach. His grandfon, who was
alfo ot the fame name, and a native of Jerufalem,
tranflated it from the Hebrew into Greek about
121 B. C. We have this Greek verfion, but the
Hebrew text is loft.
Jesus Christ, the Son of God, and Saviour of
mankind, detcended from heaven, and took upon him
the human nature in Judaea, towards the conclufion of
the reign of Herod the Great, king of that country.
The place of his birth was Bethlehem, a ftourifhing
city of Judah ; but the year in which he was born is
not precifely afeertained. The moft general opinion is
that it happened about the year of Rome 74S or 749,
and about 18 months before the death of Herod. Four
inipired writers have trahfenitted to us an account of
the life of Jefus Chrift. They mention particularly
his birth, lineage, family, and parents ; but fay very
httle concerning his infancy and earlier youth. Herod
being informed that the Meffiah, or king of the Jews,
fo much fpoken of by the prophets, was now born,
being afraid that his kingdom ftiould now be taken
away, contrived how to deftroy his fuppofed rival :
but Chrift, being carried, while very young, into
Egypt, efcaped the cruelty of the tyrant; who, being-
determined to make fure work, made a general maf-
facre of the infants about Bethlehem, from the age of
two years and under.
After the death of Herod, our Saviour was brought
back to Judea ; but we are totally ignorant of what"
his employment was during the interval between his
return thither and the time of his entering upon the
miniftry. We know only, that when he was but 12
years of age, he difputed in the temple with the moft
learned of the Je>wifh doftors; whom he furprifed with
his knowledge, and the anfwers he gave to their
queftions. After this, as the feripture tells us, he
continued
Tefuits
Bark
ii
Jefus
Chi ift-
J E S [ 136 ] JET
tefus continued with his parents, and was fubje d: to the:n,
thrift. entered upon his miniflry. It is laid, indeed,
v though upon no fare foundation, that during this pe¬
riod he followed the trade of his father, who was a
carpenter. In the 30th year of his age, he began his
public miniftry •, to which, the attention of the people
was drawn by the preaching of John, a prophet mira-
culoufly infpired of God to proclaim the exigence ot
the Saviour, as now defcended upon earth, and vilible
to the eyes of all ; and by this prophet Chrilt himfelf
was baptized in the waters of Jordan, that he might
not, in any point, neglect to anfvver the demands of
the Jewilh law.
It is not neceffary here to enter into a particular
detail of the life and actions of Jelus Chrilt. Every
one knows, that his life was one continued fcene of
the molt perfeft fandtky, and the pureft and molt ac¬
tive virtue j not only without fpot, but alio beyond
the reach of fufpicion. And it is alfo well known,
that by miracles of the molt ilupendous kind, and not
more ftupendous than falutary and beneficent, he dif-
played to the nniverfe the truth of that religion which
he brought with him from above, and demonftrated
the reality of his divine commiffion in the moft illul-
trious manner. I1 or the propagation of his religion
through the country of Judaea, our Saviour chofe 1 2
apoftles ; whom, however, he fent out only once, and
after their return kept them conftantiy about his per¬
ron ■. But, befides thefe, he chofe other 70, whom he
difperfed throughout the country.
There have been many conjeftures concerning the
reafon why the number of apoftles was fixed at 12,
and that of the other teachers at 70. 'I he firfl, how¬
ever, was, according to our Saviour’s own words (Matt,
xix. 28.), an allufion to the 1 2 tribes of Ifrael, there¬
by intimating that he was the king of thefe 1 2 tribes j
and as the number of bis other meffengers anfwers
evidently to that of the fenators who compofed the
Sanhedrim, there is a high degree of probability in
the conjeflure of thofe who think, that Ghiitl by this>
number defigncd to admoniih the Jews, that the au¬
thority of their Sanhedrim was now at an end, and
that all power with refpe£t to religious matters was
veiled in him alone. His miniftry, however, was con¬
fined to the Jews 5 nor, while he remained upon eaith,
did he permit his apoftles or difciples to extend tneir
labours beyond this favoured nation. At the fame
time, if we confider the illuftrious acts of mercy and
benevolence that were performed by Chrift, it will be
natural to conclude, that his fame muft foon have
fpread abroad in other countries. Indeed this leems
probable from a paffage in icripture, where we. are
told that fome Greeks applied to the apoftle I hihp in
order to fee Jefus. We learn alfo from authois of no
* See Ah- fmall note, that Abgarus * king of Edeffa, being feized
garui. with a fevere and dangerous illneis, wrote to oui Loid,
imploring his aftiftance j and that Jelus not only fent
him a gracious anfwer, but alio accompanied it with
his picture, as a mark of his efteem for that pious
prince. Thefe letters are flill extant j but by Uie ju¬
dicious part of mankind are umverfally looked upon
as fpurious •, and indeed the late Mr Jones, in his
treatife entitled A new and full method of fettling the
canonical authority of the New lef ament^ hath offered
reafons which feem almoft unanfwerable agamft the
authenticity of the whole tranfaftion.
The preaching of our Saviour, and the numberlefs
miracles he performed, made fuch an impreflion on
the body of the Jewifh nation, that the chief priefts
and leading men, jealous of his authority, and pro¬
voked at his reproaching them with their wicked lives,
formed a confpiracy againft him. For a confiderable
time their defigns proved abortive *, but at laft Jefus,
knowing that he had fulfilled every purpofe for which
he came into the world, fuffered himfelf to be taken
through the treachery of one of his difciples, named
Judas Ifcariot, and was brought before the Sanhe¬
drim. In this aftembly he was accufed of blafphemy j
and being afterwards brought before Pilate the Ro¬
man governor, where he was acculed of fedition, Pi¬
late was no fooner fet down to judge in this caufe,
than he received a meffage from his wife, defiring him
to have nothing to do with the affair, having that very
day had a frightful dream on account of our Saviour,
whom fhe called that jujl man. The governor, inti¬
midated by this meffage, and ftill more by the majeffy
of our Saviour himfelf, and the evident falfehood of
the accufations brought againft him, was determined
if poftible to fave him. But the clamours of an en¬
raged populace, who at laft threatened to accufe Pi¬
late himfelf as a traitor to the Romin emperor, got
the better of his love of juftice, which indeed on other
occaftons was not very fervent.
Our Saviour w'as now condemned by his judge,
though contrary to the plaineft dictates of reafon and
juftice; was executed on a crofs between two thieves,
and very foon expired. Having continued three days
in a ftate of death, he rofe from the dead, and made
himfelf vifible to his difciples as formerly. He con-
verfed with them 40 days after his refurre&ion, and
employed himfelf during that time in inftru&ing them
more fully concerning the nature of his kingdom j
and having manifefted the certainty of his refurrec-
tion to as many witneifes as he thought proper, he
was, in the prefence of many of his diiciples, taken
up into heaven, there to remain till the end of the
world. See CHRISTIANITY.
J ET, a black inflammable fubftahee of the bitumi¬
nous kind, harder than afphaltum, and fufceptible of a
good polifli. It becomes ele&rical by rubbing, attraft-
ing light bodies like yellow amber. It fwims on water,
fo that its fpeciftc gravity nauft be lefs than 1000 ;
. notwithftanding which it has been frequently con¬
founded with the lapis obfidianus, the fpecific gravity
of which, according to Kirvvan, is no lefs than 1744*
It alfo refembles cannel coal extremely in its hardnefs,
receiving a polilh, not foiling the fingers, &.C. io that it
has alfo been confounded with this. The diftinftion,
however, is eafily made betwixt the two j for cannel-
coal wants the ele&rical properties of jet, and is like-
wife fo heavy as to fink in water •, its fpecific gravity
being no lels than 1273 > 'whereas that of jet, as has
already been faid, is lefs than IOOO-
M. Magellan is of opinion that jet is a true amber,
differing from the yellow kind only m the mere cir-
cumftance of colour, and being lighter on account
of the greater quantity of bituminous matter which
enters into its compolition. When burning it emits
JefllS
Chrilt,
J E W [ 137 ] JEW
Jei a bituminous fmell. It ig never found in ftrata or
I' continued inaffes like foil'd Hones •, but always in fe-
Jewt-!. parate anc} unconnected heaps like the true amber.
Great quantities of it have been dug up in the
Pyrencean mountains •, alfo near Bntalha, a fmall town
of Portugal j and in Gallicia in Spain. It is found alfo
in Ireland, Sweden, Pruflia, Germany, and Italy. It
is uled in making final 1 boxes, buttons, bracelets,
mourning jewels, &c. Sometimes alfo it is employed
in conjunction with proper oils in' making varniihes.
When mixed with lime in powder, it is faid to make
very hard and durable cement.
Jet d'Eau, a French term, frequently alfo ufed
with us, for a fountain that calls up water to a con-
fiderable height in the air.
JF.TTE, the ^border made round the Hilts under a
pier, in certain old bridges, being the fame with dar¬
ling j confiding of a Hrong framing of timber filled
with Hones, chalk, &c. to preferve the foundations of
the piers from injury.
JETTY-HEAD, a name ufually given in the royal
' dock-yards to that part of a wharf which projects be¬
yond the reft ; but more particularly the front of a
wharf, whofe lide forms one of the cheeks of a dry or
wet dock.
JEWEL, any precious Hone, or ornament befet with
them. See Diamond, Ruby, &c.
Jewels made a part of the ornaments with which
the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, efpecially their ladies
of diftinCtion, adorned themfelves. So prodigious was
the extravagance of the Roman ladies, in particular,
that Pliny the elder fays he law Lolho Paulina with an
equipage of this kind amounting, according to Dr
Arbuthnot’s calculation, to 322,916b 13s. 4d. of our
money. It is worthy of obfervation, that precious
Hones among the Romans and all the ancients were
much fcarcer, and confequently in higher eiteem, than
they are amongd us, fince a commerce has been opened
with the Indies.—The ancients did not know how to
cut and polilh them to much perfection j but coloured
Hones were not fcarce, and they cut them very well
either hollow or in relief.—When luxury had gained
ground amongtt them, the Romans hung pendants and
pearls in their ears ; and for this purpofe the ears of
both fexes were frequently bored. See Ears.
Jewel, John, a learned Englilh writer and bilhop,
was born in 1522, and educated at Oxford. In 1540
he proceeded A. B. became a noted tutor, and was
foon after chofen rhetoric leCturer in his college. In
February 1544, he cornmenced A, M. He had early
imbibed Proteltant principles, and inculcated the lame
to his pupils *, but this was carried on privately till
the acceflion of King Edward VI. in 1546, when he
made a public declaration of his faith, and entered
into a clofe friendthip with Peter Martyr, who was
made profeffor of divinity at Oxford. In 1550, he
took the degree of B. D. and frequently preached be¬
fore the univerfity with great applaufe. At the fame
time he preached and catechifed every other Sunday
at Sunningwell in Berklhire, of which church he was
reftor. Upon the acceflion of Queen Mary to the
crown in 1 C53, he was one of the firfl who felt the
rage of the florm then raifed againfl the reformation j
for before any law was made, or order given by the
•queen, he was excelled Corpus Chrifli college by the
VoL. XL Part I.
fellows, by their own private authority j but he con¬
tinued in Oxford till he was called upon to fubferibe
to fome of the Popilh doctrines, under the feverefl
penalties, which he fubmitted to. However, this did
not procure bis fafety $ for he was obliged to fly, and
after encountering many difficulties, arrived at Frank¬
fort, in the 2d year of Queen Mary’s reign, where he
made a public recantation of his fubfeription to the
Popiffi doctrines. Thence he went to Strafburgh, and
afterwards to Zurich, where he attended Peter Mar¬
tyr, in whofe houfe he refided. He returned to Eng¬
land in 1558, after Oueen Mary’s death ; and in 1559,
was confecrated bithop of Salilbury. This promotion
was given him as a reward for his great merit and
learning 5 and another atteflation of thefe was given
him by the univerfity of Oxford, who, in 1565, con¬
ferred on him in his abfence the degree of D. D. In
this charafter he attended the queen to Oxford the
following year, and prefided at the divinity deputa¬
tions held before her majdty on that occafion. He
had before greatly difiinguilbed himfelf by a fermon
preached at St Paul’s crofs, prefently after he was
made a biffiop, wherein he gave a public challenge to
all the Roman catholics in the world, to produce but
one clear and evident teflimony out of any father or
famous writer, who flourithed within 600 years after
Chrifl, for any one of the articles which the Rorna-
nifls maintain againfl the church of England ; and
two years afterwards, he publhhed his famous apology
for this church. In the rrwan time, he gave a parti¬
cular attention to his diocefe ; where he began in his
firft vifitation, and perfected in his laft, luch a refor¬
mation, not only in his cathedral and parochial
churches, but in all the churches of his jurifdi£tion, as
procured him and the whole order of bifhops due re¬
verence and efteem. For he was a careful overlooker
and ftridt obferver, not only of all the flocks, but alfo of
the pallors, in his diocefe : and he watched fo narrowly
upon the proceedings of his chancellor and archdeacons,
and of his flewards and receivers, that they had no
opportunities of being guilty of oppreffion, injuftice,
or extortion, nor of being a burden to the people,
or a fcandal to himfelf. To prevent thefe and the
like abufes, for which the ecclefiaftical courts are of¬
ten too juflly cenfured, he fat often in his confiftorv-
court, and faw that all things were carried rightly there:
he alfo fat often as affiftant on the bench of civil juf-
tice, being himfelf a juftice of the peace. Amidft thefe
employments, however, the care of his health was too
much neglected j to which, indeed, his general courfe
of life was totally unfavourable. He rofe at four
o’clock in the morning ; and, after prayers with his
family at five, and in the cathedral about fix, he was
fo fixed to his ftudies all the morning, that he could
not without great violence be drawn from them. After
dinner, bis doors and ears were open to all fuitors $
and it was obferved of him, as of Titus, that he never
fent any fad from him. Suitors being thus difmifled,
he heard, with great impartiality and patience, fuch
caufes debated before him, as either devolved to him
as a judge, or were referred to him as an arbitrator j
and if he could fpare any time from thefe, he reckoned
it as clear gain to his ftudy. About nine at night he
called all his fervants to an account how they had fpent
the day, and he went to prayers with them. From
S his
JEW [ i.
Jewel, the chapel he withdrew again to his ftudy till near
Jews, midnight, and from thence to his bed ; in which,
v ' when he was laid, the gentleman of his bed-chamber
read to him till he fell afleep* This watchful and la¬
borious life, without any recreation at all, except what
his neceffary refreshment at meals and a very few hours
of reft afforded him, wafted his life too fall. He died
at Monkton-Farley, in 1571, in the 50th year of his
age. He wrote, l. A view of a feditious bull fent in¬
to England by Pope Pius V. in 1569. 2. A treatife
on the Holy Scriptures. 3. An expolition of St Paul’s
two epiftles to the Theffalonians. 4. A treatife on
the facrament. 5. An apology for the national church.
6. Several fermons, controverfial treatifes, and other
works.
“ This excellent prelate (fays the Rev. Mr Granger)
was one of the greateft charrlpions of the reformed
religion, as he was to the church of England what
Bellarmine wras to that of Rome. His admirable
Apology was tranflated from the Latin by Anne, the
fecond of the four learned daughters of Sir Anthony
Coke, and mother of Sir Francis Bacon. It was pub-
lilhed, as it came from her pen, in 1564, with the
approbation of the queen and the prelates. The fame
Apology was printed in Greek at Conftantinople, un¬
der the dire£tion of St Cyril the patriarch. His De¬
fence of his Apology, againft Harding and other Po-
pifti divines, was in fuch etteem, that Oueen Elizabeth,
King James I. King Charles I. and four fucceflive
archbilhops, ordered it to be kept chained in all parilh-
churches for public ufe.
Jewel Blocks, in the fea language, a name given
to two fmall blocks which are fufpended at the extre¬
mity of the main and fore top-fail yards, by means of
an eye-bolt driven from without into the middle of
the yard-arm, parallel to its axis. The ufe of thefe
blocks is, to retain the upper part of the top-maft
ftudding-fails beyond the Ikirts of the top-fails, fo
that each of thofe fails may have its full force of ac¬
tion, which would be diminilhed by the encroachment
of the other over its furface. The haliards, by w'hich
thofe ftudding-fails are hoifted, are accordingly paffed
through the jewel-blocks 5 whence, communicating
with a block on the top-maft head, they lead dowm-
wards to the top or decks, where they may be conve¬
niently hoifted. See Sail.
JEWS, a name derived from the patriarch Judah,
and given to the defendants of Abraham by his eldeft
fon Ifaac, who for a long time poffeffed the land of Pa-
leftine in Alia, and are now difperfed through all na¬
tions in the world.
The hiftory of this people, as it is the moft lingular,
fo is it alfo the moft ancient in the w orld j and the
greateft part being before the beginning of profane
hiftory, depends entirely on the authenticity of the
Old Teftament, where it is only to be found.—To
repeat here what is faid in the facred writings w'ould
both be fuperfluous and tedious, as thofe writings are
in every perfon’s hands, and may be confulted at plea-
fure. It feems moft proper therefore to (.eminence the
hiftory of the Jews from their return to Jerufalem from
Babylon, and the rebuilding of their city and temple
•under Ezra and Nehemiah, when the feripture leaves off
any farther accounts, and profane hiftorians begin to
take notice of them. We iball, however, premife a
|8 ] JEW
chronological lift of their judges and kings down to the Jews,
captivity. 1
The Ifraelites had no king of their nation till Saul.
Before him, they were governed, at firft by elders, as
in Egypt; "then by princes of God’s appointment, as
•Moles and Jolhua; then by judges, fuch as Othniel,
Ehud, Shamgar, Gideon, Jephthah, Samfon, Eli, Sa¬
muel ; and laft of all by kings, as Saul, David, Solo¬
mon, Rehoboam, &c.
A Lift of the fudges of Ifrael in a Chronological Order.
The Numbers prefixed denote the Years of the World.
2 570. The death of Jolhua.
2585. The government of the elders for about 15
years.
2592. An anarchy of about feven years. The hiftory
of Micah, the conqueft of the city of Lailh
by part of the tribe of Dan, and the war un¬
dertaken by the 11 tribes againft Benjamin,
are all referred to this time.
2591. The firft fervitude under Culhan-rilhathaim king
of Mefopotamia began in 2591, and lafted eight
years to 2599.
2599. Othniel delivered Ifrael in the 40th year after
peace eftablilhed in the land by Jolhua.
2662. A peace of about 62 years, from the deliverance
procured by Othniel, in 2599, to 2662, when the
fecond fervitude under Eglon king of the Moa¬
bites happened. It lafted 18 years.
2679. Ehud delivers Ifrael.
After him Shamgar governed, and the land was
in peace till the 80th year after the firft deliver¬
ance procured by Othniel.
2699. The third fervitude under the Canaanites, which
lafted 20 years, from 269910 2719.
2719. Deborah and Barak deliver the Ilfaelites : from
the deliverance procured by Ehud to the end
of Deborah and Barak’s government, were 40
years.
2768. Abimelech the natural fon of Gideon is acknow¬
ledged king by the Shechemites.
2771. He died at the liege of Thebez in Paleftine.
2772. Tola after Abimelech governs for 23 years, from
2772 to 2795.^
2795. Jair fucceeds Tola, and governs 22 years, from
2795 to 2816.
2799. The fifth fervitude under the Philiftines, which
lafted 18 years, from 2799 to 2817.
2817. The death of Jair.
2817. Jephthah is chofen head of the Ifraelites beyond
Jordan ; he defeated the Ammonites, who oppref-
fed them. Jephthah governed fix years, from
2817 to 2823.
2823. The death of Jephthah.
2830. Ibzan governs feven years, from 2823 to 2830.
2840. Elon fucceeds Ibzan. He governs from 2830 to
2840.
Abdon judges Ifrael eight years, from 2840 to
2848.
2848. The fixth fervitude, under the Phiiiftines, which:
lafted 40 years, from 2848 to 2888.
2848. Eli the high-prieft, of the race of Ithamar, go¬
verned 40 years, the whole time of the fervitude
under the Philii,:nes.
2849. The birth of Samfon.
2887.
JEW f f39
2887. The death of Samfon, who was judge of Ifrael
during the judicature of Eli the high-prieft.
2888. The death of Eli, and beginning of Samuel’s go¬
vernment, who fucceeded him.
29^9 The eledlion and anointing of Saul, firft king of
the Hebrews.
A Chronological Li/l of the Kings of the Hebrews.
Saul, the firft; king of the Ifraelites, reigned 40 years,
from the year of the world 2909 to 2949.
Ifhboftieth the fon of Saul lucceeded him, and reigned
fix or feven years over part of Ifrael, from 2949 to 2956.
David w^as anointed king by Samuel in the year of
the world 2934 j but did not enjoy the regal power till
the death of Saul in 2949, and was not acknowledged
king of all Ifrael till after the death of Ifhbolheth in
3956. He died in 2990 at the age of 7c.
Solomon his fon fucceeded him $ he received the
royal undion in the year 2989. He reigned alone af¬
ter the death of David in 2990. He died in 3029, af¬
ter a reign of 40 years.
After his death, the kingdom was divided ; and the
ten tribes having chofen Jeroboam for their king, Re-
hoboam, the fon of Solomon, reigned only over the
tribes of Judah and Benjamin.
The Kings of Judah.
Rehoboam, the fon and fucceflbr of Solomon, reigned
17 years ; from the year 3029 to 3046.
Abijam, three years, from 3046 to 3049.
Afa, 41 years, from 3049 to 3090.
deholhaphat, 25 years, from 3090 to 3115,
Jehoram, four years, from 3115 to 3119.
Ahaziah, one year, from 3119 to 3120.
Athaliah, his mother, reigned fix years, from 3120
to 3126
Joafh was fet upon the throne by Jehoiada the high-
prieft, in 3 x 26. He reigned 40 years, to the year 3165.
• Amaziah, 29 years, from 3165 to 3194.
Uzziah, othervvife called A%ariah, reigned 27 years,
to the year 3221. Then attempting to offer incenfe
in the temple, he was ftruck with a leprofy, and obliged
to quit the government. He lived after this 26 years,
and died in 3246.
Jotham his fon took upon him the government in the
year of the world 3221. He reigned alone in 3246,
and died in 3262.
Ahaz fucceeded Jotham in the year of the wrorld
3262. He reigned 16 years, to 3278.
Hezekiah, 28 years, from 3278 to 3306.
Manaffeh, 55 years, from the year of the world
3306 103361.
Amon, 2 years, from 3361 to 3363.
Joliah, 31 years, from 3363 to 3304.
Jehoahaz, three months
Eliakim, or Jehoiakim, 11 years, from the year 3394
to 3405.
Jehoiachin, or Jechoniah, reigned three months and
ten days, in the year 3405.
Mattaniah, or Zedekiah, reigned 11 years, from
34°5 to 34'6. In the laft year of his reign Jerufa-
lem was taken, the temple burnt, and Judah carried
into captivity beyond the Euphrates.
Kings of Ifrael.
Jeroboam reigned 22 years, from 3029 to 3031.
Nadab, one year. He died in 3051*
] JEW
Baafha, 2 2 years, from 305210 30^4. Jew5.
Elah, two years. He died in 3075. ' ' v *-
Zimri, feven days.
Omri, x 1 years, from 3075 to 3086. He had a
Competitor I ibni, who fucceeded, and died in what year
we know not.
Ahab, 21 years, from 3086 to 3I07.
Ahaziah, two years, from 3106 to 3108.
Jehoram, the fon of Ahab, fucceeded him in 3108.
He reigned 12 years, and died in 3120.
Jehu ufurped the kingdom hr 3120, reigned 28
years, and died in 3148.
Jehoahaz reigned 17 years, from 3148 to 3165.
Joafir reigned 14 years, from 3165 103179.
Jeroboam II. reigned 41 years, from 3179 to 3220.
Zachariah, 12 years, from 3220 to 3232.
Shallum reigned a month. He was killed in 3233.
Menahem, 10 years, from 3233 to 3243.
Pekahiah, two years, from 3243 to 3245.
Pekah, 20 years, from 3 245 to 3 265.
Holhea, 18 years, from 3265 to 3283. Here the
kingdom of Ifrael had an end after a duration of
253 years. . r
Cyrus the Great, king of Perfia, having conquered Gyrus pub-
Babylon and almoft all the weftern parts of Afia, per-^65 a de¬
ceiving the defolate and ruinous condition in which l;re.f/or rc_
the province of Paleftine lay, formed a defign of re-j^f2fm<
ftoring the Jews to their native country, and permit-J
ting them to rebuild Jerufalem and re-eftablifh their
worfhip. For this purpofe he iffued out a decree in the
firft year of his reign, about 536 B. C. by which they
were allowed not only to return and rebuild their city,
but to carry along with them all the facred veffels
which Nebuchadnezzar had carried off, and engaged
to defray the expence of building the temple himfelf.
This ofter was gladly embraced by the more zealous
Jews of the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, and Levi 5 but
many more, being no doubt lefs fanguine about their
religion, chofe to ftay where they were.
,^n 534- C. the foundations of the temple were
laid, and matters feemed to go on prefperoufly, when
the undertaking was fuddenly obftrudted by the Sa¬
maritans. Theie came at firft expreffing an earneft
defire to aftift in the work, as they worfhipped the
fame God with the Jews: but the latter refufed their
affiftance, as they knew they were not true Ifraelites,
but the defeendants of thofe heathens who had been
tranfplanted into the country of the ten tribes after
their captivity by Shalmanezer. This refufal proved
the fource of all that bitter enmity which afterwards
took place between the Jews and Samaritans; and
the immediate confequence was, that the latter made
all the oppofition in their power to the going on of
the work. At laft, however, all obftacles were fur- The temple
mounted, and the temple finifhed as related in the &c. finilhl
books of Ezra and Nehemiah. The laft of thefe chiefs
died about 409 B. C. after having reftored the Jewifix
worfliip to its original purity, and reformed a number
of abufes which took place immediately on its com¬
mencement.
But though the Jews were now reftored to the free
exercife of religion, they were neither a free nor a
powerful people as they had formerly been. They
were few in number, and their country only a pro¬
vince of Syria, fubjecl to the kings of "Perfia. The
£ 2 Syriaa
J E W
[ 140 ]
JEW
•Jews.
3 .
Admini-
ftration of
affairs con¬
ferred on
the high-
prieftj.
4
Interview
of the high
prieft with
Alexander
the Great.
Syrian governors conferred the adminiftration of af¬
fairs upon the high-prieifs ) and their accepting this
office, and thus deviating from the law of Mofes, muft
be confidered as one of the chief caufes of the mil-
fortunes which immediately befel the people, becaufe
it made room for a fet of men, who afpired at this
high office merely through ambition or avarice, with¬
out either zeal for religion or love for their country.
It befides made the high-prieflhood capable of being
difpofed of at the pleafure of the governors, whereas
the Mofaic inftitution had fixed it unalienably in the
family of Aaron.—Of the bad effe&s of this praflice
a fatal inftance happened in 373 B. C. Bagofes, go¬
vernor of Syria, having contrafted an intimate friend-
fhip with^Jefhua the brother of Johanan the high-
prieft, promifed to raife him to the pontifical office
a few years after his brother had been inverted with
it. Jelhua came immediately to Jerufalem, and ac¬
quainted his brother with it. Their interview hap¬
pened in the inner court of the temple ; and a fcuffie
enfuing, Jelhua was killed by his brother, and the
temple thus polluted in the moft fcandalous manner.
The confequence to the Jews was, that a heavy fine
was laid on the temple, which was not taken t>ff till
{even years after.
The firft public calamity which befel the Jewifh na¬
tion after their reftoration from Babylon, happened
in the year 351 B. C : for having fome how’ or other
difobliged Darius Ochus king of Perlia, he befieged
and took Jericho, and carried off all the inhabitants
captives. From this time they continued faithful to
the Perfians, infomuch that they had almort drawn
upon themfelves the difpleafure of Alexander the Great.
That monarch having refolved upon the fiege of Tyre,
and being informed that the city was wholly fupplied
with provifions from Judea, Samaria, and Galilee, fent
to Jaddua, then high-prieft, to demand of him that
fupply which he had been accuilomed to pay to the
Perfians. The Jew’ifh pontiff excufed himfelf on ac¬
count of his oath of fidelity to Darius j which fo pro¬
voked Alexander, that he had no fooner completed
tke redu&ion of Tyre than he marched againlt Jeru¬
falem. The inhabitants, then, being with good rea-
fon thrown into the utmoft confternation, had re-
courfe to prayers •, and Jaddua is faid, by a divine re¬
velation, to have been commanded to go and meet
Alexander, fie obeyed accordingly, and fet out on
his journey, dreffed in his pontifical robes, at the
head of all his priefts in their proper habits, and at¬
tended by the reft of the people dreiTed in white gar-
jnents. Alexander is laid to have been feized with
fuch awful refped on feeing this venerable proceflion,
that he embraced the high-prieft, and paid a kind of
religious adoration to the name of God engraven on
the front of his mitre. His followers being furprifed
at this unexpected behaviour, the Macedonian mo¬
narch informed them, that he paid that refpeft not to
the prieft, but to his God, as an acknowledgment
for a vifion which he had been favoured with at
Dia ; where he had been promifed the conqueft of
Perlia, and encouraged in his expedition, by a perfon
of much the fame afpeft and drefled in the fame ha¬
bit with the pontiff before him. He afterwards ac¬
companied Jaddua into Jerufalem, where he offered
facrifices in the temple. The high-prieft fhovved him
alfo the prophecies of Daniel, wherein the deftruclion Je ws.
of the Perfian empire by himfelf is plainly fet forth j —
in confequence of which the king went away highly fa-
tisfied, and at his departure afked the high-prieft if
there w’as nothing in which he could gratify himlelf
or his people ? Jaddua then told him, that, according
to the Mofaic law’, they neither fow’ed nor ploughed
on the leventh year ; therefore would efteem it an high
favour if the king would be pleated to remit their tri¬
bute in that year. To this requeft the king readily
yielded ; and having confirmed them in the enjoyment
of all their privileges, particularly that of living under
their own law’s, he departed.
Whether this ftory deferves credit or not (for the
whole tranfaftion is not without reafon called in que*-
ftion by fome), it is certain that the Jews were much
favoured by Alexander j but with him their good 5
fortune feemed alfo to expire. The country of Judea Miferabfe
being fituated between Syria and Egypt, became fub-^^®^®
jeCf to all the revolutions and wars which the anibi-^exar.dei’s
tious fucceffors of Alexander waged againft each other. jeath.
At firft it w’as given, together with Syria and Phe-
nicia to Leomedon the Mitylenian, one of Alexander’s
generals , but he being foon after dripped of the other
tw’o by Ptolemy, Judea was next fummoned to yield
to the conqueror. The Jews fcrupled to break their
oath of fidelity to Leomedon ; and were of confe¬
quence invaded by Ptolemy at the head of a power¬
ful army. The open country was eafily reduced ; but
the city being ftrongly fortified both by ait and na¬
ture, threatened a ftrong refiftance. A liiperlfitious
fear for breaking the fabbath, however, prevented the
befieged from making any defence on that day j of
w’hich Ptolemy being informed, he caufed an afi'ault
to be made on the fabbath, and eafily carried the
place. At firft he treated them w’ith great feverity,
and carried 100,000 men of them into captivity ; but
reflecting foon after on their known fidelity to their'
conquerors, he reflored them to all the privileges
they had enjoyed under the Macedonians. Of the
captives he put fome into garrifons, and others he
fettled in the countries of Libya and Gyrene. From
thofe who fettled in the latter of thefe countries do»
feended the Cyrenean Jews mentioned by the writers
of the New Teftament.
Five years after Ptolemy had fubdued Judea, he
wras forced to yield it to Antigonus, referving to him¬
felf only the cities of Ace, Samaria, Joppa, and Gaza ;
and carrying off an immenfe booty, together with a
great number of captives, w’hom he fettled at Alexan¬
dria, and endowed with confiderable privileges and im¬
munities.—Antigonus behaved in fuch a tyrannical
manner, that great numbers of his Jewifti fubjefts fled
into Egypt, and others put themfelves under the pro-
teflion of Seleucus, who alfo granted them confider¬
able privileges. Hence this nation came gradually
to be fpread over Syria and Alia Minor; while Ju¬
dea feemed to be in danger of being depopulated till
it was recovered by Ptolemy in 292. Ihe affairs of
the Jews then took a more profperous turn, and con¬
tinued in a thriving way till the reign of Ptolemy Phi-
lopator, when they were grievoufly oppreffed by the in-
curfions of the Samaritans, at the fame time that An-
tiochus Theos king of Syria invaded Galilee. Ptole¬
my} however, marched againft Antiochus, and defeated
him j
JEW [ 141 3 J E W
Jews. him ; after which, having gdne to Jerufalem to offer
facrifices, he ventured to profane the temple itfelf by
going into it. He penetrated through the two outer
courts; but as he rvas about to enter the fan&uary, he
was ftruck with fuch dread and terror that he fell down
half dead. A dreadful perfecution was then raifed
again ft the Jews, who had attempted to hinder him in
his impious attempt •, but this periecution was flopped
by a ftill more extraordinary accident related under the
article Egypt, N° 30, and the Jews again received in-
0 to favour.
Subdued by About the year 204 B. C. the country of Judea was
Antiochus fubdued by Antiochus the Great ; and on this occa-
the Great. p10n t^e i0yalty 0f the Jew's to the Egyptians failed
them, the whole nation readily fubmitting to the king
of Syria. This attachment fo pleafed the Syrian mo¬
narch, that he fent a letter to his general, wherein he
, acquainted him that he defigned to reftore Jerufalem
to its ancient fplendor, and to recal all the Jews that
had been driven out of it : that out of his lingular re-
fpeft to the temple of God, he granted them 20,000
pieces of {liver, towards the charges of the victims,
frankincenfe, wine, and oil j 1400 meafures of fine
wheat, and 375 meafures of fait, towards their ufual
oblations : that the temple Ihould be thoroughly re¬
paired at his coft ; that they Ihould enjoy the free ex-
ercife of their religion ; and reftore the public fervice
of the temple, and the priefts, Levites, fingers, &c. to
their ufual functions : that no ftranger, or Jew that wras
unpurified, Ihould enter farther into the temple than
was allowed by their law •, and that no ftefti of unclean
beafts Ihould be brought into Jerufalem ; not even their
{kins: and afl thefe under the penalty of paying 3000
pieces of filver into the treafury of the temple. He
further granted an exemption of taxes for three years to
all the difperfed Jews that Ihoultl come within a limited
time to fettle in the metropolis *, and that all who had
been fold for Haves within his dominions Ihould be im-
7 mediately fet free.
Dreadful This hidden profperity proved of no long duration,
eommo- About the year 176, a quarrel happened between
tiona. Onias, at that time high prieft, and one Simon, gover¬
nor of the temple, which was attended with the moft
fatal confequences. The caufes of this quarrel are un¬
known. The event, however, was, that Simon finding
he could not get the better of Onias, informed Apol¬
lonius governor of Coelofyria and Paleftine, that there
was at that time in the temple an immenfe treafure,
which at his pleafure might be feized upon for the ufe
of the king of Syria. Of this the governor inftantly
fent intelligence to the king, who difpatched one He-
liodorus to take poffeffion of the fuppofed treafure.
This perfon, through a miraculous interpofition, as the
Jews pretend, failed in his attempt of entering the
temple ; upon which Simon accufed the high-prieft to
the people, as the perfon wdio had invited Heliodorus
to Jerufalem. This produced a kind of civil war, in
which many fell on both fides. At laft Onias having
complained to the king, Simon was banifhed ; but foon
after, Antiochus Epiphanes having afeended the throne
of Syria, Jafon, the high-priell’s brother, taking ad¬
vantage of the neceflities of Antiochus, purchafed from
him the high-priefthood at the price of'350 talents, and
obtained an order that his brother Ihould be fent to
' Antioch, there to be confined for life.
.Tafon’s next ftep was to purchafe liberty, at the price , ^ews' ,
of 1 50 talents more, to build a gymnalium at Jerufa¬
lem, limilar to thole which were ufed in the Grecian
cities, and to make as many Jews as he pleafed free ci¬
tizens of Antioch. By means of thefe powers, he be¬
came very foon able to lorm a ftrong party in Judea;
for his countrymen were exceedingly fond of the Gre¬
cian cuftoms, and the freedom of the city of Antioch s
was a very valuable privilege. From this time there- ^ general
fore a general apoftafy took place j the fervice of t^ie tak^Mace.
temple wras neglecled, and Jafon abandoned himfelf
without remorfe to all the impieties and abfurdities of
paganifm.
He did not, how'ever, long enjoy his ill-acquired
dignity. Having fent his brother Menelaus with the
ufual tribute to Antiochus, the former took the oppor¬
tunity of fupplanting Jafon in the fame manner that he
had fupplanted Onias. Having offered for the high-
priefthood 300 talents more than his brother had gi¬
ven, he eafily obtained it, and returned with his new
commiffion to Jerufalem. He foon got himfelf a ftrong
party : but Jafon proving too powerful, forced Mene¬
laus and his adherents to retire to Antioch. Here,
the better to gain their point, they acquainted Anti¬
ochus that they wrere determined to renounce their old
religion, and wholly conform themfelves to that of the
Greeks: which fo pleafed the tyrant, that he imme¬
diately gave them a force fufficient to drive Jafon out
of Jerufalem ; who thereupon took refuge among the
Ammonites.
Menelaus being thus freed from his rival, took care
to fulfil his promife to the king with regard to the
apoftafy, but forgot to pay the money he had promi-
fed. At laft he was fummoned to Antioch j and find¬
ing nothing but the payment of the promifed Hum
would do, fent orders to his brother Lyfimachus to con¬
vey to him as many of the facred utenfils belonging to
the temple as could be fpared. As thefe were all of
gold, the apoftate foon raifed a fufficient fum from them
not only to fatisfy the king, but alfo to bribe the cour¬
tiers in his favour. But his brother Onias, who had been
all this time confined at Antioch, getting intelligence
of the facrilege, made fuch bitter complaints, that an
infurredlion was ready to take place among the Jews at
Antioch. Menelaus, in order to avoid the impending
danger, bribed Andronicus, governor of the city, to
murder Onias. This produced the moft vehement
complaints as foon as Antiochus returned to the capi¬
tal (he having been abfent for fome time in order to
quell an infur region in Cilicia) •, which at laft ended in
the death of Andronicus, who was executed by the
king’s order. By dint of money, however, Menelaus
ftill found means to keep up his credit; but was obli¬
ged to draw fuch large fums from Jerufalem, that the
inhabitants at laft maflacred his brother Lyfimachus,
whom he had left governor of the city in his abfence.
Antiochus foon after took a journey to Tyre 5 upon
which the Jews fent deputies to him, , both to juilify
the death of Lyfimachus, and to accufe Menelaus of
being the author of all the troubles which had hap¬
pened. The apoftate, however, was never at a lofs while
he could procure money. By means of this powerful
•argument, he pleaded his caufe fo effe&ually, that the •
deputies were not only caft, but put to death ; and this
uniuft fentence gave the traitor fuch a complete victory
over.
^eiufalem
taken by
Antiochus
JEW [i
over all his enemies, that from thenceforth he com¬
menced a downright tyrant. Jerufalern was deftitute
of protestors $ and the fanhedrim, if there were any
zealous men left among them, yvere fo much terrified,
that they durfi. not oppofe him, though they evidently
faw that his defign was finally to eradicate the religion
and liberties of his country.
In the mean time, Antiochus was taken up with the
conqueft of Egypt, and a report was fome how or other
fpread that he had been killed at the fiege of Alexan¬
dria. At this news the Jews imprudently fhowed fome
figns of joy y and Jafon thinking this a proper oppor¬
tunity to regain his loft dignity, appeared before Je-
rufalem at the head of about 1000 refolute men. The
gates were quickly opened to him by fomc of his
friends in the city ; upon which Menelaus retired into
the citadel, and Jafon, minding nothing but his re-
fentment, committed the moft horrid butcheries. At
laft he w-as obliged to leave both the city and country,
on the news that Antiochus was coming with a power¬
ful army againft him •, for that prince, highly provoked
at this rebellion, and efpecially at the rejoicings the
Jews had made on the report of his death, had actually
refolved to punifti the city in the fevereft manner.
Accordingly, about 170 B. C. having made himfelf
mafter of the city, he behaved with fuch cruelty, that
■Eoiphanes. w^hin three days they reckoned no fewer than 40,000
killed, and as many fold for Haves. In the midft of
this dreadful calamity, the apoftate Menelaus found
means not only to preferve himfelf from the general
flaughter, but even to regain the good graces of the
king, who, having by his means plundered the temple
of every thing valuable, returned to Antioch in a kind
of triumph. Before he departed, however, he put Ju¬
dea under the government of one Philip, a barbarous
Phrygian ; Samaria under that of Andronicus, a per-
fon of a fimilar difpofition ; and left Menelaus, the moft
hateful of all the three, in poffeflion of the high-prieft-
hood.
Though the JeuTS ■ fuffered exceedingly under thefe
tyrannical governors, they were ftill referved for greater
calamities. About 168 B. C. Antiochus having been
moft feverely mortified by the Romans, took it into
fiis head to wrreak his vengeance on the unhappy Jews.
For this purpofe he difpatched Apollonius at the head
of 22,000 men, with orders to plunder all the cities of
Judea, to murder all the men, and fell the women and
children for Haves. Apollonius accordingly came with
his army, and to outward appearance with a peaceable
intention ; neither was he fufpe&ed by the Jews, as he
was fuperintendant of the tribute in Paleftine. He
kept himfelf inadlive till the next fabbath, when they
were all in a profound quiet ; and then, on a Hidden,
commanded his men to arms. Some of them he fent
to the temple and fynagogues, with orders to cut in
pieces all whom they found there $ whilft the reft go¬
ing through the ftreets of the city maflacred all that
came in their wray ; the fuperftitious Jews not attempt¬
ing to make the leaft refiftance for fear of breaking
It the fabbath. He next ordered the city to be plun-
The temple dered and fet on fire, pulled down all their ftately
profaned buildings caufed the walls to be demoliflied, and car-
Tev. ifl^re r'e^ away captive about 10,000 of thofe who had
lip-ion abo- efcaped flaughter* From that time the fervice of
bilked. the temple was totally abandoned j that place having
10
His mon-
ftrous
cruelty.
42 ] JEW
been quite polluted, both with the blood of multitudes Jew?,
who had been killed, and in various other wrays. The ' m" '
Syrian troops built a large fortrefs on an eminence in
the city of David ; fortified it with a ftrong wall and
ftately towers, and put a garrifon in it to command
the temple, over-againft which it was built, fo that the
foldiers could eafily fee and fally out upon all thofe who
attempted to come into the temple *, fo many of whom
were continually plundered and murdered by them, that
the reft, not daring to ftay any longer in Jerufalein,
fled for refuge to the neighbouring nations.
Anticchus, not yet fatiated with the blood of the
Jews, refolved either totally to abolilh their religion, or
deflroy their whole race. He therefore iflued out a de¬
cree that all nations within his dominions fliould for-
fake their old religion and gods, and worfliip thofe
of the king under the moft fevere penalties. To make
his orders more efte£tual, he fent overfeers into every
province to fee them ftridftly put in execution ; and as
he knew the Jews were the only people who would dif-
obey them, fpecial direftions were given to have them
treated with the utmoft feverity. Atheneas, an old
and cruel minifter, well verfed in all the pagan rites,
was fent into Judea. He began by dedicating the
temple to Jupiter Olympius, and fetting up his ftatue
on the altar of burnt-offerings. Another leffer altar was
raifed before it, on which they offered facrifices to that
falfe deity. All who refufed to come and worlhip this
idol -were either maffacred or put to fome cruel tor¬
tures till they either complied or expired under the
hands of the executioners. At the fame time, altars,
groves, and ftatues, were raifed everywhere through
the country, and the inhabitants compelled to v.orftiip
them under the fame fevere penalties; while it was in-
ftant death to obferve the fabbath, circumcifion, or any
other inftitution of Mofes. T z
At laft, when vaft numbers had been put to cruel Reftored by
deaths, and many more had faved their lives by their Mattathias.
apeftafy, an eminent prieft, named Mattathias, began
to fignalize himfelf by his bravery and zeal for reli¬
gion. He had for fome time been obliged to retire to
Modin his native place, in order to avoid the perfecu-
tion which raged at Jerufalem, During his recefs there,
Apelles, one of the king’s officers, came to oblige the
inhabitants to comply with the above-mentioned orders.
By him Mattathias and his fons were addreffed in the
moft earneft manner, and had the moft ample promifes
made them of the king’s favour and prote£Hon if they
would renounce their religion. But Mattathias anfwer-
ed, that though the whole Jewifti nation, and the whole
world, were to conform to the king’s edifl, yet both
he and his fons wmuld continue faithful to their God
to the laft minute of their lives. At the fame time per¬
ceiving one of his countrymen juft going to offer facri¬
fices to an idol, he fell upon him and inftantly killed
him, agreeable to the law of Mofes in fuch cafes. Up¬
on this his fons, fired with the fame zeal, killed the
officer and his men •, overthrew the altar and idol *, and
running about the city, cried out, that thofe w'ho were
zealous for the law of God ffiould follow them j by
wffiich means they quickly faw themfelves at the head
of a numerous troop, with whom they foon after with¬
drew into fome of the deferts of Judea. They were fol¬
lowed by many others, fo that in a fliort time they
found themfelves in a condition to refill their enemies }
and
J E W
[
*3
Exploits of
Judas Mac
cabein.
r4
Dreadful
death of
Antiochus
Epiphanes.
and having confidered the danger to which they were
expofed by their fcnlpulous obfervance of the fabbath,
they refolved to defend themfelves, in cafe of an attack,
upon that day as well as upon any other.
In the year 167 B. C. Mattathias finding that his
followers daily increafed in number, began to try his
flrength by attacking the Syrians and apoftate Jews.
As many of thefe as he took he put to death, but
forced a much greater number to fly for refuge into
foreign countries; and having foon {truck his enemies
with terror, he marched from city to city, overturned
the idolatrous altars, opened the Jewiflt fynagogues,
made a diligent fearch after all the facred. books, and
caufed freflt copies of them to be written j he alfo caufed
the reading of the Scriptures to be relumed, and all the
males born fince the perfecution to be circumcifed. In
all this he was attended with fuch fuccefs, that he had
extended his reformation through a confiderable part
of Judea within the fpace of one year : and would pro¬
bably have completed it, had he not been prevented by
death.
Mattathias was fucceeded by his fon Judas, furna-
•med Maccabeus, the greatefl: uninfpired hero of whom
the Jews can boaft. His troops amounted to no more
than 6000 men •, yet with thefe he quickly made him-
felf mafler of fome of the ftrongeft fortreffes of Judea,
and became terrible to the Syrians, Samaritans, and
apoftate Jews. In one year he defeated the Syrians in
five pitched battles, and drove them quite out of the
country ; after which he purified the temple, and re-
ftored the true worftiip, which had been interrupted
for three years and a half. Only one obftacle now re¬
mained, viz. the Syrian garrifon above-mentioned,
which had been placed over againft: the temple, and
which Judas could not at prefent reduce. In order to
prevent them from interrupting the worftiip, however,
he fortified the mountain on which the temple flood,
with a high wall and ftrong towers round about, leaving
a garrifon to defend it j making fome additional forti¬
fications at the fame time to Bethzura, a fortrefs at about
20 miles diftance.
In the mean time Antiochus being on his return
from an unfuccefsfui expedition into Perfia, received
the difagreeable news that the Jews had all to a man
revolted, defeated his generals, driven their armies out
of Judea, and reftored their ancient worftiip. This
th rew him into fuch a fury, that he commanded his
charioteer to drive with the utmoft fpeed, threatening
utterly to extirpate the Jewifh race, without leaving a
Angle perfon alive. Thefe words were fcarce uttered,
when he was feized with a violent pain in his bowels,
which no remedy could cure or abate. But notwith-
ftanding this violent fliock, fuffering himfelf to be hur¬
ried away by the tranfports of his fury, he gave orders
for proceeding with the fame precipitation in his jour¬
ney. But wdiile he was thus haftening forward, he fell
from his chariot, and was fo bruifed by the fall, that
his attendants were forced to put him into a litter.
Not being able to bear even the motion of the litter,
he was forced to halt at a town, called Tabce on the
confines of Perfia and Babylonia. Here he kept his
hed, fuffering inexpreflible torments, occafioned chief¬
ly by the vermin which bred in his body, and the
ftench, which made him infupportable even to himfelf.
But the torments of his mind, caufed by his refle&ing
4.3 1 J EW
on the former atlions of his life, furpaiTed by many JeW*-
degrees thofe of his body. Polybius, who in his ' v ~
account of this prince’s death agrees with the Jewifli
hiftorians, tells us, that the unealinefs of his mind grew
at laft to a conftant delirium or ftate of madnefs, bv
reafon of feveral fpeflres and apparitions of evil genii
or fpirits, which he imagined were continually re¬
proaching him with the many wicked aflions of which
he had been guilty. At laft:, having languilhed for
fome time in this miferable condition, he expired, and
by his death freed the Jews from the moft inveterate
enemy they had ever known.
Notwithftanding the death of Antiochus, however,
the war was ftill carried on againft the Jewrs ; but
through the valour and good conduct of Judas, the,
Syrians were conftantly defeated, and in 163 B. C. a
peace was concluded upon terms very advantageous to
the Jewilh nation. This tranquillity, however, was
of no long continuance j the Syrian generals renewed"
their hoftilities, and wTere attended writh the fame ill
fiiccefs as before. Judas defeated them in five engage-
mdnts ; but in the fixth was abandoned by all his men
except 800, who, together with their chief, were flain
in the year 161 B. C. r5
The news of the death of Judas threw his country- Exploits of
men into the utmoft confternation, and feemed to give J.onat^a:n*
new life to all their enemies. He was fucceeded, how-
ever, by his brother Jonathan ^ w'ho conduced mat¬
ters with no lefs prudence and fuccefs than Judas had
done, till he was treacheroufly feized and put to death
by Tryphon, a Syrian ufurper, who ftiortly after mur¬
dered his own fovereign. The traitor immediately
prepared to invade Judea ; but found all his projects
fruftrated by Simon, Jonathan’s brother. This pontiff
repaired all the fortreffes of Judea, and furniftied them
with irefti garrifons, took Joppa and Gaza, and drove
out the Syrian garrifon from the fortrefs of Jerufalem $
but wras at laft treacheroufly murdered by a fan-in-law
named Ptolennj, about 135 B. C.
Simon was fucceeded by his fon Hyrcan ; who not
only (hook off the yoke of Syria, but conquered the
Samaritans, demolilhed their capital city, and became
mailer of all Paleftine, to wfliich he added the provinces
of Samaria and Galilee; all which he enjoyed till wfith-
in a year of his death, without the leaft difturbance
from without, or any internal difeord. His reign wfas-
no lefs remarkable on the account of his great wifdom
and piety at home than his conquefts abroad. He
was the firfl: fince the captivity who had affumed the
royal title ; and he raifed the Jewifh nation to a greater
degree of fplendor than it had ever enjoyed fince that
time. The author of the fourth book of the Macca¬
bees alfo informs us, that in him three dignities were
centered which never met in any other perfon, namely,
the royal dignity, the high-priefthood, and the gift
of prophecy. But the inftances given of this laft are
very equivocal and fufpicious. The laft year of his
reign, however, w-as embittered by a quarrel with the
Pharifees; and which proceeded fuch a length as was
thought to have ftiortened his days. Plyrcan had al¬
ways been a great friend to that feft, and they had
hitherto enjoyed the moft honourable employments
in the ftate; but at length one of them, named Elea-
scar, took it into his head to queftion Hyrcan’s legiti¬
macy, alleging, that his mother had formerly been a.
Have,
J E W
[
Tew--.
16
Alexander
Jannseus, a
great con¬
queror.
^ 17
Contefts be
tween his
fons Hyr-
canus and
Ariftobu-
las.
flave, and csnfequently that he was Incapable of en¬
joying the high-priefthood. This report was credited, ^
or pretended to be fo, by the whole feed j which iiri-
tated the high-prieft to fuch a degree, that he joined
thd Sadducees, and could never afterwards he recon¬
ciled to the Pharlfees, who therefore raifed all the
troubles and feditions they could during the Ihort time
he lived.
Hyrcan died in 107 B- C* an<^ was fucceeded by
his eldeft fon Arillobulus, who conquered Iturea, but
proved a moll cruel and barbarous tyrant, polluting
his hands with the blood even of his mother and one
of his brothers, keeping the rell clofely confined du¬
ring bis reign, which, however, was but Ihort. He
was fucceeded in 105 by Alexander Jamiccus, the
greateft conqueror, next to King David, that ever fat
on the Jewifh throne. He was hated, however,; by
the Pharifees, and once in danger of being killed in a
tumult excited by them •, but having caufed bis guards
to fall upon the mutinous mob, they kijled 6000 of
them, and difperfed the reft. After this, finding it
impoffible to remain in quiet in his own kingdom, be
left Jerufalem, with a defign to apply himfelf wholly
to the extending of his conquefts 5 but while be wras
bufied in fubduing his foreign enemies, the Pharifees
raifed a rebellion at home. 1 his was qualhed in the
year 86 E. C. and the rebels were treated in the moft
inhuman manner. The fadlion, how’ever, was by this
means fo thoroughly quelled, that they never dared to
lift up their heads as along as he lived and. Alexan¬
der having made feveral conquefts in Syria, died about
79 B- c-° .
The king left two fons, Hyrcanus and Anftobulus *,
but bequeathed the government to his wife Alexandra
as long as {he lived : but as be faw her greatly afraid,
and not without reafon, of the refentment.of the Pha¬
rifees, he defired his queen, juft before his death, to
fend for the principal leaders of that party, and pre¬
tend to be entirely devoted to them •, in which cafe, he
affured her, that they would fupport her and her fons
after her in the peaceable poffeflion of the government.
With this advice the queen complied j but found her-
felf much embarraffed by the turbulent Pharifees, who,
after feveral exorbitant demands, would at laft be con¬
tented with nothing lefs than the total extermination
of their adverfavies the Sadducees. As the queen wras
unable to refill the ftrength of the pharifaic fa&ion, a
moft cruel perfecution immediately took place again ft
the Sadducees, which continued for four years; until
at laft, upon their earneft petition, they were difper¬
fed among the feveral garrifons of the kingdom, m
order to fecure them from the violence of their, ene¬
mies. A few years after this, being feized with a
dangerous ficknefs, her youngeft fon Ariftobulus col-
le6Hd a ftrong party in order to fecure the crown to
himfelf but the queen being difpleafed with his con¬
duct, appointed her other fon Hyrcanus, whom ine
had before made high-prieft, to fucceed her alfo in the
royal dignity. Soon after this fhe expired, and left
her two fons competitors for the crown. Ihe ‘ban-
fees raifed an army againft Ariftobulus, which almoft
inftantly deferted to him, fo that Hyrcanus found
himfelf obliged to accept of peace upon any terms ^
which, however, wras not granted, till the latter.had
abandoned all title both to the royal and pontifical
44 ] JEW
dignity, and contented himfelf with the enjoyment of ^
his peculiar patrimony as a private perion. v
' But this depofition did not extinguiih the paitv of
Hyrcanus. A new cabal was raifed by Antipater an
Idumeean profelyte, and father of Herod the gieat ^
who carried off Hyrcanus into Arabia, under, pretence
that his life was in danger if he remained in Judea.
Here he applied to Aretas king of that country, who
undertook to reftore the depofed monarch ; and for
that purpofe invaded Judea, defeated Ariftobulus, and t8
kept’him clofely befieged in Jerufalem. The latter T'eRo-
had recourfe to the Romans; and having bribed Scau-PJ™* ^ l*1
rus, one of their generals, he defeated .Areta.s with .(WiUS>
the lofs of 7000 of his men, and drove him quite out
of the country. The twTo brothers next fern pieients
to Pompey, at that time commander in chief of all
the Roman forces in the call, and whom they made
the arbitrator of their differences. But he, fearing
that Ariftobulus, againft whom he intended to declare,
might obftruft bis intended expedition againft the Na-
batheans, dilmifted them woth a promife, that as loon
as he had fubdued Aretas, he would come into Judea
and decide their controverfy.
This delay gave fuch offence to Ariffobulus, that he
fuddenly departed for Judea without even taking leave
of the Roman general, who on his part was no lefs
offended at this want of refpea. The cbnfequence
was, that Pompey entered Judea with thofe tloops
with which he had defigned to a£l againll the Naba-
theans, and fummoned Ariftobulus to appear before
him. The Jewifh prince would gladly have been ex-
cufed -f but was forced by bis own people to comply
with Pompey’s fummons, to avoid a wrar with that ge¬
neral. He came accordingly more than once or twice
to him, and was difmiffed rvith great promifes and
marks of friendfhip. But at laft Pompey infitied, that
he fhould deliver into his hands all the fortified places
he poffeffed ; which let Ariftobulus plainly fee that he
was in the intereft of his brother, and upon this he
fled to Jerufalem with a deftgn to oppofe the Romans
to the utmoft of his power. He was quickly followed
by Pompey > and to prevent hoftilities was at lalt for-
ced to go and throw himielf at the feet of the haugh¬
ty Roman, and to promife him a coniiderable fum of
money as the rewrard of his forbearance. This fub-
miftion was accepted ; but Gabinius, being fent with
fome troops to receive the ftipulated fum, was repul-
fed by the garrifon of Jerufalem, who ihut the gates
againft him, and refufed to fulfil the agreement. Phis
difappointment fo exafperated Pompey, that he im¬
mediately marched with his svhole army againft t ic
city. *7
The Roman general firft fent propofals of peace pH ^ '■era
but finding the Jews refolved to ftand out to the r,0mpe/
he beean the fiege in form. As the place was biong-
ly fortified both by nature and art, he might have
found it very difficult to accomplifh his defign, had not
the Jews been fuddenly feized with a qualm of con-
feience refpeaing the obfervance the fabbath-day.
From the time of the Maccabees thev had made no
fcrunle of taking up arms againft an offending enemy
on the fabbath ; but now they difeovered, that though
it was lawful on that day to {land on their defence in
cafe they were aflually attacked, yet if was unlaw ul
to do any thing towards the preventing of thole pre-
JEW [ US ] J E W
paratives winch the enemy made towards fnch future
aflaults. As therefore they never moved an hand to
hinder the ereflion of mounds and batteries, or the
making of breaches in the walls, on the fabbath, the
befiegers at laft made fuch a confiderable breach on
that day, that the garrifon could no longer reiift them.
The city was therefore taken in the year 63 B. C.
12,000 of the inhabitants were flaughtered, and many
more died by their owrn hands *, while the priefts, who
were offering up the ufual prayers and facrifices in the
temple, chofe rather to be butchered along with their
brethren, than fuffer divine fervice to be one moment
interrupted. At laft, after \he Romans had fatiated
their cruelty with the death of a vaft number of the in¬
habitants, Hyrcanus was reftored to the pontifical dig¬
nity with the title of prince but forbid to affume the
title of king, to wear a diadem, or to extend his terri¬
tories beyond the limits of Judea. To prevent future
revolts, the walls were pulled down ; and Scaurus was
left governor with a fufficient force. But before he de¬
parted, the Roman general gave the Jews a ftill greater
offence than almoft any thing he had hitherto done; and
that was by entering into the moft facred receffes of the
temple, where he took a view of the golden table, can-
dleftick, cenfers, lamps, and all the other facred veffels j
but, out of refpedt to the Deity, forebore to touch any
of them, and wdien he came out commanded the
priefts immediately to purify the temple according to
cuftom.
Pompey having thus fubdued the Jewiih nation, fet
out for Rome, carrying along with him Ariftobulus
and his two fons Alexander and Antigonus, as cap¬
tives to adorn his future triumph. Ariftobulus himfelf
and his fon Antigonus were led in triumph j but A-
lexander found means to efcape into Judea, where he
raifed an army of 10,000 foot and i'500 horfe, and
began to fortify feveral ftrong-holds, from whence he
made incurfions into the neighbouring country. As
for Hyrcanus, he had no fooner found himfelf freed
from his rival brother, than he relapfed into his former
indolence, leaving the care of all his affairs to Anti¬
pater, who, like a true politician, failed not to turn
the weaknefs of the prince to his own advantage and
the aggrandizing of his family. He forefaw, however,
that he could not eafily compafs his ends, unlefs he in¬
gratiated himfelf with the Romans; and therefore
fpared neither pains nor coft to gain their favour.
Scaurus foon after received from him a fupply of corn
and other provifions, without which his army, which
he had led againft the metropolis of Arabia, would
have been in danger of perifliing ; and after this, he
prevailed on the king to pay 300 talents to the Ro¬
mans, to prevent them from ravaging his country.
Hyrcanus was now in no condition to face his enemy
Alexander j and therefore had again recourfe to the
Romans, Antipater at the fame time fending as many
troops as he could fpare to join them. Alexander ven¬
tured a battle ; but w’as defeated with confiderable lofs,
and befieged in a ftrong fortrefs named Alexandrian.
Here he would have been forced to furrender •, but his
mother, partly by her addrefs, and partly by the fer-
vices ftie found means to do the Roman general, pre¬
vailed, upon him to grant her fon a pardon for what
was paft. The fortreffes were then demolilhed, that
they might not give occafion to frelh revolts; Hyrca-
VOL. XL Part I.
nus was again reftored to the pontifical dignity *, and Jews,
the province was divided into five feveral diitrifts, in v—■—«'
each of which a feparate court of judicature was ereft-
ed. The firft of thefe was at Jerufalem, the fecond 20
at Gadara, the third at Amath, the fourth at Jeri-;^™sm?°~
cho, and the fifth at Sephoris in Galilee. Thus was thecjjangecjL'
government changed from a monarchy to an arifto-into an
cracy, and the Jevrs now fell under a fet of domineer-arift°cracy’
ing lords. j
Soon after this, Ariftobulus found means to efcape
from his confinement at Rome, and raifed new troubles
in Judea, but wTas again defeated and taken prifoner :
his fon alfo renewed his attempts j but w’as in like man¬
ner defeated, with the lofs of near 10,000 of his follow¬
ers $ after which Gabinius, having fettled the affairs of
Judea to Antipater’s mind, refigned the government of
his province to Craffus. The only tranfaftion during
his government was his plundering the temple of all its
money and facred utenfils, amounting in the wdiole to
10,000 Attic talents, i. e. above two millions of our
money. After this facrilege, Craffus fet out on his ex¬
pedition againft Parthia, where he perifhed ; and his
death was by the Jews interpreted as a divine judgment
for his impiety. 21
The war between Caefar and Pompey afforded theJewsfa-
Jews forae refpite, and likewife an opportunity of in-VuUfre<*
gratiating themlelves with the former, which the art-("Uar‘
ful Antipater readily embraced. His fervices were re¬
warded by the emperor. He confirmed Hyrcanus in
his priefthood, added to it the principality of Judea, to
be entailed on his pofterity for ever, and reftored the
Jewifh nation to their ancient rights and privileges j
ordering at the fame time a pillar to be eredled, where¬
on all thefe grants, and his own decree, fhould be en¬
graved, which was accordingly done j and foon after,
when Caefar himlelf came into Judea, he granted liber¬
ty alfy to fortify the city, and rebuild the wall which
had been demolifhed by Pompey.
During the lifetime of Caefar, the Jews were fo
highly favoured, that they could fcarcely be faid to feel
the Roman yoke. After his death, however, the na¬
tion fell into great diforders ; wdiich were not finally
quelled till Herod, who was created king of Judea by
Marc Antony in 40 B. C. was fully eftabliftied on the
throne by the taking of Jerufalem by his allies the 2„
Romans in 37 B. C. The immediate confequence ofHerod'
this was another cruel pillage and maffacre : then fol.raifedto
lowed the death of Antigonus the fon of Ariftobulus Jiie
who had for three years maintained his ground againft L'‘rone’
Herod, put to death his brother Phafael, and cut off
Hyrcanus’s ears, in order the more effedtually to inca¬
pacitate him for the high-priefthood.
The Jews gained but little by this change of ma-His tyranny
fters.^ The new king proved one of the greateft tyrants and cruelty;
mentioned in hillory. He began his reign with a cruel
perfecution of thofe who had fided with his rival An¬
tigonus ; great numbers of whom he put to death, fei-
zing and confifcating their effiefts for his own ufe.
Nay, fuch was his jealoufy in this laft refpeft, that he
caufed guards to be placed at the city gates, in order
to watch the bodies of thofe of the Antigonian fac¬
tion who were carried out to be buried, left fome
of their riches ftiould be carried along with them.
His jealoufy next prompted him to decoy Hyrcanus,
the baiulhed pontiff, from Parthia, where he had taken
T refuge.
24
Rebuilds
the teBij-'le
J _E W [ 146 ] J E W
refuge, that he might put him to death, though con¬
trary to his moft lolemn promifes. His cruelty then
fell apon his own family. He had married Mariamne,
the daughter of HyrCanus j whofe brother, Ariftobulus,
a young prince of great hopes, was made high-prieft at
the interceffion of his mother Alexandra. But the ty¬
rant, confcious that Ariftobulus had a better right to
the kingdom than himfelf, caufed him foon after to be
drowned in a bath. The next viftim was his beloved
queen Mariamne herfelf. Herod had been fummoned
to appear firft before Marc Antony, and then before
Auguftus, in order to clear himfelf from fome crimes
laid to his charge. As he was, however, doubtful of
the event, he left orders, that in cafe he was condemn¬
ed, Mariamne fhould be put to death. This, together
with the death of her father and brother, gave her fuch
an averfion for him, that Ihe Ihowed it on all occalions.
By this condudt the tyrant’s refentment was at laft fo
much inflamed, that having got her falfely accufed of
infidelity, (lie was condemned to die, and executed ac¬
cordingly. She fuffered with great refolution ; but
with her ended all the happinefs of her hufband. His
love for Mariamne increafed fo much after her death,
that for fome time he appeared like one quite diftraft-
ed. His remorfe, however, did not get the better of
his cruelty. The death of Mariamne was foon follow¬
ed by that of her mother Alexandra, and this by the
execution of feveral other perfons who had joined with
her in an attempt to fecure the kingdom to the fons of
the deceafed queen.
Herod, having now freed himfelf from the greateft
part of his fuppofed enemies, began to Ihow a greater
contempt for the Jewifh ceremonies than formerly ; and
introduced a number of heathenilh games, which made
him odious to his fubjedts. Ten bold fellows at laft
took it into their heads to enter the theatre where the
tyrant was celebrating fome games, with daggers con¬
cealed under their clothes, in order to ftab him or fome
of his retinue. In cafe they ftiould mifcarry in the
attempt, they had the defperate fatisfa&ion to think,
that, if they perifhed, the tyrant would be rendered
ftill more odious by the punilhment inflicled on them.
They were not miftaken : for Herod being informed
of their defign by one of his fpies, and caufing the
aflaflins to be put to a moft excruciating death, the
people were fo much exafperated againft the informer,
that they cut and tore him to pieces, and caft his flefli
to the dogs. Herod tried in vain to difcover the au¬
thors of this affront; but at laft having caufed fome
women to be put to the rack, he extorted from them
the names of the principal perfons concerned, whom he
caufed immediately to be put to death with their fa¬
milies. This produced fuch difturbances, that, ap¬
prehending nothing lefs than a general revolt, he fet
about fortifying Jerufalem with feveral additional
works, rebuilding Samaria, and putting garrifons into
feveral fortreffes in Judea. Notwithftanding this, how¬
ever, Herod had fhortly after an opportunity of re¬
gaining the affe&ions of his fubjefls in fome mea-
fure, by his generofity to them during a famine ; but
as he foon relapfed into his former cruelty, their love
was again turned into hatred, which continued till his
death.
Herod now, about 23 B. C. began to adorn his
• cities with many ftately buildings. The moft re¬
markable and magnificent of them all, however, was Jew*,
the temple at Jerufalem, which he is faid to have
raifed to a higher pitch of grandeur than even Solomon
himfelf had done. Ten thoufand artificers were im¬
mediately fet to work, under the dire61ion of 1000
priefts, the beft fkilled in carving, mafonry, &c. all of
wrhom were kept in conftant pay. A thoufand carts
were employed in fetching materials; and fuch a num¬
ber of other hands were employed, that every thing
was got ready within the fpace of two years. After
this, they fet about pulling down the old building,
and rearing up the new one with the fame expedition :
fo that the /lo/y place, or temple, properly fo called,
was finilhed in a year and a half j during which we
are told that it never rained in the daytime, but only
in the night. The remainder was finilhed in fome-
what more than eight years. The temple, properly
fo called, or holy place, was but 60 cubits high, and
as many in breadth •, but in the front he added twro
wings or Ihoulders which projected 20 cubits more on
each fide, and which in all made a front of 1 20 cubits
in length, and as many in height j with a gate 70
cubits high and 20 in breadth, but open and without
any doors. The ftones were white marble, 25 cubits
in length, 12 in height, and 9 in breadth, all wrought
and polilhed with exquifite beauty *, the whole refem-
bling a ftately palace, whofe middle being confidera-
bly raifed above the extremities of each face, made it
afford a beautiful villa at a great dillance, to thofe
who came to the metropolis. Inftead of doors, the
gates clofed with very coftly veils, enriched with a
variety of flowering of gold, filver, purple, and every
thing that was rich and curious j and on each fide of
the gates were planted two ftately columns, from
whofe cornices hung golden feftoons and vines, with
their clufters of grapes, leaves, &c. curioufly wrought.
The fuperftrudlure, however, which was properly rear¬
ed on the old foundation without fufficient additions,
proved too heavy, and funk down about 20 cubits $
fo that its height was reduced to 100. This founda¬
tion was of an aftonilhing ftrength and height, of
which an account is given under the article Jerusalem.
The platform was a regular fquare of a ftadium or fur¬
long on each fide. Each front of the fquare had a
fpacious gate or entrance, enriched with fuitable or¬
naments *, but that on the weft had four gates, one of
which led to the palace, another to the city, and the
two others to the fuburbs and fields. This inclofure
was furrounded on the outfide with a ftrong and high
wall of large ftones, well cemented j and on the infide
had on each front a ftately piazza or gallery, fupported
by columns of fuch a bignefs, that three men could but
juft embrace them, their circumference being about 27
feet. There were in all 162 of them, which fupport¬
ed a cedar ceiling of excellent workmanftfip, and form¬
ed three galleries, the middlemoft of which was the lar-
geft and higheft, it being 45 feet in breadth and 100
in height, whereas thofe on each fide were but 30 feet
wide and 50 in height.
The piazzas and court were paved with marble of
various colours 5 and, at a final 1 diftance from the gal¬
leries, wras a fecond inclofure, furrounded with a flight
of beautiful marble rails, wuth ftately columns at pro¬
per diftances, on which were engraven certain admo¬
nitions in Greek and Latin, to forbid ftxangers, and
thofe
Jews.
T . *5
His death*
JEW [i
thofe Jews that were not purified, to proceed farther
under pain of death. This inclofure had but one gate
on the eaft fide ; none on the weft ; but on the north
and fouth it had three, placed at equal diftances from
each other.
A third inclofure furrounded the temple, properly fo
called, and the altar of burnt-offerings ^ and made
what they called the court of the Hebrews or Ifra elites.
It was fquare like the reft : but the wall on the outfide
was furrounded by a flight of 14 fteps, which hid a
confiderable part of it 5 and on the top was a terrace,
of about 12 cubits in breadth, which went quite round
the whole cincfure. The eaft fide had but one gate j
the weft none $ and the north and fouth four, at equal
diftances. Each gate was afcended by five fteps more
before one could reach the level of the inward court j
fo that the wall which inclofed it appeared within to
be but 25 cubits high, though confiderably higher
on the outfide. On the infide of each of thefe gates
were raifed a couple of fpacious fquare chambers, in
form of a pavilion, 30 cubits wide and 40 in height,
each fupported by columns of 12 cubits in circumfe¬
rence.
This inclofure had likewife a double flight of gal¬
leries on the infide, fupported by a double row of co¬
lumns $ but the weftern fide was only one continued
wall, without gates or galleries. The women had
likewife their particular courts feparate from that of
the men, and one of the gates on the north and fouth
leading to it.
The altar of burnt-offerings was likewife high and
fpacious, being 40 cubits in breadth, and 15 in height.
The afcent to it was, according to the Mofaic law,
fmooth, and without fteps ; and the altar of unhewn
ftones. It was furrounded, at a convenient diftance,
with a low wall or rail, which divided the court of
the priefts from that of the lay Ifraelites j fo that
thefe laft were allowed to come thus far to bring their
offerings and facrifices ; though none but the priefts
were allowed to come within that inclofure.
Herod caufed a new dedication of this temple to
be performed with the utmoft magnificence, and pre-
fented to it many rich trophies of his former victories,
after the cuftom of the Jewifh monarchs.
This, and many other rhagnificent works, however,
did not divert the king’s attention from his ufual jea-
loufies and cruelty. His fiber Salome, and one of his
fons named Antipater, taking advantage of this difpo-
fition, prompted him to murder his two fons by Ma-
riamne, named Alexander and Ariftobulus, who had
been educated at the court of Auguftus in Italy, and
were juftly admired by all who faw them. His cruelty
foon after broke out in an impotent attempt to deftroy
the Saviour of the world, but which wras attended with
no other confequence than the deftruflion of 2000 in¬
nocent children of his own fubjedfs. His mifery was
almoft brought to its fummit by the difcovery of
Antipater’s defigns againft himfelf; wdio was accord-
ingly tried and condemned for treafon. Something
{fill more dreadful, however, yet audited him 5 he wras
feized with a moft loathfome and incurable difeafe, in
which he was tormented with intolerable pains, fo that
his life became a burden. At laft he died, to the great
joy of the Jetvs, five days after he had put Antipater to
death, and after having divided his kingdom among his
47 ] JEW
fons in the following manner.—Archelaus had Judea } Jews.
Antipas, or Herod, was tetrarch of Galilee and Perea $ ^ ,i
and Philip had the regions of Trachonitis, Gaulon, Ba-
tanea, and Panias, which he erefted likevvife into a te-
trarchy. To his lifter Salome he gave 50,000 pieces
of money, together with the cities of Jamnia, Azotus,
and Phafaelis j befides fome conliderable legacies to his
other relations.
The cruelty of this monfter accompanied him to
his grave j nay, he in a manner'carried it beyond the
grave. Being well apprifed that the Jews would re¬
joice at being freed from fuch a tyrant, he bethought-
himfelf of the following infernal ftratagem to damp
their mirth. A few days before his death, he fum-
moned all the heads of the Jews to repair to Jericho
under pain of death 5 and, on their arrival, ordered
them all to be fhut up in the circus, giving at the
fame time ftridft orders to his lifter Salome and her
hulhand to have all the prifoners butchered as foon as
his breath was gone out. “ By this means (faid he),
I lhall not only damp the people’s joy, but fecure a real
mourning at my death.” Thefe cruel orders, how¬
ever, were not put in execution. Immediately after
the king’s death, Salome went to the Hippodrome,
where the heads of the Jews were detained, caufed the
gates to be flung open, and declared to them, that
now the king had no further occafion for their attend¬
ance, and that they might depart to their refpe&ive
homes j after which, and not till then, the news of the
king’s death was publilhed. Tumults, feditions, and
infurre&ions, quickly followed. Archelaus was op- New divi-
pofed by his brethen, and obliged to appear at Rome^0110^*16
before Auguftus, to whom many complaints were^11^0111,-
brought againft him. After hearing both parties,
the emperor made the following divifion of the king¬
dom : Archelaus had one half, under the title of
ethnarch, or governor of a nation; together with a
promife that he fhould have the title of king, as foon
as he Ihowed himfelf worthy of it. This ethnarchy
contained Judea Propria, Idumea, and Samaria : but
this laft was exempted from one-fourth of the taxes
paid by the reft, on account of the peaceable beha
viour of the inhabitants during the late tumults. The
remainder was divided between Philip and Herod ;
the former of whom had Trachonitis, Batanea, and
Auranitis, together with a fmall part of Galilee; the
latter had the reft of Galilee and the countries be¬
yond the Jordan. Salome had half a million of filver,
together with the cities of Jamnia, Azotus, Phafaelis,
and Afcalon.
For fome years Archelaus enjoyed his government
in peace ; but at laft, both Jews and Samaritans, tired
out with his tyrannical behaviour, joined in a petition
to Auguftus againft him. The emperor immediately
fummoned him to Rome, where, having heard his ac-
cufation and defence, he banifhed him to the city of Archelaus
Vienne in Dauphiny, and confifcated all his effe&s. fianfifie(b
Judea being by this fentence reduced to a Romanan<*a K'0'
province, was ordered to be taxed : and Cyrenius the^^p-^ ~
governor of Syria, a man of confular dignity, was pointed
fent thither to fee it put in execution ; which having over Judea,
done, and fold the palaces of Archelaus, and feized
upon all his treafure, he returned to Antioch, lea¬
ving the Jews in no fmall ferment on account of this
new tax.
T 2
Thus
Tews.
28
Agrippa '■
made king.
29
The king¬
dom again
reduced to
a Roman
province.
JEW [ 148
Thus were the feeds of diiTenfion fown between the
.Tews and Romans, which ended in the moft lamentable
cataflrophe of the former. The Jew's, always impatient
of a foreign yoke, knew from their prophecies, that the
time was now come when the Mefliah Ihould appear.
Of confequence, as they expected him to be a great and
powerful w'arrior, their rebellious and feditious fpirit
was heightened to the greateft degree j and they ima¬
gined they had nothing to do but take up arms, and
victory w'ould immediately declare on their fide. From
this time, therefore, the country was never quiet ; and
the infatuated people, while they rejected the true Mef-
fiah, gave themfelves up to the direftion of every im-
poftor who chofe to lead them to their own deftrudtion.
The governors appointed by the Romans w'ere alfo fre¬
quently changed, but feldom for the better. About the
16th year of Chrift, Pontius Pilate was appointed gover¬
nor j the whole of w'hofe adminiftration, according to
Jofephus, was one continued fcene of venality, rapine,
tyranny, and every wicked adfion ; of racking and put¬
ting innocent men to death, untried and uncondemned *,
and of every kind of favage cruelty. Such a governor
was but ill calculated to appeafe the ferments occafion-
ed by the late tax. Indeed Pilate was fo far from at¬
tempting this, that he greatly inflamed them by taking
every occafion of introducing his ftandards with images
and pictures, confecrated fhields, &c. into their citv j
and at lafl: attempting to drain the treafury of the tem¬
ple, under pretence of bringing an aquedudf into Jeru-
falem. The moft: remarkable tranfattion of his govern¬
ment, however, was his condemnation of Jesus Christ j
feven years after which he was removed from Judea ;
and in a (hort time Agrippa, the grandfon of Herod the
Great, w7as promoted by Caius to the regal dignity.
He did not, however, long enjoy this honour ; for, on
his coming into Judaea, having raifed a perfecution a-
gainft the Chriftians, and blafphemoufly fuffering him-
ielf to be ftyled a God by fome deputies from Tyre and
Sidon, he was miraculoufiy ftruck with a difeafe, which
foon put an end to his life. The facred hiftorian tells
us, that he w’as eaten of worms ; and Jofephus, that he
was feized with moft violent pains in his heart and bow¬
els ; fo that he could not but reflect on the bafenefs of
thofe flatterers, who had but lately complimented him
with a kind of divine immortality, that was now about
to expire in all the torments and agonies of a miferable
mortal.
On the death of Agrippa, Judea was once more
reduced to a province of the Roman empire, and had
new governors appointed over it. Thefe were Venti-
dius, Felix, Feftus Albinus, and Geffius Florus.—
Under their government the Jewifti affairs went on
from bad to worfe ; the country fwarmed with robbers
and affaflins; the latter committing everywhere the
moft unheard-of cruelties under the pretence of reli¬
gion •, and about 64 A. C. were joined by i8,oco
w7ork-men, who had been employed in further repair¬
ing and beautifying the temple. About this time
alfo, Geftius Florus, the laft and worft governor the
Tews ever had, was fent into the country. Jofephus
Xeems at a lofs for w’ords to defcribe him by, or a
monfter to compare him to. His rapines, cruelties,
conniving for large fums with the banditti, and in a
word, his whole behaviour, w’as fo open and bare¬
faced, that he was looked upon by the Jews more like
Jews.
] JEW
a bloody executioner, fent to butcher, than a magi-
ftrate to govern, them. In this diftratfted ftate of the
country, many of the inhabitants forfook it to feek
for an afylum fomewhere elfe 5 while thofe wTho re¬
mained applied themfelves to Ceftius Gallus, governor
of Syria, who was at Jerufalem at the palfover ; be-
feeching him to pity their unhappy ftate, and free
them from the tyranny of a man who had totally
ruined their country. Florus, who was prefent when
thefe complaints were brought againft him, made a
mere jeft of them ; and Ceftius, inftead of making a
ftridi inquiry into his conduft, diimiffed the Jews with
a general promife that the governor Ihould behave
better for the future j and fet himlelf about computing
the number of Jews at that time in Jerufalem, by the
number of lambs offered at that feftival, that he
might fend ^n account of the w'hole to Nero. By his
computation, there were at that time in Jerufalem
2,556,000; though Jofephus thinks they rather amount¬
ed to 3,000,000.
In the year 67 began the fatal war with the Romans, Caufe of
which was ended only by the deftruflion of Jerufalem. the laft
The immediate caufe w'as the decifion of a conteft
wuth the Syrians concerning the city of Caefarea. The
Jews maintained, that this city belonged to them, be-
caufe it had been built by Herod ; and the Syrians
pretended that it had always been reckoned a Greek
city, fince even that monarch had reared temples and.
ftatues in it. The conteft at laft came to fuch an
height, that both parties took up arms againft each
other. Felix put an end to it for a time, by lending
fome of the chiefs of each nation to Rome, to plead
their caufe before the emperor, where it hung in fuf-
penfe till this time, wdien Nero decided it againft the
Jews. No fooner w'as this decifion made public, than
the Jew's in all parts of the country flew to arms;
and though they were everywhere the fufferers, yet,
from this fatal period, their rage never abated. No¬
thing was now to be heard of but robberies, murders,
and every kind of cruelty. Cities and villages were
filled with dead bodies of all ages, even fucking babes. i
r‘'1 Jews, on their part, fpared neither Syrians nor'fhe jew^
30
the Ro¬
mans.
The
Romans, where they got the better of them ; and this terribly
proved the deftruftion of great numbers of their peace- maflacred.
ful brethren : 20,000 were maffaered at Ccefarea,
50,000 at Alexandria, 2000 at Ptolemais, and 3500
at Jerufalem.
A great number of affaflins, in the mean time, ha¬
ving joined the faclious Jew's in Jerufalem, they beat
the Romans out of Antonia, a fortrefs adjoining to
the temple, and another called Majfada ; and likewife
out of the towers called Phafael and Manamne, kill¬
ing all who oppofed them. The Romans were at
laft reduced to fuch ftraits, that they capitulated on
the Angle condition that their lives ftiould be fpared ;
notwithftanding which, they were all maffacred by
the furious zealots: and this treachery was foon re¬
venged on the faithful Jews of Scythopolis. Thefe
had offered to affift in reducing their faflious bre¬
thren ; but their fincerity being fufpefled by the
townfmen, they obliged them to retire intq a neigh¬
bouring wood, where, on the third night, they were
maffacred to the number of 13,000, and all their
wealth carried off. The rebels, in the mean time,
croffed the Jordan, and took the fortxeffes of Machaeron
and
JEW [ i49 ]
JEW
Jews, and Cyprus j which laft they razed to the ground,
' " ^ after having put all the Romans to the (word.-—This
Th'y de brought Ceftius Gallus, the Syrian governor, into
feat Ceftius Judaea with all his forces •, but the Jews, partly by
Gallus. treachery and partly by force, got the better of him,
and drove him out of the country with the lofs of 5000
men.
All this time fuch dreadful diflenfions reigned a-
mong the Jews, that great numbers of the better fort
forefeeing the fad eflfecds of the refentment of the Ro¬
mans, left the city as men do a finking veffel; and
the Chriftians, mindful of their Saviour’s predi&ion,
retired to Pella, a city on the other fide of Jordan,
whither the war did not reach. Miferable w’as the
fate of fuch as either could not, or would not, leave
33 that devoted city. Vefpaiian was now ordered to
Vefpsfian leave Greece, where he was at that time, and to march
fent agairft ap[ fpee{} into Judea. He did fo accordingly at
the head of a powerful army, ordering his fon Titus
in the mean time to bring two more legions from A-
lexandria •, but before he could reach that country, the
Jews had twdce attempted to take the city of Afcalon,
and w’ere each time repulfed with the lofs of 10,000
of their number. In the beginning of the year 68, Vef¬
paiian entered Galilee at the head of an army of 60,000
men, all completely armed and excellently difciplined.
He firft took and burnt Gadara : then he laid liege to
Jotapa, and took it after a llout relillance 5 at which
he w'as fo provoked, that he caufed every one of the
Jewrs to be maflacred or carried into captivity, not
one being left to carry the dreadful news to their
brethren. Forty thoufand perilhed on this occahon ;
only 1200 wrere made prifoners, among wdiom was
Jofephus the Jewillr hiftorian. Japha next Ihared the
fame fate, after an obftinate liege j all the men being
malfacred, and the wmmen and children carried into
captivity. A w'eek after this, the Samaritans, who
had affembled on Mount Gerizzim, were almoft all put
to the fwmrd, or perilhed. Joppa fell the next victim
to the Roman vengeance. It had been formerly laid
waile by Ceftius ; but was now repeopled and forti¬
fied by the feditious Jews wdro infefted the country.
It was taken by ftorm, and Ihared the fame fate with
the reft. Fcur thoufand Jews attempted to efcape by
taking to their (hips ’, but were driven back by a hid¬
den tempeft, and all of them were drowned or put to
the fword. Tarichea and Tiberias were next taken,
but part of their inhabitants were fpared on account
of their peaceable difpofitions. Then followed the
fieges of Gamala, Gifchala, and Itabyr. The firft was
faken by ftorm, with a dreadful flaughter of the Jews;
the la it by ftratagera. The inhabitants of Gifchala
were inclinable to furrender : but a feditious Jew of
that towm, named ‘John, the Ion of Levi, head of the
faction, and a vile fellow, oppofed it ; and, having the
mob at his back, overawed the whole city. On the
fabbath he begged of Titus to forbear hoftilities till
to morrow7, and then he w’ould accept his offer ; but
inltead of that, he fled to Jerufalem with as many as
would follow him. The Romans, as foon as they
were informed of his flight, purfued, and killed
6000 of his followers on the road, and brought back
near 3000 women and children prifoners. The inha-
bitants then furrendered to Titus; 3 and only the faclious
were punilhed 3 and this completed the redu&ion of Jews,
Galilee. --,v
The Jewilh nation by this time was divided int° Different
two very oppoftte parties: the one forefeeing that factions
this war, if continued, mull end in the total ruin among the
of their country, were for putting an end to it by fub- Jews-
mitting to the Romans 3 the other, which was the
remains of the fadlion of Judas Gaulonites, breathed
nothing but war and confufton, and oppofed all peace¬
able meafures with invincible obftinacy. This laft,
which was by far the moll numerous and powerful,
confided of men of the vileft and molt profligate cha-
raflers that can be paralleled in hiltory. They were
proud, ambitious, cruel, rapacious, and committed
the moll horrid and unnatural crimes under the malic
of religion. They affirmed everywhere, that it was
offering the greatefl: dilhonour to God to lubmit to
any earthly potentate 3 much lefs to Romans and to
heathens. This, they laid, was the only motive that
induced them to take up arms, and to bind themfelves
under the ftri6lelt obligations not to lay them dou’n
till they had either totally extirpated all foreign au¬
thority, or perilhed in the attempt.—Ibis dreadful
diffenfion was not confined to Jerulalem, but had in-*
fected all the cities, towns, and villages, of Paleftint.
Even houfes and families were fo divided againit each
other, that, as our Saviour bad exprefsly foretold, a
man’s greatefl; enemies wrere often thofe of iiis own
family and houfehold. In ihort, if we may believe
Jofephus, the zealots a£ted more like incarnate devils
than like men who had any fenfe of humanity left
them.—This obliged the contrary party likewife to
rife up in arms in their owm defence againft thofe mif-
creants 3 from w’hom, however, they foffered much
more than they did even from the exafperated Ro¬
mans.—The zealots began their outrages by murder- 35
ing all that oppofed them in the countries round about, Zealots
Then they entered Jerufalem 3 but met w’ith a flout
oppofition from the other party headed by Ananus,
who had lately been high-prieft. A fierce engage¬
ment enfued between them 3 and the zealots were dri¬
ven into the inner cin£lure of the temple, w’here they
were clofely befieged. John of Gifchala above-men¬
tioned, who had pretended to fide with the peaceable
party, was then fent with terms of accommodation 3
but, inftead of advifing the befieged to accept of them,
he perfuaded them ftill to hold out, and call the Idu-
means to their affiftance. They did fo, and procured
20,000 of them to come to their relief 3 but thefe new
allies were refufed admittance into the city. On that
night, however, there happened fuch a violent ftorrn,
accompanied with thunder, lightning, and an earth¬
quake, that the zealots from within the inner court,
favved the bolts and hinges of the temple-gates with¬
out being heai'd, forced the guards of the befiegers, ,
fallied into the city, and led in the Idumeans. The
city was inrtantly filled with butcheries of the moil
horrid kind. Barely to put any of the oppofite party
to death was thought too mild a puniihment 3 they-
muft have the pleafure of murdering them by inches ;
fo that they made it now their diverfion to put them
to the moil exquifite tortures that could be invented 3
nor could they be prevailed upon to difpatch them till
the violence of their torments had rendered them
quite.
ft
'Jew?.
>r, 35
They turn
their arms
JEW [ 150
quite Incapable of feeling them. In this manner pe- low
rilhed 12,000 perfons of noble extraftion, and in the
flower of their age ; till at laft the Idumeans com¬
plained fo much againft the putting fuch numbers to
death, that the zealots thought proper to ere& a kind
of tribunal, which, however, was intended not for
judgment but condemnation : for the judges having
once acquitted a perfon who was manifeftly innocent,
the zealots not only murdered hhn in the temple, but
depofed the new-created judges as perfons unfit for
their office.
The zealots, after having exterminated all thofe of
any charafter or diftinftion, began next to wreak their
vengeance on the common people. This obliged many
of the Jews to forfake Jerufalem, and take refuge with
the Romans, though the attempt was very hazardous j
for the zealots had all the avenues well guarded, and
failed not to put to death fuch as fell into their hands.
Vefpafian in the mean time ftaid at Caefarea an idle fpec-
tator of their outrages j well knowing that the zealots
were fighting for him, and that the ftrength of the
Jewiffi nation wras gradually walling away. Everything
fucceeded to his wilh. The zealots, after having maf-
acra-nft each facred or driven away the oppofite party, turned their
arms again!! each other. A party was formed againft
John, under one Simon who had his head-quarters at the
fortrefs of Maffada. This new mifcreant plundered,
burned, and maffacred, wherever he came, carrying the
fpoil into the rfortrefs above-mentioned. To increafe
his party, he caufed a proclamation to be publiffied, by
which he promifed liberty to the Haves, and propor¬
tionable encouragement to the freemen who joined
him. This ftratagem had the defired effeft, and he
loon faw himfelf at the head of a confiderable army.
Not thinking himfelf, however, as yet mailer of force
fufficient to befiege Jerufalem, he invaded Idumea with
20,000 men. The Idumeans oppofed him with 25,0005
and a lharp engagement enfued, in which neither party
wTas victorious. But Simon, foon after, having corrupted
the Idumean general, got their army delivered up to
him. By this means he ealily became mailer of the
country 5 where he committed fuch cruelties, that the
miferable inhabitants abandoned it to feeU for Ihelter in
Jerufalem.
In the city, matters w’ent in the fame way. John
tyrannized in fuch a manner, that the Idumeans re¬
volted, killed a great number of his men, plundered
his palace, and forced him to retire into the temple.
In the mean time the people, having taken a notion
that he would fally out in the night and fet fire to
the city, called a council, in which it rvas refolved to
admit Simon with his troops, in order to oppofe John
and his zealots. Simon’s firil attempt againlt his rival,
however, was ineffeftual, and he wras obliged to con¬
tent himfelf with befieging the zealots in the temple.
In the mean time, the miferies of the city were in-
creafed by the llarting up of a third party headed by
one Eleazar, who feized on the court of the priells,
and kept John confined within that of the Ifraelites.
Eleazar kept the avenues fo well guarded, that none
were admitted to come into that part of the temple
but thofe who came thither to offer facrifices 5 and it
w as by thefe offerings chiefly that he maintained him¬
felf and his men. John by this means found himfelf
hemmed in between two powerful enemies, Simon be-
1
Jem.
37
] JEW
and Eleaiar above. He defended himfelf, how¬
ever, againft them both with great refolution 5 and
when the city was invefted by the Romans, having
pretended to come to an agreement with his rivals,
he found means totally to cut off or force Eleazar’s men
to fubmit to him, fo that the fa&ions were again redu¬
ced to tW’O.
The Romans, in the year 72, began to advance to-The Re¬
wards the capital. In their way they deftroyed manymans a<l-
thoufands, wafting the country as they went along |°
and in the year 73 arrived before the walls of Jerufa- erU
lem, under Titus afterwards emperor. As he was a
man of an exceedingly merciful difpofition, and greatly
defired to fpare the city, he immediately fent offers of
peace 5 but thefe were rejefled with contempt, and he
himfelf put in great danger of his life, fo that he re¬
folved to begin the fiege in form. In the mean time,
Simon and John renewed their hollilities with greater
fury than ever. John now held the whole temple,
fome of the out-parts of it, and the valley of Cedron.
Simon had the wdrole city to range in 5 in fome parts
of which John had made fuch devaftations, that they
ferved them for a field of battle, from which they
fallied unanimoully againft the common enemy when¬
ever occafion ferved 5 after wffiich they returned to
their ufual hollilities, turning their arms againft each
other, as if they had fworn to make their ruin more
eafy to the Romans. Thefe drew Hill nearer to the
wTalls, having with great labour and pains levelled all
the ground between Scopas and them, by pulling down
all the houfes and hedges, cutting down the trees,
and even cleaving the rocks that Hood in their way,
from Scopas to the tomb of Herod, and Bethara
or the pool of ferpents 5 in wffiich work fo many
hands were employed, that they finilhed it in four
dayS' ,g
Whilft this was doing, Titus fent the befieged fome offers 0f
offers of peace 5 and Jofephus was pitched upon to be peace re-
the meffenger of them : but they were rejefled withjeefted.
indignation. He fent a fecond'tiroe Nicanor and Jo¬
fephus with frelh offers, and the former received a
wound in his ffioulder 5 upon" which Titus refolved to
begin the affault in good earneft, and ordered his men
to raze the fuburbs, cut down all the trees, and ufe
the materials to raife platforms againft the wall. Every
thing was now carried on with invincible ardour 5 thcThe lieg*
Romans began to play their engines againft the city carr>e<l °a
with all their might. The Jews had likewlfe their
machines upon the walls, wffiich they plied with un-^°Ur‘
common fury : they had taken them lately from Ce-
ftius : but were fo ignorant in their ufe, that they did
little execution with them, till they were better in-
ftrudled by fome Roman deferters : till then, their
chief fuccefs was rather ow’ing to their frequent fallies 5
but the Roman legions, who had all their towers and
machines before them, made terrible havock. The leaft
Hones they threw were near 100 weight 5 and thefe
they could throw the length of a quarter of a mile
again!! the city, and with fuch a force, that they could
do mifehief on thofe that Hood at fome diftance be¬
hind them. Titus had reared three towers 50 cubits
high 5 one of which happening to fall in the middle of
the night, greatly alarmed the Roman camp, who im¬
mediately ran to arms at the noife of it ; but Titus,
upon knowing the caufe, difmiffed them, and caufed
it
Jews.
40
Famine and
peftilence
ia the city.
4*
Offers of
peace re-
jedted.
JEW [15
it to be fet up again. Thefe towers, being plated
with iron, the Jews tried in vain to fet fire to them,
but were at length forced to retire out of the reach of
their ihot : by which the battering-rams wrere now at
full liberty to play againft the wall. A breach was
foon made in it, at which the Romans entered : and
the Jews, abandoning this laft inclofure, retired
behind the next. This happened about the 28th
of April, a fortnight after the beginning of the
fiege.
John defended the temple and the caftle of Anto¬
nia, and Simon the reft of the city. Titus marched
clofe to the fecond wall, and plied his battering-rams
fb furioufly, that one of the towers, which looked to¬
wards the north, gave a prodigious {hake. The men
who were in it, made a fignal to the Romans, as if
they would furrender ; and, at the fame time, fent Si¬
mon word to be ready to give them a warm recep¬
tion. Titus, having difcovered their ftratagem, plied
his work more furioufly, whilft the Jew's that were in
the tower fet it bn fire, and flung themfelves into the
flames. The tower being fallen, gave them an en¬
trance into the fecond inclofure, five days after gain¬
ing the firft; and Titus, w'ho w7as bent on faving the
city, wmuld not fuffer any part of the wall or ftreets
to be demoliihed 5 which left the breach and lanes fo
narrow7, that when his men were furioufly repulfed by
Simon, they had not room enough to make a quick
retreat, fo that there was a number of them killed in
it. This overfight was quickly rectified ; and the at¬
tack renewed with fuch vigour, that the place was car¬
ried four days after their firft repulfe.
The famine, raging in a terrible manner in the city,
wTas foon followed by a peftilence ; and as thefe two
dreadful judgments increafed, fo did the rage of the
faftious, who, by their inteftine feuds, had deftroyed
fuch quantities of provilion, that they were forced to
prey upon the people with the moft unheard-of cruel¬
ty. They forced their houfes j and, if they found any
victuals in them, they butchered them for not appri-
fing them of it ; and, if they found nothing but bare
walls, which w'as almoft everywhere the cafe, they
put them to the moft fevere tortures, under pretence
that they had fome provifion concealed. “ I (hould
(fays Jofephus) undertake an impoflible talk, were I
to enter into a detail of all the cruelties of thofe im¬
pious wretches ; it will be fufticient to fay, that I do
not think, that fince the creation any citv every fuffer-
ed fuch dreadful calamities, or abounded with men fo
fertile in all kinds of w'ickednefs.”
Titus, who knew their miferable condition, and was
ftill willing to fpare them, gave them four days to
cool j during w'hich he caufed his army to be mufter-
ed, and provifions to be diftributed to them in fight
of the Jews, who flocked upon the walls to fee it. Jo¬
fephus was fent to fpeak to them afrefli, and to exhort
them not to run themfelves into an inevitable ruin by
obftinately perfifting in the defence of a place which
could hold out but a very little while, and which the
Romans looked upon already as their own. But this
ftubborn people, after many bitter invectives, began
to dart their arrows at him ; at which, not at all dif-
couraged, he went on with greater vehemence : but
all the effect it wrought on them was, that it pre¬
vailed on great numbers to fteal away privately to the
i ] J E W
Romans, whilft the reft became only the moffc delpe- Jews-,
rate and refolute to hold out to the laft, in fpite of Ti-
tus’s merciful offers.
To haften therefore their deftined ruin, he caufed
the city to be furrounded wdth a ftrong wall, to pre¬
vent either their receiving any fuccours or provifion
from abroad, or their efcaping his refentment by flight.
This wall, which was near 40 ftadia or five miles in
circuit, was yet carried on with fuch fpeed, and by fo
many hands, that it was finifhed in three days *, by
which one may guefs at the ardour of the befiegers t®
make themfelves mailers of the city.
There was now nothing to be feen through the ftreets
of Jerufalem but heaps of dead bodies- rotting above
ground, walking flceletons, and dying wretches. As
many as were caught by the Romans in their failles,
Titus caufed to be facrificed in fight of the town, to
ftrike terror among the reft : but the zealots gave it
out, that they were thofe who fled to him for protec¬
tion j which w'hen Titus underftood, he fent a prifoner-
with his hands cut off to undeceive, and affure them,
that he fpared all that voluntarily came over to him ;
which encouraged great numbers to accept his offers,
though the avenues were clofely guarded by the factious,.
wrho put all to death w'ho were caught going on that
errand. A greater mifchief than that was, that even
thofe who efcaped fafe to the Roman camp were mi-
ferably butchered by the foldiers, from a notion which
thefe had taken that they had fwallowed great quan¬
tities of gold -y fo that two thoufand of them w'ere
ripped up in one night, to come at their fuppo-
fed treafure. When Titus was apprifed of this bar¬
barity, he would have condemned all thofe butchering
W'retches to death ; but they proved fo numerous, that
he wras forced to fpare them, and contented himfelf
with fending a proclamation through his camp, that as
many as fliould be fufpefted thenceforw’ard of that hor ¬
rid villany {hould be put to immediate death : yet
did not this deter many of them, from it, only they
did it more privately than before $ fo greedy were they
of that bew'itching metal. All this while the defedlion
increafed ftill'more through the inhumanity of the fac¬
tion within, who made the miferies and dying groans
of their ftarving brethren the fubjecf of their cruel
mirth, and carried their barbarity even to the fheathing
of their fwords in fport in thofe poor w'retches, under
pretence of trying their ftiarpnefs.
When they found therefore that neither their guards
nor feverities could prevent the people’s flight, they
had recourfe to another ftratagem equally impious and
cruel : which was, to hire a pack of vile pretenders to
prophecy, to go about and encourage the defpairing
remains of the people to expe£l a fpeedy and miracu¬
lous deliverance y and this impofture proved a greater
expedient with that infatuated nation than their other
precautions.
Nothing could be more dreadful than the famiftied Miferablc
condition to which they were now reduced. The poor,cordltl°n
having nothing to truft to but the Roman’s mercy 0rot tkeJevrSs*
a fpeedy death, ran all hazards to get out of the city j
and if in their flight, and wandering out for herbs or
any other fuftenance, they fell into the hands of any of
Titus’s parties fent about to guard the avenues, they
were unmercifully fcourged, and crucified if they made
the leaft refiftance. The rich, within the w'alls were
now./
4.?
A mother
oats her
awn child.
. 4*
Txtus
fvveais' the
total ruin
-of the city.
/
4s,
John plun
tiers the
temple.
JEW [15
now forced, though in the moft private manner, to give
half, or all they were worth, for a meafure of wheat,
and the middling fort for one of barley. This they
were forced to convey into fome private place in their
houfes, and to feed upon it as it was, without daring
to pound or grind it, much lefs to boil or bake it, left
the noife or fmell fhould draw the rapacious zealots to
come and tear it from them. Not that thefe were re¬
duced to any real want of provifions, but they had a
double end in this barbarous plunder $ to wit, the ftar-
ving what they cruelly ftyled all ufelefs perfons, and
the keeping their own ftores in referve. It was upon
this fad and pinching jun&ure, that an unhappy mo¬
ther was reduced to the extremity of butchering and
eating her own child.
When this news was fpread through the city, the hor¬
ror and condernation were as univerfal as they were
inexpreffible. It was then that they began to think
themfelves forfaken by the Divine Providence, and to
expetft the moft terrible efteCIs of his anger again!! the
poor remains of their nation ; infomuch that they be¬
gan to envy thofe that had periftied before them, and
to with their turn might come before the fad expeifted
cataftrophe. Their fears were but too juft j fmce Ti¬
tus, at the very firi! hearing of this inhuman deed,
fwore the total extirpation of city and people. “ Since
(faid he) they have fo often refufed my proffers of
pardon, and have preferred war to peace, rebellion to
obedience, and famine, fuch a dreadful one efpecially,
to plenty, I am determined to bury that accurfed me¬
tropolis under its ruins, that the fun may never (hoot
his beams on a city where the mothers feed on the ffelh
of their children, and the fathers, no lefs guilty than
they, choofe to drive them to fuch extremities, rather
than lay down their arms.”
The dreadful a£Hon happened about the end of July,
by which time the Romans, having purfued their at¬
tacks with freffi vigour, made themfelves mafters of
the fortrefs Antonia j which obliged the Jew's to fet
tire to thofe (lately galleries which joined it to the
temple, left they Ihould afford an eafy paffage to the
befiegers into this laft. About the fame time Titus,
with much difficulty, got materials for raffing new
mounds and terraces, in order to haften the ftege, and
fave, if poffible, the fad remains of that once glorious
ftrufture ; but his pity proved ftill worfe and worfe
bellowed on thofe obllinate wretches, who only be¬
came the more furious and defperate by it, Titus at
length caufed fire to be fet to the gates, after having
had a very bloody encounter, in which his men were
repulfed with lofs. The Jews were fo terrified at it,
that they fuffered themfelves to be devoured by the
{lames, without attempting either to extinguifh them
or fave themfelves. All this while Jofephus did not
ceafe exhorting the infatuated people to furrender, to
reprefent to them the dreadful confequences of an ob~
ftinate refiftancc, and to affure them that it was out of
mere compafilon to them that he thus hazarded Ins
own life to fave theirs *. he received one day fuch a
wound in his head by a ffone from the battlements, as
laid him for dead on the ground. The Jews fallxed
out immediately, to have feized on his body : but the
Romans proved too quick and ftrong for them, and
- carried him off.
Py this time the two factions within, but Specially
1
J E W
that of John, having plundered rich and poor of all Jew-.
they had, fell alfo on the treafury of the temple, 
whence John took a great quantity of golden uten-
fils, together with thofe magnificent gifts which had
been prefented to that facred place by the Jewiffi kings,
by Auguftus, Livia, and many other foreign princes,
and melted them all to his own ufe. The repofltories
of the facred oil which was to maintain the lamps, and
of the wine which was referved to accompany the ufual
facrifices, w’ere likewife feized upon, and turned into
common ufe $ and the laft of this to fuch excefs, as
to make himfelf and his party drunk with it. AU
this while, not only the zealots, but many of the
people, were ftill under fuch an infatuation, that though
the fortrefs Antonia w'as loft, and nothing left but
the temple, which the Romans were preparing to bat¬
ter down, yet they could not perfuade themfelves that
God would fuffer that holy place to be taken by hea¬
thens, and were ftill expecting fome fudden and mira¬
culous deliverance. Rven that vile monfter John,
who commanded there, either feerned confident of it,
or elfe endeavoured to make them think him fo. For,
when Jofephus was fent for the laft time to upbraid
his obftinately expofing that facred building, and the
miferable remains of God’s people, to fudden and
fure deftru&ion, he only anfwered him with the bit-
tereff invedlives } adding, that he wras defending the
Lord’s vineyard, which he was fure could not be taken
by any human force. Jofephus in vain reminded him
of the many ways by which he had polluted both city
and temple j and in particular of the feas of blood
which he caufed to be (lied in both thofe facred places,
and which, he affured him from the old prophecies,
were a certain fign and forerunner of their fpeedy fur-
render and dellrudlion. John remained as inflexible
as if all the prophets had affured him of a deliverancej
till at length Titus, forefeeing the inevitable ruin of
that ftately edifice, which he was ftill extremely de-
firous to fave, vouchfafed even himfelf to fpeak to
them, and to perfuade them to furrender. But the
fa&ious, looking upon this condefeenfion as the ef-
fefts of his fear rather than generofity, only grew the
more furious upon it, and forced him at laft to come
to thofe extremities which he had hitherto endeavour¬
ed to avoid. That his army, which was to attack the
temple, might have the freer paffage towards it through
the eaftle Antonia, he caufed a confiderable part of
the wall to be pulled down and levelled ; which proved
fo very ftrong, that it took him up feven wdiole days,
by which time they were far advanced in the month of
July. 6
It was on the 17th day of that month, as all Jofe-The^ail
phus’s copies have it, that the daily facrifice ceafed for racrifiCe in.
the firft time fince its reftoration by the brave Judas terrupted.
Maccabeus, there being no proper perfon left in the
temple to offer it up. Titus caufed the factious to be
feverely upbraided for it j exhorted John to fet up
whom he would to perform that office, rather than fuf¬
fer the fervice of God to be fet afide ; and then chal¬
lenged him and his party to come out of the temple,
and fight on a more proper ground, and thereby fave
that facred edifice from the fury of the Roman troops.
When nothing could prevail on them, they began to
fet fire again to the gallery which formed a communi¬
cation between the temple and the caftle Antonia. 1 he
Jews
Jew'
47
The gates
of the
temple fet
on fire.
.1 E W [ i
>Jews had already burnt about 20 cubits ot it in length*,
but this fecond blaze, which was likewife encouraged
by the befieged, confuraed about 14 more; after
which, they beat down what remained Handing. Ou
the 27th of July, the Jews, having filled part of the
wellern portico with combuilible matter, made a kind
of flight ; upon which, fome of the forwarded of the
Romans having fcaled up to the top, the Jew’s fet fire
to it, which flamed with fuch fudden fury, that many
of the former w'ere confumed in it, and the refl, ven-
tui’ing to jump down from the battlements, were, all
but one, cruflied to death.
On the very next day, Titus having fet fire to the
north gallery, which inclofed the outer court of the
temple, from Fort Antonia to the valley of Cedron, got
an ealy admittance into it, and forced the befieged in¬
to that of the priefls. Fie tried in vain fix days to bat¬
ter down one of the galleries of that precinft with an
helepolis: he was forced to mount his battering-rams
on the terrace, w'hich was railed by this time ; and yet
the flrength of this w7all was fuch, that it eluded the
lorce of thefe alfo, though others of his troops were bufy
in flapping it. When they found that neither rams nor
flapping could gain ground, they bethought them-
felves of fcaling ; but were vigoroufly repulfed in the
attempt, with the lofs of fome ftandards, and a num¬
ber of men. When Titus therefore found that his
defire of faving that building was like to coll fo many
lives, he fet fire to the gates, which, being plated
with filver, burnt all that night, whilft the metal dropt
down in the melting. The flame foon communicated
itfelf to the porticoes and galleries; which the befieged
beheld without offering to flop it, but contented them-
ielves with fending whole volleys of impotent curfes
againft the Romans. This was done on the eighth of
Auguft ; and, on the next day, Titus, having given
orders to extinguifh the fire, called a council, to de¬
termine whether the remainder of the temple fhould
be faved or demolifired. That general was flill for
the former, and mofl of the reft declared for the lat¬
ter ; alleging, that it was no longer a temple, but a
fcene of war and {laughter, and that the Jews rvould
never be at reft as long as any part of it was left
Handing : but when they found Titus ftiffly bent on
preferving fo noble an edifice, againft which he told
them he could have no quarrel, they all came over to
his mind. The next day, Auguft the xoth, was
therefore determined for a general affault : and the
night before the Jews made two defperate failles on
the Romans ; in the laft of which, thefe, being time¬
ly fuccoured by Titus, beat them back into their inclo-
furc.
But whether this laft Jewiftr effort exafnerated the
befiegers, or, which is more likely, as Jofephus thinks,
puflied by the hand of Providence, one of the Roman
foldiers, of his own accord, took up a blazing fire¬
brand, and, getting on his comrade’s fhoulders, threw
it into one of the apartments that furrounded the fanc-
tuary, through a window7. This immediately fet the
whole north fide in a flame up to the third ftory, on
the fame fatal day and month in which it had been
formerly burnt by Nebuchadnezzar. Titus, who w7as
gone to reft himfelf a while in his pavilion, was awaked
at the noife, and ran immediately to give orders to
have the fire extinguilhed. He called, prayed, threat-
Vol. XI. Part I.
53 ]
J E W
ened, and even caned his men, but in vain; the edit-
fufion was fo great, and the foldiers fo obftinately bent
upon deftroying ail that was left, that lie was neither
heard nor minded. Thofe that flocked thither from
the camp, inftead of obeying his orders, were bufy,
either in killing the Jews, or in increafing the flames.
When Titus obferved that ail his endeavours were
vain, he entered into the fan&uary and the mofl; ho¬
ly place, in which he found ftill fuch fumptuous uten-
fils and other riches as even exceeded all that had
been told him of it. Out of the former he faved the
golden candleftick, the table of fliew-lbread, the altar
of perfumes, all of pure gold, and the book or volume
of the law, wrapped up in a rich gold tiffue : but in
the latter he found no utenfils, becaufe, in all proba¬
bility, they had not made a frefli ark fince that of So¬
lomon had been. loft. Upon his coming out of that
facred place, fome other foldiers fet fire to it, and obli¬
ged thofe that had itaid behind to come out; they all
fell foul on the plunder of it, tearing even the gold
plating off the gates and timber w7ork, &nd carried off
all the coftly utenfils, robes, &c. they found, infomuch
that there was not one of them who did not enrich
himfelf by it. ^ 4S
An horrid maffacre followed foon after, in w’hich a A dreadful
great many thoufands periftied; fome by the flames, rna^'acre*
others by the fall from the battlements, and a great¬
er number by the enemy’s fw’ord, which deftroyed
all it met W’ith, wfithout diftindtion of age, fex, or
quality. Among them were upwards of 6000 per-
fons who had been feduced thither by a falfe pro¬
phet, who promifed them that they fliould find a
fpeedy and miraculous relief there on that very day.
Some of them remained five whole days on the top of
the w7alls, and afterwards threw themfelves on the ge¬
neral’s mercy; but were anfwered that they had oatftaid
the time, and were led to execution. The Romans car¬
ried their fury to the burning of all the treafure-houfes
of the place, though they were full of the richeft fur¬
niture, plate, veftments, and other things of value,
which had been laid up in thofe places for fecurity.
In a word, they did not ceafe burning and butchering,
till they had deftroyed all, except two of the temple-
gates, and that part of the court which w7as deftined
for the women.
In the mean time the feditious made fuch a vigo¬
rous puff, that they efcaped the fury of the Romans,
at leaft for the prefent, and retired into the city. But
here they found all the avenues fo well guarded, that
there was no poftibility left for them to get out; which
obliged them to fecure themfelves as well as they
could on the fouth fide of it, from whence Simon, and
John of Gifchala, fent to defire a parley with Titus.
They were anfwered, that though they had been the
caufe of all this bloodfhed and ruin, yet they fiiould
have their lives fpared, if they laid down their arms
and furrendered themfelves prifbners. To this they
replied, that they had engaged themfelves, by the
moft folemn oaths, never to furrender ; and therefore,
only begged leave to retire into the mountains with
their wives and children : which infolence fo exafpe-
rated the Roman general, that he caufed an herald to
bid them ftand to their defence ; for that not one of
them fliould be fpared, fince they had reje&ed his laft:
offers of pardon. Immediately after this, he aban-
U doned
JEW [
dfcned the city to the fury of the foldiers, who
* forthwith on plundering, letting fire everywhere, and
murdering all that fell into their hands } whilft the
factious, who w^ere left, went and fortified themfelves
in the royal palace, where they killed 8000 Jews who
had taken refuge there.
In the mean time, great preparations were making
for a vigorous attack on the upper city, efpecially on
the royal palace; and this took them up from the
20th of Augull to the 7th of September, during
which time great numbers came and made their fub-
miffion to Titus. The warlike engines then played fo
furioufly on the faftious, that they were taken wfith a
fudden panic ; and, in dead of fleeing to the towers
©f Hippicos, Phatael, or Mariamne, which were yet
untaken, and fo ftrong that nothing but famine could
have reduced them, they ran like madmen towards Si-
loah, with a defign to have attacked the wall of cir-
cumvallation, and to have efcaped out of the city •,
but, being there repulfed, they were forced to go and
hide-themfelves in the public links and common few-
ers, feme one way and fome another. All whom the
Romans could find wrere put to the fword, and the ci¬
ty was fet on fire. This was on the eighth of Sep¬
tember, when the city was taken and entered by Ti¬
tus. He would have put an end to the maffacre j but
his men killed all, except the moft vigorous, whom
they thut up in the porch of the women juft mention¬
ed. Pronto, who had the care of them, referved the
youngeft and moll beautiful for Titus’s triumph ;
and lent all that were above feventeen years of age in¬
to Egypt, to be employed in lome public works there *,
and a great number of others were fent into feveral ci¬
ties of Syria, and other provinces, to be expofed on
the public theatre, to exhibit fights, or be devour¬
ed by wild beafts. The number of thofe prifoners
amounted to 97,000, befides about n,oco more, who
were either Itarved through negleft, or ftarved them¬
felves through fullennefs and defpair.—The whole num¬
ber of Jews who perilhed in this war is computed at up¬
wards of 1,400,000.
Befides thefe, however, a vaft: number perilhed in
caves, woods, wildernefles, common-fewers, &e. of
whom no computation could be made. Whilft the
foldiers were ftill bufy in burning the remains of the
city, and vifiting all the hiding-places, wdiere they
Simorfand killed numbers of poor creatures who had endeavoured
John taken.to evade their cruelty, the two grand rebels Simon
and John w'ere found, and referved for the triumph of
the conqueror. John, being pinched with hunger,
foon came out j and having begged his life, obtained
it ji but was condemned to perpetual imprifonment.
Simon, whofe retreat had been better ftored,- held out
till the end of October. The two chiefs, with 700
of the handfomeft Jewilh captives, were made to at¬
tend the triumphal chariot •, after which Simon was
dragged through the ftreets with a rope about his
neck, feverely fcourged, and then put to death 5 and
John was fent into perpetual imprifonment.—Three
caftles Itill remained untaken, namely, Herodion, Ma-
50 chseron, and Maflada. The two former capitulated •,
Befperate but Maffada held out. The place was exceedingly
end of the flrong both by nature and art, well llored wdth all
fjaffada ° kinds of provifions, and defended by a numerous gar-
Jewv
Jezides,
Si
154 ] J E Z
fell rifon of zealots, at the head of whom was one Elea-
zar, the grandlon of Judas Gaulonites, formerly men¬
tioned. The Roman general having in vain tried his
engines and battering-rams againft it, bethought him-
felf of furrounding it with a high and itrong wrall,
and then ordered the gates to be fet on fire. The
wind puftied the flames fo fiercely againft: the Jews,
that Eleazar in defpair perfuaded them firft to kill
their wdves and children, and then to choofe ten men
by lot, WTho ftiould kill all the reft •, and laftly one out
of the furviving ten to difpatch them and himfelf; on¬
ly this laft man was ordered to fet fire to the place be¬
fore he put an end to his own life. All this was ac¬
cordingly done *, and on the morrow, when the Romans
were preparing to fcale the walls, they were greatly
furprifed neither to fee nor hear any thing move. On
this they made fuch an hideous outcry, that two wo¬
men, who had concealed themfelves in an aquedubt,
came forth and acquainted them with the defperate
cataftrophe of the befieged.
Thus ended the Jewifh nation and worfhip; nor ^tateo^t^ie
have they ever fince been able to regain the fmalleft-v WSi ce.
lootmg in the country or Judea, nor indeed m any t;on 0f
other country on earth, though there is fcarce any part their city,
of the globe where they are not to be found. They
continue their vain expeblations of a Mefliah to deli¬
ver them from the low eftate into which they are fal¬
len } and, notwithftanding their repeated difappoint-
ments, there are fewr who can ever be perfuaded to
embrace Chriftianity. Their ceremonies and religious
worfhip ought to be taken from the law of Mofes *,
but they have added a multitude of abfurdities not
worth the inquiring after. In many countries, and in
different ages, they have been terribly maflacred, and
in general have been better treated by the Mahome¬
tans and Pagans than by Chriftians. Since the revi¬
val of arts and learning, boweyer, they have felt the
benefit of that increafe of humanity which has diffii-
fed itfelf almoft over the globe. It is faid, that in this
country the life of a Jew was formerly at the difpofal
of the chief lord wdiere he lived, and likewifa' all his
goods. So ftrong alfo were popular prejudices and fuf-
picions againft; them, that in the year 1348, a fatal
endemic diftemper raging in a great part of Europe,
it was faid that they had poifoned the fprings and
wells j in confequence of which a million and a half
of them were cruelly maflacred. In 1492, half a mil¬
lion of them were driven out of Spain, and 150,000
from Portugal. Edward I. did the fame. In fhort,
they were everywdiere perfecuted, opprefled, and moft
rigoroufly treated.
In this enlightened period a more generous fyftem is
followed. France has allowed them the rights of ci¬
tizens, which induces numbers of the moft wealthy
Jews to fix their refidence in that country. Poland
granted them very great privileges and immunities *,
England, Holland, and Pruflia tolerate and proteft
them •, and the emperor has revoked fome reft ribbons,
for which an edict was paffed : Spain, Portugal, and
fome of the Italian ftates, are ftill, however, it is laid,
averfe to their dwelling among them.
JEZIDES, among the Mahometans; a term of fi-
milar import with heretics among Chriftians.
The Jezides are a numerous febt inhabiting Turkey
and
I G L [ i
and Perfia, fo called from their head Jeztd, an Ara¬
bian prince, who Hew the fons of Ali, Mahomet’s fa¬
ther in law j for which reafon he is reckoned a parri¬
cide, and his followers heretics. There are about
20,000 Jezides in Turkey and Perfia; who are of
two forts, black and white. The white are clad like
Turks : and diftinguilhed only by their fliirts, which
are not Hit at the neck like thofe of others, but have
only a round hole to thruft their heads through. This
is in memory of a golden ring, or circle of light, wdnch
defcended from heaven upon the neck of their cheq,
the head of their religion, after his undergoing a fait
of forty days. The black Jezides, though married,
are the monks or religious of the order j and thefe are
called Fakirs.
The Turks exact exceflive taxes from the Jezides,
who hate the Turks as their mortal enemies; and when,
in their wrath, they curfe any creature, they call it
mujfulman: but they are great lovers of the Chriitians,
being more fond of Jefus Chrilt than of Mahomet, and
are never circumcjfed but when they are forced to it.
They are extremely ignorant, and believe both the
Bible and the koran without reading either of them :
they make vows and pilgrimages, but have no places of
religious worlhip.
All the adoration they pay to God confifts of fame
longs in honour of Jefus Chrud, the virgin, Pvfofes,
and fometimes Mahomet; and it is a principal point
of their religion never to fpeak ill of the devil, led he
firould refent the injury, if ever he Ihou'd come to be in
favour with God again, which they think pofiible ;
whenever they fpeak of him, they call him the angel
Peacock. They bury their dead in the firft place they
come at, rejoicing as at a fellival, and celebrating the
entry of the deceal’ed into heaven. They go in com¬
panies like the Arabians, and change their habitations
every 15 days. When they get wine, they drink it
to excefs ; and it is faid, that they fometimes do this
with a religious purpofe, calling it the blood of Chrift.
They buy their wives ; and the market-price is 200
crowns for all women, handfome or not, without dif-
tindlion.
JEZRAEL, or Jezreel, a town in the north of
Samaria, towards Mount Carmel, where flood a palace
of the kings of Ifrael, (1 Kings xxi. 18). On the bor¬
ders of Galilee (Jolhua xix.) faid to be one of the
towns of Iffachar.-—The valley of Jezreel (Judges
vi. 17.) was fituated to the north of the town, run¬
ning from wed to ead for ten miles, between two
mountains ; the one to the north, commonly called
Herman, near Mount Tabor; the other Gilboa: m
breadth two miles.
IF, an ifland of France, in Provence, and the mod
eadern of the three before the harbour of Marfeilles.
It is very well fortified, and its port one of the bed in
the Mediterranean.
IGIS, a town of the country of the Grifons, in
Caddea, with a magnificent cadle, in which is a cabi¬
net of curiofities, and a handfome library ; 23 miles
fouth-wed of Choira, and 23 fouth of Claris. E. Long.
9. o. N. Eat. 49. 10.
IGLAW, a confiderable and populous town of
Germany, in Moravia, where they have a manufactory
of good cloth, and excellent beer. It is feated on the
55] I G N
river Igla, 40 miles w;eft of Erin, and 62 fouth-ead of
Prague. E. Long. 15. 42. N. Lat. 47. 8.
IGNATIA, a genus of plants, belonging to the
pentandria clafs. See Botany Index.
IGNATIUS Loyola, (canonized), the founder
of the well-known order o*7 the Jesuits, was born at
the cadle cf Loyola, in Bifcay, 1491 ; and became
fird page to Ferdinand V. king of Spain, and then an
officer in his army. In this lad capacity, he fignalized
himfelf by his valour ; and was wounded in both legs
at the liege of Pampeluna, in 1521. To this circum-
dance the Jefaits owe their origin; for, while he was
under cure of his wound, a Life of the Saints was put
into his hands, which determined him to forfake the
militaiy for the ecclefiadical profeffiion. His fird de¬
vout exerciie was to dedicate himfelf to the bleffed vir¬
gin as her knight: he then went a pilgrimage to the
Holy Land ; and on his return to Europe, he conti*
nued his theological dudies in the univerfities of Spain,
though he was then 33 years of age. After this he
went to Paris; and in France laid the foundation of
this new order, the inditutes of which he prefented
to Pope Paul III. who made many objefiions to them,
but at lad in 1540 confirmed the inditution. The
founder died in 1555, and 1eft his difciples two famous
books; 1. Spiritual exercifes ; 2. Conditutions or rules
of the order. But it mud be remembered, that though
thefe avowed inditutes contain many privileges Ob¬
noxious to the welfare of fociety, the mod diabolical
are contained in the private rules, intitlcd Monitd fecre-
ta, w’hich were not difcovered till towards the clofe of
the lad century ; and mod writers attribute thefe, and
even the Conditutions, to Laynez, the fecond general
of the order.
Ignatius, St, furnamed Theophrajhis, one of the
apodolical fathers of the church, was born in Syria,
and educated under the apodle and evangelid St John,
and intimately acquainted with fome other of the
apodles, efpecially St Peter and St Paul. Being fully
iwdrudled in the doflrines of Chridianity, he was, for
his eminent parts and piety, ordained by St John, and
confirmed about the year 67 bilhop of Antioch, by
theie two apodles, who fird planted Chridianity in that
city, where the difciples alfo were fird called Chrijlians.
Antioch was then not only the metropolis of Syria,
but a city the mod famous and renowned of any in the
ead, and the ancient leat of the Roman emperors, as
well as of the viceroys and governors. In this impor¬
tant feat he continued to fit fomewhat above 40 years,
both an honour and fafeguard of the Chridian reli¬
gion, till the year 107, when Trajan the emperor,
dudied with a vidfory which he had lately obtained
over the Scythians and Daci, about the ninth year of
his reign, came to Antioch to make preparations for
a war againd the Parthians and Armenians. He en¬
tered the city with the pomp and folemnities of a tri¬
umph ; and, as his fird care ufually was about the con¬
cernments of religion, he began prefently to inquire
•into that affair. Chridianity had by this time made
filch a progrefs, that the Romans grew jealous and
uneafy at it. This prince, therefore, had already
commenced a perfecution againd the Chrifiians in
other parts of the empire, wffiich he now refolved to
carry ofi here. However, as he was naturally of a
U 2 mild
Ignatia,
Ignatitu.
ION [is
Ignath’?. mild difpofition, though he ordered the laws to be put
l'" in force againft them if convidted, yet he forbade them
to be louglit after.
In this itate of affairs, Ignatius, thinking it more
prudent to go himfelf than ftay to be fent for, of his
' own accord prefented himfelf to the emperor; and, it
is faid, there palled a long and particular difcourfe be¬
tween them, wherein the emperor expreffing a furprife
ho'w he dared to tranfgrefs the laws, the bifhop took
the opportunity to aifert his own innocency, and to
explain and vindicate his faith and freedom. 1 he if-
fue of this was, that he was caft into prifon, and this
fentence paffed upon him, That, being incurably over¬
run with fuperflition, he Ihould be carried bound by
foldiers to Rome, and there thrown as a prey to wild
beafts.
He was firfl conduced to Seleucia, a port of Syria,
at about 16 miles diftance, the place were Paul and
Barnabas fet fail for Cyprus. Arriving at Smyrna in
Ionia, he went to vifit Polycarp biihop of that place,
and was himfelf vifited by the clergy of the Aiian
churches round the country. In return for that kind-
nefs, he wrote letters to feveral churches, as the Ephe-
fians, Magnefians, and Trallians, befides the Romans,
for their inftruftion and eftablifhment in the faith $ one
of thefe was addreffed to the Chriftians at Rome, to
acquaint them with his prefent flate, and paflionate de-
fire not to be hindered in the courfe of martyrdom
which he was now haflening to accomplifh.
His guard, a little impatient of their ftay, fet fail
with him for Troas, a noted city of the leffer Phry¬
gia, not far from the ruins of old Troy ; where, at
his arrival, he was much refreftied with the news he
received of the perfecution ceafmg in the church of
Antioch : hither alfo feveral churches fent their raef-
fengers to pay their refpedfs to him •, and hence too he
difpatched two epiftles, one to the church of Phila¬
delphia, and the other to that of Smyrna ; and, to¬
gether with this laft, as Eufebius relates, he wrote pri¬
vately to Polycarp, recommending to him the care and
infpeifion of the church of Antioch.
From Troas they Puled to Neapolis, a maritime
towii in Macedonia tjxnce to Philippi, a Roman co¬
lony, where they were entertained with all imaginable
kindne.fs and courtefy, and conduced forwards on their
journey, paffing oe foot through Macedonia and Epi¬
rus, till they came to Epidamnium, a city of Dalma¬
tia : where again taking (hipping, they failed through
the Adriatic, and arrived at Rhegium, a port-town in
Italy ; directing their courfe thence through the Tyr¬
rhenian fca to Pute@li, whence Ignatius defired to
proceed by land, ambitious to trace the fame way by
which St Paul went to Rome : but this wifh was not
complied with ; and, after a ftay of 24 hours, a prof-
perous wind quickly carried them to the Roman port,
the great harbour and ftation for their navy, built
near Oftia, at the mouth of the Tyber, about 16 miles
from Rome ; whither the martyr longed to come, as
much defirous to be at the end of his race, as his
keepers, weary of their voyage, were to be at the end
of their journey.
The Chriftians at Rome, daily expefting his arrival,
were come out to meet and entertain him, and accor¬
dingly received him with a mixture of joy and forrew 5
6 ] I G N
but when fame of them intimated, that poftibly the Ignatius,
populace might be taken off from defiring his death, Ignis-
he expreffed a pious indignation, intreating them to fatuus.
caft no rubs in his way, nor do any thing that might
hinder him, nowr he was haftening to his crown. There
are many iuch expreffions as this in his epiftle to the
Romans, which plainly ihow that he was highly am¬
bitious of the crown of martyrdom. Yet it does not
appear that he raftfty fought or provoked danger. A-
mong other expreflions of his ardour for differing, he
faid, that the wild beafts had feared and refufed to
touch fome that had been thrown to them, which he
hoped would not happen to him. Being condufted
to Rome, he was prefented to the pmefetft, and the
emperor’s letters probably delivered concerning him.
The interval before his martyrdom was fpent in pray¬
ers for the peace and profperity of the church. That
his punhhment might be the more pompous and pub¬
lic, one of their folemn feftivals, the time of their Sa¬
turnalia, and that part of it when they celebrated their
Sigillaria, was pitched on for his execution 5 at which
time it was their cuftdm to entertain the people with
the bloody conflicts of gladiators, and the hunting and
fighting with wild beafts. Accordingly, on the 13th
kal. January, i. e. December 20. he was brought out
into the amphitheatre, and the lions being let loofe
upon him, quickly difpatched their meal, leaving no¬
thing but a few of the hardeft of his bones. Thefe
remains were gathered up by two deacons who had
been the companions of his journey *, and being tranf-
ported to Antioch, were interred in the cemetery,
without the gate that leads to Daphne ; whence, by
the command of the emperor Theodofius, they were
removed with great pomp and folsmnity to the Ty-
cheon, a temple within the city, dedicated to the pub¬
lic genius of it, but now confecrated to the memory of
the martyr.
St Ignatius Hands at the head of thofe Antinicene
fathers, who have occafionally delivered their opinions
in defence of the true divinity of Chrift, whom he calls
the Son of God, and his eternal world. He is alfo reck¬
oned the great champion of the doftrine of the epif-
copal order, as diftinct and fuperior to that of pried
and deacon. And one, the moft important, ufe of his
writings refpedts the authenticity of the Holy Scrip¬
tures, which he frequently alludes to, in the very ex¬
preflions as they ftand at this day.—Archbithop Uih-
er’s edition of his works, printed in 1647, is thought
the beft : yet there is a frelher edition extant at Am-
Iterdam, where, befide the beft notes, there are the
differtations of Ulher and Pearfon.
St Ignatius's Bean, the fruit of a plant. See Igna-
tia, Botany Index.
IGNIS-fatuus, a kind of light, fuppofed to be of
an cleclric nature, appearing frequently in mines,
marihy places, and near ftagnating waters. It was
formerly thought, and is ftill by the fuperftitious
believed, to have fomething ominous in its nature,
and to prefage death and other misfortunes. There
have been inftances of people being decoyed by thefe
lights into marfhy places, where they have perifhed ;
whence the names of Ignis-fatuus, Will-with-a-wifp,
and Jack-iyith-a lan thorn, as if this appearance was
an evil fpirit which, took delight in doing mifehief
I G N [ j
Ignition of that kind. For a further account of the nature
tl and properties of the ignis-fatuus, fee Meteorology
ignoiance.
IGNITION, properly fignifes the fetting fire to
any fubftance j the fenfe is fometimes limited to that
kind of burning which is not accompanied with flame,
fuch as that of charcoal, cinders, metals, ftones, and
other folid fubftances. The eftefts of ignition, according
to the old chemical doftrine, are firft to diffipate what is
called the phlog'Jlon of the ignited fubftance, after
which it is reduced to aflres. Vitrification next fol¬
lows ", and laftly, the fubftance is totally diflipated in
vapour. All thefe effiefts, however, depend on thy
prefence of the air ; for m vacuo the phlogifton of any
fubftance cannot be difiipated. Neither can a bode
which is totally deftitute of phlogifton be ignited in
fuch a manner as thofe which are not deprived of it :
for as long as the phlogifton remains, the heat is kept
up in the body by the aftion of the external air upon
it *, but when the phlogifton is totally gone, the air
always deftroys, inftead of augmenting, the heat. But
for the explanation of the phenomena of ignition, ac¬
cording to the views of modern chemiftry, fee IGNITION,
Chemistry Index.
IGNOBILES, amongft the Romans, was the defig-
natmn of luch perfons as had no right of uling pictures
and ftatues. See Jus Imaginis.
IGNOMINIA, a fpecies of punilhment amongft the
Romans, whereby the offender fuffered public lhame,
either by virtue of the prsetor’s edift, or by order of
the cenfor. This punifhment, befides the fcandal, de¬
prived the party of the privilege of bearing any offices,
and almoft all other liberties of a Roman citizen.
IGNORAMUS, in Law, is a word properly ufed
by the grand inqueft empannelled in the inquifition
of caufes criminal and public, and written upon the
bill whereby any crime is offered to their confideration,
when, as they miflike their evidence as defeftive or too
weak to make good the prefentment ; the effect of
which word fo written is, that all farther inquiry upon
that party for that fault is thereby flopped, and he
delivered without farther anfwer. It hath a refem-
blance with that cuftom of the ancient Romans, where
the judges, when they abfolved a perfon accufed, did
write /l. upon a little table provided for that purpofe,
i. e. aljblvimus ; if they judged him guilty, they wrote
C. i. e. condonnamus ; if they found the caufe difficult
and doubtful, they wrote N. L i. e. non liquet.
IGNORANCE, the privation or abfence of know¬
ledge. 1 he caufes of ignorance, according to Locke,
are chiefly thefe three, i. Want of ideas. 2. Want
of a difcoverable conneffion between the ideas we have.
3- Want of tracing and examining our ideas. See Me¬
taphysics.
Ignorance, in a more particular fenfe, is ufed to
denote illiteracy. Previous to the taking of Rome by
the Gauls, fuch grofs ignorance prevailed among the
Romans that few of the citizens could read or w'rite, and
the alphabet was almoft unknown. During three ages
there were no public fchools, but the little learning their
children had was taught them by their parents j and how
little that was may be partly concluded from this circum-
ftance, that a nail w’as ufually driven into the wall of
the temple of 'Jupiter Capitolinus, on the 15th of Sep¬
tember, to affiit the ignorance of the people in reckon-
17 J jib.;
ing the years, because they were unacquainted with Iguana
letters or figures. The driving of the nail was after- . h
wards converted into a religious ceremony, and perform-
ed by the dilator, to avert public calamities, ——
Ignorance, or miftake, in Lave, a defect of will,
whereby a perlbn is excufed from the guilt of a crime,
when, intending to do a lawful aCt, he does that which
is unlawful. For here the deed and the will aCting
feparately, there is not that conjunction between them
which is neceffary to form a criminal act. But this
muff be an ignorance or miffake of fact, and not an
error in point of lawn As if a man intending to kill
a thief or houfe-breaker in his own houfe, by miftake
kills one of his own family, this is no criminal aCtion :
but if a man thinks be has a right to kill a perfon
excommunicated or outlaw'ed wherever he meets him,
and does fo 5 this is wilful murder. For a miltake in
point of law, wffiich every perfon of diferetion not
only may, but is bound and prefumed to know, is, in
criminal cafes, no fort of defence. Ignorantia juris
quod quifque lenetur feire, ncminem cxcujat, is as well the
maxim of our own law’ as it was of the Roman.
IGU4NA, a fpecies of Lacerta. See Erpeto-
LOGY Index.
Mud Iguana, a fpecies of fifti. See Mjrjena,
Ichthyology Index.
1HOR, Johor, or jar, a town of Alia, in Ma¬
lacca, and capital of a province of the fame name in
the peninfula beyond the Ganges. ItSvas taken by
the Portuguefe in 1603, who deftroyed it, and car¬
ried off the cannon 5 but it has fince been rebuilt, and
was afterwards in poffeffion of the Dutch. E. Lonp-.
93. 55. N. Lat. 1. 15.
JIB, the foremoft fail of a ftiip, being a large ftay-
fail extended from the outer end of the bowfprit pro¬
longed by the jib-boom, towards' the fore-top mail
head. See Sail.
. Phe jib is a fail of great command with any fide-
wind, but efpecially when the ftiip is ciofe hauled, or
has the wind upon her beam 5 and its effort in cajling
the ffiip, or turning her head to leeward, is very
powerful, and of great utility, particularly when the
ftiip is working through a narrow channel.
JiB-Boom, a boom run out from the extremity of
the bowfprit, parallel to its length, and ferving to
extend the bottom of the jib, and the ftay of the fore-
top-gallant mall. This boom, which is nothing more
than a continuation of the bowfpirit forward, to which
it may be confidered as a top-maft, is ufually attached
to the bowfprit by means of two large boom-irons,
or by one boom iron, and a cap on the outer end of
the bowfpirit 5 or, finally, by the cap without and a
ftrong lafliing within, inftead of a boom iron, which
is generally the method of fecuring it in- fmall mer-
cliant-fhips. It may therefore be drawn in upon the
bowfprit as occafion requires; which is ufually prac-
tifed when the ftnp enters a harbour, where it might
very foon be broken or carried away, by the veffels
which are moored therein, or palling by under fail.
JIBBEL or Gebbel Aurey, the Mons Aurafius of
the middle age, an affemblage of many very rocky moun¬
tains in Africa, in the kingdom of Algiers. Here Mr
Bruce met with a race of people much fairer in the
complexion than any ot the nations to the Southward of
Britain : their hair was red, and their eyes blue : they.
maiataia
J 1 D
maintain their independence, and are of a favage dif-
poution, fo that our traveller found it dithcuk to ap¬
proach them with fafety. They are called Neardia;
and each of them has a Greek crofs in the middle be¬
tween the eyes, marked with antimony. They are
divided into tribes, but, unlike the other Arabs, have
huts in the mountains built of mud and draw ; and
are, by our author, fuppofed to be a remnant of the
Vandals. He even thinks that they may be defcended
from the remainder of an army of Vandals mentioned
by Procopius, which was defeated among thele moun¬
tains. They live in perpetual war with the Moors,
and boaft that their anceftors were Chriftians. They
pay no taxes.
JIDDA, a town of Arabia, fituated, according to
Mr Bruce, in N. Lat. 28° o' l", £. Long. 390 16' 55'',
while others make it 210 28', and E. Long. 390 22'.
It is fituated in a very unwholefome, barren, and
defert part of the country. Immediately without the
gate to the eaftward is a defert plain filled with the
huts of the Bedoweens or country Arabs, built of long
bundles of fpartum or bent-grafs put together like
fafcines. Thefe people fupply the town with milk and
butter. “ There is no flirring cut of the town (fays
Mr Bruce) even for a walk, unlefs for about half a mile
bn the fouth fide by the fea, where there is a number
of {linking pools of ftagnant water, which contributes
to make the towm very unwholefome.”
From the difagreeable and inconvenient fituation of
this port, it is probable, that it would have been long
ago abandoned, had it not been for its vicinity to
Mecca, and the vafl annual influx of wealth occafioned
by the India trade j which, however, does not continue,
but pafies on to Mecca, whence it is difperfed all over
the eaft. The town of Jidda itfelf receives but little
advantage, for all the cuftoms are immediately fent to
the needy and rapacious fherifF of Mecca and his de¬
pendents. “ The gold (fays Mr Bruce) is returned
in bags and boxes, nnd paffes on as rapidly to the
flops as the goods do to the market, and leaves as little
profit behind. In the mean time provifions rife to a
prodigious price, and this falls upon the townfmen,
while all the profit of the traffic is in the hands of
ftrangers-, moft of whom, after the market is over
(which does not laft fix weeks), retir« to Yemen and
other neighbouring countries, which abound in every
fort of provifion.
From this fcarcity, Mr Bruce fuppofes it is that
polygamy is lefs common here than in any other part
of Arabia. “ Few of the inhabitants of Jidda (fays
our author) can avail themfelves of the privilege grant¬
ed by Mahomet. He cannot marry more than one
wife, becaufe he cannot maintain more •, and from this
caufe arifes the want of people and the number of un¬
married women.”
The trade at Jidda is carried on in a manner which
appeared very flrange to our traveller. “ Nine fnips
(fays he) were there from India j fome of them worth,
I fuppofe 2CO,oool. One merchant, a Turk, living
at Mecca, 30 hours journey off, where no Chriflian
dares go, whilft the continent is open to the Turk for
cfcape, offers to purchafe the cargoes of four out of
thefe nine fhips himfelf; another of the fame cafi:
comes and fays he will buy none unlefs he has them
all. The famples are ffiown, and the cargoes of the
J I G
whole nine fliips are carried into the wildefi: pa-ts of* Ju
Arabia by men with whom one would not with to
truft himfelf alone in the field. This is not all; two
Ihdia brokers come into the room to fettle the price j
one on the part of the India captain, the other on.
that of the buyer the Turk. They are neither Ma¬
hometans nor Chriflians, but have credit with both.
They fit down on the carpet, and take an India thawl
which they carry on their ftioulder like a napkin, and
fpread it over their hands. They talk in the mean time
indifferent converfation, as if they were employed in
no ferious bufinefs whatever. After about 20 minutes
fpent in handling each others fingers below the fiiawl,
the bargain is concluded, fay for nine fliips, without
one word ever having been fpoken on the fubjeft, or
pen or ink ufed in any thape whatever. There never
was one inftance of a difpute happening in thefe Tales.
But this is not all j the money is yet to be paid. A
private Moor, who has nothing to fupport him but
his charaSer, becomes refponfible for the payment of
thefe cargoes. This man delivers a number of cearfe
hempen bags full of what is fuppofed to be money.
He marks the contents upon the bag, and puts his
feal upon the. tiring that ties the mouth of it. This is
received for what is marked upon it without any one
ever having opened one of the bags ; and in India it is
current for the value marked upon it as long as the
bag lafls.
The port of Jidda is very extenfive, and contains
numberlefs flioals, fmall iflands, and funk rocks, with
deep channels, however, between them 5 but in the
harbour itfelf fhips may ride fecure, whatever wind
blows. The only danger is in the coming in or going
out*, but as the pilots are very fkilful, accidents are ne¬
ver known to happen. The charts of this harbour,
as Mr Bruce informs us, are exceedingly erroneous.
While he ftaid here, he was defired by Captain
Thornhill to make a new chart of the harbour j but
finding that it had been undertaken by another gentle¬
man, Captain Newland, he dropped it. He argues in the
ftrongefl terms againfl the old maps, which he fays
can be of no ule, but the cortrnry •, and he gives it as
a charafteriftic of the Red fea, “ fcarce to have
foundings in any part of the channel, and often on
both fides ; whilfl afhore, foundings are hardly found
a boat length from the main. To this, fays he, 1 will
add, that there is fcarce one ifland on which I ever
was, where the bowfpirit was not over the land, while
there were no foundings by a line heaved over the
ftern. Of all the veffels in Jidda, only two had
their log-lines properly divided, and yet all were
fo fond of their fuppofed accuracy, as to aver they
had kept their courie within five leagues between In¬
dia and Babelmandel. Yet they had made no eftima-
tion of the currents without the ftraits, nor the different
very ftrong ones foon after palling Socotra j their half-
minute glaffes, upon a medium, ran 57 feconds; they
had made no obfervations on the tides or currents in
the Red fea, either in the channel or in the inward
paffage ; .yet there is delineated in this map a courfe of
Captain Newland’s, which he kept in the middle of
the channel, full of fharp angles and fhort ftretches;
you would think every yard was meafured and found¬
ed !”
JIG. See Music, N* 252.
[ 158 ]
JILLIFREE,
I L A
JILLIFREE, a town on the northern bank of the
river Gamijia, oppofite to James’s ifland, where the
Englilh had formerly a fmall port. The kingdom of
Barra, in w7hich it is fituated, produces abundance of
the neceffaries of life ; but the chief trade of the inha¬
bitants is in lalt, which they carry up the river in ca¬
noes } and, in return, bring dowm Indian corn, cotton-
cloths, elephants teeth, fmall quantities of gold dull:,
&c. The number of canoes and people continually
employed in this trade, make the king of Barra, ac¬
cording to Mr Park, more formidable to Europeans,
than any other chieftain on the river, and have encou¬
raged him to eftablifh thofe extravagant duties, which
traders of all nations are obliged to pay at entry, a-
mounting almoft to 20I. on each veffel, great and fmall.
Thefe duties are commonly collefted in perfon by the
governor of Jillifree, who is attended by a troublefome
train of dependants, who have fome knowledge of the
Englifh language, in confequence of their intercourfe
with them, and beg with fuch importunity, that traders
are often under the neceffity of complying with their
demands, in order to get rid of them. N. Lat. 13. 16.
W. Long. 16. ro. from Greenwich.
JIN. See Genii.
IKENILD street, one of the four famous ways
which the Romans made in England, called Stratum
Icenorum, becaufe it began in the country of the Iceni,
who inhabited Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridgefhire.
I LA, Ilay, or IJla, one of the chief of the Hebrides
or Weftern ifles of Scotland, lying to the weft of Jura,
from which it is feparated by a narrow channel. It ex¬
tends 24 miles in length from north to fouth, and is
18 in breath from call to weft. On the eaft fide there
are many lofty fterile mountains ; but in the interior,
and to the fouthward and weftward, the land is in good
cultivation. A great body of limeftone of a bluilh co¬
lour lying in the middle part of the ifiand, ftretches al¬
moft through its whole length, and is now extenfively
employed for the purpofes of manure. Marl, which
is alfo abundant, is applied to the fame ufe. Lead-ore
has been dug out in feveral places, and at fo early a
period as the time of the Danes. The principal har¬
bour in Ilia is at Lbchindaal, but there are feveral others
which are fafe and commodious. Here are feveral
rivers and lakes wrell ftored with trout, eels, and fal-
mon. In the centre is Loch Finlagan, about three
miles in circuit, with the little ifle of that name in the
middle. Here the great lord of the ifles once refided
in all the pomp of royalty j but his palaces and offices
are now in ruins. Inftead of a throne, Macdonald
flood on a ftone feven feet fquare, in which there was
an impreflion made to receive his feet ; here he was
crowned' and anointed by the bifhop of Argyle and
feven inferior priefts, in prefence of the chieftains.
This ftone ftill exifts. The ceremony (after the new'
lord had collefled his kindred and vaffals) wTas truly
patriarchal, Ater putting on his armour, his helmet,
and his fword, he took an oath to rule as his anceftors
I L A
had done 'r that is, to govern as a father w’ould his
children : his people in return fwore that they would
pay the fame obedience to him as children would to
their parent. The dominions of this potentate, about
the year 1586, confifted only of Hay, Jura, Knap-
dale, and Cantyre: fo reduced were they from
what they had been before the deprivation of the
great earl of Rofs in the reign of James III. Near
this is another little ii!e, where he affembled his coun¬
cil, llan na Corlle, or “ the ifland of council j” where
13 judges conftantly fat to decide differences among his
fubje&s ; and received for their trouble the nth part
of the value of the affair tried before them. In the
firft ifland were buried the wives and children of the
lords of the ifles j but their own perfons were depofited
in the more facred ground of Iona. On the ftiores of
the lake are fome marks of the quarters of his Carnauck
and Gilli-glqffes, “ the military of the ifles 5” the firft
fignifying a ftrong man, the laft a grim-looking fellow'.
The firft were light-armed, and fought with darts
and daggers ; the laft with (harp hatchets. Thefe are
the troops that Shakefpeare alludes to, when he fpeaks
of a Donald, who
  —  From the Weftern ifles
Of Kernes and Gallow-glaffes was fupplied.
Befides thofe already mentioned, the lords had a houfe
and chapel at Laggan, on the fouth fide of Lochin-
daal: a ftrong caftle on a rock in the fea, at Duno-
waik, at the fouth-eaft end of the country ; for they
made this ifland their refidence after their expulfion
from that of Man in 1304.—There is a tradition, that
while the ifle of Man was part of the kingdom of the
ifles, the rents were for a time paid in this country :
thofe in filver wTere paid on a rock, ftill called Creig-
a-nione, or “ the rock of the filver rent j” the other,
Creg-a-nairgid, or “ the rock of rents in kind.” Thefe
lie oppofite to each other, at the mouth of a harbour
on the fouth fide of this ifland. There are feveral
forts built on the ifles in fr'elh water lakes, and divers
caverns in different parts of the ifland, which have
been ufed occafionally as places of ftrength. The
ifland is divided into four parifhes, viz. Kildalton,
Killarow, Kilchoman, and Kilmenie. The- produce is
corn of different kinds ; fuch as bear, which fometimes
yields eleven fold; and oats fix fold. Much tlax is
raifed here, and about 2000I. worth fold out of the
ifland in yarn, which might better be manufadlured
on the fpot, to give employ to the poor natives. Not-
wuthHanding the excellency of the land, above 1000k
worth of meal is annually imported (a). Ale is fre¬
quently made in this ifland of the young tops of heath,
mixing two-thirds of that plant with one of malt,
fometimes adding hops. Boethius relates, that this
liquor was much ufed among the Pi&s ; but when that
nation was extirpated by the Scots, the fecret of ma¬
king it perilhed with them. Numbers of cattle are
bred here, and about 1700 are annually exported at
the
[ 159 1
(a) I his might have been the cafe in the time of Pennant, from whom the above account is taken. It is not fo
now, although the population has increafed to nearly 1 2,000. Ifla indeed enjoys the peculiar advantages of being
not only a grazing but a corn country, and can thus afford a very confiderable exportation of both fpecies of pro¬
duce. Ihe number of cattle now exported far exceeds that ftated above by Pennant.
I L A [ 160 ] I L C
the price of 50 {hillings each. ‘The itland is often
overftocked, and numbers die In March for want of
fodder. None but milch-cows are houfed : cattle of
all other kinds, except the faddle-horfes, run out du¬
ring winter.
The number of inhabitants, when May was vifited by
Pennant,- is computed to have been between feven and
eight thouland. About 700, fays he, are employed in the
mines and in the filhery : the reft are gentlemen-larmers,
and fubtenants or fervants. The rvomen Ipin. Iheler-
vants are paid in kind •, the fixth part ot the crop.
They have houfes gratis 5 the mafter gives them the
feed for the firft year, and lends them horfes to plough
annually the land annexed.
The quadrupeds of this ifland, as enumerated by
Mr Pennant *, are ftots, weefels, otters, and hares :
the laft fmall, dark-coloured, afid bad runners. The
birds are eagles, peregrine falcons, black and red game,
and a very few ptarmigans. Red-breafted goofanders
breed on the (bore among the loofe ftones, wild geefe
in the moors, and herons in the ifland in Loch-guirm.
The lifh are plaife, fmeardab, large dabs, mullets, bal-
lan, lump-fifh, black goby, greater dragonet, and that
rare filh the lepadogafter of M. Gouan. Vipers fwarm
in the heath : the natives retain the vulgar error of
their flinging with their forked tongues (b) ; that a
fword on which the poifon has fallen will hifs in. water
like a red-hot iron 5 and that a poultice of human or¬
dure is an infallible cure for the bite.
In this ifland, Mr Pennant informs us, feveral an¬
cient diverftons and fuperftitions are ftill preferved : the
laft indeed are almoft extimfl, or at moft lurk only a-
mongft the very meaneft of the people. I he late-
wakes or funerals, like thofe of the Romans, were at¬
tended with fports, and dramatic entertainments com-
pofed of many parts, and the a£lors often changed their
drefi'es fuitably to their characters. The fubjedl of the
drama was hiftorical, and preferved by memory.-—I he
power of fafcination is as ftrongly''believed here as it
was by the (hepherds of Italy in times of old.
Nefcio quis tcneros oculis mihi fafcinat agnos ?
But here the power of the evil eye affe&s more the
milch-cows than lambs. If the good houfewife per¬
ceives the effedl of the malicious on any of her kine,
the takes as much milk as (he can drain from the en¬
chanted herd (for the witch commonly leaves very
little). She then boils it with certain herbs, and adds
to them flints and untempered fteel j after that fhe
iecures the door, and invokes the three facred perfons.
This puts the witch into fuch an agony, that ftie comes
nilling-willing to the houfe, begs to be admitted, to
obtain relief by touching the powerful pot: the good
woman then makes her terms j the witch reftores the
milk to the cattle, and in return is freed from her
pains. But fometimes, to fave the trouble of thofe
charms (for it may happen that the diforder may arife
from other caufes than an evil-eye), the trial is made
by immerging in milk a certain herb, and if the cows
are fupernaturally affeCted, it inftantly diftils blood.
The unfuccefsful lover revenges himfelf on his happy
rival by charms potent as thofe of the fliepherd Al-
phefibaeus, and exactly fimilar :
KeBe tribus nodis ternosy Atnanjlli, colorcs ;
NeBe, Amarijlli, modo.
Donald takes three threads of different hues, and
ties three knots on each, three times imprecating the
moft cruel difappointments on the nuptial bed : but
the bridegroom, to avert the harm, Hands at the altar
with an untied flioe, and puts a fixpence beneath his
foot.
Hiftory furniflies very few materials for the great
events or revolutions of Hay. It feems to have been
long a feat of empire, probably jointly with the ifle of
Man, as being moft conveniently iituated for the go¬
vernment of the reft of the Hebrides j for Crovan the
Norwegian, after his conqueft of that ifland in'l 066,
retired and finiftied his days in Hay. There are more
Danifti or Norwegian names of places in this ifland
than any other : almoft all the prefent farms derive
their titles from them ; fuch as Periibus, Torridale,
Torribolfe, and the like. On the retreat of the Danes
it became the feat of their fucceffors the lords of the
ifles j and continued, after their powrer was broken, in
the reign of James III. in their defendants the Mac¬
donalds, who held or ought to have held it from the
crown. If w’as in the poffeffion of a Sir James Mac¬
donald, in the year 1598, the fame w’ho won the
battle of Traii-dhruinard. His powder gave umbrage
to James VI. who direfted the lord of Macleod,
Cameron of Lochiel, and the Macneiles of Barra,
to fupport the Macleans in another invafion. The ri¬
val parties met near the hill of Benbigger, eaft of Kil-
larow j a fierce engagement enfued, and the Macdo¬
nalds were defeated and almoft entirely cut off. Sir
James efcaped to Spain-, but returned in 1620, was
pardoned, received a penlion, and died the fame year
at Glafgow -, and in him expired the laft of the great
Macdonalds. But the king, irritated by the diftur-
bances raifed by private w-ars waged between thefe and
other clans, relumed the grant made by his predecef-
for, and transferred it to Sir John Campbell of Calder,
who held it on paying an annual feu-duty of five hun¬
dred pounds fterling, which is paid to this day. The
ifland was granted to Sir John as a rew-ard for his
undertaking the conqueft j but the family confidered
it as a dear acquilition, by the lofs of many gallant
followers, and by the expences incurred in lupport
of it.
ILCHESTER, a town of Somerfetftfire in Eng¬
land, feated on the river Yeovil, 1 29 miles from London,
is fo called, becaufe it once had a caiile, and (lands on
the river Ivel. It is a place of great antiquity, as ap¬
pears by the Roman coins which are fometimes dug
up. Itislikewife evident, from the ruins and from
two towers on the bridge, that it was once a large place,
and encompaffed with a double wall. It alfo had feve¬
ral parifti-churches, though now but one. It is governed
by tw-o bailiffs, who with the twelve burgeffes are lords
of the manor. In the reign of Edward III. the aflizes
for the county were fixed here, which have fince been
held
£b) This vulgar error is by no means limited to the natives of May.
I L D [ i
Odefonfo. held alternately at Wells, Taunton, and Bridgewater.
The knights of the (hire are always chol'en here, and it
is the place for the county courts and jail. On the lat¬
ter is its chief dependence, and therefore it cannot be
very polite. It is noted for being the birth-place'of Ro¬
ger the famous Friar Bacon. Ilchefter is an earldom
in the Fox family.
ILDEFONSO, St, a celebrated royal refidence of
Spain, diifant about two miles from Segovia. It was
erecled by Philip V. in the midlt of a folitary wood,
and in the bofom of deep mountains. It is chiefly re¬
markable for its gardens. There is nothing magnifi¬
cent in the palace, particularly in its exterior appear¬
ance. The front on the fide of the garden is of the
Corinthian order, and not deditute of elegance Here
are the king’s apartments, which look upon a parterre fur-
rounded with vafes and marble datues, and a cafcade
which, for the richnefs of its decorations, may be com¬
pared with the fined of the kind.
The purity and clearnefs of the water is indeed in¬
comparable. Philip V. could not, in this refpeft, be
better ferved by nature. From the mountains which
fliade the palace defcend feveral rivulets, which fupply
the refervoirs. Thefe waters anfwer the double pur-
pole of fupplying numerous fountains, and of diffufing
life and verdure through the magnificent gardens, the
fight of w'hich alone is a fuflicient recompenfe for a
journey into Spain. They are on the infide a league
in circumference. The inequality of the ground af¬
fords every moment new points of view. The princi¬
pal alleys anfwer to diderent fummits of neighbouring
mountains j and one in particular produces the mod
agreeable effetd. It is terminated at one end by the
grand front of the palace. From this point are feen,
at one view, five fountains, ornamented with elegant
groups, rifing into an amphitheatre, above W'hich ap¬
pear the fummits of lofty mountains. The mod ele¬
vated of thefe groups is that of Andromeda fadened
to a rock. When feen at a little didance it is perhaps
defective, becaufe the rock appears too diminutive by
the fide of the monder w'hich threatens Andromeda j
and of Perfeus, by whom it is attacked *, but the w^hole
contributes to the beauty of the view7. The mod re¬
markable of the five groups is that of Neptune.
“Genius (fays M. Bourgoanne f) prefided at the
compofition and in the choice of the fituation j the
deity of the ocean appears ereft, furrounded by the
marine court. His attitude, his threatening counte¬
nance, and the manner of holding his trident, announce
that he hasjud impofed filence on the mutinous waves j
and the calm which reigns in the bafon, defended
from every wflnd by the triple wall of verdure by
which it is furrounded, feems to indicate that he has not
iffued his commands in vain. Often have I feated
myfelf, with Virgil in my hand, by the lide of this
filent water, under the flrade of the verdant foliage, nor
ever did I fail to recolleft the famous ^uos Ego !
“ There are other fountains worthy of the attention
of the curious; fuch as that of Latona, where the
limpid (heaves, fome perpendicularly, and others in
every direftion, fall from the hoarfe throats of the
Lycian peafants, half transformed into frogs, and
fpouting them forth in fuch abundance, that the ftatue
of the goddefs difappears under the wide mantle of
liquid ciyllnl; that alfo of Diana in the bath, fur-
Vol. XI. Part I.
f 7raveh
in Spain,
i. 6i.
Oi ] I L D
rounded by hef nymphs •, in the twinkling of an eye Ildefonfu.
all the chafte court is hidden beneath the waters 5 the
fpeflator imagines he hears the whiftling of aquatic
birds, and the roaring of lions, from the place whence
this momentary deluge efcapes by a hundred canals.
The fountain of Fame is formed by a (ingle jet-d’eau,
W’hich rifes 130 feet, exhibiting to the diltance of feve¬
ral leagues round the triumph of art over nature, and
falls in a gentle (hower upon the gazing fpeflators.
There are fome fituations in the gardens of St Ildefonfo,
whence the eye takes in the wdiole or the greater part
of thefe fountains, and where the ear is delighted with
the harmony of their murmurs. The traveller who
willies to charm all his fenfes at once, muft take his
ftation on the high flat ground in front of the king’s
apartment. In the thick part of the foliage are con¬
trived two large arbours, from the top of which are
feen twenty cryftal columns rifing into the air to the
height of the furrounding trees, mixing their refplen-
dent whitenefs with the verdure of the foliage, uniting
their confufed noife to the milling of the branches, and
refrelhing and embalming the air: if the traveller here
experience no pleafing fenfations, let him return home j
he is utterly incapable of feeling either the beauties of
art or nature.
“ The reader may here imagine (continues our au¬
thor) my enthufiafm too extravagant. He is mifta-
ken j let him follow me to the great refervoir of abun¬
dant and limpid waters. He wall have to climb for
fome minutes, but will not regret the trouble he has
taken. Let us fuppofe ourfelves arrived at the long
and narrow alley which takes up the whole of the up¬
per part of the gardens \ proceed to the middle, and
turn your face towards the caftle. To the vail horizon
around you, no other boundaries are difeovered but
thofe which limit the human fight j thefe alone pre¬
vent you from difeovering the Pyrenees. Obferve the
(leeple, which feems but a point in the immenfe ex¬
tent : you wall perhaps imagine it to be that of the
panth-church of St Ildefonfo-, but, in reality, it is the
cathedral of Segovia, at two leagues diftance. The
gardens, through which you have paffed, become nar¬
rower to the eye. You fuppofe yourfelf clofe to the
royal habitation ; the alleys, fountains, and parterres,
have all difappeared ; you fee but one road, which, in
the form of a veffel, upon the prow of which you feem
to (land, has its (lern on the top of the palace. Af¬
terward turn and take a view of the little lake behind
you, of which the irregular borders do not, like what
we call our Englilh gardens, merely ape the diforder
of nature. Nature herfelf has traced them, except on
the fide where you (land. This (Iraight alley is united
at each end to the curve wdfich furrounds the refervoir.
The waters, which dream in abundance from the fides
of the mountain in front, meet in this refervoir, and
thence defcend by a thoufand invifible tubes to other re¬
fervoirs, whence they are fpouted in columns or (heets
upon the flowery foil to which they were drangers.
The birds, drawn by their clearnefs, come to (kim and
agitate their crydal. The image of the tufted woods
which furround them is refleded from their immove¬
able furface, as is alfo that of fome fimple and rural
houfes, thrown, as by accident, into this delightful pic¬
ture, which Lorrain would have imitated, but perhaps
could not have imagined. The oppofite bank is ob-
X feured
I L D [ 162 ] 1 L E
Iklcfonfo. {cured by tliick (hades. Some hollows, ovcrftiadowed
' v" —1 by arching trees, feem to be the afylums of the Naiades.
Difturb them not by indifcreet loquacity, but lilently
admire and meditate.
“ It is iropOiTible, however, not to go to the fource
of thefe waters; let us follow the meandring of their
courfe, and obferve the winding paths which there ter¬
minate, after appearing and difappearing at intervals
through the copfe. Let us liilen to the bubbling of
the rivulets which from time to time efcape from our
light, and haften to the rendezvous affigned them by
the defcendants of Louis XIV. They formerly loit
themfelves in the valleys, where they quenched the
third of their humble inhabitants, but are now confe-
crated to the pleafures of kings. Afcending the back
of the pyramidical mountain, behind which their fource
is concealed, we arrive at the wall which confines a part
of them in the garden, and which was hidden by the
trees; nothing, however, ought here to recal to mind
exclufive property and fiavery. Woods, waters, and
the majeftic folitude of mountains, which are at a di-
ftance from the tumult of courts and cities, are the
property of ever man.—Beyond this wall, which
forms the exterior enclofure of the gardens, is an emp¬
ty and Hat ground, where the infant Don Louis, bro¬
ther to the king, chofe a place which he confecrated to
cultivation. Farther on, the mountain becomes more
deep, and is covered with trees to its fummit. Let us
now return ; as we feek amufement and not fatigue.
We will follow the courfc of the waters, they defcend
in bubbling dreams from one level of the gardens to
the other. In their courfe, in one place they water
the feet of the trvs, in others they crofs an alley to
nourilh more (lowly the plants of a parterre. From
the bafon of Andromeda they run between two rows
of trees in the form of a canal, the too fudden incli¬
nation of which is taken off by cafcades and windings.
They receive and carry with them from the gardens
the rivulets; which after having played amongd the
gods and nymphs, and moidened the throats of the
(wans, tritons, and lions, humbly defcend under ground,
and run on into the bofom of the neighbouring mea¬
dows, where they fulfil purpofes lefs brilliant but more
ufeful.
“ We mud not quit thefe magnificent gardens with¬
out dopping at a place which appears to promife much,
but produces not any very great effe£t. This is the
fquare of the eight alleys. Plug a de las ocho calles. In
the centre is the group of Pandora, the only one which
is of whitened done, all the others are of white marble
or lead painted of a bronze colour. Eight alleys an-
fwer to this centre, and each is terminated by a foun¬
tain. Plats of verdure fill up the intervals between the
alleys, and each has an altar under a portico of white
marble by the fide of a bafon facred to fome god or
goddefs. Thefe eight altars, placed at equal didances,
and decorated among other jets-d’eau, have two which
rife in the form of tapers on each fide of their divini¬
ties. This cold regularity difpleafed Philip V. who
a little before his death, when vifiting the gardens,
made fome fevere reproaches to the inventor upon the
fubjedt. Philip had not the pleafure of completely en¬
joying what he had created •, death furprifed him when
the works he had begun were but half finifired. The
undertaking was however the mod expenlive one of his
reign. The finances of Spain, fo deranged under the
princes of the houfe of Audria, (thanks to the wife cal- 11
culations of Orry, to the fubfidies of France, and dill ,
more to the courageous efforts of the faithful Cadili-
ans) would have been fuflicient for three long and
ruinous wars, and for all the operations of a monarchy
which Philip V. had conquered and formed anew, as
well as to have redded the (hocks of ambition and poli¬
tical intrigue 5 but they funk beneath the expenlive ef¬
forts of magnificence.”
It is lingular that the cadle and gardens of St Ilde-
fonfo (hould have cod about 45,000,000 of piaitres, pre-
cifely the fum in which Philip died indebted. This enor¬
mous expence wall appear credible, when it is known
that the fituation of the royal palace was at the begin¬
ning of this century the doping top of a pile of rocks 1
that it was neceffary to dig and hew out the dones,
and in feveral places to level the rock j to cut out of
its fides a paffage for a hundred different canals, to carry
vegetative earth to every place in which it was intended
to fubditute cultivation for derility, and to wrork a mine
to clear a paffage to the roots of the numerous trees
which are there planted. All thefe efforts were crown¬
ed with fuccefs. In the orchards, kitchen-gardens,
and parterres, there are but few (lowers, efpaliers, or
plants, which do not thrive j but the trees, naturally of
a lofty growth, and which coijfequently mud drike
their roots deep into the earth, already prove the in-
fufficiency of art when it attempts to druggie againd
nature. Many of them languilh with withered trunks,
and with difficulty keep life in their almod naked
branches. Every year it is neceffary to call in the aid
of gunpowder to make new beds for thofe which are to
fupply their place •, and none of them are covered with
that tufted foliage which belongs only to thofe that
grow in a natural foil. In a word, there are in the
groves of St Ildefonfo, marble datues, bafons, cafcades,
limpid waters, verdure, and delightful profpefts, every
thing but that which w ould be more charming than all
the red, thick diades.
The court of Spain comes hither annually during
the heat of the dog-days. It arrives towards the
end of July, and returns at the beginning of October.
The lituation of St Ildefonfo, upon the declivity of
the mountains which feparate the two Cadiles, and
fronting a valt plain where there is no obdacle to the
paffage of the north wind, renders this abode de¬
lightful in dimmer. The mornings and evenings of
the hotted days are agreeably cool. Yet as this pa¬
lace is upwards of 20 leagues from Madrid, and half of
the road wffiich leads to it croffes the broad tops of
mountains, extremely deep in many places, it is much
more agreeable to the lovers of the chafe and folitude
than to others.
ILERDA, in Ancient Geography, the capital of the
Iligertes j fituated on an eminence between the rivers
Sicoris and Cinga : An unhappy city, often belieged,
and often taken, becaufe lying expofed to the incurfions
from Gaul ; and under Gallienus it was dedroyed by
the Germans. Now Lerida, in Catalonia, on the river
Segra.
ILEX, the Holm or Holly Tree; a genus of plants
belonging to the tetrandria clafs 5 and in the natural
method ranking under the 43d order, Dumofas. See
Botany Index.
ILFRACOMB,
I L K [ i
Iliraccnib ILFRACOMB, a town of Devoniliire, feated on
Ilkuch ^le ^evern ^ea» a'rn°R oppolite to Swanfea in Glamor-
i j p-anHnrp, 186 miles from London. It is a populous,
rich, trading fea-port, efpecially with herrings in the
Eriftol-channel j noted for maintaining conftant lights
to dired the Tailors; for its convenience of building and
repairing flaps j and for the fafe flicker flaps from Ire¬
land find here, when it is extremely dangerous for them
to run into the mouth of the Taw, which they call
Barnflaple-water ; and this is one reafon why the Barn-
flaple merchants do fo much of their bufinefs at this
port. The harbour, with its quay, warp-houfe, light-
houle, pilot-boats, and tow-boats, were formerly main¬
tained at the expeqce of the anceftors of the lord of the
manor *, and then it had a quay or pier 850 feet long ;
but by time and the violence of the fea all went to de¬
cay ; to remedy which, the parliament paffed an acl in
1731, for both repairing and enlarging the piers, har¬
bour, &c. It is governed by a mayor, bailifts, &c.
and confifts chiefly of one ftreet of fcattered houfes al-
mr^i a mile long. The parifli is large, containing fe-
veral tjthings and manors,
ILIAC passion, a violent and dangerous kind of
colic ; called alfo volvulus, ?nifercre mei, and chordap-
fus. It takes its name from the inteftine ilion, on ac¬
count of its being ufually affeded in this diftemper j or
perhaps from the Greek verb aAso-, “ to wind or twill jV
whence alio it is the Latins call it volvulus. See Me¬
dicine Index.
ILIAD, the name of an ancient epic poem, the firfl
and finell of thofe compofed by Homer.
The poet’s defign in the Iliad was to (how the Greeks,
who were divided into feveral little Hates, how much it
was their interert to preferve a harmony and good un-
derltanding among themfelves; for which end he fets
before them the calamities that befel their anceftors from
the wrath of Achilles, and his mifunderftanding with
Agamemnon ; and the advantages that afterwards ac¬
crued to them from their union. The Iliad is divided
into 24 books or rhapfodies, which are marked vGth the
letters of the alphabet.
ILISSUS, a river running to the eaft of Athens;
which, with the Eridanus running on the weft fide,
falls below the city into the fea. Sacred to the mufes,
called Iliajftdes ; on whofe bank their altar flood, and
where the luftration in the lefs myfterics was ufually per¬
formed.
ILIUM, Ilion, or Ihos, in Slncient Geography, a
name for the city of Troy, but moll commoniy ufed by
the poets, and diftinguilhed by the epithet Vetus ; at a
greater diftance from the fea than what was afterwards
called Ilium Novum, and thought to be the Ilien/ium
Pagus of Strabo. New or modern Ilium wras a village
nearer the fea, with a temple of Minerva ; where Alex¬
ander, after the battle of Granicus, offered gifts, and
called it a city, which he ordered to be enlarged. His
orders w'ere executed by Lyfimachus, who encompaffed
it with a w'all of 40 ftadia. It w^as afterwards adorned
by the Romans, who granted it immunities as to their
mother-city. From this city the Ilias of Homer takes
its name, containing an account bf the w'ar carried on
between the Greeks and Trojans on account of the rape
ef Helen ; a variety of difafters being the confequence,
gave rife to the proverb Ilias Malorwn.
ILKUCH, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Ilium mat¬
ing-
63 1 ILL-
Cracow, remarkable for its mines of filver and lead. ItKlecebru n
is feated in a barren and mountainous country, in E.
Long. 20. o. N. Lat. 50. 2-6.
ILLECEBRUM, a genus of plants belonging to
the pentandria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking
under the 1 2th order, Holoracecs. See Botany Index.
1LLENOIS, a people of North America, inhabit¬
ing a country lying near a large lake of the fame name
(called a’fo Michigan), formed by the river St Lau¬
rence. The country is fertile : and the people plant
Indian corn, on wdiich they chiefly fubfift. They are
civil, active, lively, and robuft; and are much lefs
cruel in their difpofitions than the other Indian nations.
I hey are, however, faid to be great libertines, and to
marry a number of wives; but lome of their villages
have embraced Chriftianity.
ILLICIUM, a genus of plants belonging to the do-
decandria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking
with thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany
Index.
ILLUMINATI, the name of a fecret fociety, or or¬
der,^ in Germany and other countries of Europe, whofe
profefied objedl, it is faid, was to propagate the pureft
principles qf virtue ; but whofe real views were to fub-
vert every eftablilhed government and religion, and de¬
livering mankind from the neceffary and falutary re-
ftraints of civil fociety, to bring them to an imaginary
ilate of freedom and independence. Of this order much
has been find, and much has been written ; but that a
fociety has exifted, regularly organized in the way this
has been reprefented, working in fecret, and, at the
lame time, pofleffing fuch extenfive power and influence,
no proof whatever has been adduced. The thing in¬
deed feems impoflible. See Masonry, Free.
ILLUMINATING, a kind of miniature painting,
anciently much pradlifed for illuftrating and adorning
books. Befides the writers of books, there were ar-
tilis whofe profeflion was to ornament and paint manu-
feripts, who were called illuminators; the writers of
books firft finilhed their part, and the illuminators em-
belliflied them with ornamented letters and paintings.
Me frequently find blanks left in manuferipts for the
illuminators, which wrere never filled up. Some of the
ancient manuferipts are gilt and burniflied in a ftyle
fuperior to later times. Their colours were excellent,
and their fldll in preparing them mull have been very
great.
The pradlice of introducing ornaments, drawings,
emblematical figures, and even portraits, into manu¬
feripts, is of great antiquity. Varro wrote the lives of
700 illuftrious Romans, which he enriched with their
portraits, as Pliny attefts in his Natural Hiftory (lib.
xxxv. chap. 2.).. Pomponius Atticus, the friend of Ci¬
cero, was the author of a work on the actions of the
great men amongft the Romans, which he ornamented
with their portraits, as appears in his life by Cornelius
Nepos (chap. 18.). But thefe works have not been
tranfmitted to poilerity. There are, however, many
precious documents remaining, wdiich exhibit the ad¬
vancement and decline of the arts in different ages and
countries. Thefe ineftimable paintings and illumina¬
tions difplay the manners, cuftoms, habits ecclefiaftical,
civil, and military, weapons and inftruments of war,
utenfils and architeflure of the ancients ; they are of
the g re ate ft ufe in illuftrating many important fa£ts re-
X 2 lativc
I
I L L [ 164 1 I L L
Illnnnir.at latlve to the hiftory of the times in which they were
executed. In thefe treafures of antiquity are preferved
a great number of fpecimens ot Grecian and Roman art,
which were executed before the arts and fciences fell
into negleft and contempt. The manufcripts contain¬
ing thefe fpecimens form a valuable part of the riches
preferved in the principal libraries of Europe. The
Royal, Cottonian, and Harleian libraries, as alfo thofe
in the two univtrfities in England, the Vatican at
Rome, the imperial at Vienna, the royal at Paris, St
Mark’s at Venice, and many others.
A very ancient MS. of Genefis, which was in the
Cottonian library, and almoft deftroyed by a fire in
I 73 I, contained 250 curious paintings in water colours.
Twenty-one fragments, which efcaped the fire, are en¬
graven by the fociety of antiquarians of London. Se¬
veral fpecimens of curious paintings alfo appear in Lam-
becius’s catalogue of the imperial library at Vienna, par¬
ticularly in vol. hi. where 48 drawings of nearly equal
antiquity with thofe in the Cottonian library are engra¬
ven 5 and feveral others may be found in various cata¬
logues of the Italian libraries. The drawings in the
Vatican Virgil made in the fourth century, before the
arts were entirely negle£led, illuftrate the different fub-
jefts treated of by the Roman poet. A miniature drawl¬
ing is prefixed to each of the gofpels brought over to
England by St Auguftin in the 6th century, which is
preferved in the library of Corpus Chrifti college, Cam¬
bridge : in the compartments of thofe drawings are de-
pifted reprefentations of feveral tranfaCtions in each go-
fpel. The curious drawings, and elaborate ornaments
in St Cuthbert’s gofpels made by St Ethelwald, and
now in the Cottonian library, exhibit a ftriking fpeci-
men of the ftate of the arts in England in the 7th cen¬
tury. The fame may be obferved wdth refpeft to the
drawings in the ancient copy of the four gofpels prefer¬
ved in the cathedral church of Litchfield, and thofe in
the Codex Rulhworth!anus in the Bodleian library at
Oxford. The life of St Paul the hermit, now' remain¬
ing in Corpus Chriili college, Cambridge, (G. 2.), af¬
fords an example of the ftyle of drawing and ornament¬
ing letters in England in the 8th century •, and the co¬
py of Prudentius’s Pfycoj?i(icJu(i in the Cottonian library
(Cleop. c. 8.) exhibits the ftyle of drawing in Italy in
the 9th century. Of the 10th century there are Ro¬
man drawings of a lingular kind in the Harleian libra¬
ry (N° 2820.) Nos 5280, 1802, and'432, in the fame
library, contain fpecimens of ornamented letters, which
are to be found in Irilh MS I. from the 12th to the
14th century, Caedmon’s Poetical Paraphrafe of the
book of Genefis, written in the 1 ith century, which is
preferved amongft F. Junius’s MSS. in the Bodleian li¬
brary, exhibits many fpecimens of utenfils, weapons, in-
ftruments of mufic, and implements of hufbandry ufed
by the Anglo-Saxons. The like may be feen in ex-
tradls from the Pentateuch of the fame age in the Cot¬
tonian library (Claud. B. 4.). The manufeript copy
of Terence in the Bodleian library (D. 17.) dilplays
the dreffes, mafks, &.c. worn by comedians in the 12th
century, if not earlier. The very elegant Pfalter in
the library of Trinity college, Cambridge, exhibits fpe¬
cimens of the art of drawing in England in the lame
century. The Virgil in the Lambeth library of the
13th century (N° 471.), written in Italy, fhows both
by the drawings and writing, that the Italians produced
works much inferior to ours at that period. The copy liluminat-
of the Apocalypfe in the fame library (N° 209.), con-  ^ng-
tains a curious example of the manner of painting in the ^
14th century.—The beautiful paintings in the hiftory of
the latter part of the reign of King Richard II. in the
Harleian library (N° 1319.), afford curious fpecimens
of manners and cuftoms, both civil and military, at the
clofe of the 14th and in the beginning of the 15th cen¬
tury 5 as does N° 2278. in the fame library.—Many
other inftances might be produced ; but thofe who de-
fire farther information may confult Strutt’s Regal and
Ecclefiaftical Antiquities, qto, and his Horda-Angel-
cynnan lately publifhed in 3 vols.
This art was much pra&ifed by the clergy, and
even by fome in the higheft ftations in the church.
“ The famous Ofmund (fays Bromton), who was confe-
crated bifhop of Salifhury, A. D. 1076, did not difdain
to fpend fome part of his time in writing, binding, and
illuminating books.” Mr Strutt, as already noticed,
has given the publite an opportunity of forming fome
judgment of the degree of delicacy and art with v Vch
thefe illuminations were executed, by publilhing prints
of a prodigious number of them, in his “ Regal and
Ecclefiaftical Antiquities of England,” and “ View of
the Cuiloms, &c. of England.” In the firft of thefe
works we are prefented with the genuine portraits, in
miniature, of all the kings, and feveral of the queens
of England, from Edward the Confeffor to Henry VII.
moitly in their crowns and royal robes, together with
the portraits of many other eminent perfons of both
fexes.
The illuminators and painters of this period feem to
have been in poffeflion of a conftderable number of co¬
louring materials, and to have known the arts of pre¬
paring and mixing them, fo as to form a great variety
of colours : for in the fpecimens of their miniature-
paintings, that are ftill extant, we perceive not only
the five primary colours, but alfo various combinations
of them. Though Strutt’s prints do not exhibit the
bright and vivid colours of the original?, they give us
equally a view, not only of the perfons and drefles of
our anceftors, but alfo of their cuftoms, manners, arts,
and employments, their arms, ihips, houfes, furniture,
&c. and enable us to judge of their Ikill in drawing.
The figures in thofe paintings are often ftiff and formal ;
but the ornaments are in general fine and delicate, and
the colours clear r.nd bright, particularly the gold and
azure. In fome of thefe illuminations the paftions are
ftrongly painted. Flow ftrongly, for example, is ter¬
ror painted in the faces of the earl of Warwick’s failors,
when they were threatened with a (hipwreck, and grief
in the countenances of thofe who were prelent at the
death of that hero * ? After the introdu&ion of print- * See Strutt*
ing, this elegant art of illuminating gradually declined, vol ii.
and at length was quite negle&ed. • P^tes S6>
Before "concluding, it may not be improper to ob-5 ‘
ferve, that from the 5th to the 1 oth century, the minia¬
ture paintings which we meet with in Greek manu¬
fcripts are generally good, as are fome which we find
among thofe of Italy, England, and France. From
the 1 oth to the middle of the 14th century they are
commonly very bad, and may be confidered as fo many
monuments of the barbarity of thofe age> $ towards the
latter end of the 14th, the paintings in manui-cripts
were much improved j and in the two fucceeding cen¬
turies
1 L I
Illumina- tuilcs, many excellent performances were produced, ef-
to,s pecially after the happy period of the reftoration of the
T.j arts, when great attention was paid to the works of
U1S' the ancients, and the idudy of antiquity became faihion-
able.
ILLUMINATORS. See Illuminating.
ILLUMINED, Illuminati, a church term, an¬
ciently applied to fuch perfons as had received baptifm.
This name was occafioned by a ceremony in the bap¬
tifm of adults •, which confided in putting a lighted
taper in the hand of the perfon baptized, as a fymbol
of the faith and grace he had received in the facra-
ment.
Illumined, Illuminati, is alfo the name of a fed! of
heretics, who fprang up in Spain about the year 1575,
and were called by the Spaniards Alambrados. Their
principal doctrines were, that by means of a fublime
manner of prayer, which they had attained to, they
entered into fo perfect a date, that they had no occafion
for ordinances, facraments, nor good works; and that
they could give way, even to the viled actions, without
fin. The feet of Illumined was revived in France in
the year 1634, and were foon after joined by the Gue-
rinets, or ddciples of Peter Guerin, who together made
but one body, called alfo Illumined; but they were fo
hotly purfued by Louis XIII. that they were foon de-
ftroyed. The brothers of the Rofy Crofs are fometimes
alfo called Illumined. See Rosycrusian.
ILLUSTRIOUS, Illustris, was heretofore, in the
Roman empire, a title of honour peculiar to people of
a certain rank. It was fird given to the mod didin-
guidied among the knights, who had a right to bear the
latus clavus : afterwards, thofe were intitled illujlrious
who held the fird rank among thofe called honorati;
that is, the praefeRi preetorii, praTedti urbis, treafurers,
comites, &c.
There were, however, different degrees among the il¬
lujlrious : as in Spain they have grandees of the fird and
fecond clafs, fo in Rome they had their i/lujlres, whom
they called great, majores ; and others lefs, called Mu-
Jlres minores.—For indance 5 the praefeclus praetorii was
a degree below7 the mader of the odices, though they
were both illujlres.
The Novels of Valentinian didinguifh as far as five
kinds- of illujlres among whom, the illujlres admim-
Jiratores bear the fird rank.
ILLYR1CUM, {Solum perhaps underdood) Livy,
Herodian, St Paul ; called Illyris by the Greeks, and
fometimes Illyria; the country extending from the
Adriatic to Pannonia thus called. Its boundaries are
varioufly adigred. Pliny makes it extend in length
from the river Arfia to the Drinius, thus including Li-
burnia to the wTed, and Dalmatia to the ead : which is
alfo the opinion of Ptolemy } who fettles its limits from
Mount Scardus and the Upper Moefia on the ead, to
Idria in the wed. A Roman province, divided by
Augudus into the Superior and Inferior, but of which
the limits are left undetermined both by ancient hi-
dorians and geographers. Ilhjrii the people *, called
Ilh/res by the Greeks. The country is now called
Sclavonia.
ILLYRIUS, Matthias, FLACcus,orFRANCo witz,
one of the mod learned divines of the Augfburg con-
feffion, born in Idria, anciently called Illyrica, in I ^20.
He is faid to have been a man of vad genius, extenfive
1 M A
learning, of great zeal againd Popery 5 but of fuch a Im
redlefs and paffionate temper, as overbalanced all his
good qualities, and occafioned much didurbance in the
Protedant church. He publidied a great number of
books, and died in 1575.
IMAGE, in a religious fenfe, is an artificial repre-
fentation or fimilitude of fome perfon or thing, ufed ei¬
ther by way of decoration and ornament, or as an objedt
of religious worfhip and adoration : in which lad fenfe
it is ufed indifferently with the word Idol.
The noble Romans preferved the images of their
ancedors wdth a great deal of care and concern, and
had them carried in proceffion at their funerals and
triumphs: thefe were commonly made of wmx, or
wood, though fometimes of marble or brafs. They
placed them in the vedibules of their houfes $ and they
were to day there, even if the houfes happened to be
fold, it being accounted impious to difplace them.
Appius Claudius w-as the fird w7ho brought them into
the temples, in the year of Rome 259, and he added
inferiptions to them, diowdng the origin of the perfons
reprefented, and their brave and virtuous atchieve-
mencs.—It was not, however, allowed for all, who had
the images of their ancedors in their houfes, to have
them carried at their funerals ; this was a thing only-
granted to fuch as had honourably difeharged them-
felves of their offices; for thofe who failed in this re-
fpeft forfeited that privilege ; and in cafe they had
been guilty of any great crime, their images were
broken in pieces. See Ignobiles and Jus.
The Jews abfolutely condemn all images, and do not
fo much as differ any datues or figures in their
houfes, much lefs in their fynagogues or places of
worlhip.
The ufe and adoration of images are things that
have been a long time controverted in the world.-
It is plain, from the praftice of the primitive church,
recorded by the earlier fathers, that Chriftians, for the
firft three centuries after Chriit, and the greater part
of the fourth, neither worfhipped images nor ufed
them in their worfhip. However, the greater part of
the Popifh divines maintain, that the ufe and worlhip
of images were as ancient as the Chriftian religion
itfelf: to prove this, they allege a decree, faid to have
been made in a council held by the Apoftles at An¬
tioch, commanding the faithful, that they may not err
about the objedl of their worfhip, to make images of
Chrift and worfhip them. Baron, ad ann. 102. But
no notice is taken of this decree, till 700 years after
the Apoftolic times, after the difpute about images had
commenced. The firft inftance that occurs in any
credible author of images among Chrifiians, is that re¬
corded by Tertullian de Pudicit. c. 10. of certain cup%
or chalices, as Bellarmine pretends, on which was re¬
prefented the parable of the good fhepherd carrying the
loft fheep on his fhoulders : but this inftance only
proves, that the church, at that time did not think em¬
blematical figures unlawful ornaments of cups or chali¬
ces. Another inftance is taken from Eufebius, Hift.
Eccl. lib. vii. cap. 18. who fays, that in his time there
were to be feen two brafs ftatues in the city of Paneas
or Caefarea Philippi *, the one of a woman on her knees,
with her arms ftretched out, the other of a man over
againft her, with his hand extended to receive her :
thefe ilatues were faid to be the images of our Saviour
and..:
[ iG ]
IMA [166] IMA
and tlie woman whom he cured of an ifllie of blood.
From the foot of the ftatue reprefenting our Saviour,
lays the hiftonan, fprung up an exotic plant, which, as
foon as it grew to touch the border of his garment, was
faid to cure all forts of didempers, Eufebms, however,
vouches none of thefe things : nay, he fuppofes that the
woman who ere£led this ilatue of our Saviour was a
pagan, and afcribes it to a pagan cuhom. Farther,
Philoftorgius, Eccl. Hift. lib. vii, c. 3. exprefsly fays, that
this flatue wras carefully preferved by the Chriltians,
but that they paid no kind of worlhip to it, becaufe it
is not lawful for Chriltians to worlhip brafs, or any
other matter. The primitive Chriltians abftained fi-om
the worlhip of images, not, as the Papifts pretend, from
tendernefs to heathen idolaters, but becaufe they thought
it unlawful in itfelf to make any images of the Deity.
Jultin Mart. Apol. ii. p. 44. Clem. Alex. Strom, ij,
Strom. if and Protr. p. 46. Aug. de Civit. Dei. lib. vii.
c. j. and lib. iv. c. 32. Id. de Fide et Syrob. c. 7. Lac-
tant. lib. ii. c. 3. Tertull. Apol. c. 12. Arnob. lib. vi.
p. 20 2. Some of the fathers, as Tertullian, Clemens
Alexandrinus, and Origen, were of opinion, that, by
the fecond commandment, the arts of painting and
engraving were rendered unlawful to a Chriltian, Ityling
them evil and wicked arts. Tert. de Idol. cap. 3. Clem.
Alex. Admon. ad. Gent. p. 41. Orig. contra Celfum.
lib. vi. p. 182. The ufe of images in churches as orna¬
ments, was firft introduced by fome Chriifians in Spain,
in the beginning of the fourth century 5 but the practice
was condemned as a dangerous innovation, in a coum
cil held at Eliberis in 305. Epiphanius, in a letter
pi'eferved by Jerome, tom. ii. ep. 6. bears ftrong tefti-
mony againft images, and may be confldered as one of
the firlf Iconoclasts. The cuftom of admitting
pi&ures of faints and martyrs into the churches (for
this was the firft fource of fwa^e-worlhip) was rare in
the latter end of the fourth century ; but became
common in the fifth : however, they were ftill confider-
ed only as ornaments ; and even in this view, they met
with very confiderahle oppolition. In the following
century the cuftom of thus adorning churches became
almoft univerfal, both in the eaft and w^ert. Petavius
exprefsly fays (de Incar. lib. xv. cap. >4.), that no
ftatues were yet allowed in the churches; becaufe
they bore too near a refemblance to the idols of the
Gentiles. Towards the clofe of the fourth or begin¬
ning of the fifth century, images, which were introduced
> by way of ornament, and then ufed as an aid to devo¬
tion, began to be actually worfnipped. However, it
continued to be the do&rine of the church in the fixth
and in the beginning of the feventh century, that
'images were to be ufed only as helps to devotion, and
i*ot as objefls of worlhip. The worlhip of them was
condemned in the ftrongeft terms by Pope Gregory the
Great; as appears by two letters of his written in 601.
From this time to the beginning of the eighth century,
there occurs no Angle inftance of any worftup given or
allowed to be given to images by any council or affem-
bly of bifhops whatever. But they were commonly wor-
{hipped by the monks and populace in the beginning of
the eighth century; infomuch, that in the year 726,
when Leo publifhed his famous edidi, it had already
fpread into all the provinces fubjeft to the empire.
The Lutherans condemn the Calviuilfs for break-
rug the images in the churches of the Catholics, look-
2
ing on it as a kind of facrilege ; and yet they condemn
the. Romanifts (who are profefled image - worjhippcrs)
as idolaters ; nor can thefe lalt keep pace with the
Greeks, who go far beyond them in this point ; W'hich
has occafioned abundance of difputes among them.
See Iconoclasts.
The Mahometans have a perfect averfion to images;
which was what led them to deftroy moft of the beauti¬
ful monuments of antiquity, both iacred and profane,
at Conftantinople.
Image, in Rhetoric, alfo fignifies a lively defcription
of any thing in difcourfe.
Images in difcourle are defined by Longinus, to be,
in general, any thoughts proper to produce expreflions,
and which prefent a kind of picture to the mind.
But, in the more limited fenfe, he fays, images are
fuch dilcourfes as come from us, when, by a kind of
enthufiafm, or an extraordinary emotion of the foul,
we feem to fee the things whereof we fpeak, and prefent
them before the eyes of thofe who hear us.
Images, in rhetoric, have a very different ufe from
what they have among the poets : the end principally
propofed in poetry is, aftoniftiment and furprize ;
whereas the thing chielly aimed at in profe, is to paint
things naturally, and to (how them clearly. 1 ,.y
have this, however, in common, that they both tend
to move, each in its kind.
Thefe images, or pictures, are of vaft ufe, to give
weight, magnificence, and ftrength, to a diicourfe.
They warm and animate it ; and when managed with
art, according to Longinus, feem, as it were, to tame
and fubdue the hearer, and put him in the power of the
fpeaker.
Image, in Optics, a figure in the form of any ob-
je£l, made by the rays of light iffuing from the feveral
points of it, and meeting in fo many other points, ei¬
ther at the bottom of the eye, or on any other ground,
or on any tranfparent medium, where there is no fur-
face to reflect them. Thus we are faid to fee all ob-
je&s by means of their images formed in the eye.
IMAGINARY Quantities, or ImpoJJibie Quanti¬
ties, in Algebra, are the even roots of negative quan-
ties ; which expreftions are imaginary, or irapofiible, or
oppofed to real quantities; as a a, or * Q —a\
&c. For as every even power of any quantity what¬
ever, whether pofitive or negative, is neceffarily pofitive,
or having the fign beeaufe -}~ by or ““ by —,
give equally ; hence it follows that every even power,
as the fquare for inftance, which is negative, or having
the fign , has no poflible root; and therefore the
even roots of fuch powers or quantities are faid to
be impofllble or imaginary. The mixt expreflions ari-
fing from imaginary quantities joined to real ones, are
alfo imaginary ; as 0 —■ a a, or b -j- — o a.
Imaqinart Roots of an equation, are thofe roots or
values of the unknown quantity, which contain fome
imaginary quantity. Thus, the roots of the equation
xx-\-aa?zzo, are the two imaginary quantities -F-y/—
and—y'—or 1 and1.
IMAGINATION, a power or faculty of the
mind, whereby it conceives and forms ideas of things
communicated to it by the outward organs of fenfe.
See Metaphysics.
Force of Imagination, See Monster.
IMAGO, in Natural Hijiory, is a name given by
Linnaeus
Image
il
Imap-o.
I M E [ 107 ] I M I
Jmnm Linn*us to the third ftate of infers, when they ap-
II . pear in their proper (hape and colours, and undergo no
Imeictre. /urt]ier transformation.
IMAM, or Iman, a minifler in the Mahometan
church, anfwering to a parifli prieft among us. The
word properly fignifies what we call a prelate, anti/Jes,
one who prefides over others •, but the Muflulmans fre¬
quently apply it to a perfon who has the care and in¬
tendency of a mofque, who is always there at hrft, and
reads prayers to the people, which they repeat after
him.
Imam is alfo applied, by way of excellence, to the
four chiefs or founders of the four principal fedls in the
Mahometan religion. Thus Ali is the imam of the
Perfian, ;or of the fefl of the Schiaites j Abu-beker
the imam of the Sunnites, which is the fe£l followed
by the Turks; Saphii, or Sali-y, the imam of another
fe£l, &c.
The Mahometans do not agree among themfelves
about this imamate or dignity <5f the imam. Some
think it of divine right and attached to a {ingle fami¬
ly, as the pontificate of Aaron.—Others hold, that it
is indeed of divine right, but deny it to be fo at¬
tached to any fingle family, as that it may not be
transferred to another. They add, that the imam is
to be clear of all grofs fins j and that othervvife he
may be depofed, and his dignity may be conferred on
another. However this be, it is certain, that after an
imam has once been owned as fuch by the Muffulmans,
he who denies that his authority comes immediately
from God is accounted impious; he who does not
obey him is a rebel ; and he who pretends to contra-
didl what he fays is efteemed a fool, among the ortho¬
dox of that religion. The imams have no outward
mark of diftinftion j their habit is the fame with that
of the Turks in common, except that the turban is a
little larger, and folded fomewhat differently.
IMAUS, in Ancient Geography, the larged moun¬
tain of Afia (Strabo) j and a part of Taurus (Pliny) ;
from which the whole of India runs off into a vad
plain, refembling Egypt. It extends far and wide
through Scythia, as far as to the Mare Glaciale, divid¬
ing it into the Hither or Sci/thia intra Imaum, and into
the Farther or Scythia extra Imautn (Ptolemy) ; and
alfo dretching out along the north of India to the
eadern ocean, feparates it from Scythia. It had va¬
rious names according to the different countries it run
through : Podellus thinks it is the Sephar of Scrip¬
ture.
IMBECILITY, a languid infirm date of body,
which, being greatly impaired, is not able to perform
its ufual exercifes and fundlions.
IMBIBING, the atSion of a dry porous body, that
abforbs or takes up a mold or fluid one : thus, fu-
gar imbibes ‘ water ; a fponge, the moidure of the
air, &c.
IMBRICATED, is ufed by fome botanids, to ex-
prefs the figure of the leaves of fome plants, which
are hollowed like an imbrex, or gutter-tile, or are
laid in clofe feries over one another like the tiles of a
houfe.
IMERETIA, or Imeretta, the name of a king¬
dom, or rather principality, of Georgia, confiding of
four provinces, is under the dominion of a prince
named David. See Georgia.
The capital, where Prince David refides, is called Imeretia,
Curtays. The remains of a church announce that Cur- ,*mitatlon,l
tays was formerly a large city j but at prefent it can
fcarcely be accounted a village.
Solomon, the father of the prefent fovereig'n, order¬
ed the city to be dedroyed as wrell as the ramparts
of the city ; for he thought, and very wifely, that
Caucafus was the only fortification capable of being
defended by an army of 6000 men undifeiplined and
deditute of artillery.
The number of the inhabitants of Imereqta is rec¬
koned to be 20,000 families j but the greater * part
of them live neither in towns nor villages, but are dif-
perfed throughout the level country, each of them,
poffeding a fmall hut or cottage. Thefe people have
fewer drangers among them, and they are more enga¬
ging in their appearance, than the Georgians. They
are of a milder and lefs pufillanimous character 5 and
the principal branch of their commerce confilts in
wines, a confiderable quantity of which they export in
(kins as far as the confines of Georgia. They are ac¬
quainted with no other trade; for they are poor and
miferable, and greatly oppreffed by their lords.
The ordinary revenues of Imeretta, like thofe of
Georgia, arife from a tythe which vafials are obliged
to pay in wanes, cattle, and corn, and fome fublidies
furnifhed annually by neighbouring princes. The ex¬
traordinary revenues for the mod part arife from con-
fifeations of every kind j but notwithdanding this,,
the finances of the prince are fo limited, that he is
often under the neceffity of going from houfe to houfe,
to live at the expence of his vaffals, never quitting their
habitations until the preding wants of his hods abfo-
lutely compel him. It is therefore probable, that the
court of the fovereign of Imeretta is as deficient in
brilliancy as his table is in fplendour when he dines at
home. His principal didies confid of a certain food
called gom, which is a kind of millet boiled, and a
piece of road meat, wdth fome high-feafoned fauce.
He never eats but with his fingers, for forks and fpoons
are unknown in Imeretta. At table he generally gives
audiences refpefting affairs of the fird confequence,
wdiich he determines as he thinks proper; for in every
country fubjedt to his dominions there is no other law
but his will.
On Friday, which is the market day, all his newf
edicts are publiihed by a kind of herald, who climbs up
into fome tree, in order to proclaim the will of his
fovereign. The Imerettans profefs the religion of the
Greek church. Their patriarch mud be of the royal
family; but it is feldom that he can either read or
W'rite ; the prieds who compofe the red of the clergy
are not much more enlightened. The greater part of
their churches are pitiful edifices, which can fcarcely
be didinguifhed from the common huts of the inhabi¬
tants but by a padeboard crucifix, and a few coarfe
paintings of the Virgin, which are feen in them.
IMITATION, derived from the Latin imitare, to
“ reprefent or repeat,” a found or aftion, either exa&ly
or nearly in the fame manner as they were originally
exhibited.
Imitation, in Mujic, admits of two different fenfes.
Sound and motion are either capable of imitating them
felves by a repetition of their own particular modes,
or of imitating other obje£!s of a nobler and more ab-
draffed
I M I
[ i63 ]
I M I
principe.
'Imitation, ilracled nature. Nothing perhaps is fo purely men-
"*,^v tal, nothing To remote from external fenfe, as not to
be imitable by mufic. But as the defcription of this
in M. Roufleau, article Imitation, is nobly animated,
and comprehends all that is neceffary to be faid on the
fubjeft, we tranflate it as follows.
“ Dramatic or theatrical mufic (fays he) contri¬
butes to imitation no lefs than painting or poetry : it
is in this common principle that we muft inveftigate
both the origin and the final caufe of all the fine arts j
See as M. le Batteaux has fliown *. But this imitation is
Arts reduit not equally extenfive in all the imitative arts. What-
m uno memc evei. ^ imagination can reprefent to itfelf is in the
department of poetry. Painting, which does not pre-
fent its pi£lures to the imagination immediately, but
to external fenfe, and to one fenfe alone, paints only
fuch objefls as are difcoverable by fight. Mufic might
appear fubjefled to the fame limits with refpedd to the
ear; yet it is capable of painting every thing, even
fuch images as are objedts of ocular perception alone :
by a magic almoft inconceivable, it feems to transform
the ears into eyes, and endow them with the double
funftion of perceiving vifible obje&s by the mediums
of their own; and it is the greatefl: miracle of an art,
which can only a£t by motion, that it can make that
very motion reprefent abfolute quiefcence. Night,
fleep, filence, folitude, are the noble efforts, the grand
images, reprefented by a piflurefque mufic. We know
that noife can produce the fame effe£l with filence,
and filence the fame effeft with noife $ as vrhen one
fleeps at a leffure infipidly and monotonically de¬
livered, but wakes the inftant when it ends. But
mufic a£ts more intimately upon our fpirits, in exci¬
ting by one fenfe difpofitions fimilar to thofe which
we find excited by another j and, as the relation be¬
tween thefe images cannot be fenfible unlefs the im-
preffion be ftrong, painting, when divefted of this ener¬
gy, cannot reftore to mufic that affiftance in imita¬
tions w'hich fhe borrows from it. Though all nature
fhould be afleep, he who contemplates her does not
fleep 5 and the art of the mufician confifts in fubftitu-
ting, for this image of infenfibility in the objeft, thofe
emotions wdiich its prefence excites in the heart of
the contemplator. He not only ferments and agitates
the ocean, animates the flame to conflagration, makes
the fountain murmur in his harmony, calls the rattling
{howrer from heaven, and fwells the torrent to refifllefs
rage ; but he paints the horrors of a boundlefs and
frightful defert, involves the fubterraneous dungeon in
tenfold gloom, foothes the tempeft, tranquillizes the
diflurbed elements, and from the orcheftra diffufes a
recent fragrance through imaginary groves; nay, he
excites in the foul the fame emotions which we feel
from the immediate perception and full influence of
thefe objefls.”
Under the word Harmony, Roufleau has faid, that no
afliflance can be drawm from thence, no original prin¬
ciple which leads to mufical imitation 5 fince there can¬
not be any relation between chords and the obje£ls
which the compofer wrould paint, or the paffions which
he wmuld exprefs. In the article Melody, he imagines
he has difcovered that principle of imitation which
harmony cannot yield, and what refources of nature are
employed by mufic in reprefenting thefe objects and
thefe paflions.
It is hoped, however, that in our article of Mf.LODY, Imitatica.
W'e have fhown upon wfliat principle mufical imitation 1 
may be compatible with harmony ; though we admit,
that from melody it derives its mofi: powerful energy,
and its molt attradlive graces. Yet we mull either be
deceived beyond all poflibility of cure, or we have felt
the power of imitative harmony in a high degree. We
are certain that the fury, the impetuofity, the rapid
viciflitudes, of a battle, may be luccefsfully and vividly
reprefented in harmony. We have participated the
exultation and triumph of a conqueft, infpired by the
found of a full chorus. We have felt all the folemnity
and grandeur of devotion from the flow movement, the
deep chords, the fwelling harmony, of a fentimental
compofition played upon the organ. Nor do we ima¬
gine harmony lefs capable of prefenting the tender
depreflion, the fludluating and tremulous agitation, of
grief. As this kind of imitation is the nobleft effort
of mufic, it is affonifhing that it flrould have been over¬
looked by M. d’Alembert. He has indeed apologi¬
zed, by informing us, that his treatife is merely ele¬
mentary : but we are uncertain how far this apology
ought to be regarded as fufficient, when it is at the
fame time confidered, that he has given an account of
imitation in its mechanical, or what Rouffeau calls its
technical, fenfe j which, however, to prevent ambiguity,
we Ihould rather choofe to call mymejis, or anacephalio-
Jis. To Rouffeau’s account of the word in this accepta¬
tion, we return.
“ Imitation (fays he), in its technical fenfe, is a
reiteration of the fame air, or of one which is fimilar,
in feveral parts where it is repeated by one after the
other, either in unifon, or at the diftance of a fourth,
a fifth, a third, or any other interval whatever. The
imitation may be happily enough purfued even though
feveral notes Ihould be changed j provided the fame air
may always be recognifed, and that the compofer does
not deviate from the law's of proper modulation. Fre¬
quently, in order to render the imitation more fenfible,
it is preceded by a general reft, or by long notes w'hich
feem to obliterate the impreflion formerly made by the
air till it is renewed with greater force and vivacity by
the commencement of the imitation. The imitation
may be treated as the compofer choofes ; it may be
abandoned, refumed, or another begun, at pleafure j
in a word, its rules are as much relaxed as thofe of
the fugue are fevere ; for this reafon, it is defpifed by
the moft eminent matters; and every imitation of this
kind too much affefted, almoft always betrays a novice
in compofition.”
Imitation, in Oratory, is an endeavour to refemble
a fpeaker or writer in thofe qualities with regard to
which w'e propofe them to ourfelves as patterns. The
firft hiftorians among the Romans, fays Cicero, were
very dry and jejune, till they began to imitate the
Greeks, and then they became their rivals. It is well
known how clofely Virgil has imitated Homer in his
Ai,neid, Hefiod in his Georgies, and Theocritus in
his Eclogues. Terence copied after Menander; and
Plautus after Epicarmus, as wre learn from Horace,
lib. ii. ep. ad Auguft. who himfelf owes many of his
beauties to the Greek lyric poets. Cicero appears,
from many paffages in his waitings, to have imitated
the Greek orators. Thus Quint ill an fays of him, that
he has exprefifed the ftrength and fublimity of De-
mofthenes,
IniTnacu- moftlienej, th;
iate
II
Impale.
I M P
copiournefs of Plato,
[ i
.nd tlie delicacy
69 ]
1 M p
of Ifocrates.
IMMACULATE, fomething vs’ithout ftain, chief-
^ ly applied to the conception of the holy Virgin. See
Conception, Immaculate.
IMMATERIAL, fomething devoid of matter, or
that is pure fpirit. See Metaphysics.
IMMEDIATE, whatever is capable of producing
an effedt without the intervention of external means ;
thus we fay, an immediate caufe, in oppofition to a
mediate or remote one.
IMMEMORIAL, an epithet given to the time or
duration of any thing whofe beginning we know no¬
thing of.
In a legal fenfe, a thing is faid to be of time imme¬
morial, or time out of mind, that was before the reign of
our king Edward II.
IMMENSITY, an unlimited extenlion, or which
no finite and determinate fpace, repeated ever fo often,
can equal.
IMMER, the moft eafterly ifland of all the New
Hebrides in the South fea. It lies about four leagues
from Tanna, and leems to be about five leagues in cir¬
cumference 3 it is of a confiderable height, with a flat
top.
IMMERETTA, or Imeretia. See Imeretia.
IMMERSION, that adi by which any thing is plun¬
ged into water or other fluid.
It is ufed in chemiftry for a fpecies of calcination,
when any body is immerfed in a fluid to be corroded :
or it is a fpecies of lotion 3 as when a fubflance is plun¬
ged into any fluid, in order to deprive it of a bad qua¬
lity, or communicate to it a good one.
Immersion, in AJlronomy, is when a ftar or planet
is fo near the fun with regard to our obfervations, that
we cannot fee it 3 being, as it were, enveloped and hid
in the rays of that luminary. It alfo denotes the be¬
ginning of an eclipfeof the moon, or that moment when
the moon begins to be darkened, and to enter into the
fhadow of the earth.
IMMOLATION, a ceremony ufed in the Roman
facrifices 3 it confifled in throwing upon the head of
the vidtim fome fort of corn and frankincenfe, together
with the mola or fait cake, and a little wine.
IMMORTAL, that which will laft to all eter¬
nity, as having in it no principle of alteration or cor¬
ruption.
IMMUNITY, a privilege or exemption from fome
©flice, duty, or impofition, as an exemption from tolls,
&c.
Immunity is more particularly underftood of the li¬
berties granted to cities and communities.
IMMUTABILITY, the condition of a thing that
cannot change. Immutability is one of the divine at¬
tributes. See God.
IMOLA, a town of Italy, in the territory of the
church, and in Romagna, with a bilhop’s fee. It
is a very handfome populous place ; and is feated on
the river Santerno, in E. Long. u. 43. N. Lat. 44.
IMPACT , the Ample or Angle adlion of one body
upon another to put it in motion. Point of impadl is
the place or point where a body adls.
IMPALE, in Heraldry, is to conjoin two coats of
Vol. XL Part I.
arms pale-wife. Women impale their coats of arms Impale
with thofe of their hufbands. See Heraldry'. ^ H
To impale cities, camps, fortifications, &c. is to in- iqpty1"
clofe them with paliifadoes.
To Impale or Empale, fignifies alfo to put to death
by fpitting on a flake fixed Upright.
IMPALPABLE, that whole parts are fo extremely
minute, that they cannot be diflinguilhed by the fenfes,
particularly by that of feeling.
I MPA NATION, a term ufed by divines to fignify
the opinion of the Lutherans with regard to the eucha-
rift, who believe that the fpecies of bread and wine re¬
main together with the body of our Saviour after con-
fecration.
IMPANNELLING, in Law, fignifies the writing
down or entering into a parchment, lift, or fchedule,
the names of a jury fummoned by the Iheriff to appear
for fuch public fervices as juries are employed in.
IMPARLANCE, in Lazv, a petition in court for a
day to confider or advife what anlwer the defendant
lhall make to the plaintiff’s a£lion 3 and is the continu¬
ance of the caufe till another day, or a longer time given
by the court.
IMPASSIBLE, that which is exempt from fuffer-
ing 3 or rvhich cannot undergo pain or alteration. The
Stoics place the foul of their wife men in an impaflible,
imperturbable ftate. See Apathy.
IMPASTATTON, the mixture of various materials
of different colours and confiftencies, baked or bound
together with fome cement, and hardened either by the
air or by fire.
IMPATIENS, TOUCH-ME-NOT, and Balfamine: a
genus of plants belonging to the fyngenefia clafs 3 and
in the natural method ranking under the 24th order,
corydales. See Botany Index.
IMPEACHMENT, an accufation and profecution
for treafon and other crimes and mifdemeanours. Any
member of the lower houfe of parliament may impeach
any one belonging either to that body, or to the houfe
of lords. The method of proceeding is to exhibit ar¬
ticles on the behalf of the commons, by whom mana¬
gers are appointed to make good their charge. Thefe
articles are carried to the lords, by whom every per-
fon impeached by the commons is always tried 3 and
if they find him guilty, no pardon under the great feal
can be pleaded to fuch an impeachment. 1 2 Will. III.
cap. ii.
IMPECCABILES, in church hiftory, a name given
to thofe heretics who boafted that they were impec¬
cable, and that there was no need of repentance : fuch
were the Gnoftics, Prifcillianiils, &c.
IMPECCABILITY, the ffateof a perfon who can¬
not fin 3 or a grace, privilege,^ or principle, which puts
him out of a poffibility of finning.
The fchoolmen diftinguilh feveral kinds and degrees
of impeccability : that of God belongs to him by na¬
ture : that of Jefus Chriff, confidered as man, belongs
to him by the hypoftatical union : that of the bleffed
is a confequence of their condition : that of men is
the effe6! of a confirmation in grace, and is rather
called wipcccatice than impeccability ; accordingly divines
diftinguiih between thefe two : this diftin&ion is found
neceffary in the difputes againfl: the Pelagians, in or¬
der to explain certain terms in the Greek and Latin
Y fathers*
I M P [ 170 ] IMP
Iinpedi- fathers, which without this diftinftion are eafily con-
inents founded.
Imperial IMPEDIMENTS, in Law, are fuch hinderances as
y  put a flop or hay to a perfon’s feeking for his right
by a due courfe of law. Perfons under impediments
are thofe under age or coverture, non compos mentis,
in prifon, beyond lea, &c. who, by a laving in our
laws, have time to claim and profecute their rights,
after the impediments are removed, in cafe of fines le¬
vied, &c.
IMPENETRABILITY, in Philofophy, that pro¬
perty of body, wdiereby it cannot be pierced by ano¬
ther : thus, a body which fo fills a fpace as to exclude
all others, is faid to be impenetrable.
IMPERATIVE, one of the moods of a verb, ufed
when we would command, intreat, or advife : thus, ^0
read, take pity, be aclvifed, are imperatives in our lan¬
guage. But in the learned languages, this mood has
a peculiar termination to ditlinguilh it from others,
as i, or ito, “ go lege, or legito, “ read,” &c. and
not only fo, but the termination varies, according as
you addrefs one or mote perfons, as audi and audite ;
tCKVtiM, UKufltijV, (X-KxClCOCCtV, &C.
IMPERATOR, in Roman antiquity, a title of
honour conferred on victorious generals by their armies,
and afterwards confirmed by the fenate.
Imperator was alfo the title adopted by the Roman
emperors.
IMPERATORIA, masterwort, a genus of plants
belonging to the pentandria clafs j and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 45th order, Umbellate?. See Bo¬
tany Index.
IMPERFECT, fomething that is defective, or that
wants fome of the properties found in other beings of
the fame kind.
Impurvect Number, is that whofe aliquot parts, taken
all together, do not make a fum that is equal to the
number itfelf, but either exceed it, or fall fhort of it;
being an abundant number in the former cafe, and a de¬
fective number in the latter. Thus, 12 is an abundant
ImperfeiR number, becaufe the fum of all its aliquot
parts, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, makes 16, which exceeds the num¬
ber 12. And 10 is a defeflive imperfedt number, be¬
caufe its aliquot parts, 1, 2, 5, taken all together, make
only 8, which is lefs than the number 10 itfelf.
Impurfmct Tenfe, in Grammar, a tenfe that denotes
fome preterite cafe, or denotes the thing to be at that
time prefent, and not quite finilhed j as feribebam, “ I
was writing.” See Grammar.
IMPERIAL, fomething belonging to an emperor,
or empire. See Emperor and Empire.—Thus we
fay, his imperial majefty, the imperial crown, imperial
arms, &c.
Imperial Crown. See Heraldry.
Imperial Chamber, is a fovereign court, eflablifhed
for the affairs of the immediate Hates of the empire.
See Chamber, and Germany.
Imperial Cities, in Germany, are thofe which own
no other head but the emperor.
Thefe are a kind of little commonwealths ; the chief
magiflrate whereof does homage to the epaperor, but
in other refpedls, and in the adminiftration of juftice, is
fovereign.
Imperial cities have a right of coining money, and
of keeping forctss and fortified places. Their deputies
affiil at the imperial diets, where they are divided in- Imperial
to twm branches, that of the Rhine and that of Suabia. . .
There were formerly 2 2 in the former and 37 in the bit- ^n'i'0^"on'
ter ; but there are now only 48 in all.
Imperial Diet, is an affembly or convention of all
the Hates of the empire. See Diet and Germany.
IMPERSONAL VERB, in Grammar, a verb to
which the nominative of any certain perfon cannot be
prefixed 5 or, as others define it, a verb deditute of
the two firlh and primary perfons, as decet, oporlet, &c.
The imperfonal verbs of the aclive voice end in t, and
thofe of the paffive in tar ; they are conjugated through
the third perfon lingular of almoH all the tenfes and
moods : they want the imperative, inflead of which we
ufe the prefent of the fubjuncti ve j as paniteat, pug net ur,
&c. nor, but a few excepted, are they to be met with
in the fupines, participles, or gerunds.
IMPERVIOUS, a thing not to be pervaded or
palled through, either by reafon of the clofenefs of its
pores, or the particular configuration of its parts.
IMPETIGO, in Medicine, an extreme roughnef
and foulnefs of the fkin, attended with an itching and
plentiful feurf,
The impetigo is a fpecies of dry pruriginous itch,
wherein feales or feurf fucceed apace j ariiing from fa-
line corrolive humours thrown out upon the exterior
parts of the body, by which means the internal parts
are ufually relieved,
IMPETR ATION, the aft of obtaining any thing
by requeH or prayer.
Impetration was more particularly ufed in our
Hatutes for the pre-obtaining of benefices and church-
offices in England from the court of Rome, which did
belong to the difpofal of the king and other lay patrons
of the realm ; the penalty whereof is the lame with that
of provifors, 25 Ed. III.
IMPETUS, in Mechanics, the force with which
one body Hrikes or impels another.
IMPLICATION, in Law, is where fomething js
implied that is not expreffed by the parties themfelves
in their deeds, contrafts, or agreements.
To IMPLY, or carry, in Mujic. Thefe we have
ufed as fynonymous terms in that article. They are
intended to fignify thofe founds w'hich ought to be
the proper concomitants of any note, whether by its
own nature, or by its polition in artificial harmony.
Thus every note confidered as an independent found,
may be faid to carry or imply its natural harmonics,
that is to fay, its oftave, its twelfth, and its feven-
teenth ; or, when reduced, its eighth, its fifth, and its
third. But the fame found, when conlidered as confli-
tuting any part of harmony, is fubjefted to other laws
and different limitations. It can then only be faid to
carrij or imply fuch fimple founds, or complications of
found, as the preceding and fubfequent chords admit
or require. For thefe the laws of melody and har¬
mony mull be confulted. See Melody and Har¬
mony.
IMPORTATION, in Commerce, the bringing
merchandife into a kingdom from foreign countries;
in contradiffinftion to exportation. See Exporta¬
tion.
For the principal laws relating to importation, fee
Cujlomhoufe Laips.
IMPOSITION of hands, an ecclefiailical aftion by
which
IMP [ i;
Itnpoffible wkicli a bitliop lays his hand on the head of a perfon,
i! in ordination, confirmation, or in uttering a blefiing.
tlufme. Pra^b'ce is alfo frequently obferved by the diffen-
s..- .ters at the ordination of their minifters, when all the
minifiers prefent place their hands on the head of him
whom they are ordaining, while one of them prays for
a blefiing on him and his future labours. This fome
of them retain as an ancient practice, juftified by the
example of the apofiles, when no extraordinary gifts
are conveyed. However, they are not agreed as to the
propriety of this ceremony •, nor do they confider it as
an efiential part of ordination.
Impofition of hands was a Jewilh ceremony, intro¬
duced not by any divine authority, but by cufiom ; it
being the praffice among thofe people whenever they
prayed to God for any perfon to lay their hands on his
head.
Our Saviour obferved the fame cuftom, both when
he conferred his blefling on children, and when he
cured the lick ; adding prayer to the ceremony. The
apofiles likewife laid hands on thofe upon whom they
bellowed the Holy Ghoft.—The priefts obferved the
fame cufiom when any one was received into their
. body.—And the apofiles themfelves underwent the
impolition of hands afrefii every time they entered
upon any new defign. In the ancient church impo¬
fition of hands was even pra6Hfed on perfons when
they married, which cufiom the Abyfiinians fiill ob-
ferve.
IMPOSSIBLE, that which is not pofllble, or which
cannot be done or effecded. A propofition is faid to
be impofiible, when it contains two ideas which mutu¬
ally deflroy each other, and which can neither be con¬
ceived nor united together. Tims it is impofiible
that a Circle fhould be a fquare ; becaufe we conceive
clearly that fquarenefs and roundnefs deftroy each other
by the contrariety of their figure.
There are two kinds of impofiibilities, pliiffical and
moral.
Phyfical impofiibility is that which is contrary to
the law of nature.
A thing is morally impofiible, when of its own na¬
ture it is pofllble, but yet is attended with fuch diffi¬
culties, as that, all things confidered, it appears im¬
pofiible. Thus it is morally impoffible that all men
fhould be virtuous ; or that a man fhould throw the
fame number with three dice a hundred times fuc-
ceffively.
A thing which is impoffible in law, is the fame with
a thing impoffible in nature : and if any thing in a bond
or deed be impofiible to be done, fuch deed, &c. is void.
21 Car, I.
IMPOST, in ArchiteRurc, a capital or plinth, to a
pillar or pilafter, or pier that fupports an arch, &c.
Impost, in Law, fignifies in general a tribute or cuf¬
tom, but is more particularly applied tp fignify that tax
which the crown receives for merchandifes imported in¬
to any port or haven.
IMPOSJ. HUME, or abfcefs, a colleciion of mat¬
ter or pus^ in any part of the body, either owing to
an obftrucflion of the fluids in that "part, which makes
them change into fuch matter, or to a tranllation of
it from fome other part where it rvas generated. See
Surgery Index.
n J IMP
IMPOSTOR, in a general fenfe, denotes a perfon Imptfflor
who cheats by a fictitious character. il
Religious Impostors, are fuch as falfely pretend to^'ri!'>n^''cy'
an extraordinary commiflion from heaven j and who
terrify and abufe the people with falfe denunciations
of judgments. Thefe are puniffiable in the temporal
courts with fine, imprifonment, and infamous corporal
puniffiment.
IMPOTENCE, or Impotency, in general, de¬
notes want of flrength, power, or means, to perform
any thing.
Divines and philofophers diftinguiffi two forts of
impotency ; natural and moral. The firft is a want of
fome phyfical principle, neceffary to an aCtion 5 or where
a being is abfolutely defective, or not free and at liber¬
ty to aCt: The fecond only imports a great difficulty
as a ftrong habit to the contrary, a violent paffion, or
the like.
Impotency is a term more particularly ufed for a na¬
tural inability to coition. Impotence with refpeCt to
men is the fame as ilerility in women 5 that is, an ina¬
bility of propagating the fpecies. There are many caufes
of impotence 5 as, a natural defeCI in the organs of
generation, which feldom admits of a cure : accidents
or difeafes; and in fuch cafes the impotence may or
may not be remedied, according as thefe are curable or
otherwife.—The moft common caufes are, early and
immoderate venery, or the venereal difeafe. We have
mftances, however, of unfitnefs for generation in men
by an impediment to the ejeftion of the femen in cd
tion, from a wrong direction which the orifice at the
verumontanum got, whereby the feed was thrown up.
into the bladder. M. Petit cured one patient unde-
fuch a difficulty of emiffion, by making an incifion
like to that commonly made in the great operation for
the Hone.
On this fubjeft we have fome curious and original
obfervations by the late Mr John Hunter in his Trea-
tife on the Venereal Difeafe *. He confiders impoten- * P. 201,
cy as depending upon two caufes. One he refers to the ^cc-
mind ; the other to the organs.
1. As to impotenaj dependmg upon the mind, he obferves,
that as the “ parts of .generation are not neceitarv for
the exillence or fupport of the individual, but have a
reference to fomething elfe in which the mind has 2
principal concern ■, fo a complete aftion in thofe parts
cannot take place without a perfect harmony of body
and of mind : that is, there mufl be both a power of
body and difpofition of mind ; for the mind is fabjefl
to a thoufand caprices, which affeft the a&ions of thefe
parts.
“ Copulation is an add of the body, the fpring of
which is in the mind ; but it is not volition : and ac¬
cording to the fiate of the mind, fo is the ad per¬
formed. To perform this ad well, the body fhould
be in health, and the mind ffiould be perfedly^onfi-
dent of the powers of the body 5 the mind fhould be
in a ftate entirely difengaged from every thing elfe :
it fhould have no difficulties, no fears, no apprehen-
fions, not even an anxiety to perform the ad well;
for even this anxiety is a ftate of mind different from
what fhould prevail ; there fhould not be even a fear
that the mind itfelf may find a difficulty at the time
the ad fhould be performed. Perhaps no fundion of
v Y 2 the
i M P
tne machine depends fo much, upon the idate of the
mind this.
“ The will and reafoning faculty have nothing to
do with this power ; they are only employed in the
aft, fo far as voluntary parts are made ufe of: and if
they ever interfere, wThich they fometimes do, it often
produces another flate of mind which deftroys that
which is proper for the performance of the aft j it
produces a defire, a wiih, a hope, which are all only
diffidence and uncertainty, and create in the mind the
idea of a poffibility of the want of fuccefs, which de¬
ftroys the proper ftate of mind or neceffary confidence.
“ There is perhaps no aft in which a man feels
himfelf more interefted, or is more anxious to perform
well 5 his pride being engaged in fome degree, w-hich
If within certain bounds would produce a degree of
perfeftion in an aft depending upon the will, or an
aft in voluntary parts j but when it produces a ftate of
mind contrary to that ftate on which the perfeftion
of the aft depends, a failure muft be the confequence.
“ The body is not only rendered incapable of per¬
forming this aft by the mind being under the above in¬
fluence, but alfo by the mind being, though perfectly
confident of its pow-er, yet confcious of an impropriety
in performing it j this, in many cafes, produces a ftate
of mind which (hall take awray all power. The ftate of
a man’s mind refpefting his fifter takes away all power.
A confcientious man has been known to lofe his powers
on finding the woman he was going to be connefted
with unexpeftedly a virgin.
“ Shedding tears arifes entirely from the ftate of
the mind, although not fo much a compound aftipn as
the aft in queftion ; for none are fo weak in body that
they cannot ffied tears \ it is not fo much a compound
aftion of the mind and ftrength of body joined, as the
other aft is •, yet if we are afraid of fhedding tears, or
are defirous of doing it, and that anxiety is kept up
through the whole of an affefting fcene, we certainly
(hall not ffied tears, or at leaft not fo freely as would
have happened from our natural feelings.
“ From this account of the necefiity of having the
mind independent refpefting the aft, we muft; fee that
it may very often happen that the ftate of mind will be
Inch as not to allow the animal to exert its natural
powers t and every failure increales the evil. We muft
alfo fee from this ftate of the cafe, that this aft muft be
often interrupted 5 and the true caufe of this interrup¬
tion not being known, it will be laid to the charge of
the body or want of powers. As thefe cafes do not
arife from real inability, they are to be carefully diftm-
guiftied from fuch as do •, and perhaps the only way to
diftinguifh them is, to examine into the ftate of mind
refpefting this aft. So trilling often is the circumftance
which ffiall produce this inability depending on the
mind, that the very defire to pleafe ftiall have that ef-
feft, as in making the woman the foie objeft to be gra¬
tified.
“ Cafes of this kind we fee every day ; one of which
I ffiall relate as an illuftration of this fubjeft, and alfo
of the method of cure.—A gentleman told me, that he
had loft his virility. After above an hour’s inveftiga-
tion of the cafe, I made out the follo wing fafts : that
he had at unneceffary times ftrong ereftions, which
ffiowed that he had naturally this powTer ; that the
ereftions were accompanied .with defire, which are all
I M P
the natural powers wanted ; but that there was ftill a Imp
defcft fomewffiere, which L fuppofed to be from the —
mind» I inquired if all women were alike to him ? his
anfwer was, No j fome women he could have connec¬
tion with as well as ever. This brought the deleft,
whatever it was, into a fmaller compafs : and it appear¬
ed that there was but one woman that produced this in¬
ability, and that it arofe from a defire to perform the
aft with this woman well j which defire produced in
the mind a doubt or fear of the w'ant of fuccefs, which
was the caufe of the inability of performing the aft.
As this arofe entirely from the ftate of the mind produ¬
ced by a particular circumftance, the mind was to be
applied to for the cure 5 and I told him that he might
be cured, if he could perfeftly rely on his owm power of
felf-denial. When I explained what I meant, he told
me that he could depend upon every aft of his will or
refolution. I then told him, that, if he had a perfeft
confidence in himfelf in that refpeft, he was to go to
bed to this w'oman, but firlt promife to himfelf that
he would not have any conneftion with her for fix
nights, let his inclinations and powers be what they
would ; which he engaged to do, and alfo to let me
know the refult. About a fortnight after, he told me,
that this refolution had produced fuch a total alteration
in the ftate of his mind, that the power foon took
place \ for inftead of going to bed with the fear of ina¬
bility, he w'ent with fears that he ffiould be pofleffed
with too much defire, too much power, fo as to become
uneafy to him j which really happened ■, for he would
have been happy to have fhortened the time ; and when
he had once broke the fpell, the mind and powers went
on together, and his mind never returned to its former
ftate.”
2. Of impotency from a want of proper corrcfpondence
between the aBions of the different organs. Our author,
in a former part of his Treatife, when confidering the
difeafes of the urethra and bladder, had remarked, that
every organ in an animal body, without exception, was
made of different parts, whofe funftions or aftions were
totally different from one another, although all tending
to produce one ultimate effeft. In all fuch organs,
when perfeft (he obferves), there is a fucceffion of mo¬
tions, one naturally ariftng out of the other, which in
the end produces the ultimate effeft j and an irregula¬
rity alone in thefe aftions will conftitute difeafe, at
leaft will produce very difagreeable effefls, and often
totally fruftrate the intention of the organ. This prin¬
ciple Mr Hunter, on the prefent occafion, applies to
the “ aftions of the tefticles and penis: for we find that
an irregularity in the aftions of thefe parts fometimes
happens in men, producing impotence 5 and fomething
fimilar probably may be one caufe of barrennefs in wo¬
men.
In men, the parts fubfervient to generation maybe
divided into twro ; the effential and the acceffory. The
tefticles are the effential } the penis, &c. the acceffory.
As this divifion arifes from their ufes or aftions in
health, wffiich exaftly correfpond with one another, a
want of exaftnefs in the correfpondence or fufceptibility
of thofe aftions may alfo be divided into two : where
the aftions are reverfed, the acceffory taking place
without the firft or effential, as in ereftions of the penis,
where neither the mind nor the teflicles are ftimulated
to afticn j and the fecond is where the tefticles perform
the
f j?2 1
IMP [ i
Impotencj.the action of fecretion too readily for the penis, which
1 v  has not a correfponding ereftion. The firft is called
priapifm ; and the fecond is what ought to be called fe-
minal weaknefs.
“ The mind has confiderable effeft on the correfpon-
dence of the actions of thefe two parts : but it would
appear in many inftances, that erections of the penis
depend more on the ftate of the mind than the fecretion
of the femen does ; for many have the fecretion, but
not the ereftion ; but in fuch, the want of eredfion ap¬
pears to be owdng to the mind only.
“ Priapifm often arifes fpontaneoufly ; and often
from vifible irritation of the penis, as in the venereal
gonorrhoea, efpecially when violent. The fenfation
of fuch eredlions is rather uneafy than pleafant; nor is
the fenfation of the glans at the time fimilar to that ari-
fing from the ereffions of defire, but more like to the
fenfation of the parts immediately after coition. Such
as arife fpontaneoufly are of more ferious confequence
than thofe from inflammation, as they proceed probably
from caufes not curable in themfelves or by any known
methods. The priapifm arifing from inflammation of
the parts, as in a gonorrhoea, is attended with nearly
the fame fymptoms ; but generally the fenfation is that
of pain, proceeding from the inflammation of the parts.
It may be obferved, that what is faid of priapifm is
only applicable to it when a difeafe in itfelf, and not
when a fymptom of other difeafes, which is frequently
the cafe.
“ The common praftice in the cure of this complaint
is to order all the nervous and ilrengthening medicines 5
fuch as bark, valerian, mutk, camphor, and alfo the
cold bath. I have feen good effects from the cold
bath ; but fometimes it does not agree writh the confti-
tution, in which cafe I have found the warm bath of
fervice. Opium appears to be a fpecific in many cafes j
from which circumflance I fhould be apt, upon the
v.'hole, to try a Toothing plan.
“ Seminal weaknefs, or a fecretion and emiffion of
the femen without ereflions, is the reverfe of a priapifm,
and is by much the wmrfe difeafe of the two. There is
great variety in the degrees oi this difeafe, there being
all the gradations from the exafl correfpondence of the
aftions of all the parts to the teflicles aCling alone ; in
every cafe of the difeafe, there is too quick a fecretion
and evacuation of the femen. Like to the priapifm, it
does not arife from defires and abilities } although when
mild it is attended with both, but not in a due propor¬
tion ; a very flight defire often producing the full ef-
fe£l. The fecretion of the femen fhall be fo quick,
that fimple thought, or even toying, lhall make it
flow.
“ Dreams have produced this evacuation repeatedly
in the fame night 5 and even when the dreams have been
fo flight, that there has been no confcioufnefs of them
when the fleep has been broken by the a£! of emiflion.
I have known cafes where the teflicles have been fo
ready to fecrete, that the leaft friflion on the glans has
73 J 1 M p
produced an emiflion : I have known the fimple action Tmpo
of walking or riding produce this effe£i, and that re-
peatedly, in a very fliort fpace of time.
“ A young man, about four or five and twenty years
of age, not fo much given to venery as mofi young
men, had thefe laft mentioned complaints upon him.
Three or four times in the night he would emit 5 and
if he walked fail, or rode on horfeback, the fame thing
would happen. He could fcarcely have connexion
with a woman before he emitted, and in the emiflion
there was hardly any fpafm. He tried every fuppofed
ftrengthening medicine, as alfo the cold bath and fea-
bathing, but with no effeft. By taking 20 drops of
laudanum on going to bed, he prevented the night
emiffions 5 and by taking the fame quantity in the
moming, he could wralk or ride without the before-
mentioned inconvenience. I direfted this practice to
be continued for forne time, although the difeafe did
not return, that the parts might be accuflomed to this
healthy ftate of aclion ; and I have reafon to believe
the gentleman is now well. It was found neceflary, as
the conftitution became more habituated to the opiate,
to increafe the dofe of it.
“ The fpafins, upon the evacuation of the femen in
fuch cafes, are extremely flight, and a repetition of
them foon takes place ; the firft emiftion not preventing
a fecond ; the conftitution being all the time but little
affefted (a). When the tefticles aft alone, without
the acceflbry parts taking up the neceffary and natural
confequent aftion, it is ftill a more melancholy difeafe j
for the fecretion arifes from no vifible or fenfible caufe,
and does not give any vifible or fenfible effeft, but runs
off fimilar to involuntary ftools or urine. It has been
obferved that the femen is more fluid than natural in
fome of thefe cafes.
“ There is great variety in the difeafed aftions of
thefe parts; of which the following cafe may be confi-
dered as an example. A gentleman has had a ftrifture
in the urethra for many years, for which he has fre¬
quently ufed a bougie, but of late has neglefted it. He
has had no conneftion with w7omen for a confiderable
time, being afraid oi the confequences. He has often
in his fleep involuntary emiflions, which generally
awake him at the paroxyfm ; but what furprifes him
moft is, that often he has fuch without any femen
pafling forwards through the penis, which makes him
think that at thofe times it goes backrvards into the
bladder. This is not always the cafe, for at other
times the femen paffes forwards. At the time the
femen feems to pafs into the bladder, he has the erec¬
tion, the dream ; and is awaked with the fame mode
of aftion, the fame fenfation, and the fame pleafure,
as when it paffes through the urethra, whether dream¬
ing or waking. My opinion is, that the fame irritation
takes place in the bulb of the urethra without the fe¬
men that takes place there when the femen enters, in
confequence of all the natural preparatory fteps, where¬
by the very fame aftions are excited as if it came into
the
(a) “ It is to be confidered, that the conftitution is commonly affefted by the fpafms only, and in pro¬
portion to their violence, independent of the fecretion and evacuation of the femen. But in fome cafes even
the ereftion going off vv.thout the fpafms on the emiflion, {hall produce the fame debility as if they had taken
place,”
iiapotencj
II
Impreffing.
IMP [ i
the phage : from which one would fuppofe, that either
femen is not fecreted 5 or if it be, that a retrograde mo¬
tion takes place in the adfions of the acceleratores uri-
n;e. But if the firlt be the cafe, then we may fuppofe,
that in the natural ftate the aflions of thofe mufcles do
not arife fimply from the flimulus of the femen in the
part, but from their adlion being a termination of a
preceding one making part of a feries of adfions. Thus
they may depend upon the friclion* or the imagination
of a fri£Hon, on the penis; the tefticles not doing their
part, and the fpafm in fuch cafes a riling from the
friclion and hot from the fecretion. In many of
thofe cafes of irregularity, w:hen the erection is not
ilrong, i* lhall go off without the emiffion ; and at
other times an emifTion lhall happen almolt without an
erection ; but thefe arife not from debility, but affec¬
tions of the mind.
“ In many of the preceding cafes, walhing the penis,
fcrotum, and perinceum, with cold water, is often of
lervice ; and to render it colder than it is in feme
leafons of the year, common fait may be added to it,
and the parts wathed when the fait is almoft diffol-
ved.,,
ImpotENCY is a canonical difability, to avoid mar¬
riage in the fpiritual court. The marriage is not void
nb initio, but voidable only by fentence of feparation
during the life of the parties.
IMPRECATION, (derived from in, and prccor,
“ I pray ;”) a curfe or wilh that fome evil may befal
any one.
The ancients had their goddeffes called Imprecations,
in Latin Dir a', i. e. Deorum ires, who wrere fuppofed to
be the executioners of evil confciences. They were
called Dirce in heaven, Furies on earth, ZL\\&-Eu;nenides
in hell. The Romans owned but three of thefe Im¬
precations, and the Greeks only two. They invoked
them with prayers and pieces of verfes to deilroy their
fcnemies.
IMPREGNATION, the getting a female with
child. See Conception.
The term impregnation is alfo ufed, in pharmacy, for
communicating the virtues of one medicine to another,
whether by mixture, coftion, digeftion, &c.
IMPRESSING SEAMEN. The power of impreffing
fea-faring men for the fea-lervice by the king’s commif-
lion, has been a matter of fome dilpute, and fubmitted
to with great reluftance \ though it hath very clearly
and learnedly been Ihown by Sir Pviichael Foriler, that
the praftice of impreffing, and granting powers to the
admiralty for that purpofe, is of very ancient date, and
hath been uniformly continued by a regular feries of
precedents to the prefent time : whence he concludes it
to be part of the common law. The difficulty ai il’es
from hence, that no ftatute has exprefsly declared this
power to be in the crown, though many of them very
ftrongly imply it. The ftatute 2 Rich. II. 0.4. fpeaks
of manners being arrefted and retained for the king’s
fervice, as of a thing well known, and praftifed with¬
out difpute j and provides a remedy againft their run¬
ning away. By a later ftatute, if any waterman, who
ufes the river Thames, ftiall hide himfelf during the exe¬
cution of any commiffion of preffing for the king’s fer¬
vice, he is liable to heavy penalties. By another
(5 Eliz. c. 5.) no fiiherman lhall be taken by the
queen’s commiffion to ferve (as a mariner j but the com-
74 ]
I M P
million lhall be hi ft brought to two juftices of the peace, Inspreffioiy,
inhabiting near the lea coaft where the mariners are to ImPriior>-
be taken, to the intent that the juitices may choofe out mc^UI' ,
and return fuch a number of able-bodied men, as in the
commiffion are contained, to ferve her majefty. And
by others, efpecially protections are allowed to feamen
in particular circumftances, to prevent them from being
imprelfcd. Ferrymen are alio laid to be privileged
from being impreffed, at common law. All which do
moft evidently imply a power of impreffing to relide
fomewhere ; and if anywher**, it muft, trom the fpirit
of our conftitution, as well as from the frequent men¬
tion of the king’s commiffion, refide in the crown alone.
—After all, however, this method of manning the navy
is to be conlidered as only defenlible from puolic necef-
lity, to which all private confiderations muft give
way.
The following perfons are exempted from being im-
preffed : Apprentices for three years ; the mailer,
mate, and carpenter, and one man lor every 100 tons,
of veffels employed in the coal trade-, all under 18
years of age, and above 55 ; foreigners in merchant-
Ihips and privateers ; landmen betaking themfelves to
lea for two years j feamen in the Greenland filhery, and
harpooners, employed, during the interval of the filh-
ing feafon, in the coal-trade, and giving fecurity to go
to the filhing next feafon.
IMPRESSION is applied to the fpecies of obiedls
which are fuppofed to make fome mark or impreliion on
the fenfes, the mind, and the memory. The Peripate¬
tics alfert, that bodies emit fpecies refembling them,
which are conveyed to the common/^w/orAw, and they
are rendered intelligible by the active intellect ; and,
when thus fpiritualized, are called exprejfions, or exprefs
fpecies, as being expreiTed from the others.
Impression alfo denotes the edition of a book, re¬
garding the mechanical part only j w hereas edition, be-
lides this, takes in the care of the editor, who corrtift-
ed or augmented the copy, adding notes, &c. to render
the work more ufeful,
IMPRISONMENT, the ftate of a perfon reftrain-
ed of his liberty, and detained under the culiody of an¬
other.
No perfon is to be imprifoned but as the law direfts,
either by the command or order of a court of record,
or *by law ful warrant j or the king’s procefs, on which
one may be lawfully detained. And at common lawq
a perfon could not be imprifoned unleis he were guilty
of fome force and violence, for which his body was
fubjeft to imprifonment, as one of the higheft execu¬
tions. Where the law gives power to imprifon, in
fuch cafe it is juftiiiable, provided he that does it in
purfuance of a ftatute exaftly purfues the ftatute in
the manner of doing it ; for otherwife it will be deem¬
ed falfe imprifonment, and of confequence it is unjufti-
fiable. Every warrant of commitment for imprifoning-
a perfon, ought to run, “ till delivered by due courle
of law,” and “ not until farther order 5” which has
been held ill : and thus it alfo is, where one is impri¬
foned on a warrant not mentioning any caufe for
which he is committed. See Arrest and Commit¬
ment.
Faife Impkisonmeht. Every confinement of the
perfon is an impritonment, whether it be in a common
prifon, or in a private houfe, or in the flocks, 01 even
Isv
IMP [ i
Tmpnfon- by forcibly detaining one in the public Greets. LTn-
n‘eut lawful ox falfe imprifonment con lifts in fuch confinement
Impurity. or detention without fufticient authority : which autho-
y—rity may arife either from fome procefs from the courts
of juftice or from fome warrant from a legal power to
commit, under his hand and feal, and exprefling the
caufe of fuch commitment; or from fome other fpecial
caufe warranted, for the neceflity of the thing, either
by common law or aift of parliament 5 fuch as the ar-
refting of a felon by a private perfon without warrant,
the imprefling of mariners for the public fervice, or the
apprehending of waggoners for milbehaviour in the
public highways. Fade imprifonment alfo may arife
by executing a lawful warrant or procefs at an unlawful
time, as on a Sunday ; or in a place privileged from
from arrefts, as in the verge of the king’s court. This
is the injury. The remedy is of two forts ; the one
removing the injury, the other makingfatisfaction for
it.
The means of removing the actual injury of falfe im-
priiomnent are fourfold : 1. By writ of Maixprize.
2. By writ De Odio et sltia. 3. By writ De Homine
Keplcgiando. 4. By writ of Habeas Corpus. See
thole articles.
The fatisfatlorij remedy for this injury of falfe impri¬
fonment, is by an aflion of trelpafs vi et armis, ulually
called an achon of fa/fe imprifonment ; which is gene¬
rally, and almoft unavoidably, accompanied with a
charge of affault and battery alfo : and therein the party
‘hall recover damages for the injuries he has received ;
and aifo the defendant is, as for all other injuries com¬
mitted with force, or vi et armis, liable to pay a fine
to the king for the violation of the public peace.
IfriPROMPTU, or Intromptu, a Latin word fre¬
quently ufed among the French, and fometimes in Eng-
lifh, to fignify a piece made otf-hand, or extempore,
without any previous meditation, by mere force and vi¬
vacity of imagination.
IMPROB A1 ION, in Scots Law, the name of any
aflion brought for fetting any deed or writing aflde up¬
on the head of forgery.
IMPROPRIATION, in ecclefiaftical law. See
Appropriation.
IMPULSION, in Mechanical Philofophy, a term
employed for exprefling a fuppofed peculiar exertion of
tne powers of body, by which a moving body changes
he motion of another body by hitting or ftriking it.
The plaineft cafe of this aflion is when a body in mo¬
tion hits another body at reft, and puts it in motion by
the broke. The body thus put in motion is faid to be
impelled by the other; and this way of producing
motion is called IMPULSION, to diftinguifh it from pres ■
sign, THRUSTING, or protrusion, by which we pufh
a body from its place without ftriking it. The term
has been gradually extended to every change of motion
occaftoned by the colliljofi of bodies. See IMecha-
nics.
IMP UR 11 Y, in the law of Mofes, is any legal de-
fdement. Of thefe there were feveral forts. °Some
were voluntary, as the touching a dead body, or any
animal that died of itfelf, or any creature that was
efteemed unclean; or the touching things holy, by one
v, ho was not clean, or was not a prieft ; the touching
one who had a leprofy, one who had a gonorrhoea, or
who was polluted by a dead carcafe, &c. Sometimes
75 J I N A
thefe impurities were involuntary ; as when any one in- Impurity
advertently touched bones, or a fepulchre, or any thing II
polluted ; or fell into fuch difeafes as pollute, as the le°- Inanity~
profy, &c. 1 v
Ihe beds, clothes, and moveables, which had touch¬
ed any thing unclean, contracfed alfo a kind of impuri¬
ty, and in fome caies communicated it to others.
J hefe legal pollutions were generally removed by
bathing, and lafted no longer than the evening. The
pmfon polluted plunged over head in the water, and
either bad his clothes on when he did fo, or wafhed
himfelf and his clothes feparately. Other pollutions
continued ‘«/en days, as that which was contracted by
touching a dead body. That of women in their month¬
ly courfes lafted till this was over whh them. Other
impurities lafted 40- or 30 days ; as that of women who
were lately delivered, who were unclean 40 days after
the birth of a boy, and 50 after the birth of a girl.
Others again lafted till the perfon was cured.
Many ot thele pollutions were expiated by facrinces;
and others by a certain water or ley made with the
alhes of a red heifer, facrificed on the great day of ex
piation. When the leper was cured, he went to the
temple, and oftered a iacrifice of two birds, one of
which was killed and the other fet at liberty. He who
had touched a dead body, or had been prefent at a fu¬
neral, was to be purified with the water of ex'piation.
and this upon pain ot death. The woman who bad
been delivered, offered a turtle and a lamb for her ex¬
piation ; or if lire was poor, two turtles or two youn°-
pigeons.
Thefe impurities, which the law of Mofes has ex-
prefled with the greateft accuracy and care, were only
figures of other more important impurities, fuch as the
fins and iniquities committed againft God, or faults
committed againft our neighbour. The faints and pro¬
phets of the Old Teftament were fenfible of this; and
our Saviour, in the gofpel, has ftrongly inculcate^, that
they are not outward and corporeal pollutions which
render us unacceptable to God, but fuch inward pollu¬
tions as In feci the foul, and are violations of juftice
truth, and charity.
IMPUTATION, in general, the charging fome
tiling to the account of one which belonged to another :
thus, the affertors of original fin maintain, that Adam’s
fin is imputed to all his pofterity.
In the fame fenfe, the righteoufnefs and merits of
Chrift are imputed to true believers.
IN ACCESSIBLE,, fomething that cannot be ap¬
proached, by reafon of intervening obftacles, as a riveb,
rock, &c. It is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of heights and’
diftances. See Mensuration.
INACHUS, founder of the kingdom of Arcms
1856 B. C. See Argos. 0 5
INALIENABLE, that, which cannot be legally
alienated or made over to another : thus the dominions
of the king, the revenues of the church, the eftates of
a minor, Sec. are inalienable, otherwife than with a re¬
serve of the right of redemption.
INANIMATE, a body that has either loft its foul,
or that is not of a nature capable of having any.
INANITION, among phyficians, denotes the ftate -
of the ftomach when empty, in oppofition to reple¬
tion.
INANITY, the fchool term for emptinefs or ah*,
folute
*?ntfe!ung
Incarna
tion.
INC [ 176 ] INC
foliite vacuity, and implies the abfence of all body and
matter whatfoever, fo that nothing remains but mere
fpace.
INARCHING, in Gardening, a method of graft-
ing, commonly called grajting by approach. See Gar¬
dening Index.
INAUGURATION, the coronation of an empe¬
ror or king, or the confecration of a prelate : fo called
from the ceremonies ufed by the Romans, when they
where received into the college of augurs.
INCA, or Ynca, a name given by the natNes of
Peru to their kings and the princes of the blood. Pe¬
dro de Cieca, in his Chronicles of Peru, givrs the ori¬
gin of the incas; and fays, that that country was, for
a long time, the theatre of all manner of crimes, of
war, diflenfion, and the moft dreadful diforders, till at
laft two brothers appeared, one of whom was called
Mangocapa; of this perfon the Peruvians relate many
wonderful dories. He built the city of Cufco, made
laws, elfablifhed order and harmony by his wife regu¬
lations ■, and he and his defeendants took the name
of inca, which fignifies .king or great lord. Thefe in¬
cas became fo powerful, that they rendered themfelves
mafters of all the country from Pafto to Chili, and from
the river Maule on the fouth to the river Augafmago
on the north j thefe twm rivers forming the bounds
of their empire, which extended above thirteen hun¬
dred leagues in length. This they enjoyed till the di-
vUions between Inca Guafcar and Atabalipa; which
the Spaniards laying hold of, made themfelves mafters
of the country, and deftroyed the empire of the incas.
See Peru.
INCAMERATION, a term ufed in the chancery
of Rome, for the uniting of lands, revenues, or other
rights, to the pope’s domain.
INCANTATION, denotes certain ceremonies, ac¬
companied with a formula of wmrds, and fuppofed to
be capable of railing devils, fpirits, &c. See Charm,
&c.
INCAPACITY, in the canon-law, is of two
kinds : 1. The want of a difpenfation for age in a mi¬
nor, for legitimation in a baftard, and the like : this
renders the provifton of a benefice void in its original.
2. Crimes and heinous offences, which annul provifions
at fir ft valid.
INCARNATION, in Theology, fignifies the act
whereby the Son of God affumed the human na¬
ture or the myftery by which Jefus Chrift, the eter¬
nal wmrd, was made man, in order to accomplifh the
work of our falvation. The era ufed among Chrif-
tians, whence they number their years, is the time of
the incarnation, that is, of Chrift’s conception in the
virgin’s wromb.
This era wTas firft eftablifhed by Dionyfius ExiguuS,
about the beginning of the lixth century, till which time
the era of Dioclefian had been in ufe.
Some time after this, it w7as confidered, that the
years of a man’s life were not numbered from the time
of his conception, but from that of his birth : which
occafioned them to poftpone the beginning of this era
for the fpace of one year, retaining the cycle of Dio¬
nyfius entire in every thing elfe.
At Rome they reckon their years from the incar¬
nation or birth of Chrift, that is, from the 29th of
December, which cultom has obtained from the year
1
1431. In France, and feveral other countries, they alfo Incarna*
reckon from the incarnation : but then they differ t’on
from each other in the day of the incarnation, fixing inCgnfe
it, after the primitive manner, not to the day of the ——y—L.
birth, but conception of our Saviour-, though the
Florentines retain the day of the birth, and begin their
year from Chriftmas.
Incarnation (formed from in and caro “ flefh,”)
in Surgery, fignifies the healing and filling up of ulcers
and wounds with new flelh. See Surgery.
INCARNATIVES, in Surgery, medicines which
w7ere fuppofed to affift nature in filling up wmunds or
ulcers with flefti.
INCENDIARY, in Law, is applied to one who
is guilty of malicioully fetting fire to another’s dwell-
ing-houfe, and all outhoufes that are parcel thereof,
though not contiguous to it, or under the fame roof,
as barns and ftables. A bare intent or attempt to do
this, by adlually fetting fire to a houfe, unlefs it ab-
folutely burns, does not fall within the defeription of
vicendit et co?nbuJJit. But the burning and confuming of
any part is fufticient; though the fire be afterwards
extinguilhed. It muft alfo be a malicious burning j
otherwife it is only a trefpafs. This offence is called
arfon in our law7.
Among the ancients, criminals of this kind were to
be burnt, ^uicedes, acervumque frumentijuxta domurn
pojitum feiens, prudenfque dolo malo combujjerit, vinclus
igni necatur.
The punilhment of arfon was death by our ancient
Saxon laws and by the Gothic conftitutions : and in
the reign of Edw'ard I. incendiaries were burnt to
death. The flat. 8 Hen. VI. c. 6. made the wilful
burning of houfes, under fpecial circumftances, high
treafon ; but it w7as reduced to felony by the general
a£ls of Edward VI. and (^ueen Mary. This offence
was denied the benefit of clergy by 21 Hen. VIII. c. 1.
W'hich ftatute was repealed by 1 Edw. VI. c. 1 2. j and
arfon w-as held to be cufted of clergy, with refpedt to
the principal, by inference from the flat. 4 and 5 P.
and M. c. 4. wdfich exprefsly denied it to the acceffory ;
though now it is exprefsly denied to the principal alfo,
by 9 Geo. I. c. 22.
INCENCE, or Frankincense, in the Materia Me-
dica, &c. a dry refinous fubftance, known among au¬
thors by the names thus and olibanum.
Incenfe is a rich perfume, with which the Pagans
and the Roman Catholics ftill perfume their temples,
altars, &c.—The word comes from the Latin incen-
fum, q. d. burnt; as taking the effeH for the thing it-
felf.
The burning of incenfe made part of the daily fer-
vice of the ancient Jewilh church. The priefts drew
lots to know wdio fhould offer it: the deftined perfon
took a large filver diih, in which w7as a cenfer full of
incenfe j and being accompanied by another prieft
carrying fome livt coals from the altar, went into the
temple. There, in order to give notice to the peo¬
ple, they ftruck upon an inftrument of brafs placed
between the temple and the altar j and being returned
to the altar, he who brought the fire left it there, and
went away. Then the offerer of incenfe having faid
a prayer or two, waited the fignal, wdfich was the
burning of the holocauft immediately upon which he
fet fire to the incenfe, the whole multitude continuing
all
✓
INC [ i
Taceptive 'all the time in prayer. The quantity of incenfe offer-
inch ^Co’m e<^ eac^ was a Poun<i in the morning and as
■, ~‘V.. ,'much at night.
One reaion of this continual burning of incenfe might
be, that the multitude of vi6Kms that were continually
offered up, would have made the temple fmell like a
flaughter-hcufe, and confequently have inipired the
comers rather with difgufl and averlion, than awe and
reverence, had it not been overpowered by the agree¬
able fragrance of thofe perfumes.
INCEPTIVE, a word ufed by Dr Wallis to ex-
prefs fuch moments, or firft principles, which, though
of no magnitude them- Ives, are yet capable of produ¬
cing fuch as are. Thus a point has no magnitude it-
felf, but is inceptive of a line which it produces by its
motion. So a line, though it have no breadth, is yet
inceptive of breadth j that is, it is capable, by its mo¬
tion, of producing a furface which has breadth, &c.
INCEST, the crime of venereal commerce between
perfons who are related in a degree wherein marriage
is prohibited by the laws of the country.
Some are of opinion, that marriage ought to be
permitted between kinsfolks, to the end that the af-
feftion fo neceffary in marriage might be heightened
by this double tic : yet the rules of this church have
formerly extended this prohibition even to the feventh
degree ; but time has now brought it down to the third
or fourth degree. ^
Molt nations look on inceft with horror, Perffa and
Egypt alone excepted. In the hiftory of the ancient
kings of thole countries we meet with inltances of the
brother’s marrying the filter ; the realbn was, becaufe
they thought it too mean to join in alliance with' their
own fubje&s, and ftPl more fo to have married into
any foreign family.
Incest Spiritual, a crime committed in like manner
between perfons who have a fpiritual alliance by means
of baptifm or confirmation.
Spiritual ineelt is alfo underftood of a vicar, or other
beneficiary, who enjoys both the mother and daughter j
that is, holds two benefices, the one whereof depends
upon the collation of the other.
Such a fpiritual inceft renders both the one and the
other of thefe benefices vacant,
INCH, a well-known meafure of length; being the
twelfth part of a foot, and equal to three barley-corns in
length.
Inch of Candle, (fale by). See Candle.
INCH (contracted from the Gaelic innis “ an
iffand”), a word prefixed to the names of different
places in Scotland and Ireland.
Inch Colm or Columba, the ille of Columba, an ifland
fituated in the frith of Forth in Scotland, and famous
for its monaltery.' See ForTH.
1 his monaltery was founded about 1123, by Alex*,
under I. on the following occafion. In paffing the frith
of Forth he was overtaken with a violent ftorm, which
drove him to this ifland, where he met with the moft
hofpitable reception from a poor hermit, then refiding
here in the chapel of St Columba, who, for the three
days that the king remained there tempeft-bound, en¬
tertained him with the milk of his cow, and a few
fhell-filh. His majefly, from the fenfe of the- danger
he had efcaped, and in gratitude to the faint to whom
Vol. XI. Part I.
77 ] INC
he attributed his lafety, vowed fome token of refpeCl; Inch Kerb
and accordingly founded here a monaffery of Auguf- ll .
tines, and dedicated it to St Columba. Allan de Mor- n^^1TC
timer, lord of Aberdour, wrho attended Edw. III. in his —-y——>
Scotch expedition, beftowTed half of thofe lands on the
monks of this ifland, for the privilege of a family burial-
place in their church. The buildings made in confequenct
of the piety of Alexander were very confiderable. There
are Hill to be feen a large fquare tower belonging to
the church, the ruins of the church, and of feveral
other buildings, The wealth of this place in the time
of Edward III. proved fo ftrong a temptation to his
fleet, then lying in the Forth, as *0 fupprefs all the
horror of facrilege and refpecl to the fanClity of the
inhabitants. The Englilh landed, and (pared not even
the furniture more immediately confecrated to divine
worflrip. But due vengeance overtook them ; for in
a ftorm which inftantly followed, many of them pe-
riftied 5 thofe who efcaped, (truck with the juftice of
the judgment, vowred to make ample recompenfe to
the injured iaint. The tempeft ceafed ; and they made
the promifed atonement.-—The Daniflr monument, fi¬
gured by Sir Robert Sibbald, lies on the fouth-eaft fide
of the building, on a riling ground. It is of a rigid
form, and the furface ornamented with feale-like fi¬
gures. At each end is the reprefentation of a human
head.
Inch Keith, a fmall ifland fituated in the fame frith,
midway between the port of Leith and Kinghorn on
the oppofite ihore. See Forth,
This ifland is faid to derive its name jfrom the gal¬
lant Keith who fo greatly fign&lized himfelf by his
valour in 1010, in the battle of Barry, in Angus,
againft the Danes ; after which he received in reward
the barony of Keith, in Lothian, and this little
ifle. Lr 1549 the Englilh fleet, fent by Edward VI.
to aflift the lords of the congregation againft the
queen-dowager, landed, and began to .fortify this
iiland, of the importance of which they grew kn-
Able after their negledl of fecuring the port of Leith,
fo lately in their power. They left here five com¬
panies to cover the workmen under the command of
Cotterel ; but their operations were foon interrupted
by M. Deffe, general of the French auxiliaries, who
took the place, after a gallant defence on the part of
the Englilh. i. he Scots kept poileffion for fome years ;
but at laft tht fortifications were deftroyed by a£l of
parliament, to prevent it from being of any ufe to the
former. The French gave it the name of L'ijle dec
chevaux, from its property of foon fattening horfes.
;—In I497> by order of council, all venereal patients
in the neighbourhood of the capital were tranfported
there to prevent their difeafe from fpreading, ne quid
detriment refpublica caperet. A lighthoufe, which muff
prove highly beneficial to the (hipping which frequent
the Forth, was erefled in i8o£.
Inch Gar vie, a fmall ifland, alfo lying in the frith of
Forth, near Queensferry. See Forth.
INCHANTMENT. See Witchcraft.
INCHOATIVE, a term fignifying the beginning
of a thing or aflion; the fame with what is otherwife
called inceptive.
iNCHOATin verbs, denote, according to Prifcian and
other grammarians, verbs that are charaifterifed by the
E termination
INC [ 178 ] INC
Incidence termination fco or fcor, added to their primitives : as
I‘ico’rf;'ur'i ailSefC0 from augeb,calefco from caleo, dulcefco from dul-
ble cioth. ^’ it-qfcar from ira, &.c.
 v-~- < INCIDENCE, denotes the direction in which one
body lirikes on another. See Optics and Mechanics.
Angle of Incidence. See Angle.
INCIDENT, in a general fenfe, denotes an event,
or a particular circumliance of fome event.
Incident, in Law, is a thing appertaining to, or
following another that is more worthy or principal.
A court baron is infeparably incident to a manor j and
a court of pie powders to a fair.
Incident Diligence, in Scots Law, a warrant granted
by a lord ordinary in the court ol feflion for citing
witnefies for proving any point, or for produftion of
any writing neeeflary for preparing the caule for a
iinal determination, or before it goes to a general
proof.
INCIDENT, in. a poem, is an epifode, or particular
action, joined to the principal action, or depending
on it.
A good comedy is to be full of agreeable incidents,
which divert the fpeflators, and form the intrigue.
The poet ought always to make choice of fuch inci¬
dents as are fuceptible of ornament fuitable to the
nature of his poem. The variety of incidents well con¬
duced makes the beauty of an heroic poem, which
ought always to take in a certain number of incidents
to fufpend the catallrophe, that would otherwife break
out too foon.'
INCINERATION, (derived from in, and cinis,
“ afhes,”) in chemiftry, the reduftion of any fubftance
into alhes by burning.
INCISIVE, an appellation given to whatever cuts
or divides : thus, the fore teeth are called dentes ineijivi,
or cutters j and medicines of an attenuating nature, in¬
cidents, or incilive medicines.
INCLE, a kind of tape made of linen yarn.
INCLINATION, is a word frequently ufed by
mathematicians, and fignifies the mutual approach,
tendency, or leaning of two lines or two planes to¬
wards each other, fo as to make an angle.
Inclination, in a moral fenfe. See Appetite.
INCLINED plane, in Mechanics, one that makes
an oblique angle with the horizon. See Mechanics.
INCOGNITO, or INCOG, is applied to a perfon
who is in any place where he would not be known :
but it is more particularly applied to princes, or great
men, who enter towms, or walk the ilreets, wuthout
rheir ordinary train or the ufual marks of their diftinc-
tion and quality.
INCOMBUSTIBLE cloth. See Asbestos, Mi¬
n’eralogv Index. On this Cronlledt obferves, that
Cue natural if ore of the afbefti is in proportion to their
economical ufe, both being very inconliderable. “ It
is an old tradition (fays he), that in former ages they
made clothes of the fibrous afbelli, which is faid to be
rompofed by the word byjfus; but it is not very pro¬
bable, fince if one may conclude from fome trifles now
made of it, as bags, ribbons, and other things, fuch a
drefs could neither have jan agreeable appearance, nor
be of any conveniency or advantage. It is more pro¬
bable that the Scythians dreffed their dead bodies which
were to be burned, in a cloth manufaffured of this
ftsne y and_ this perhaps has occafioned the above
fable.” M. Magellan confirms this opinion of Cron-bicombufti.
ftedt’s, and informs us that fome of the Romans alfo ^ie:
inclofed dead bodies in cloth of this kind. In the year £ncom .
1756 or 1757 he tells us, that he faw a large piec^ of ipg,
afbelfos cloth found in a done tomb, with the afhes of ——v——/
a Roman, as appeared by the epitaph. It was kept,
with the tomb alfo, if our author remembers rightly, in
the right hand wing of the Vatican library at Rome.
The under-librarian, in order to (how that it was in-
combudible, lighted a candle, and let fome drops of
wax fall on the cloth, which he let on fire with a candle
in his prefence without any detriment to the cloth. Its
texture was coarfe, but much fwter than he could have
expected.
Incombustible, fomething that cannot be burnt or
confumed by fire. See Asbestos.
INCOMMENSURABLE, a term in Geometry,
ufed where two lines, when compared to each other,
have no common meafure, how (mall foever, that will
exaflly meafure them both. And in general, two
quantities are faid to be incommenfurable, when no
third quantity can be found that is an aliquot part of
both.
Incommensueakle Numbers, are fuch as have no
common divifor that will divide them both equally.
INCOMP AIT BLE, that which cannot fubfid with
another without dedroying it : thus cold and heat are
incompatible in the fame fubjeft, the llrongelt over¬
coming and expelling the weakeft.
INCONTINENCE, inordinacy of the fexual ap¬
petite ; luff. It is the oppofite of chadity. See Ciias-
tity and Continence.
Incontinence, in the eye of law, is of divers kinds ;
as in cafes of bigamy, rapes, fod«my, or buggery, get¬
ting baflards} all wEich are puniihed by ilatute. See 25
Elen. VUE cap. 6. 18 Eliz. cap. 7. I Jac. 1. cap. I 1.
Incontinency of priells is punifhable by the ordinary,
by imprifonment, &c. 1 Hen VII. cap. 4.
Incontinence, in Medicine, fignifies an inability
in any of the organs to retain what fhould not be dif-
charged without the concurrence of the will. It is
molt frequently applied to an involuntary difeharge of
urine. See Medicine Index.
INCORPOR A'lTON, in Pharmacy, is the reduc¬
tion of dry fubftances to the confidence of a pafte, by
the admixture of fome liuid : thus pills, boles, &c.
are made by incorporation.
Incorporation, or Body-Corporate. See Corpora¬
tion.
INCORPOREAL, fpiritual; a thing, or fubllance,
which has no body. Thus the foul of man is incor¬
poreal, and may fubfid independent of the body. See
Metaphysics.
INCORRUPTIBLE, that which cannot be cor¬
rupted. Thus fpiritual fubdances, as angels, human,
fouls, &c. and thus alfo, glafs, gold, mercury, &c. may¬
be called incorruptible,
INCORRUPTIBLES, Incorruptibiles, the name
of a fed! which fprang out of the Eutychians.—Their
didinguifiiing tenet was, that the body of Jefus Chriit
was incorruptible ^ by which they meant, that after
and from the time wherein he was formed in the
womb of his holy mother, he was not fufceptible of
any change or alteration *, not even of any natural and
innocent paffions, as of hunger, third, &cc. fo that he
ate
I N D
[
'IncraflatlRgatc without any occafion, before bis death, as well as
I! after his refurredtion. And hence it was that they
Indenture. ^ •
. took their name.
1NCRASSATING, in Pharmacy, &.c. the ren¬
dering of fluids thicker by the mixture of other fub-
flances lefs fluid, or by the evaporation of the thinner
parts.
INCUBATION, the a&ion of a hen, or other
fowl, brooding on her eggs. See HATCHING.
INCUBUS, Night-mark, a difleafe confifting in
an oppreflion of the breatt, fo very violent, that the
patient cannot fpeak or even breathe. 1 he word is
derived from the Latin inculare, to “ he down" on
any thing and prefs it: the Greeks call it rpiaX]>)$
q/d. faltator, “ leaper,” or one that rulheth on a per-
fon.
In this difeafe the fenfes are not quite loft, but
drowned and aftonifhed, as is the underltanding and
imagination j fo that the patient feems to think iome
huge weight thrown on him, ready to ftrangle him.
Children are very liable to this diftemper; fo are fat
people, and men of much fludy and application of
mind : by reafon the ftomach in all thefe finds iome dif¬
ficulty in digeition.
INCUMBENT, a clerk or minifter who is refident
on his benefice ; he is called incumbent, becaufe he does,
or at leaf! ought to, bend his whole fludy to difcharge
the cure of his church.
INCURVATION of the Rays of Light, their
bending out of a redhlinear ilraight courfe, occafioned
by refraction. See Optics.
INCUS, in A'natcmy, a bone of tbe internal ear,
fomew hat refembling one of the anterior dentes molares.
See Anatomy, N° 141.
INDEFEASIBLE, a term in law' for what cannot
be defeated or made void ; as an indefeafible eftate ot
inheritance, &.C.!
IndF.FhAsifiLE Right to the Throne. See PIkredi^
rARr Right.
INDEFINITE, that which has no certain bounds,
or to which the human mind cannot affix any.
Indkfimte, in Grammar, is underflood of nouns,
pronouns, verbs, participles, articles, &c. which are
left in an uncertain indeterminate fenfe, and not fixed
to any particular time, thing, or other circumftance.
. INDELIBLE, fomething that cannot be cancelled
or effaced.
INDEMNITY, in Law, tbe faving harmlefs •, or a
writing to fecure one from all damage and danger that
tnay enfue from any aft.
INDENTED, in Heraldry, is when the outline of
an ordinary is notched like the teeth of a favv.
INDENTURE, in Law, a writing which com-
prifes lomc contraft between two at leatl 5 being in¬
dented at top, anfWerable to another part which has
the fame contents. Sec DfcF.D.
79 ] I N 13
INDEPENDENTS, a feft of Proteftants fo called iRdepen.
from their maintaining that each congregation of Chnf- . ‘
tians, which meets in one houfe for public worlhip,
is a complete church, has fufficient power to aft and
perform every thing relating to religious government
within itfelf, and is in no refpeft fubjeft or accountable
to other churches. }
The Independents, like every other Chriftian feft,T1^eir ort'
derive their own origin from the praftice of the^1' ’
apoftles in planting the firfl: churches $ but they were
unknowm in modern times till they arofe in England
during the reign of Elizabeth. The hierarchy efta-
bliihed by that princefs in the churches of her domi¬
nions, the veffments worn by the clergy in the cele¬
bration of divine worlhip, tbe book of common prayer,
and above all the fign of the crofs ufed in the admini-
flration of baptifm, were very offenfive to many of her
fubjefts, who during the perfecution of the former
reign had taken refuge among the Proteftants of Ger¬
many and Geneva. Thofe men thought that the
church of England refembled, in too many particulars,
the antichriilian church of Rome *, and they called
perpetually for a more thorough reformation and a
purer worihip. From this circumftance they were ftig-
matized by their adverfaries with the general name of
Puritans, as the followers of Novatian (a) had been in
the ancient church. Elizabeth was not difpofed to
comply with their demands 5 and it is difficult to fay
what might have been the iffue of the conteft, had the
Puritans been united among themfelves in fentiments,
views, and meafures. But the cafe was quite other-
wife. That large body, compofed of perfons of dif¬
ferent ranks, charafters, opinions, and intentions, and
unanimous in nothing but in their antipathy to the
forms of doftrina and difeipline that were effablifhed
by law. was all of a hidden divided into a variety of
lefts. Of thefe the moft famous was that which was
formed about the year 1581 by Robert Brown, a man
infinuating in bis manners, but unffeady and inconfift-
ent in his views and notions of men and things. See
Brown.
This innovator differed not in point of doftrine ei¬
ther from the church of England, or from the reft ot
the Puritans; but he had formed notions then new
and lingular concerning the nature of the church and
the rules of ecclefiaftical government. He was for
dividing the whole body of the faithful into feparatc
focieties or congregations j and maintained, that fuch
a number of perfons as could be contained in an or¬
dinary place of worlhip ought to be confidered as a
church, and enjoy all the rights and privileges that are
competent to an ecclefiaftical community. Thefe fmall
focieties he pronounced independent jure divino, and en¬
tirely exempt from the jurifdiftion of the bilhops, in
whofe hands the court had placed the reins of fpi-
ritual government; and alfo from that of prelbyteries
Z 2 and
The followers of Novatian were called Puritans, becaufe they would not communicate with the Catho¬
lic church, under pretence that her communion was polluted by admitting thofe to the facred myften’es who
through infirmity bad facrificed to idols in times of perfecution. Thefe unhappy men were not received by
tbe church till after a long cottrfe of penance. The Novafians would not receive them at all,, however long
their penance, or however fincere their forrow, for their fin. In other refpefts, the ancient Puritans were, like
the Englilh, orthodox in the faith, and of irreproachable morals.
I N D [ 180 1 I N D
Indepfuff- and fynods, wliich the Puritans regarded as the fupreme
( ^ vifible fources of ecclehaflical authority. He alfomain-
^ tained, that the power of governing each congrega¬
tion refided in the people 5 and that each member
had an equal {hare in this government, and an equal
right to order matters for the good of the whole fo-
ciety. Hence all points both of doftrine and difcipline
were fubmitted to the difcuffion of the whole congre¬
gation and whatever was fupported by a majority of
voices pa{Ted into a law. It was the congregation
alio that elefted certain of the brethren to the of¬
fice of pallors, to perform the duty of public inftruc-
tion, and the feveral branches of divine worfhip •, re-
ferving, however, to themfelves the power of difmifling
thefe minifters, and reducing them to the condition of
private members, whenever they fhould think fuch a
change cbnducive to the fpiritual advantage of the com¬
munity. It is likewife to be obferved, that the right
of the pallors to preach was by no means of an exclu-
five nature, or peculiar to them alone •, fince any mem¬
ber that thought proper to exhort or inftrufi the bre¬
thren, was abundantly indulged in the liberty of prophe-
fying to the whole affembly. Accordingly, when the
ordinary teacher or pallor had finilhed his difcourfe, all
the other brethren were permitted to communicate in
public their fentimeats and illullrations upon any ufeful
or edifying fubjefl.
The zeal with which Brown and his affbciates
maintained and propagated thefe notions was in a high
degree intemperate and extravagant. He affirmed,
that all communion was to be broken off with thole
religious focieties that were founded upon a different
plan from his 5 and treated, more efpecially the church
of England, as a fpurious church, whofe minillers were
unlawfully ordained, whofe difcipline*was popilh and
antichrillian, and whofe facraments and inllitutions
were dellitute of all efficacy and virtue. The fe61 of
this hot-headed innovator, not being able to endure the
ievere treatment which their own violence had brought
upon them from an adminiltration that was not dillin-
guilhed by its mildnefs and indulgence, retired into
the Netherlands, and founded churches at Middlebourg
in Zealand, and at Amllerdam and Leyden in the pro¬
vince of Holland *, but their ellabliffiments w^ere nei¬
ther folid nor lading. Their founder returned into
England and having renounced his principles of fepa-
ration, took orders in the ellablilhed church, and ob¬
tained a benefice. The Puritan exiles, whom he thus
abandoned, difagreed among themfelves, w’ere fplit into
parties, and their affairs declined from day to day. This
engaged the wifer part of them to mitigate the feverity
of their founder’s plan, and to fofteu the rigour of his
2 uncharitable decifions.
Aud pro- The perfons who had the chief merit of bringing
grefs. about this reformation was one of their pallors called
John Robinfon, a man wffio had much of the folemn
piety of the times, and no inconfiderable portion of
learning. This well-meaning reformer, perceiving the
defefts that reigned in the difcipline of Brown, and in
the fpirit and temper of his followers, employed his
zeal and diligence in correfting them, and in new-
modelling the fociety in fuch a manner as to render it
lefs odious to its adverfaries, and lefs liable to the juft
cenfure of thofe true Chriftians, wTho looked upon cha¬
rity as the end of the commandments. Hitherto the
fe£l had been called Brovonijls ; but Robinfon having, Imlepend-
in his Apology, affirmed, Ccetum quemlibet particularem,
effe totam, integram, et pcrfcEiatn ecclejlam ex fuis parti- v"
bus conjlantern immediate et independenter [quoad
alias ccclefias) fub ipfo Chrijio,—the feci was henceforth
called Independents, of which the apologift was confi-
dered as the founder.
The Independents w'ere much more commendabl»
than the Brownifts. They furpaffed them both in the
moderation of their fentiments, and in the order of
their difcipline. They did not, like Brown, pour forth
bitter and uncharitable inveblives againft the churches
which were governed by rules entirely different from
theirs, nor pronounce them on that account unworthy
of the Chriftian name. On the contrary, though they
confidered their own form of ecclefiaftical government
as of divine inftitution, and as originally introduced by
the authority of the apoftles,»nay by the apoftles them¬
felves j they had yet candour and charity enough to
acknowledge, that true religion and folid piety might
flourilh in thofe communities which were under the
jurifdiblion of bilhops or the government of fynods
and prefbyteries. This is put beyond all doubt by Ro¬
binfon himfelf, who exprelles his own priva’te fenti¬
ments and thofe of his community in the following
clear and precife wmrds : “ Projitemur coram Deo et
hominibus, adeo nolhs convemre cum ecclejiis reforma-
tis Belgicis in re rehgioms, ut omnibus et Jinguhs earun-
dem ecclejiarum Jidei articulis, prout habentur in har-
monia confejfionum Jidei, parati Jimus fubfcribere. Ec-
cle/ias reformatas pro veris et genumis habemus, cum
iifdem in Jacris Dei communionem projitemur, et, quan¬
tum in nobis eft, colimus. They were alfo much more
attentive than the Brownifts, in keeping on foot a
regular miniftry in their communities: for while the
latter allowed promifcuoufly all ranks and orders of
men to teach in public, the Independents had, and Hill
have, a certain number of minifters, chofen refpeflively
by the congregations where they are fixed ; nor is any
perfon among them permitted to fpeak in public, before
he has fubmitted to a proper examination of his capaci¬
ty and talents, and been approved of by the heads of
the congregation.
This religious fociety ftill fubfifts, and has produced
divines as eminent for learning, piety, and virtue, as any
church in Chriftendom. It is now diftinguilhed from
the other Protellant communitie* chiefly by the two fol¬
lowing circumftances. 3
1. The Independents rejebl the ufe of all creeds andln what
confeffions drawn up by fallible men, requiring of theiH1^ “.r®.n
teachers no other tell of orthodoxy that a declaration1 ~
of their belief in the gofpel of Jefus, and their adhe-from other
rence to the Scriptures as the foie ftandard of faith froteftantr.
and prablice.
2. They attribute no virtue whatever to the rite of
ordination, upon which fome other churches lay fo
much ftrefs \ for the Independents declare, that the
qualifications which conftitute a regular minifter of the
New Teftament, are, a firm belief in the gofpel, a
principle of fincere and unaffebled piety, a competent
flock of knowledge, a capacity for leading devotion
and communicating inftruiftion, a ferious inclination to
engage in the important employment of promoting the
everlafting falvation of mankind, and ordinarily an in¬
vitation to the palloral office from fome particular fo¬
ciety
Independ- ciety of Chriftians
ents.
4
Their ar¬
guments
I N D [ iS
Where thefe things concur, they
confider a perfon as fitted and author!fed for the dif-
charge of every duty which belongs to the minifterial
function j and they believe that the impofition of the
hands of bifhops or prefbyters w;ould convey to him no
powers or prerogatives of which he was not before
poiTeffed.
When the reformers feparated from the church of
Rome, they drew up public confedions of faith or ar¬
ticles of religion, to which they demanded fubfcription
from their refpedtive followers. Their purpofe in this
was to guard againft dangerous herefies, te afcertain
•the meaning of Scripture-language, and, we doubt not,
to promote the unity of the Ipirit in the bond of
peace. Thefe were laudable ends j but of the means
chofen for attaining them, the late Dr Taylor of Nor¬
wich, the glory of the Independent churches, and
whofe learning would have done honour to any church,
expreffes his opinion in the following indignant lan¬
guage : “ How much fo ever the Chriftian world va-
lueth thefe creeds and confedions, I confefs, for my
the own part, that I have no opinion of them. But we
creeds are to^ t^at t^e)' were generally drawm up by the
ableft divines. But what evidence is there of this ?
are divines in vogue and power commonly the molt
knowing and upright ? But granting that the refor¬
mers were in thofe days the ableft divines j the ableft
divines educated in popiih fchools, notwithftanding
any pretended learning, might comparatively be very
weak and defedlive in fcripture knowdedge, which was
a thing in a manner newf to them. In times of great
ignorance they might be men of eminence •, and yet
far ftiort of being qualified to draw up and decide the
true and precife rules of faith for all Chriftians. Yea,
their very attempting to draw up, decide, and eftablilh,
fuch rules of faith, is an inconteftable evidence of their
furprifing ignorance and weaknefs. How could they
be able divines, when they impofed upon the coniciences
. of Chriftians their own decifions concerning gofpel-
faith and dodlrine ? Was not this in faft to teach and
conftrain Chriftians to depart from the moft fundamen¬
tal principle of their religion, fubjeElion and allegiance to
Chrijl, the only teacher and lawgiver? But if they w'ere
able men, were they infallible? No: they publicly af¬
firmed their own fallibility j and yet they added as if
they had been infallible, and could not be miftaken in
prefcribing faith and doddrine.
“ But even if they were infallible, w'ho gave them
commiffion to do what the Spirit of God had done al¬
ready ? Could the firft reformers hope to deliver the
truths of religion more fully and more clearly than the
Spirit of God ? Had they found out more apt expref-
fions than had occurred to the Holy Spirit ? The Son
of G«d ‘ fpake not ofhimfelf; but as the Father faid
unto him, fo he fpake,’ (John xii. 50.). ‘ The Spirit
of truth fpake not of himfelf \ but whatfoever he heard,
that he fpake,’ John xvi. 13.). ‘The things of God
the apoftles fpake, not in the w-ords which man’s wuf-
dom teacheth, but which the Holy Ghoft teacheth.’
(1 Cor. ii. 13.). If the Chriftian revelation was thus
handed down to us from the Fountain of Light with
fo much care and exactnefs, both as to matter and
words, by the Son of God, by the Spirit, and by the
ftpq/lles, who were the ancient dodlors and bifhops ? or
who were the firft reformers ? or who wTere any fynods
i ‘ ] I N D
or aflemblies of divines, that they dared to model Chri- ladepend-
ftian faith into their own invented forms, and impofe it . ents~ ,
upon the minds of men in their own devifed terms and
expreftions ?
“ Hath Chrift given authority to all his minifters to
the end of the world, to new-mould his dotftrines by the
rules of human learning whenever they think fit ? or
hath he delegated his powrer to any particular perfons ?
Neither the one nor the other. His dodlrines are not
of fuch a duftile nature *, but ftand fixed, both as to
matter and words, in the Scripture. And it is at any
man’s peril, who pretends to put them, as they are rules
of faith, into any new drefs or fihape. I conclude,
therefore, that the firft reformers, and all councils, fy¬
nods, and affemblies, who have met together to colled!,
determine, and decide, to preferibe and impofe matters
pertaining to Chriftian faith, have adled without any
warrant from Chrift, and therefore have invaded the
prerogative of him who is the foie Prophet and Lawgi¬
ver to the church. Peace and unity, I know, is the
pretended good deiign of thofe creeds and confeftions.
But as God never fandlified them for thofe ends, fo all
the world knows they have produced the contrary ef--
fedfs ; difeord, divifion, and the fpilling of whole feas
of Chriftian blood for 1400 years together.”
Such fentiments as thefe are now maintained by'
Chriftians of various denominations; but they were'
firft avowed by the Independents, to whom therefore
the merit or demerit of bringing them to light pro¬
perly belongs. Our readers will think differently of
them according to their preconceived opinions; but
it is not our province cither to confirm or to confute
them. They rife almoft neceffarily out of the inde¬
pendent fcheme of congregational churches; and wxr
could not fupprefs them without deviating from our
fixed refolution of doing juftice to all religious parties,
as well thofe from whom we differ as thofe with w'honi
we agree. It ought not, however, to be rafhly con¬
cluded, that the Independents of the prefent age,
merely becaufe they rejedl the ufe of all creeds of hu¬
man compofition, doubt or diibelieve the doclrines
deemed orthodox in other churches. Their predecef-
fors in the laft century were thought to be more rigid
Calvinifts than the Prefbyterians themfeives ; as many
of thofe may likewife be who in the prefent century
admit not the confeflions and formulas of the Calviniftic „
churches. They acknowledge as divine truth every Not there-
doftrine contained in the Scriptures; but they thinkf°renece^
that fcripture-doflrines are moft properly expreffed in^^ hete-
fcripture-language ; and the fame fpirit of religious’10 °X’
liberty, which makes them reject the authority of bi¬
fhops and fynods in matters of difeipline, makes them'
rejeff the fame authority in matters of faith. In ei¬
ther cafe, to call any man or body of men their mafters,'
would, in their opinion, be a violation of the divine
law, fince “ one is their mafter, even Chrift, and they
are all brethren.” ^
In fupport of their fcheme of congregational churches, Their argu-
they obferve, that the word ewAue-/*, which we tranftate nien.ts for
church, is always ufed in Scripture to fignify either alheJr'de"
Jing/e congregation, or the place where a Tingle congre-^f congre.
gation meets. Thus that unlawful affembly at Ephefus gationai
brought together againft Paul by the craftfmen, is lurches. ..
callqd oozh/irtu, a church, ( A61s xix. 32, 39, 4(.). The
word, however, is generally applied to a more facred.
/
I N D [ 182 ] I N D
lulcpetK - uie ^ but full it Signifies either the aflembling, or
, cnt;- the place in which it affembles. The whole body of
the difciples at Corinth is called the church, and fpoken
of as coming together into one place, (1 Cor. xiv. 2?.)
The place into which they came together we find like-
wile called a church ; “ when ye come together in the
church,—when ye come together into one place,” ( 1 Cor.
xi. 18, 20.). Where ver there were more congrega¬
tions than one, there were likewife more churches than
one: Thus, “ Let your women keep filence in the
churches,1'' iv (1 Cor. xi. 1 8.). The whole
nation ol Ifrael is indeed called a church, but it was no
more than a fingle congregation j for it had but one
place of public worlhip, viz. the firfl. tabernacle, and
afterwards the temple. 1 he Catholic church of Chriit,
his holy nation and kingdom, is likewife a fingle con¬
gregation, having one place of worlhip, viz. heaven,
where all the members affemble by faith and hold com¬
munion ; and in which, when they lhall all be fully
gathered together, they will in fa ft be one glorious af-
lembly. We find it called “ the general afiembly and
church of the firft-born, whofe names are written in
heaven.”
Befides thefe, the Independent can find no other de-
fcription of a church in the New Teflament; not a
* trace of a diocefe or prefbytery confining of feveral
congregations all' fubjeft to one jurifdiftion. The
number of difciples in Jerulalem was certainly great
before they were difperfed by the perfecutiun in which
Paul bore fo aftive a part: yet they are never men¬
tioned as forming diftinft affemblies, but as one affem-
bly meeting with its elders in one place ; fometimes in
the temple, fometimes in Solomon’s porch, and fome¬
times in an upper room. After the difperfion, the
difciples who lied from Jerufalem, as they could no
longer affemble in one place, are never called a church
by themfelves, or e«i? church, but the churches of Judea,
Samaria, and Galilee, (Afts ix. 31. Gal. i. 22.)
W hence the Independent concludes, that in Jerufalem
the words church and congregation were of the fame im¬
port ; and if inch was the cafe there, where the gofpel
wras firft preached, he thinks we may reafonably expeft
to find it fo in other places. Thus when PauLon his
journey calls the elders of the church of Ephefus to
Miletus, he fpeaks to them as the joint overfeers of a
lingle congregation : “ Take heed to yourfelves, and
to all the flock, over which the Holy Ghoft hath made
you overfeers,” (Afts xx. 28.). Had the church at
Ephefus confifted of different congregations united
under fuch a jutifdiftion as that of a modern prelhy-
tery, it would have been natural to fay, “ Take heed
to yourfelves, and to the Jlochs over which the Holy
Gholt hath made you overfeers but this is a way of
ipeaking of which the Independent finds not an in-
Ifance in the whole New Teflament. The facred b dene ml-
writers, when fpeaking of all the Chriltians in a nation er':,•
or province, never call them the church of inch a nation ^
or province, but the churches of Galatia (Gal. i. 2.),
the churches of Macedonia (2 Cor. viii. 1.), the churches
of Afia (1 Cor. xvi. 10.) On the other hand, when
fpeaking of the difciples in a city or town, who might
ordinarily affemble in one place, they uniformly call
them a church; laying, the church of Antioch, the
church at Corinth, the church of Ephefus, and the
like.
In each of thefe churches or congregations there In each'
were elders or prejhyters and deacons; and in every church eotmrega-
there ieems to have been more than one elder, in fome t ou more
a great many, wh6 all ” laboured in word and doc-
trine.” Thus we read (Afts xiv. 23.) of Paul and p efbjtcr.
Barnabas ordaining in every church j and ( Afts whole office
xx. j 7.) of a company of elders in the church of Ephefus,is t0 tf‘acl1
who were exhorted to '■'•feed the flock, and to take a’we 1 a*
heed to themfelves and to all the flock ever which the ^ 'vin'
Holy Ghoit had made them overfeersbut of (uch el¬
ders as are to be found in modern prefbyterian churches,
who neither teach nor are apt to teach, the Indepen¬
dent finds no veftige in the Scriptures, nor in the ear-
hell uninfpired writers of the Chriftian church. The
rule or government of this prefbytery or elderlhip in a
church is not their own, but Chrift’s. They are not
lords over God’s heritage, nor can they pretend to more
power over the difciples than the apottles had. But
when the adminiflration of the apoftles in the church
of Jerufalem, and other churches where they afted as
elders, is inquired into by an Independent, it does not
appear to him that they did any thing of common
concern to the church without the confent of the
multitude ; nay, it feems they thought it neceffary to
judge and determine in difeipline in prefence of the
whole church (Afts vi. 1—6. xv. 22. 1 Cor. v. 3, 4, 5.)
Excommunication and ablolution were in the power of §
the church at Corinth, and not of the elders as diltin- Excomma-
guiflied from the congregation (1 Cor. v. 2 Cor. ii.) "i ’-fi011
The apoftle indeed fpeaks of his delivering foroe unto
Satan (i Tim. i 20.) : but it is by no means clear that .^er of"
he did it by himfelf, and not after the manner pointed at each con-
l Cor. v. 4, 3; even as it does not appear, from his fay-gregation.
ing, in one epiftle, that the gift was given unto Timothy
by the putting on of his hands, that this was not done
in the prejhytery of a church, as in the other epiflle
we find it aftually was. The trying and judging of
falfe apoftles was a matter of the firft importance : but
it was done by the elders with the flock at Ephefu*
(Rev. ii. 2. Afts xx. 28.) ; and that whole flock did
in the days of Ignatius all partake of the Lord’s flip¬
per, and pray together in one (b) place. Even the
power of binding and loofing, or the power of the keys,
as
(b) The evidence upon which this is faid by Mr Glafs (for the whole of this reafoning is extrafted from his
xvorks) is probably the following paffage in the epiftle of Ignatius to the Ephefians : E< suss divhgov
9rgoe-(v%)i, “ !or if the prayer of one or two be of fuch force as we are told, how much more prevalent muft:
that be which is made by the bilhop and the whole church ? He then that does not come together into the fame
place with it, is proud, and hath condemned himfelf; for it is written, God refifteth the proud. Let us not
therefore refift the bilhop, that we may be the fervants of God.” The fentence, as it thus ftands by itfelf, cer¬
tainly countenances Mr Glafs’s fcheme ; but the reader who thinks any regard due to the teftimony of Ignatius,
will do well to perule the whole epiflle as publithed by Voffius.
2
I N D f 183 ] . I N B
Ir,depend • as it* has been called, tvas by our Saviour conferred not
eats. Up0n a particular order of difciples, but upon the
church : “ If thy brother lhall trefpafs againit thee,
go and tell him his fault between thee and him alone :
if he {hall hear thee, thou hail gained thy brother. But
if he will not hear thee, then take with thee one or two
more, that in the mouth of one or two witnefles every
word rnay be eftabliihed. And it he (hall negleft to
hear them, tell it unto the church : but if he negle£l
to hear the church, let him be unto thee as an heathen
man and a publican. Verily I lay unto you, what-
foever ye (hall bind on earth, (hall be bound,” &c.
' (St Mat. xviii. 15, 16, 17, 18.). It is not faid, if he
(hall neglect to hear the one or two, tell it to the
elders of the church •, far lefs can it be meant that the
offended perfon (hould tell the caufe of his offence to
all the difciples in a prefbytery or diocefe confiding of
many congregations : but he is required to tell it to
r - wlvc’i particular church or congregation to which they
thefentence hath belong ; and the fentence of that affembly, pro-
is final. nounced by its elders, is in a very folemn manner de¬
clared to be final, from which there lies no appeal to
any jurifdifticn on earth.
What'cor With refpect to the corjHtuting of elders in any church
ftitutes el- or congregation, the Independent reafons in the fol¬
ders in a lowing manner : The officers of Ohrid’s appointment
church. are either ordinary and permanent in the church, or
they were extraordinary and peculiar to the planting of
Chridianity. The extraordinary were thole who were
emplo)ed in laying the plan of the gofpel churches,
and in publhhing the New Teftament revelation. Such
were the apodles, the chofen witnefles of our Saviour’s
refurreftion •, fuch were the prophets infpired by the
Holy Ghoft for explaining infallibly the Old Teffa-
ment by the things written in the New; and iuch were
the evangeiids, the apodles miniiters. Thefe can be
fucceeded by none in that which was peculiar to them,
becaufe their work was completed by themfelves. But
they are fucceeded in all that was not peculiar to them
by elders and deacons, the only two ordinary and per¬
manent orders of miniders in the church. We have
already feen, that it belongs to the office of the elder
to feed the dock of Chrid : and the only quellion to
be fettled is, how men are ordinarily called to that
office ? for about the office of the deacon there is little
or no difoute. No man now can pretend to be fo
called of God to the minidry of the word as the apo-
dies and other infpired elders were, whom he chofe
to be the publhhers of his revealed truth, and to whofe
million he bore witnefs in an extraordinary manner.
But what the apodles were to thofe who had the di¬
vine oracles from their mouths, that their writings are
to us ; and therefore as no man can lawfully pretend a
call from God to make any addition to thofe writings,
fo neither can any man pretend to be lawfully called to
tiie minidry of the word already written but in the
manner which that word direfls. Now there is no¬
thing of which the New Tedament fpeaks more clear¬
ly than of the charaBers of thole who Ihould exercile
the office of elders in the church, and of the aftual ex-
ercife of that office. The former are graphically drawn
in the epiilles to Timothy and Titus; and the latter is
minutely deferibed in Paul’s difeourfe to the Ephefian
elders, in Peter’s exhortation to elders, and our Lord’s
commiffion to thoiV mini Iters, with whom he promifed
to be always prefent even unto the end of the world. I''depend*
It is not competent for any man or body of men to add eri^ts' .
to, or diminidr from, the defeription of a gofpel mi-
nifter given in thefe places, fo as to infill upon the ne-
cefiity of any qualification which is not there mention¬
ed, or to difpenfe with any qualification as needlefs 1X
which is there required. Neither has Jefus Chrid, Arguments
the only legidator to the church, given to any mini- againtt the
ders or people any power or right whatfoever to call, e®cacy.A
fend, elefl, or ordain, to that office any perfon who isj^7n^e_
not qualified according to the defeription given in his oniina*
law ; nor has he given any power or right to reject the tion,
lead of them who are fo qualified, and who defire the
office of a bilhop or elder. Let a man have hands laid
upon him by fuch as could prove an uninterrupted de-
feent by impofition of hands from the apodles; let him
be fet apart to that office by a company of miniders
themfelves, the mod conformable to the feripture cha-
ra6ter, and let him be chofen by the mod holy people
on earth ; yet if he anfwer not the New Tedament
delcription of a minider, he is not called of God to
that office, and is no minider of Chrid, but is indeed
running unfent. No form of ordination can pretend
to fuch a clear foundation in the New Tedament as
the defeription of the perfons who diould be elders of
the church ; and the laying on of hands, whether by
bishops or preibyters, is of no more importance in the
miffion of a minider of Chrid, than the waving of
one’s hand in the air cr the putting of it into his bo-
(om ; for now when the power ot miracles has ceafed,
it is obvious that fuch a rite, by whomfoever perform¬
ed, can convey no powers, whether ordinary or extra¬
ordinary. Indeed it appears to have been fometimes
ufed, even in the apodolic age, without any luch inten¬
tion. When Paul and Barnabas were feparated to the
particular employment of going out to the Gentiles,
the prophets and teachers at Antioch “ prayed and
laid their hands on them But did this ceremony con¬
fer upon the two apodles any new power or authority
to aft as miniders of Chrid ? .Did the impofition of
hands make thofe diining lights of the gofpel one whit
better qualified than they were before to convert and
baptize the nations, to feed the flock of God, to teach,
rebuke, or exhort, with all long-fuffering and doftrine.
It cannot be pretended. Paul and Barnabas had un¬
doubtedly received the Holy Ghod before they came
to Antioch ; and as they were apodles, they were of
courfe authorized to difeharge all the funflions of the
inferior and ordinary miniders of the gofpel. In a
word, whoever in his life and converfation is conform¬
able to the chara&er which the infpired writers give of
a biftmp or elder, and is likewife qualified by his
“ mightinefs in the feripture” to difeharge the duties
of that office, is fully authorized to adminider the fa- tJ
craments of baptifm and the Lord’s fupper, to teach, anci even
exhort, and rebuke, with all iong-fuffering and doc-again ft the
trine, and has all the call and midion which the Lordnecefilty °f
now gives to any man ; whild he who wants the qna-a
lifications mentioned, has not God’s call, whatever
he may have, nor any authority to preach the gof¬
pel of Chrid, or to difpenfe the ordinances of his reli¬
gion.
From this view of the Independent principles, which
is faithfully taken from their own writers, it appears,
that, according to them, even the election of a congre¬
gation
I N D [ 184 ] I N B
Index.
Indapcnd- Ration cbnfers upon the man whom they may choofe
ents for t}le5r paftor no new powers, but only creates a new
relation between him and a particular flock, giving
- him an exclufive right, either by himfelf or in con-
junflion with other pallors conllituted in the fame
•manner to exercife among them that authority which
he derives immediately from Chrilt, and which in a
greater or lefs degree is poiteffed by every fmcere Chri-
ftian according to his gifts and abilities* Were the
miniilers of the gofpel conllituted in any other way
than this •, by impolition of hands, for inftance, in fuc-
celfion from the apoftles 5 the cafe of Chriftians would,
in the opinion of the Independents, be extremely hard,
and the ways of God fcatcely equal. We are llriclly
commanded not to forfake the aflembling of ourfelves
together, but to continue lledfalt in the apoftles doc¬
trine and fellowlhip, and in the breaking of bread, and
in prayer : “ but can any man (alks one of their ad¬
vocates) bring himfelf to believe, that what he is com¬
manded to do in point of gratitude, what is made his
own perfonal a£l, an aft expreflive of certain dutiful
and pious affeftions, can pofiibly be reftrifted to the in¬
termediate offices or inftrumentality of others, who aft
by powers which he can neither give nor take away ?
To fuppofe a thing neceffary to my happinels, which
is not in my own power, or wholly depends upon the
good pleafure of another, over wffiom I have no au¬
thority, and concerning whofe intentions and difpoli-
tions I can have no fecutity, is to fuppofe a conftitu-
tion the moft foolifti and ill-natured, utterly inconfiftent
with our ideas of a wife and good agent.” Such are
fome of the principal arguments by which the Inde¬
pendents maintain the divine right of congregational
churches, and the inefficacy of minifterial ordination to
conftitute .a minifter of Chrift. We mean not to re¬
mark upon them, as the reader will find different con-
ftitutions of the church pleaded for under the words
Presbyterians and Episcopacy, to which tve refer
him for farther fatisfaftiftn. We lhall only obferve at
prefent, what it would be affeftation to pafs unr
noticed, that the mode of reafoning adopted by the
laft- quoted advocate for the Independents, if pulhed
as far as it will go, neceffarily leads to confequences
which will not readily be admitted by a Chriftian of
any denomination, or indeed by a ferious and confiftent
Theift.
INDETERMINATE, in general, an appellation
given to whatever is not certain, fixed, and limited ;
in wdiich fenfe it is the fame with indefinite.
INDEX, in Anatomy, denotes the fore-finger. It
is thus called from indico, “ I point or direft becaufe
that finger is generally fo ufed : whence alfo the ex^
tenfor indicis is called indicator.
Index, in Arithmetic and Algebra, (hows to what
power any quantity is involved, and is otherwife call¬
ed its exponent. See Algebra.
Indsx of a Book, is that part annexed to a book,
referring to the particular matter or paffages therein
contained.
Index of a Globe, is a little ftyle fitted on to the
north pole, and turning round with it, pointing to cer¬
tain diviftons in the hour-circle. It is fometimes alfo
called gnomon. See Globe.
Expurgatory Index, a catalogue of prohibited books
in .the church of Rome.
The fil'd: catalogues of this kind were made by the Indi#.*
inquifitors : and thefe were afterwards approved of by —“
the council o£ Trent, after fome alteration wras made
in them by way of retrenchment or addition. Thus
an index of heretical books being formed, it was con-*
firmed by a bull of Clement VIII. in 1595, and print¬
ed with feveral introduftory rules j by the fourth of
which, the ufe of the Scriptures in the vulgar tongue
is forbidden to all perfons without a particular licence )
and by the tenth rule it is ordained, that no bodk (hall
be printed at Rome without the approbation of the
Pope’s vicar, or fome perfon delegated by the Pope ;
nor in any other places, unlefs allowed by the biffiop
of the diocefe, or fome perfon deputed by him, or by
the inquifitor of heretical pravity.
The Trent index being thus publifhed, Philip 11/
of Spain ordered another to be printed at Antwerp,
in 1571, with confiderable enlargements. 'Another
index was publifhed in Spain 1584 •, a copy of which
was fnatched out of the fire when the Engliih plun
dered Cadiz. Afterwards there were feveral expurga¬
tory indexes printed at Rome and Naples, and particu
larly in Spain.
I
INDIA. See Hindostan.—^By the name of In-
dia the ancients underftood only the weftern peninfula,
on this fide the Ganges, and the peninfula beyond
it, having little or no knowledge of the countries which
lie farther to the eaftward •, though by the moderns all
thofe vaft trafts from the eaftern parts of the Perflan
empire to the iflands of Japan, are confounded under
the general name of Eafi Indies. Even the ancients,
though originally they were acquainted only with the
wcftern parts of Hindoftan, gradually extended the
name of India over the other countries they difcovered
to the eaftward $ fo that probably they would have in¬
volved all the reft in the fame general defignation, had
they been as well acquainted with them as the moderns
are. By whom thefe countries were originally peopled, Conjefture
is a queftion which in all probability will never be refol- conperning
ved. Certain it is, that fome works in thefe parts difco- the peo-
ver marks of aftonifhing fkill and power in the inhabi-!jj'nS ot
tants, fuch as the images in the ifland of Elephanta-, the
rocking ftones of immenfe weight, yet fo nicely ba¬
lanced that a man can move them with his hand •, the
obfervatory at Benares, &.c. Thefe ftupendous works
are by Mr Bryant attributed to the Cufhites or Baby'1
lonians, the firft diftinft nation in the world, and who
of confequence muft for fome time have poffeffed in a
manner the fovereignty of the whole earth ; and it
can by no means appear improbable, that the fubjefts of
Nimrod, the beginning whofe kingdom was in Shinar,
might extend themfelves eaftward, and thus fill the fer¬
tile regions of the eaft with inhabitants, without think¬
ing it worth while for a long time to meddle with 3
the lefs mild and rich countries to the weftward. Thus Why the
would be formed that great and for fome time infu- Indians an^
perable divifion betwixt the inhabitants of India and vye^ern na‘*
other countries; fo that the weftern nations knew not
even of the exiftence of the Indians but by obfcure 0&ne ano-
report $ while the latter, ignorant of their own ori- ther.
gin, invented a thoufand idle tales concerning the an¬
tiquity of their nation, which fome of the moderns
have been credulous enough to believe and regard as
fafts.
The firft among the weftern nations who diftinguifh-
ed
3
foftris to
India.
it.
1 N D [ i
^Lidia. ed tlicmrelves by their application to navigation and
"" vr—commerce, and who were of confequence likely to
di/cover thefe dill ant nations, were the Egyptians and
Phoenicians. 1 he former, however, foon loll their
3 inclination for naval affairs, and held all feafaring pco-
Account of ple in detedation as profane perfons; though the ex-
the expedi- teniive conquefls of Sefollris, if we can believe them,
tionofSe- mull have in a great meafure fupplied this defedl.
Without regard to the prejudice of his people againft
maritime affairs, he is faid to have fitted out a fleet of
400 fail in the Arabian gulf or Red fea, which con¬
quered all the countries lying along the Enjthrean
fea (a) to India j while the army led by himfelf march¬
ed through Alia, and fubdued all the countries to the
Ganges ; after which he croffed that river, and ad-
4 vanced to the eaftern ocean.
fbn^rra'1* Great difputes have been carried on with refpedl to
fons fo> dif-tins conqueror, and the famous expedition juil now
beueving related j but the learned Dr Robertfon, in his Dif-
quifition concerning ancient India, declares himfelf in
doubt whether any fuch expedition ever was made, for
the following reafons. 1. Few hiftorical fafts feem to
be better eltabliihed than that of the averfion the E-
gyptians entertained to feafaring people and naval af¬
fairs j and the Doftor confiders it as impoflible evert
for the moll powerful monarch to change in a few years
a national habit confirmed by time and fanflified by
religion. The very magnitude of the armaments is an
argument againft their exiltence •, for befides the 400
Ihips of war, he had another fleet in the Mediterra¬
nean j and fuch a mighty navy could not have been con-
flrufled in any nation unaccullomed to maritime affairs,,
in a few years. 2. Plerodotus makes no mention of
tire conquefts of India by Sefoftris, though he relates
his hiftory at fome length. Our author is of opinion
that the llory wTas fabricated betwixt the time of He¬
rodotus and that of Diodorus Siculus, from whom we
have the firfl account of this expedition. Diodorus
himfelf informs us that he had it from the Egyptian
priefts ; and gives it as his opinion, that “ many
things they related flowed rather from a defire to pro¬
mote the honour of their country than from attention
to truth and he takes notice that both the Egyp¬
tian priefls and Greek writers differ wfidely from one
another in the accounts which they give of the adlions
of Sefoftris. 3. Though Diodorus declares that he
has feledled the moft probable parts of the Egyptian
narrative, yet there are ftill fo many improbabilities,
or rather impoflibilities, contained in his relation, that
ive cannot by any means give credit to it. 4. For the
reafon juft mentioned, the judicious geographer Strabo
rejedled the account altogether, and ranks the exploits
of Sefoftris in India with the fabulous ones of Bacchus
and Hercules.
But wEalever may be determined wdth regard to the
Egyptians, it is certain that the Tyrians kept up a con-
ftant intercourfe with fome parts of India by naviga¬
ting the Arabian gulf, now the Red fea. Of this na¬
vigation they became mailers by taking from the
Vox.. XI. Part I.
Intercourfe
the Ty.
riaos with
India.
85 ] INI)
Idumeans fome maritime places on the coaft of the India.
Red fea : but as the diftance betwixt the neareft place *v—
of that fea and Tyre w7as ftill confiderable, the land-
carriage would have been very tedious and expenfive ■,
for which reafon it was neceffary to become mafters of
a port on the eaftern part of the Mediterranean, near¬
er to the Red fea than Tyre, that fo the goods
might be (hipped from thence to Tyre itfelf. With
this view they took poffeffion of Rhinvelura, the neareft
port on the Mediterranean to the Arabian gulf j and
to that port all the goods from India were conveyed
by a much Ihorter and leis expenfive route than over
land.—This is the firft authentic account of any in¬
tercourfe betwdxt India and the weftern part of the
wmrld ; and to this we are without doubt in a great
meafure to aferibe the vaft wealth and power for which
the city of Tyre was anciently renowmed ; for in other
refpedls the whole territory of Phenicia was but of
little confequence. Notwithftanding the frequency
of thefe voyages, however, the ancients are able to
give little or no account of them. The moft particu¬
lar deferiptien we have of the wealth, power, and
commerce of ancient Tyre, is in the prophecies of Eze¬
kiel ; fo that if the Tyrians themfelves kept any jour¬
nals of their voyages, it is probable that they w’ere
entirely loft when the city w'as deftroyed by Alexander
the Great. 6-
7 hough the Jew^s, under the reign of David and So- The Jews
lomon, carried on an extenfive and lucrative commerce,^ no^ vi-
yet our author is of opinion that they did not trade to fil India*
any part of India. There are only twro places mention¬
ed to which their ftfips failed, viz. Ophir and Tarftiilhj ’
both of which are now fuppofed to have been fituated
on the eaftern coaft of Africa : the ancient Tarlhifh,
according to Mr Bruce, w'as the prefent Mocha ; and
Ophir the kingdom of Sofala, fo remarkable in former
times for its mines, that it was called by Oriental wri¬
ters the golden Sofala *. * See Ophl*
Thus the Indians continued for a long time unknown ar<* <r,ar*
to the weftern nations, and undifturbed by them ; pro-^ ^
bably in fubjedlion to the mighty empire of Babylon,
from which the country was originally peopled, or in
alliance with it •, and the poffeflion of this vaft region
will ealily account for the immenfe and otherwife al-
moft incredible wealth and power of the ancient Baby-
lonilh monarchs. Soon after the deffrudion of thatCo ^
monarchy by the Perfians, however, we find their mo-of the Per.
narch Darius Hyftafpes undertaking an expedition Cans in In-
againft the Indians*. His conquefts were not exten-d‘a*
five, as they did not reach beyond the territory watered t^e Hq°
by the Indus j neverthelefs, fuch as they were, the 2‘
acquilition feems to have been very important, as the
revenue derived from the conquered territory, according
to Herodotus, was near a third of that of the whole
Perfian empire. According to his account, however,
we mull form a much more diminutive opinion of the
riches of the Perfian monarch than has commonly been
done; fince Herodotus tells us, that the empire w’as
divided into 20 fatrapies or governments-} all of w'bich
A a yielded
(a") This muff not be confounded with the Redfea, notwithftanding the fimilarity of names. The Erythrean
fea was that part of the ocean which is interpofed betwixt the (traits of Babelmaftdel and the Malabar coaft, now
called the Indian fea or ocean.
I N D
C 186 ]
I N D
India.
Of Alexarv
der the
Great.
yielded a revenue of 14,560 Euboic talents, amount¬
ing in the whole to 2,807,437!. fterling.- The amount
of the revenue from the conquered provinces of India
therefore muft have been conhderably Ihort of a mil¬
lion. Very little knowledge of the country was dif-
fufed by the expedition of Darius, or the voyage of
Scylax whom he employed to explore the coaft •, for
the Greeks paid no regard to the tranfa&ions of thofe
whom they called Barbarians; and as for Scylax him-
felf, he told fo many incredible Ifories in the account
he gave of his voyage, that he had the misfortune to
be dilbelieved in almoft every thing, whether true or
falle.
The expedition of Alexander is fo fully taken notice
of under the article Hindostan, that nothing more re¬
mains to be faid upon it in this place, than that he went
no farther into the country than the prefent territory
of the Panjab, all of which he did not traverfe. Its
fouth-weit boundary is formed by a river anciently call¬
ed the Hyfudrus, now the Setlege. The breadth of
the dillridl from Ludhana on the Setlege, to Attock
on the Indus, is computed to be 259 geographical
miles in a ftraight line ) and Alexander’s march, com¬
puted in the fame manner, did not exceed 200 j ne-
verthelefs, by the fpreading of his numerous army over
the country, and the exaft meafurement and delinea¬
tion of all his movements by men of fcience whom he
employed, a very extenfive knowledge of the weftern
part of India was obtained. It is, however, furpri-
ling, that having marched through fo many countries
in the neighbourhood of India, where the people muft
have been well acquainted with the nature of the cli¬
mate, the Macedonian conqueror did not receive any
information concerning the difficulties he would meet
with from the rains which fell periodically at a certain
feafon of the year. It was the extreme diftrefs occa-
fioned by them which made his foldiers finally refolve
to proceed no farther ; and no wonder indeed that they
did adopt this refolution, fince Diodorus informs us,
that it had rained incefifantly for 70 days before their
departure. Thefe rains, however, according to the
teftimony both of ancient and modern writers, fall
only in the mountainous parts, little or none being ever
feen’in the plains. Aridobulus informs us, that in the
country through which Alexander marched, though
heavy rains fell among the mountains, not a fhow'er
was feen in tire plains below. The diifridl is now fel-
dom vifited by Europeans 5 but Major Kennel was in¬
formed by a perfon of credit, who had refided in the
Panjab, that during great part of the S. W. monfoon,
or at leaft in the months July, Auguil, and part of
September, which is the rainy feafon in moft other
parts of India, very little rain falls in the Delta of the
Indies, except very near the fea, though the atmofphere
is generally clouded, and very few fhowers fall through¬
out the whole feafon. Captain Hamilton relates, that
when he vifited Tatta, no rain had fallen there for three
years before. We may have fome idea of what the
Macedonians fuffered by what happened afterwards to
Nadir Shah, who, though polleffed of vaft wealth and
power, as well as great experience in military affairs,
yet loft a great part of his army in crofting the moun¬
tains and rivers of the Panjab, and in battles with the
favage inhabitants who inhabit the countries betwixt
the Oxus and the frontiers of Perfia, He marched
through the fame countries, and nearly in the fame India
diredlion, that Alexander did. '-—•'W
By his voyage dowm the river Indus, Alexander
contributed much more to enlarge our geographical
knowledge of India than by all his marches and con-
quefts by land. According to Major Kennel, the fpace
of country through which he failed on the Indus, from
the Hyphafis to the ocean, was not lefs than 1000
miles} and as, during the whole of that navigation,
he obliged the nations on both fides the river to fub-
mit to him, we may be very certain that the country
on each fide was explored to fome diftance. An ex¬
act account not only of his military operations, but of
every thing worthy of notice relating to the countries
through which he paffed, wras preferred in the journals
•of his three officers, Lagus, Nearchus and Ariftobu-
lus ; and thefe journals, Arrian informs us, he followed 9
in the compofition of his hiftory. From thefe authors State ofln-
we learn, that in the time of Alexander, the weftern ^!a ^
part of that vaft tracl named India was poffeffed hyjexancjer<
feven very powerful monarchs. The territory of King
Porus, which Alexander firft conquered, and then re-
ftored to him, is faid to have contained no fewer than
2COO towns *, and the king of the Prafii had affembled
an army of 20,000 cavalry, 2000 armed chariots, and
a great number of elephants, to oppofe the Macedonian
monarch on the banks of the Ganges. The navigable
rivers with which the Panjab country abounds, afford¬
ed then, and frill continue to afford, an intercourfe from
one part to another by water : and as at that time
thefe rivers had probably many (hips on them for the
purpofes of commerce, Alexander might eafily colleft
all the number he is faid to have had, viz. 2000 } fince
it is reported that Semiramis was oppofed by double the
number on the Indus when (he invaded India. W hen
Mahmud Gazni alfo invaded this country, a fleet v\as
colletled upon the Indus to oppofe him, confifting of
the fame number of veffels. From the Ayeen Akbery,
alfo, we learn that the inhabitants of this part of India
ftill continue to carry on all their communication with
each other by water 5 and the inhabitants of the cir-
car of Tatta alone have 40,000 veffels of various con- ,
UrucHons. 10
Under the article Hindostan we have mentioned Why Alex-
Major Kennel’s opinion concerning the filence of Alex-®I,f|e‘ s^~
ander’s hiftorians about the expedition of ScylaXj • o no'ice o';
Dr Robertfon accounts for it in another manner. “ It.he voyage
is remarkable (fays lie}, that neither Nearchus, norofScylix.
Ptolemy, nor Ariftobulus, nor even Arrian, once men¬
tion the voyage of Scylax. This could not proceed
from their being unacquainted with it, for Herodotus
was a favourite author in the hands of every Greek
who had any pretenfions to literature. It was proba¬
bly occafioned by the reafons they had to diffruff the
veracity of Scylax, of which I have already taken no¬
tice. Accordingly, in a fpeech which Arrian puts in
the mouth of Alexander, he aflerts, that, except Bac¬
chus, he was the firft who had paffed the Indus ; which
implies that he difbelieved what is related concerning
Scylax, and was not acquainted with what Darius
Hyftafpes is faid to have dene in order to fubjedl that
part of India to the Perfian crown. This opinion is
confirmed by Megafthenes, who refided a confiderable
time in India. He aflerts that, except Bacchus and
Hercules (to whofe fabulous expeditions Strabo is
aftoniihed
I N D
India.
aflonldied that he fliould have given any credit), Alex-
' ander was the firft who had invaded India. Arrian
informs us that the Aflaccni, and other people who in¬
habited the country now called Candahar, had been
tributary firft to the AfTyrians and then to the Medes»
and Perfians. As all the fertile provinces on the
north-welt of the Indus were anciently reckoned to
be part of India, it is probable that what was levied
from them is the fum mentioned in the tribute-roll
from which Herodotus drew his account of ths annual
revenue of the Perfian empire, and that none of the
provinces to the iouth of the Indus were ever fubje£t
to the kings of Perfia.”—The Dodtor differs from Mr
Rennel with refpefl to the furprife which Alexander
and his army exprefied when they faw the high tides
at the mouth of the Indus. This he thinks might
very naturally have been the cale, notwithllanding what
Herodotus had written concerning the flux and reflux
obfervable in the Red fea. All that has been men¬
tioned by Herodotus concerning this phenomenon is,
that “ in the Red fea there is a regular ebb and flow
[ 187 ]
I N D
of the tide every day.” No wonder therefore that
the Macedonians fliould be furprifed and terrified at
the very high tides which prefented themfelves in the
Indian ocean, which the few words of Herodotus
above-mentioned had by no means led them to ex-
pec}. In tne like manner the Romans were furpriied
at the tides in the Atlantic, when they had conquered
fame of the countries bordering upon that ocean. Cge-
fai defcribes the aftonifliment of his foldiers at a fpring
tide in Britain which greatly damaged his fleet j and
indeed, confidering the very little rife of the tide in the
Mediterranean, to which alone the Greeks and Romans
had accefs, we may reckon the account given us by
Arrian highly probable.
. The country on each fide the Indus was found, in the
time of Alexander, to be in no degree inferior in popu¬
lation to the kingdom of Porus already mentioned. The
climate, foil, and produftions of India, as well as the
manners and cufloms of the inhabitants, are exadlly
defcribed, and the defcriptions found to correfpond in
a furprifing manner with modern accounts. The da¬
ted change of feafons now known by the name of
monfoons, the periodical rains, the fwellings and in¬
undations of the rivers, with the appearance of the
country during the time they continue, are particu¬
larly defcribed. The defcriptions of the inhabitants
aie equally particular j their living entirely upon vege¬
table food, their divifion into tribes or cafts, with many
of the particularities related under the article Hindoo,
are to be met with in the accounts of Alexander’s ex¬
pedition. His military operations, however, extended
but a very little way into India properly fo called ; no
farther indeed than the modern province of Labor, and
the countries on the banks of the Indus from Moultan
to the. fea ; though, had he lived to undertake another
expedition as he intended, it is very probable that he
would have fubdued a vaftly greater tra£l of country j
nor indeed could anything probably have fet bounds to
Ins conquefts but death or revolts in diftant provinces of
bis empire. In order to fecure the obedience of thofe
Cities built countries he fubdued, Alexander found it necefiary to
by Alex- build a number of fortified cities ; and the farther eaft-
Indn ^ uard he extended his conquefls, the more necefiary did
he find this talk. Three he built in India itfelf; two
ex-Expedition
SeleuCus
to India.
on the banks of the Hydalpes, and a third on the A- India,
cefines, both navigable rivers, falling into the Indus af-
ter they have united their ftreams. By means of thele
cities ne intended not only to keep the adjacent coun¬
tries in awe, but to promote a commercial intercourle
betwixt different parts both by land and water. With
this view alfo, on his return to Suia, he furveyed in per-
fon the courfe of the Euphrates and Tigris, caufing the
cataracts or dams to be removed which the Perfian mo-
narchs had built to obftru£t the navigation of thefe ri¬
vers,. in conformity to a maxim of their fuperflition,
that it was unlawful to defile any of the elements, which
they imagined was done by navigators. After the na¬
vigation was opened in this manner, he propofed that
the valuable commodities of India Ihould be imported
into the other parts of his dominions jjby means of the
Perfian gulf} while through the Red fea they were con¬
veyed to Alexandria in Egypt, and thence difperfed all
over Europe.
. The death of Alexander having put an end to all
his great fchemes, the eatiern part of his dominions
devolved firft on Pytho the Ion of Agenor, and after¬
wards on Seleucus. The latter was very fenftble of
the advantages to be derived from keeping India in
fubjedtion. With this view he undertook an
pedition into that country, partly to eftablifti
authority more perfe&ly, and partly to defend the
Macedonian territories agaimt Sandracottus king of
the Prafii, who threatened to attack them. The par¬
ticulars of his expedition are very little known} Juflin
being the. only author that mentions them, and his
authority is but of little weight, unlefs corroborated
by the teftimony of other hiftorians. Plutarch, who
tells ns that Seleucus carried his arms farther into In¬
dia than Alexander, is fubject to an imputation of the
fame kind ; but Pliny, whofe authority is of confide-
rably greater weight, corroborates the teftimony of Plu¬
tarch in this inftance, though his words are fo obfcure,
that learned men differ in opinion concerning their
meaning. Bayer thinks they imply that Seleucus march¬
ed from the H/phalis, the boundary of Alexander’s
conquefts, to the Hyfudrus, from thence to Palibothra,
and then to the mouth of the Ganges} the diftances of
the principal ftations being marked, and amounting in
all to 2244 Roman miles. Notwithftanding this au¬
thority, however, Dr Robertfon thinks it very im¬
probable that the expedition of Seleucus ftiould have
continued fo long, as in that cafe “ the ancients would
have had a more accurate knowledge of -that part of the
country than they feem ever to have poffeffed.”
The career of Seleucus in the call was (topped by
Antigonus, who prepared to invade the weftern part
of his dominions. The former was therefore obliged
to conclude a treaty with Sandracottus, whom he al¬
lowed to remain in quiet pofieflion of his territories :
but Dr Robertfon is of opinion, that during the life¬
time of Seleucus, which continued 42 years after the
death of Alexander, no diminution of the Macedo- T
nian territories took place. With a view of keeping Conjeaure*
up a friendly intercourfe with the Indian prince, Se-concerning
leucus fent Megafthenes, one of Alexander’s officers, ht fltua~
to Palibothra, capital of the kingdom of the Prafii
fituated on the banks of the Ganges. This city is by J°
Dr Robertfon fuppofed to be the modern Allahabad,
leated at tne conflux of the Jumna and Ganges, con-
A a 2 jrary
I N D
[
* See Hin
doji an, n® ^
*4 .
Expedition
of Antio-
chus the
Great into
India.
*5
A.ccoimt of
the Grecian
India, trary to the opinion of Major Rennel, who fuppofes it
to be Patna. * As Megaithenes refided in this city
for a confiderable fpace of time, he had an opportunity
of making many obfervations on the country of India
in general 5 and thefe obfervations he was induced af¬
terwards to publith. Unhappily, however, he mingled
with his relations the moft extravagant fables. To him
may be traced the ridiculous accounts of men with ears
fo large that they could wrap themfelves up in them ;
of tribes with one eye, without mouths or notes, &c.
whence the extra&s from his book given by Arrian,
Diodorus, and other ancient writers, can fcarcely be
credited, unlefs confirmed by other evidence.
After the embaily of Megafthenes to Sandracottus,
and that of his fon Damaichus to Allitrochidas, the
fucceffor of Sandracottus, we hear no more of the af¬
fairs of India with regard to the Macedonians, until
the time of Antiochus the Great, who made a fhort
incurfion into India about 197 years after the death of
Seleucus. All that we know of this expedition is,
that the Syrian monarch, after finilhing a war he car¬
ried on againft the two revolted provinces of Parthia
and Baftria, entered India, where he obliged Sopha-
gafenus, king of the country which he invaded, to pay
a fum of money, and give him a number of elephants.
It is probable that the fucceffors of Seleucus were obli¬
ged foon after his death to abandon all their Indian ter¬
ritories.
After the lofs of India by the Syrians, an intercourfe
kinsdomof1 was kept up for fome time betwixt it and the Greek
Badria. kingdom of Baftria. This laft became an independent
date about 69 years after the death of Alexander 5 and,
according to the few hints w7e have concerning it
in ancient authors, carried on a great traffic with
India. Nay, the Baftrian monarchs are faid to have
conquered more extenlive tradls in that region than
Alexander himfelf had done. Six princes reigned
over this new kingdom in fucceffion •, fome of whom,
elated with the conquefts they had made and the power
they had acquired, affumed the title of Great King,
by which the Perfian monarchs were diftinguiffied in
their higheft fplendour. Strabo informs us, that the
Baflrian princes wrere deprived of their territories by
the Scythian Nomades, who came from the country
• beyond the Jaxartes, and were known by the names of
Afii, Pafiani, Tachari, and Scarauli. This is confirmed
by the tettimony of fome Chinefe hidorians quoted by
M. de Guignes. According to them, about 126 years
before the Chriftian era, a powerful horde of Tartars,
puffied from their native feats on the confines of China,
and obliged to move farther to the weft, paffed the
laxartes, and, pouring in upon Baftria like an irrefift-
ible torrent, overwhelmed that kingdom, and put an end
to the dominion of the Greeks after it had lafted near
16 13° years.
Intercourfe From this time to the clofe of the 15th century,
betw x; E all thoughts of eftabliihing any dominion in India were
gypt and totally abandoned by the Europeans. The only ob-
jeft now wTas to promote a commercial intercourfe wdth
that country : and Egypt was the medium by which
that intercourfe was to be promoted. Ptolemy the fon
of Lagus, and firft king of Egypt, firft raifed the
power and fplendour of Alexandria, which he knew
had been built by Alexander with a view to carry-on
a trade to India : and in order to make the navigation
India.
88 ] I N D
more fecure, he built the celebrated light-houfe at
Pharos j a work fo magnificent as to be reckoned one
of the wonders of the world. His fon Ptolemy Pni-
ladelphus profecuted the fame plan very vigorouily.
In his time the Indian commerce once more began to
centre in Tyre ; but to remove it effedtually from
thence, he formed a canal between Arfinoe on the Red
fea, not far from the place where Suez now Hands,
and the Pelufiac or eaftern branch of the Nile, 1 his
canal was too cubits broad and 30 deep •, lo that by
means of it the productions of India might have been
conveyed to Alexandria entirely by water. We know
not whether this work was ever finilhed, or whether it
was found ufelefs on account of the dangerous naviga¬
tion towards the northern extremity of the Red fea } but
whatever was the caufe, it is certain that no ufe was made
of it, and a new city named Berenice, fituated almoft
under the tropic, upon the weftern Ihore of the Red
fea, became the ftaple of Indian commerce. From
thence the goods were tranfported by land to Coptos,
a city diftant only three miles from the Nile, to which
it was joined by a navigable canal. 'Ihus, however,
there was a very tedious land carriage of no lefs than
258 Roman miles through the barren defert of The-
bais : but Ptolemy caufed diligent iearch to be made
everywhere for fprings, and wherever thefe were found,
he built inns or caravanferas for the accommodation of
travellers •, and thus the commerce with India was car¬
ried on till Egypt became fubjedl to the Romarfs. The
{hips during this period fet fail from Berenice, and
coafting along the Arabian {here to the 'promontory
of Syagrus, now Cape Rafalgate, held their cqurfe
along the coaft of Pcrfia till they arrived at the mouth
of the weftern branch of the river Indus. They either
failed up this branch till they came to Pattala, now
Tatta, fituated at the upper part of the Delta, or
continued their courfe to fome other emporium on the
weftern part of the Indian coaft. A more convenient
courfe was afterwards found by failing direftly to Zi-
zenis, a place concerning which there is now iome
difpute. Montefquieu will have it to be the kingdom
of Sigertis, on the coaft adjacent to the Indus, and which
was conquered by the Badtrian monarchs } but Major
Rennel is of opinion that it was a port on the Malabar
coaft. Dr Robertfon does not pretend to decide this
difpute ; but is of opinion, that during the time of
the Ptolemies very little progrefs was made in the
difeovery of India. He contefts the opinion of Ma¬
jor Rennel, that “ under the Ptolemies the Egyptians
extended their navigation to the extreme point of
the Indian continent, and even failed up the Ganges
to Palibothra, now Patna.” In this cafe he thinks
that the interior parts of India muft have been much
better known to the ancients than we have any realon,
to believe they were. He owns indeed that Strabo
mentions the failing up the Ganges, but then it is
only curforily and in a fingle fentence “ whereas if
fuch a confiderable inland voyage of above 400 miles,
through a populous'and rich country, had been cuf-
tomary, or even if it had been ever performed by the
Roman, Greek, or Egyptian traders, it muft have
merited a particular defeription, and nsuft have been
mentioned by Pliny, and other writers, as there was
nothing fimilar to it in the praftice of navigation a-
niong the ancients.”—The extreme danger of navi-
India.
I N D [ 189 ] I N D
India, gating the Red fea in ancient times (which even in
s*—v ' the prefent improved date of navigation is not entirely
got over) feems to have been the principal reafon which
induced Ptolemy to remove the communication with
India from Ariinoe to Berenice, as there were other
harbours on the fame coait conliderably nearer to the
Nile. After the ruin of Coptos by the emperor
Dioclefian, the Indian commodities were conveyed
from the Red fea to the Nile from CoflVir, fuppoied by
JDr Robertfon to be the Philoteras Port us of Ptolemy,
to Cous, the Virus Apoilinus, a journey of four days.
Hence Cous from a fmall village became an opulent
city j but in procefs of time, the trade from India re¬
moved from Cous to Kene, farther down the river.
In modem times fuch Indian goods as are brought
by the Red fea come from Gidda to Suez, and are
carried acrofs .the ifthmus on camels, or brought
-by the caravan returning from the pilgrimage to
17 Mecca.
Why the was to this monopoly of Indian commerce that
nwchs did * owed its vad wealth and power during the
not attempt Unm of its Macedonian monarchs ; but it appears fur-
to rival the priftng that no attempt was made by the Syrian mo-
Egyptians. narchs to rival them in it, efpecially as the latter were
in poffeHion of the Periian gulf, from whence they
might have imported the Indian commodities by a
much fhorter navigation than could be done by the
Egyptians. For this neglefl feveral reafons are ailign-
ed by our learned author. 1. The Egyptians, under
their Greek monarchs, applied themfelves to maritime
affairs ; and were in poffeflion of fuch a powerful fleet
as gave them a decided fuperiority at fea. 2. No inter-
courfe by fea was ever kept up betwixt Perfia and In¬
dia, on account of the averlion which the Perfians had
to maritime aftairs. All the Indian commodities were
then conveyed in the molt tedious and diflicult manner
over land, and difperfed throughout the various pro¬
vinces, partly by means of navigable rivers and partly
by means of the Cafpian fea. 3. Many of the ancients,
by an unaccountable error in geography, imagined the
Cafpian fea to be a part of the great northern ocean j
and thus the kings of Syria might hope to convey the
Indian commodities to the European countries without
attempting to navigate thofe leas which the Egyptian
monarchs deemed their own property. Seleucus Nica-
tor, the frit and greateft of the Syro-Macedonian mo-
li irchs, formed a projedl of joining the Euxine and Caf¬
pian feas by a navigable canal, which would have ef-
iedlually anfwered the purpofe, but was affaflinated be¬
fore he could put it in execution, and none of his fuc-
ceffors had abilities to execute (uch an undertaking.—
Alexander the Great had given orders, a little before
his death, to fit out a fljuadron on the Cafpian fea, in
order to difeover whether it had any communication
with the northern ocean, the Euxine fea, or Indian
ocean \ but Dr Robertfon julfly thinks it furprifing that
fuch errors concerning this fea (hould have exifted a-
mong the ancients, as Herodotus had long before de-
icribed it properly in the following words : The Caf¬
pian is a fea by itlelf, unconnected with any other. Its
length is as much as a veflel with oars can fail in 15
days •, and its greateft breadth as much as it can fail
in eight days.” Ariftotle deferibes it in like manner,
and infifts that it ought to be called a great lake, and not
a fea.
On the conqueft of Egypt by the Romans, the In- Iiuha- ,
dian commodities continued as ufual to be imported to
Alexandria in Egypt, and from thence to Rome \ but [ntercourre
beiides this, the molt ancient communication betwixt of the Ro-
the eaftern and w^eftern parts of Alia feems never to mans with
have been entirely given up. Syria and Paleftine are*11^13’
feparated from Mefopotamia by a defert •, but the paf-
fage through it was much facilitated by its affording a
ftation which abounded in water. Hence the poffeflion
of this flation became an object of fuch confequence,
that Solomon built upon it the city called in Syria Tad-
mor, and in Greek Palmyra. Both thefe names arc
exprefltve of its lituation in a fpot adorned with palm-
trees. Though its fituation for trade may to us feerru
very unfavourable (being 60 miles from the Euphrates,
by which alone it could receive the Indian commodi¬
ties, and 203 from the neareft coaft of the Mediterra¬
nean), yet the value and fmall bulk of the goods in
queftion rendered the conveyance of them by a long
carriage over land not only pra&icable but lucrative and
advantageous. Hence the inhabitants became opulent
and powerful, and long maintained its independence
even after the Syrian empire became fubject to Rome.
After the reduction of Palmyra by the emperor Aure-
lian, however, it did not any more recover its fplendor j
the trade gradually turned into other channels, and the
city was reduced to ruins, which ftill exit!, and mani-
felt its former grandeur. See Palmyra.
The exceflive eagernefs of the Romans for Aftatie
luxuries of all kinds kept up an unceafing intercourfe
with India during the whole time that the empire con¬
tinued in its power ; and even after the deftru£Iion of
the weftern part, it was kept up betwixt Conftantinople
and thofe parts of India which had been vifited former- ip
ly by merchants from the weftern empire. Long be- New route
fore this period, however, a much better method of J"^3
failing to India had been difeovered by one Hippalus
the commander of an Indian (hip, who lived about 80
years after Egypt had been annexed to the Roman em¬
pire. This man having obferved the periodical drifting
of the monfoons, and how fteadily they blew from the
eaft or weft during fome months, ventured to leave the
coaft, and fail boldly acrofs the Indian ocean from the
mouth of the Arabian gulf to Muflris, a port on the
Malabar coaft ; which difeovery wras reckoned a mat¬
ter of fuch importance, that the name ohHippalus was
given to the wind by which he performed the voyage.
Pliny gives a very particular account of the manner in
which the Indian traffic was now carried on, mention¬
ing the particular ftages, and the diftances between
them, which are as follow. From Alexandria to Ju-
liopolis was two miles •, and there the cargo deftined for
India was (hipped on the Nile, and carried to Coptos,
diftant 303 miles, the voyage being ufually performed
in twelve days. From Coptos they wTere conveyed by-
land to Berenice, diftant 258 miles, and halting at dif¬
ferent ftations as occafion required. The journey was- -
finilhed on the 12th day ; but by realon of the heat
the caravan travelled only in the night. The (hips,
left Berenice about midfummer, and in 30 days reached
Ocelis, now Ge/la, at the mouth of the Arabian gulf,
or Cane (now Cape Partaque) on the coaft of Arabia
Felix •, from whence they failed in 40 days to Mufiris
already mentioned. Their homeward voyage began
early in the month of December 3 when letting fail
with-.
India.
20
Ptolemy’s
account of
India.
X N D [ r
tv I tli a north-can; wind, and meeting with a fouth or
fouth-weft one when they entered the Arabian gulf,
the voyage was completed in lefs than a year. With
regard to the fituation of Mufiris, as well as of Barace,
another Indian port to which the ancients traded,
Major Rennel is of opinion, and Dr Robertfon agrees
with him, that they flood fomewhere between Goa and
Tellicherry 5 and that probably the modern Meerzaw
or Merjee is the Mufiris, and Barcelore the Barace of
the ancients.
Ptolemy, who flourithed about 200 years after the
commencement of the Chritlian era, having the ad¬
vantage of fo many previous difcoveries, gives a more
particular defcription of India than what is to be met
with in any of the ancient writers ; notwithifanding
which, his accounts are frequently inconfillent not only
with modern difcoveries, but with thofe of more an¬
cient geographers than himfelf. A moft capital error
in his geography is, that he makes the peninfula of In¬
dia ftretch from the Sinus Barygazenus, or gulf of Cam-
bay, from weft to eaft, inftead of extending, according
to its real direftion, from north to fouth j and this er¬
ror muft appear the more extraordinary, when we con-
ftder that Megafthenes had publiftied a meafurement of
this peninfula nearly confonant to truth, which had
been adopted with fome variations by Eratofthenes,
Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, and Pliny. His information
concerning the fttuation of places, however, was much
more accurate. With refpedl to fome diftri&s on the
eaftern part of the peninfula, as far as the Ganges, he
comes nearer the truth than in his defcriptions of any
of the reft. Thefe are particularly pointed out by
M. d’Anville, who has determined the modern names
of many of Ptolemy’s ftations, as Kilkare, Negapatam,
the mouth of the river Cauveri, Mafulipatam, &.c. The
river Cauveri is the Chabaris of Ptolemy ; the kingdom
of Arcot, ArcatiRegio ; and probably, fays Dr Robert¬
fon, the whole coaft has received its prefent name of
Coromandel from Sor Mandulam, or the kingdom of
Sorae, which is fituated upon it. Ptolemy had likewife
acquired fo much knowledge concerning the river
Ganges, that he defcribes fix of its mouths, though his
delineation of that part of India which lies beyond the
Ganges is hardly lefs erroneous than that of the nearer
peninfula. M. d’Anville, however, has been at great
pains to elucidate thofe matters, and to illuftrate
thofe parts of the writings of Ptolemy which appear
to be belt founded. According to him, the golden
Cherfonefus of Ptolemy is the peninfula of Malacca j
he fuppofes the gulf of Siam to be the great bay of
Ptolemy , and the Sinae Metropolis of the fame writer
he looks upon to be Sin-hoa in the weftern part of the
kingdom of Cochin-China, though Ptolemy has erred
in its fituation no lefs than degrees of longitude and
20 of latitude. M. Goffelin, however, differs from his
countryman M. d’Anville, in a late work intitled “ The
Geography of the Greeks analyfed j or the fyftems of
Eratofthenes, Strabo, and Ptolemy, compared with each
ether, and with the knowledge ■which the moderns have
acquired.” In the opinion of M. Goffelin, the Mag¬
num Promontorium of Ptolemy is not Cape Romania at
the fouthern extremity of the peninfula of Malacca, as
M. d’Anville fuppofes, but the point Bragu, at the
mouth of the river Ava. The great bay of Ptolemy he
fuppofes not to be the gulf of Siam, but of Martaban.
90 ] I N D
He endeavours to prove that the pofition of Cattipnara, India,
as laid down by Ptolemy, correfponds wdth that of Mer- —v—
gui, a fea port on the weft of Siam ; and that Thince,
or Since Metropolis, is not Sin-hoa, but Tana-ferim, a
city on the fame river with Mergui ; and he contends,
that the Ibbadii infula of Ptolemy is not Sumatra, as
D’Anville would have it, but one of the fmall iiles
which lie in a clufter off this coaft. M. Goffelin is of
opinion that the ancients never failed through the ftraits
of Malacca, nor had any knowledge of the ifland of Su¬
matra, or of the eaftern ocean.
The errors of Ptolemy have given occafion to a
miftake of more modern date, viz. that the ancients
were acquainted with China. This arofe from the re-
femblance betwixt the name of that empire and the
Siihe of the ancients. The Ayeen Akbery informs us,
that Cheen was an ancient name of Pegu $ whence,
fays Dr Robertfon, “ as that country borders upon
Ava, wrhere M. Goffelin places the great promontory,
this near relemblance of names may appear perhaps to
confirm his opinion that Sinae Metropolis was fituated
on this coaft, and not fo far eaft as M. d’Anville has
placed it.” 2r
Thus we fee that the peninfula of Malacca was in all Boundary
probability the boundary of the ancient difcoveries by old16 n*-
fea ; but by land they had correfpondence with coun-v'S“,!0n
tries ftill farther diftant. While the Seleucidae conti-
nued to enjoy the empire of Syria, the trade with India
continued to be carried on by land in the way already
mentioned. The Romans having extended their domi¬
nions as far as the river Euphrates, found this method
of conveyance ftill eftablilhed, and the trade wTas by
them encouraged and protected. The progrefs of the
caravans being frequently interrupted by the Parthiaiss,
particularly when they travelled towards thofe countries
where filk and other of the moft valuable manufactures
were procured, it thence became an ob]e£t to the Ro¬
mans to conciliate the friendfliip of the fovereigns of
thofe diftant countries. That fuch an attempt was ac¬
tually made, we know from the Chinefe hiftorians, who
tell us, that Antoun, by whom they mean the emperor
Marcus Antoninus, the king of the people of the weft¬
ern ocean, fent an embaffy to Ounti, who reigned in
China in the 166th year of the Chriftian era •, but
though the faCI is mentioned, we are left entirely in the
dark as to the iffue of the negociations. It is certain,
however, that during the times of the Romans fuch a
trade was carried on 5 and as we cannot fuppofe all
thofe who vifited that diftant region to be entirely def-
titute of fcience, wre may reafonably enough conclude,
that by means of fome of thefe adventurers, Ptolemy
was enabled to determine the fituation of many places
which he has laid down in his geography, and which
correfpond very nearly with the obfervations of modern
times. 2Z
With regard to the Indian iflands, confidering the Few Indian
little way they extended their navigation, they could flands dif-
not be acquainted with many of them. The principal ^iver^ ^
one was that of Ceylon, called by the ancients Tapro-
bane. The name was entirely unknown in Europe be¬
fore the time of Alexander the Great •, but that con¬
queror, though he did not vifit, had fome how or other
heard of it *, with regard to any particulars, however,
he feems to have been very fienderly informed ; and the
accounts of ancient geographers concerning it are
confufed
I N D [ igi ] ] N D
India.
confufed and contradidlory. Strabo fays, it is as
large as Britain, and iituated at the didance of fevefi
days according to fome reports, or 20 days failing ac¬
cording to others, from the fouthern extremity of the
peninlula. Pomponius Mela is uncertain whether to
coniider Taprobane as an illand, or the beginning of an¬
other world } but inclines to the latter opinion, as no¬
body had ever failed round it. The account of Pliny
is (fill more obfcure ; and by his defcription he would
make us believe, that it was feated in the fouthern
hemifphere beyond the tropic of Capricorn. Ptolemy
places it oppofite to Cape Comorin, at no great diftance
from the continent 5 but errs greatly wdth regard to its
magnitude, making it no lefs than 15 degrees in length
from north to foutli. And Agathemarus, who wrote
alter Ptolemy, makes Taprobane the largelf illand in
the world, aligning the fecond place to Britain. From
thele difcordant accounts, fome learned men have fup-
polcd that the Taprobane of the ancients is not Ceylon,
as is generally believed, but the illand of Sumatra;
though the defcription of it by Ptolemy, with the fi¬
gure delineated in his maps, feems to put it beyond a
doubt, that Ceylon, and not Sumatra, is the illand to
which Ptolemy applies the defignation of Taprobane.
The other illands defcribed by that geographer to the
call ward of Taprobane, are, according to Dr Robert-
fon, thofe called Andaman and Nicobar in the gulf of
Bengal.
From the time of Ptolemy to that of the emperor
Julfinian, we have no account of any intercourfe of the
Europeans with India, or of any progrefs made in the
Voyages of geographical knowledge of the country. Under that
Cofmasto emperor one Cohnas, an Egyptian merchant, made
Icdia. fome voyages to India, whence he acquired the furname
of Indicopleujles. Having afterwards turned monk, he
publilhed fereral works j one of which, named Chri/iian
Topography, has reached us. In this, though mixed
with many llrange reveries, he relates with great fim-
plicity and appearance of truth what he had feen in
Ins travels or had learned from others. He defcribes
feveral places on the weftern coaf! of the hither penin-
fula, which he calls the chief feat of the pepper-trade ;
ana from one of the ports on that coaff named Ma/e,
Hr Robertlon thinks that the name Malabar may pro¬
bably be derived, as svell as that of Maldives given to
a clutter of illands lying at no great diftance. " Cofmas
informs us alfo, that in his time the illand of Tapro¬
bane had become a great ftaple of trade. Pie luppofed
it to lie about half w'ay betwixt the Perfian gulf and
the country of the Sime} in confequence of wdiich
commodious fituation it received the lilk of the Sinse,
and the precious fpices of the remote regions of the
eaft, which were from thence conveyed to all parts of
India, Pcrfia, and the Arabian gulf. He calls it not
J aprobane, but Sieldibia, derived from Selendib, or Se-
rendib, the fame by which it is ftill known all over the
eaft. From him alio we learn, that the Perfians having
overthrown the empire of the Parthians, applied them-
felves with great diligence and fuccefs to maritime af¬
fairs j in confequence of which they became formidable
rivals to the Romans in the India trade. The latter
finding themfelves thus in danger of lofing entirely
that lucrative branch, partly by reafon of the rivallhip
juft mentioned, and partly by reafon of the frequent
hollilities which took place between the two empires,
formed a fcheme ci prcferving fome (hare of the trade India,
by means of his ally the emperor of Abyftinia. In
this he was dilappointed, though afterwards he obtain-
ed his end in a way entirely unexpended. This wasi nroduced
by means of two monks wrho had been employed as mif- into Eu-
fionaries in different parts of the eaft, and had pene-r(,Pe'
trated as far as the country of the Seres or Chin if.
From thence, induced by the liberal promifes of Jufti-
nian, they brought a quantity of the eggs of the filk-
worms in a hollow7 cane. They were then hatched bv
the heat of a dunghill j and being fed with the leaves
of the mulberry, worked and multiplied as wTell as in
thofe countries of which they are natives. Vaft num¬
bers wrere foon reared in Greece ) from whence they
were exported to Sicily, and from thence to Italy ; in
all which countries lilk manufaflures have fince been
eftablifhed. 2-
On the conqueft of EgyTpt by the Saracens in the lutercourfe
year 640, the India trade was of courfe transferred tot*ie "?ara“
them 5 and they foon began to purfue it wdth much
more vigour than the Romans had done. The city n 1
of Baffora was built by the caliph Omar upon the
wreftern banks of the great river formed by the union
of the Euphrates with the Tigris. Thus the command
of both rivers w7as fecured, and the new city foon be¬
came a place of fuck confequence as fcarce to yield to
Alexandria itfelf. Here Hr Robertfon takes notice,
that from the evidence of an Arabian merchant who
w7rote in the year 851, it appears, that not only the Sa- 25
racens, but the Ghinefe alfo, were deftitute of the ma-Chinefe Ig-
riners compafs ; contrary to the general opinion, thatriorart of
this inftrument was knowm in the eaft long before it tjie u^e
made its appearance in Europe. From this relation, as ^rs'corru
well as much concurring evidence, fays our author, pafs.
“ it is manifeft, that not only the Arabians but the Chi-
nefe were deftitute of this faithful guide, and that their
mode of navigation was not more adventurous than that
of the Greeks and Romans. They fleered fervilely
along the coaft, feldom ftretching out to fea fo far as to
lofe light of land 5 and as they (haped their courfe in
this timid manner, their mode of reckoning wTas defec¬
tive, and liable to the fame errors with that of the
Greeks and Romans.” Notwithftanding this difadvan-
tage, however, they penetrated far beyond Siam,
which had fet bounds to the navigation of the Euro¬
peans. They became acquainted with Sumatra and
other Indian illands 5 extending their navigation as far
as the city of Canton in China. A regular commerce
was now carried on from the Perfian gulf to all the
countries lying betwixt it and China, and even with
China itfelf. Many Saracens fettled in India properly
fo called, and in the countries beyond it. In the city
of Canton particularly, they were fo numerous, that
the etnperor permitted them to have a cadi or judge of
their own religion •, the Arabian language was under-
ftood and fpoken in every place of confequence; and
Ihips from China are even faid to have vilited the Per-
fian gulf- . ~ 2r
According to the Arabian accounts of thofe days, State of Ifl.
the peninfula of India was at that time divided intoclia when
four kingdoms. The firft was compofed of the pro-J’7
vinces fituated on the Indus and its branches, the capi-biam ^
tal of which was Moultan. The fecond had the city
of. Canoge, w'hich, from the ruins of it remaining at
this day, appears to have beeQ a very large place. The
IncUaru
India.
i
a3
Tedious
paffage of
India
goods to
Europe.
INI) [ 192 ] I N D
Indian Viiitorians relate, that it contained 30,000 (hops
in which betel nut was fold, and 60,000 lets ol mufi-
cians and fingers who paid a tax to government. The
third kingdom was that of Cachimere, firft mentioned
by Maffoudi, who gives a Ihort defcription of it. The
fourth kingdom, Guaerat, is reprefented by the fame
author as the moll powerful of the whole. Another
Arab writer, who flourifhed about the middle of the
14th century, divides India into three parts-, the north¬
ern, comprehending all the provinces on the Indus;
the middle, extending from Guzerat to the Ganges;
and the fouthern, which he denominates Comar, from
Cape Comorin.
From the relation of the Arabian merchant above
mentioned, explained by the commentary of another
Arabian who had likewife vifited the eaftern parts of
Afia, we learn many particulars concerning the inha¬
bitants of thefe diftant regions at that time, which
correfpond with what is obferved among them at this
day. They take notice of the general ufe of blk
among the Chinefe ; and the manufacture of porcelain,
which they compare to glafs. They alfo defcribe the
tea plant, with the manner of ufing its leaves; whence it
appears, that in the ninth century the ufe of this
plant in China was as common as it is at prefent. They
mention likewife the great progrefs which the Indians
had made in adronomy ; a circumftance which feems
to have been unknown to the Greeks and Romans :
they affert, that in this branch of fcience the Indians
were far fuperior to the moll enlightened nations of
the w-eft, on which' account their fovereign w^as called
the “ King of wifdom.” The fuperftitions, extra¬
vagant penances, &c. knowm to exift at this day among
the Indians, are alfo mentioned by thofe writers 5 all
which particulars manifeft that the Arabians had a
knowledge of India far fuperior to that of the Greeks
or Romans. The zeal and induftry of the Mohamme¬
dans in exploring the moft diftant regions of the
call; w-as rivalled by the Chriftians of Perfia, who
fent miflionaries all over India and the countries ad¬
joining, as far as China itfelf. But while the weftern
Aliatics thus kept up a conftant intercourfe with thefe
parts, the Europeans had in a manner loft all know¬
ledge of them. The port of Alexandria, from which
they had formerly been fupplied with the Indian goods,
was now flint again!!: them 5 and the Arabs, fatisfied
with fupplying the demands of their owm fubje&s,
negledted to fend any by the ufual channels to the
towns on the Mediterranean. The inhabitants of
Conftantinople and fome other great towns w-ere
fupplied with Chinefe commodities by the moft; te¬
dious and difficult pafiage imaginable. The filk of
that country was purchafed in the moft wefterly pro¬
vince named Chenfi ; from whence it was conveyed by
a caravan, wffiich marched 80 or IOO days, to the
banks of the Oxus. Here it was embarked, and car¬
ried down the river to the Cafpian fea 5 whence, after a
dangerous voyage acrofs that fea, it was carried up
the river Cyrus as far as that river is navigable ; after
which it was conduced by a land carriage of five days
to the river Phafis, then down that ftream into
the Euxine, and thence to Conftantinople. The paf¬
fage of goods from Hindoftan was lefs tedious } they
being carried either dire&ly to the Cafpian or to the
fiver Oxus, but by a paffage much ffiorter than that
2
from China after which they were conveyed down
the Phafis to the Euxine, and thus to Conftantinople.
I'ldla
It is evident that a commerce thus carried on muft
have been liable to a thouiand difadvantages. The
goods conveyed over fuch vaft trafts of land could not
be fold but at a very high price, even fuppofing the
journey had been attended with no danger ; but as
the caravans were continually expofed to the affaults
of barbarians, it is evident that the price muft on that
account have been greatly enhanced. In fpite of every
difficulty, however, even this commerce flouriffied, and
Conttanlinople became a confiderable mart for Eali In¬
dian commodities and from it all the reft of Europe
was chiefty fupplied with them for more than two cen¬
turies. The perpetual courfe of hollilities in which
the Chriftians and Mohammedans were during this
period engaged, contributed flill to increafe the diffi¬
culty 5 and it is remarkable, that the more this difficul¬
ty increafed, the more defirous the Europeans feemed
to be of poffeffing the luxuries of Afia.
About this time the cities of Amalphi and Venice,
with iome others in Italy, having acquired a greater
degree of independence than they formerly poffeffcd,
began firft to exert themfelves in promoting domeftic
manufadlures, and then to import the productions of
India in much larger quantities than formerly. Some
traces of this revival of a commercial fpint, according
to Dr Robertfon, may be obferved from the end of the
feventh century. The circumilances which led to this
revival, however, are entirely unnoticed by hiftorians ;
but during the feventh and eighth centuries, it is very
probable that no commercial intercourfe w'hatever took
place betwixt Italy and Alexandria ; for, prior to the
period we fpeak of, all the pu lie deeds of the Italian
and other cities of Europe had been written upon pa¬
per made of the Egyptian papyrus, but after that upon
parchment.
The mutual antipathy which the Chriftians and Mo¬
hammedans bore agamtt each other, would no doubt
for a long time retard the progrefs of commerce be¬
tween them j but at lalt the caliphs, perceiving the
advantage which fuch a traffic would be of to their
fubjechs, were induced to allow it, while the eagernefs
with which the Chriftians coveted the Indian produ&s 29
and manufaftures, prompted them to carry it on. But ETe^ of
fcarce was the traffic begun, when it feemed in danger*-1®
of being totally interrupted by the crufades. Not-tfj,. jnci,an
withftanding the enthufiaftical zeal of thele adventur-Co:Iimerce.
ers, however, there were many to whom commerce,
was a greater objeft than religion. This had always
been the cafe with numbers of the pilgrims who
vifited the holy places at Jerufalem even before the
commencement of the crufades : but thefe, aftn they
took place, inftead of retarding the progreis of this
kind of commerce, proved the means of promoting it to
a great degree- “ Various circumftances (fay-. Dr
Robertfon) concurred towards this. Great armies, con¬
duced by the moft illuftrious nobles of Kurope, and
compofed of men of the moft enterprifing fpint in all the
kingdoms of it, marched towards Paleftine, through
countries far advanced beyond tbofe which they left in
every fpecies of improvement. They beheld the dawn
of profperity in the republics of Italy, which had be¬
gun to vie with each other in the arts of induftry, and
in their efforts to engrols the lucrative commerce with
I N 1)
tridia. the eaft. They next admired the more advanced date
v of opulence and fplendor in Conftantinople, raifed to
a pre-eminence above all cities then known by its ex-
tenlive trade, particularly that which it carried on with
India and the countries beyond it. They afterwards
ferved in thofe provinces of Alia through which the
commodities of the call; were ufually conveyed, and
became mailers of feveral cities which had been ilaples
of that trade. They eflablilhed the kingdom of Je-
rufalem, which fubfilted near 2GO year They took
polfelTion of the throne of the Greek empire, and go¬
verned it about half a century. Amidd fuch a va¬
riety of events and operations, the ideas of the fierce
warriors of Europe gradually opened and improved; they
became acquainted with the policy and arts of the people
whom they fubdued ; they obferved the fources of
their wealth, and availed themfelves of all this know¬
ledge. Antioch and Tyre, when conquered by the
crufaders, were flourilhing cities, inhabited by opulent
merchants, who fupplied all the nations trading in the
Mediterranean with the produ&ions of the call ; and,
as far as can be gathered from incidental occurrences
mentioned by the hillolians of the holy war, who be¬
ing moilly priefts and monks, had their attention di¬
rected to objedls very different from thofe relating to
commerce, there is reafon to believe, that both in Con-
ftantinople while fubject to the Franks, and in the ports
of Syria acquired by the Chrillians, the long-elfablilhed
trade with the eaft continued to be protedled atfd en¬
couraged.”
Our author next goes on to Ihow in what manner
the commerce of the Italian Hates was promoted by
the crufades, until at laft, having entirely engroffed
the Eaft India trade, they ftrove with fuch eagernefs
to find new markets for their commodities, that they
extended a tafte for them to many parts of Europe
where they had formerly been little known. The ri-
vallhip of the Italian Hates terminated at laft in a
treaty with the fultan ef Egypt in 1425, by which the
port of Alexandria and others in Egypt were opened
to the Florentines as well as the Venetians 3 and foon
after, that people began to obtain a (hare in the trade
to India.
How the The following account of the manner in which the
India India trade was carried on in the beginning of the 14th
carried^on cent;ur)b is given by Marino Sanudo a Venetian noble-
in the 14th man’ The merchants of tnat republic were fupplied
century. with the commodities they wanted in two different
ways. Ihofc of fmall bulk and great value, fuch as
cloves, nutmegs, gems, pearls, &c. were carried up
the Perfian gulf to Baffora, from thence to Bagdad,
and afterwards to fome port on the Mediterranean!
Ihe more bulky goods, fuch as pepper, cinnamon, and
other fpiceries, were brought in the ufual manner to the
Red fea, and from thence ,10 Alexandria. The goods
brought by land, however, were always liable to be
feized by barbarians 3 and therefore the fupply that way
was fcanty, and the price extravagantly dear, while,
on the other hand, the fultan of Egypt, by impofing
duties upon the Eaft India cargoes to the amount of
a full third of the value, feemed to rendef it impofiible
that the owners ftiould find purchafers for their goods.
This, however, was far from being the cafe 3 the de¬
mand for India goods continually increafed 3 and thus
a communication, formerly unknown, betwixt all the
Vol. XI. Part I.
1 N D
nations ot Europe, Was begun and kept up. All this lulla.
time, however, there had been no diredl communica- ^ * ““
tion betwixt Europe and India, as the Mohammedans
would never allow any Chriftian to pals through their
dominions into that country. The dreadful incurfions
and conquefts of the Tartars under Jenghiz-khan, how¬
ever, had fo broken the power of the Mohammedans
in the northern parts of Alia, that a way was now
opened to India through the dominions of thefe bar-
barians. About the middle of the 13th century, there- Journey of
fore, Marco Polo, a Venetian, by getting accefs to the Marco
khan of the Tartars, explored many parts of the eaft Po!o'nt<>
which had long been unknown even by name to thet^ieeaft'
Europeans. He travelled through China from Pekidg
on its northern frontier to fome of its moft foutherly
provinces. He vifited alfo different parts of Hindol-
tan, and firft mentions Bengal and GuZerat by their
modern names as great and fiouriftiing kingdoms. He
obtained alfo fome account of an ifland which he called
Zipangri, and was probably no other than Japan ; he
vifited Java with feveral of the iilands in its neighbour¬
hood, the illand of Ceylon, and the coaft of Malabar
as far as the gulf of Cambay 3 to all which he gave the
names they have at this day. The difcovery of fuch
immenfe regions unknown before in Europe, fufnilh-
ed vaft^room for {peculation and cotijefture 3 and while ^
the. public attention was yet engaged by thefe difco- Genoefi*
veries, the deftruflion of Conftantinople by the Turkstrade t0.
gave a very confiderable turn to the Eaft India com- r“;n"
merce, by throwing it almoft entirely into the hands^kingof
ot the Venetians. Hitherto the Genoefe had rivalled conitanti-
that ftate in the commerce we fpeak of, and they had nople.
poffeffed themfelves of many important places on the
coaft of Greece, as well as of the port of Caffa on the
Black lea. Nay, they had even eftabhlhed themfelves
at Conftantinople, in the fuburb of Pera, in fuch a
manner as almoft entirely to exclude the Greeks them¬
felves from any {hare in this commerce 3 but by the
deftrudhon of Conftantinople they were at once driven
out of all thefe poffeftions, and fo thoroughly humbled,
that they could no longer contend with the Venetians
as before 3 fo that, during the latter part of the 15th
century* that republic iupphed the greater part of
Europe with the produdlions of the call, and carried
on trade to. an extent far beyond what had been known
in former times. The mode in which they now car¬
ried on this trade was fomewhat different from what
had been praftifed by ancient nations. The Tyrians,
Greeks, and Romans, had failed direftly to India in
queft of the commodities they wanted 3 and their
example has beeri imitated by the navigators of mo¬
dern Europe. In both periods the Indian commodi¬
ties have been paid for in gold and filver; and great
complaints have been made on account of the drain of
thofe precious metals, which were thus buried as it
were in India, never to return again. The Vene-Immenfe
ti.ans, however, were exempted from this lofs 3 for ha- weaIth of
ving no direft intercourfe with India, they fuppliedthe Vcn^'
themfelves from the warehoufes they found, in Egypt from thSr^
and Syria, ready filled with the precious commo-Indian
dities they wanted 3 and thefe they purchafed more commerce*
frequently by barter than with ready money. Thus,
not only the republic of Venice, but all the cities which
had the good fortune to become emporia for the India
goods imported by it, were raifed to fuch a pitch of
B b power
1 ]
I N D
[ 194 ]
I N D
34
High inte-
reft of mo¬
ney in the
15th cen¬
tury.
India, power and fplendor as fcarce ever belonged to any Eu-
■“"V"—" ropean ftate. The citizens of Bruges, from which
place the other European nations were for a long time
1'upphed with thefe goods, difplayed fuch magnificence
in their drefs, buildings, and manner of living, as ex¬
cited even the envy of their queen Joan of Na¬
varre who came to pay them a vifit. On the removal
of the ftaple from Bruges to Antwerp, the latter foon
difplayed the fame opulence ; and in fome cities of
Germany, particularly Augfburg, the great mart for
Indian commodities in the internal parts of that coun¬
try, there are examples of merchants acquiring fuch
large fortunes as entitled them to high rank and con-
fideration in the empire. The molt accurate method,
however, of attaining fome knowledge of the profits
the Venetians had on their trade, is by confidering the
rate of intereft on money borrowed at that time. This,
from the clofe of the nth century to the com¬
mencement of the 16th, we are told, was no lefs than
20 per cent, and fometimes more. Even as late as
1500, it was 10 or 1 2 in every part of Europe. Hence
we are to conclude that the profits of fuch money as
was then applied in trade muit have been extremely
high ; and the condition of the inhabitants of Venice
at that time warrants us to make the conclufion.
“ In the magnificence of their houfes (fays Dr Ro-
bertfon), in richnefs of furniture, in profuiion of plate,
and in every thing which contributed either towards
elegance or parade in their mode of living, the nobles of
Venice furpaffed the ftate of the greateft monarch be¬
yond the Alps. Nor was all this difplay the effedt of
an oftentatious and inconfiderate diftipation •, it was the
natural confequence of fuccefsful induftry, which, ha¬
ving accumulated wealth with eafe, is entitled to enjoy
it in fplendor.”
This excefiive fuperiority of wealth difplayed by the
Venetians could not fail to excite the envy of the other
ftates of Europe. They were at no lofs to difcover
that the Eaft India trade was the principal fource from
whence their wealth was derived. Some of them en¬
deavoured to obtain a (hare by applying to the fultans
of Egypt and Syria to gain admitTion into their
ports upon the fame terms with the Venetians; but
either by the fuperior intereft of the latter with thofe
princes, or from the advantages they had of being
long eftabliftied in the trade, the Venetians always
prevailed. So intent indeed were the other Euro¬
pean powers on obtaining fome lhare of this lucra¬
tive commerce, that application was made to the fo-
vereign of Ruflia to open an intercourfe by land with
China, though the capitals of the two empires are up¬
wards of 6000 miles diftant from each other. This,
horvever, was beyond the power of the Ruflian prince
at that time ; and the Venetians imagined that their
power and wealth were fully eftabliftied on the moft
permanent bafis, when two events, altogether unfore-
35 feen and unexpe&ed, gave it a mortal blow, from which
The Vene- ^ never has recovered, nor can recover itfelf. Thefe were
tian trade difcovery Gf America and that of the paffage to the
the diko- Indies by the Cape of Good Hope. The former
very of the put Spain in poffeflion of immenfe treafures •, which
Cape of being gradually diffufed all over Europe, foon call-
CJood Hope. e(i forth the induftry of other nations, and made them
exert themfelves in fuch a manner as of itfelf muft
have fuon leffened the demand for Indian produ&ions.
The difcovery of the paffage to India by the Cape of India.
Good Hope, however, was the moft effectual and
fpeedy in humbling the Venetians. After a tedious
courfe of voyages along the weftern coaft of Africa,
continued for near half a century, Vafco de Gama, an
a£Hve and enterprifing Portuguefe officer, doubled the
Cape of Good Hope, and, coafting along the eaftern
ftiore of the continent, failed next acrofs the Indian
ocean, and landed at Calicut on the coaft of Malabar,
on the 2 2d of May 1498, ten months and two days
after leaving the port of Lifbon. On his arrival in In¬
dia he was at firft received with great kindnefs by the
fovereign of that country, ftyled the Samann ; but af¬
terwards, from what caufes we cannot now well de¬
termine, the Indian prince fuddenly changed his kind¬
nefs into mortal enmity, and attempted to cut off Ga¬
ma with his whole party. The Portuguefe admiral,
however, found means to efcape every plot that was
laid againft him *, and loaded his {hips not only with
the produfts of that part of the country, but with many
of the valuable products of the more remote regions. ^5
On his return to Portugal, De Gama was received Exploits of
with all imaginable demonftrations of kindnefs. The t*ie Portu-
Portuguefe nation, nay all the nations in Europe, the in
Venetians alone excepted, rejoiced at the difeovery
which had been made. The latter beheld in it the
certain and unavoidable downfal of their own power,
while the Portuguefe, prefuming upon their right ofi
prior difeovery, which they took care to have confirm¬
ed by a papal grant, plumed themfelves on the thoughts
of having the whole Indian commerce centre in their
nation. The expeftations of the one, and the appre-
henfions of the other, feemed at firft to be well-
founded. A fucceffion of gallant officers fent into
the eaft from Portugal accompliffied the greateft and
moft arduous undertakings. In 24 years after the voy¬
age of De Gama, they had made themfelves mafters
of many important places in India ; and among the reft
of the city of Malacca, where the great ftaple of trade
throughout the whole Eaft Indies was eftablilhed. As
this city Hands nearly at an equal diftance from the
eaftern and weftern extrendties of all the countries
comprehended under the name of Indies, it wras fre¬
quented by the merchants of China, Japan, of all the
kingdoms on the continent, the Moluccas and other
iflands in that quarter, as w^ell as by thofe of Malabar,
Ceylon, Coromandel, and Bengal. Thus the Portuguefe
acquired a moft extenfive influence over the internal
commerce of India j while, by the fettlements they had
formed at Goa and Diu, they were enabled to engrofs
the trade on the Malabar coaft, and greatly to obftruft
the long eftabliffied intercourfe of Egypt with India by
the way of the Red fea. Their ftiips now frequented
every port in the eaft where any valuable commodities
were to be had, from the Cape of Good Hope to the
river of Canton in China 5 and all along thife immenfe
extent of more than 4000 leagues, they had a chain of
forts and faftories eftabliffied for the convenience of
protefting their trade. They had likewife made them¬
felves mafters of feveral ftations favourable to com¬
merce along the louthern coaft of Africa, and in
many iilands lying between Madagafcar and the Moluc¬
cas. In all places wffiere they came, their arms had
ftruck fuch terror, that they not only carried on their
trade without any rival or ccntroul, but even preferibed
to
1 N fi f i
India, to the natives the terms of their mutual intercourfe j
"" nay, fometimes they fet what price they pleafed upon
the commodities they purchafed, and thus were ena¬
bled to import into Europe the Indian commodities in
greater abundance and at a lower rate than had ever
been done before. Not fatisfied with this, they formed
a fcheme of excluding all other nations from any lhare
of the trade they enjoyed $ and for that purpofe de¬
termined to make themfelves mailers of fuch llations
on the Red fea afid Perlian gulf as might put them in
pofl'effion of the navigation of both thefe feas, and
enable them not only to obflrudl the ancient commerce
between Egypt and India, but to command the
mouths of the great rivers which we have formerly
mentioned as the means of conveying the Indian goods
through the internal parts of Alia. The conduct of
thefe enterprifes was committed to Alphonfo Albu¬
querque, the moll dillinguilhed officer at that time in
the Portuguefe fervice. By reafon of the vail number
of the enemies he had to contend with, howevet, and
the fcanty fupplies which could be derived from Por¬
tugal, he could not fully accomplilh what was expe&ed
from him. However, he took from the petty princes
who were tributaries to the kings of Perfia the fmall
illand of Ormus, which commanded the mouth of the
Perlian gulf; and thus fecured to Portugal the poflef-
lion of that extenlive trade with the call which the Per-
lians had carried on for feveral centuries. On this bar¬
ren illand, almolt entirely covered with fait, and fo hot
that the climate can fcarcely be borne, dellitute of a
drop of frelh water, except what was brought from
the continent, a city was eredled by the Portuguefe,
which foon became one of the chief feats of opulence,
fplendour, and luxury, in the ealtern world. In the
Red lea the Arabian princes made a much more for¬
midable refiltance *, and this, together with the da¬
mage his fleet fuflained in that fea, the navigation of
which is always difficult and dangerous, obliged Al¬
buquerque to retire without effedling any thing of
importance. Thus the ancient channel of conveyance
Hill remained open to the Egyptians j but their com¬
merce w7as greatly circumfcribed and obftrufled by the
powerful interell of the Portuguefe in every port to
which they had been accullomed to refort.
The Venetians now began to feel thofe effe£ls of
fh" v‘IeSGarna’s difcovery which they had dreaded from
ti .ns uwe- t^le beginning. To preferve the remains of their
trieve their commerce, they applied to the fultan of the Mameluks
affairs. in Egypt, who was no lefs alarmed than themfelves at
the lofs of fuch a capital branch of his revenue as he
had been accullomed to derive from the India trade.
By them this fierce and barbarous prince wTas eafily
perfuaded to fend a furious manifelto to Pope Julius II.
and Emmanuel king of Portugal. In this, after Hat¬
ing his exclulive right to 'the Indian trade, he inform¬
ed them, that if the Portuguefe did not reliquilh that
new courfe of navigation by wffiich they had penetrat¬
ed into the Indian ocean, and ceafe from encroaching
on that commerce which from time immemorial had
been carried on between the call of Afia and his domi¬
nions, he would put to death all the ChriHians in
Egypt, Syria, and Palelline, and demolilh the holy
fepulchre itfelf. To this threat, which fome centu¬
ries before wmuld have alarmed all Chriflendom, no re¬
gard was paid ; fo that the Venetians, as their lull re-
India.
Inelie (final
95 ] I N D
fource, were obliged to have recourfe to a different
expedient. This was to excite the fultan to fit out a
fleet in the Red fea to attack the Portuguefe, and drive
them from all their fettlements in the call 5 nay, in or¬
der to affift him in the enterprife, he wras allowed to
cut down their forefts in Dalmatia, to fupply the defi¬
ciency of Egypt in timber for fiiip-building. The tim¬
ber was conveyed from Dalmatia to Alexandria j and
from thence, partly by water and partly by land, to
Suez j where twelve men of war were built, on board
which a body of Mameluks were ordered to ferve under
the command of an experienced officer. Thus the Por¬
tuguefe were affaulted by a new enemy, far more formi¬
dable than any they had yet encountered 5 yet fuch was
the valour and condu£l of the admiral, that after feveral
fevere engagements, the fleet of the infidels was entire¬
ly ruined, and the Portuguefe became abfolute mailers
of the Indian ocean.
This difaller was followed in no long time by the
total overthrow of the dominion of the Mameluks in
Egypt by Selim the Turkilh fultan ; who thus alfo
became mailer of Syria and Palelline. As his intereffc
Was now the fame with that of the Venetians, a league
was quickly formed betwixt them for the ruin of the
power of the Portuguefe in India. With this view Selim
confirmed to the Venetians the extenfive commercial
privileges they enjoyed under the government of the
Mameluks $ publiffiing at the fame time an edi£l, by
which he permitted the free entry of all the produc¬
tions of the call imported dire£lly from Alexandria in¬
to any part of his dominions, but impofed heavy taxes
upon fuch as were imported from Lilhon. All this,
howrevef, was infufficient to counteradl the great ad¬
vantages w'hich the Portuguefe had obtained by the
new paffage to India, and the fettlements they had
eltablilhed in that country; at the fame time that the
power of the Venetians being' entirely broken by the
league of Cambray, they were no longer able to con¬
tribute any affiilance. They were therefore reduced to
the neceffity of making an offer to the king of Portu¬
gal to purchafe all the fpices imported into Lifbon,
over and above what might be requifite for the con-
fumption of his own fubje&s. This offer being reject¬
ed, the Portuguefe for fome time remained uncon¬
trolled mailers of the Indian trade, and all Europe
was fupplied by them, excepting fome very inconfider-
able quantity which was imported by the Venetians
through the ufual channels.
The Portuguefe continued to enjoy this valuable Wh/the
branch of commerce undiflurbed almolt for a whole Portuguefe
century ; to which, however, they are indebted moretrad? waS
to the political fituation of the different European na-
tions than to their own prow'efs. After the acceffion other Eu-
of Charles V. to the throne of Spain, that kingdom was ropean
either fo much engaged in a multiplicity of operations, powers,
owing to the ambition of that monarch and his fon
Philip II. or fo intent on profecuting the difeoveries
and conquells in the new world, that no effort was
made to interfere with the Eall Indian trade of the
Portuguefe, even though an opportunity offered by the
difcovery of a fecond paffage by fea to the Eall Indies
through the llraits of Magellan. By the acquifition
of the crown of Portugal in 1580, Spain, inltead of
becoming the rival, became the prote&or and guardian
of the Pwrtuguefe trade. The refources of Prance all
^ b 3 this
33
.1 nd 14,
I N D
this time ■fc'ere fo much exhaufted by
long and defolating wars, that it could beftovv neither
much attention on objeds at fuch a diftance, nor en¬
gage in any txpenfive fcheme. England was defla¬
ted by the ruinous wars between the houfes of York
and Lancafter, and aftewards its enterpriiing fpirit was
redrained by the cautious and covetous Henry VII.
His fon Henry VIII. in the former part of his reign,
by engaging in the continental quarrels of the Euro¬
pean princes, and in the latter part by his quarrel with
the pope and contefts about religion, left no time for
commercial fchemes. It was not therefore till the
reign of Queen Elizabeth that any attention was paid
to the affairs of the eaft by that kingdom. The firft
who fhook the pow'er of the Portuguefe in India were
the Dutch j and in this they were gladly feconded
by the natives, whom the Portuguefe had molt grie-
voufly oppreffed. The Englilh foon followed their ex¬
ample j and in a few years the Portuguefe were expel¬
led from their molt valuable fettlements, while the moll
lucrative branches’of their trade have continued ever
fince in the hands of thofe two nations.
It is not to be fuppofed that the other European
nations would fit ftill and quietly fee thefe two en-
rvfJiwn gro^s the whole of this lucrative commerce without at¬
tempting to put in for a lhare. Eaft India compa¬
nies were therefore fet up in different countries : but
it wTas only between France and Britain that the
great rivalihip commenced j nor did this faily difplay
i.tfelf till after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. Both
nations had by this time made themfelves mailers of
confiderable fettlements in India. The principal of
thofe belonging to Britain were, I. Surat, fituated
on the weffern fide of the peninfula within the Ganges,
between the 2ift and 22d degrees of N. Lat. This
peninfula comprehended the kingdoms of Malabar,
Decan, Golconda, and Bifnagar, with the principali¬
ties of Gingi, Tanjour, and Madura •, the weilern
coaft being diftinguilhed by the name of Malabar, and
the eaftern by that of Coromandel. 2. Bombay, a
fmall illand in the kingdom of Decan, about 45
leagues to the fouth. of Surat. 3. Dabul, about 40
leagues farther to the fouth, in the province of Cun-
can. 4. Carwar, in N. Lat. 150, where there was a
Imall fort and fa6lory. 5. Tillicherry, to which place
the Englilh trade was removed from Calicut, a large
town 15 leagues to the fouthward. 6. Anjengo, be¬
tween eight and nine degrees of latitude, the moll
ioutherly fettlement on the weftern coall of the penin¬
fula. 7. On the Coromandel coalt they poffeffed Fort
St David’s, formerly called Tegapatan, fituated in the
kingdom of Gingi, in 11® 40' N. Lat. 8. Madras, the
principal fettlement on this coall, between 13° and
14° N. Lat. not far from the diamond mines of Gol¬
conda. 9. Vifigapatam, farther to the north. 10. Ba-
lafore, in latitude 22*, a fadlory of fmall confequence.
11. Calcutta, the capital of all the Britilh fettlements
in the Ealt Indies. Thele were the principal places
belonging to Britain which we lhall have ©ccafion to
mention in the account of the contells which now
Origin of took place j thole of the French were chiefly Pondi-
(Uarfwa/n" c^erry an^ Chandernagore. w
betwixt the ^ he war is faid to have been firll occafioned by the
"Freni h and intrigues of the French commandant M- Dupleix j who
Englilh in immediately after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, began
2747.
39
Hivallhip
of the
Englilh in
*he Eaft
indies.
40 ,
jsnghlh fet'
elements in
India.
4*
[ 196 ] I N D
a continuance of to fow dilfenfion among the nabobs, who had by this
time ufurped the fovereignty of the country. Nizam
Almuluck, viceroy of Decan, and nabob of Arcot, had,
as otficer for the Mogul, nominated Anaverdy Khan to
be governor of the Carnatic, in the year 1743. On the
death of Nizam, his fecond fon Nazir-zing was appoint¬
ed to fucceed him in his viceroyalty, and his nomina¬
tion was confirmed by the Mogul. He was oppofed by
his coufm Muzapher-zing, who applied to Dupleix for
affiffance. By him he w'as fupplied with a body of
Europeans and fome artillery ; after which, being alfo
joined by Chunda Saib, an active Indian prince, he
took the field againft Nazir-zing. The latter was fup-
ported by a body of Britilh troops under Colonel Lau¬
rence ; and the French, dreading the event of an en¬
gagement, retired in the night; fo that their ally wras
obliged to throw himfelf on the clemency of Nazir-
zing. His life was fpared, though he himfelf was de¬
tained as a Hate prifoner 5 but the traitor, forgetting
the kindnefs Ihowed him on this occafion, entered into
a confpiracy againft the life of Nazir-zing, and mur¬
dered him in his camp ; in which infamous tranfadlion
he wras encouraged by Dupleix and Chunda Saib, who
had retired to Pondicherry. Immenfe riches were
found in the tents of Nazir-zing, great part of which
fell to the lliare of Dupleix, whom Muzapher-zing now
afibciated with himfelf in the government. By virtue
of this affociation, the Frenchman affumed the Hate
and formalities of an eallern prince j and he and his
colleague Muzapher-zing appointed Chunda Saib na¬
bob of Arcot. In 1749, Anaverdy Khan had been
defeated and killed by Muzapher-zing and Chunda
Saib, atfilled by the French j after which his fon Mo¬
hammed Ali Khan had put himfelf under the protec¬
tion of the Englilh at Madras, and was confirmed by
Nazir-zing as his father’s fuccefibr in the nabobflvip or
government of Arcot. This government therefore
was difputed betwixt Mohammed Ali Khan, appoint¬
ed by the legal viceroy Nazir-zing, and fupported by the
Englilh company, and Chunda Saib nominated by the
ufurper Muzapher-zing, and protedled by Dupleix,
who commanded at Pondicherry. Muzapher-zing, how¬
ever, did not long enjoy his ill-got authority *, for in
the year 1751, the nabobs who had been the means
of raifing him to the power he enjoyed, thinking them¬
felves ill rewarded for their fervices, fell upon him fud-
denly, defeated his forces, and put him to death j pro¬
claiming Salabat-zing next day viceroy of the Deccan,
On the other hand, the Mogul appointed Gauzedy
Khan, the elder brother of Salabat-zing, who was
confirmed by Mohammed Ali Khan in the government
of Arcot: but the affairs of the Mogul were at that
time in fuch diforder, that he could not with an army
fupport the nomination he had made Chunda Saib
in the mean time determined to recover by force the
naboblhip of Arcot, from which he had been depofed
by the Mogul, who had placed Anaverdy Khan in his
room. With this view he had recourfe to Dupleix at
Pondicherry, who reinforced him with 2000 Sepoys,
60 Caffrees, and 4 20 French ; upon condition that if
he fucceeded, he ihould cede to the French the town
of Velur in the neighbourhood of Pondicherry, with
its dependencies, confifling of 45 villages. Thus rein¬
forced, he defeated Anaverdy Khan, who loll his life
in the engagement, reaffumed the government of Ar¬
cot,
Iiidl
India.
41
Mr Clive’s
firft appear
ance in a
militaty
capacity.
43
His bra¬
very and
futcels.
INI) [ i
cot, and ptm&ually performed the engagements he had
come under to his French allies.
All this time Mohammed Ali Khan had been fup-
ported by the Englilh, to whom he fled after his fa¬
ther’s death. By them he was fupplied with a rein¬
forcement of men, money, and ammunition, under the
conduct of Major Laurence, a brave and experienced
officer. By means of this fupply he gained fome ad¬
vantages over the enemy; and repairing afterwards to
Fort St David’s, he obtained a further reinforcement.
With all this afliflance, however, he accomplilhed no¬
thing of any momentand the Englifh auxiliaries
having retired, he wjas defeated by his enemies. Thus
he was obliged to enter into a more clofe alliance with
the Englifh, and cede to them fome commercial points
which had been long in difpute; after w'hich, Captain
Cope was defpatched to put Trinchinopoli in a ftate
of defence, while Captain de Gingis, a Swils officer,
marched at the head of 430 Europeans to the affift-
ance of the nabob. On this occafion Mr Clive firft
■offered his fervice in a military capacity. He had
been employed before as a writer, but appeared very
little qualified for that or any other department in ci¬
vil life. He now marched towards Arcot at the
head of 210 Europeans and 500 Sepoys. In the firft
expedition he difplayed at once the qualities of a great
commander. His movements were conduced with
fuch fecrecy and defpatch, that he made himfelf mailer
of the enemy’s capital before they knew of his march ;
and gained the affe£lions of the people by his generofi-
ty, in affording proteflion without ranfom. In a fliort
time, however, he found himfelf inverted in Fort St
Davd’s by Rajah Saib, fon to Chunda Saib, an Indian
chief, pretender to the nabobfhip of Arcot, at the head
of a numerous army •, the operations of the fiege be¬
ing conduced by European engineers. Thus, in fpite
of his utmoft efforts, two practicable breaches w?ere
made, and a general affault given ; but Mr Clive ha-
ing got intelligence of the intended attack, defended
himfelf with fuch vigour, that the afiailants wTere every-
rvhere repulfed with lofs, and obliged to raife the
fiege wfith the greateft precipitation. Not contented
with this advantage, Mr Clive, being reinforced by a
detachment from Trinchinopoli, marched in quell of
the enemy ; and having overtaken them in the plains
of Arani, attacked and entirely defeated them on the
3d of December 1751.
This viftory wras follow'ed by the furrender of the
forts of Timery, Conjaveram, and Arani : after which
Mr Clive returned in triumph to Fort St David’s. In
the beginning of the year 1752 he marched towards
Madras, where he was reinforced by a fmall body of
troops from Bengal. Though the whole did not ex¬
ceed 300 Europeans, wfith as many natives as w7ere fuf-
ficient to give the appearance of an army, he boldly
proceeded to a place called Koveripauh, about 15 miles
from Arcot, where the enemy lay to the number of
1500 Sepoys, 1700 horfe, with 150 Europeans, and
eight pieces of cannon. ViClory was long doubtful,
until Mr Clive having fent round a detachment to fall
upon the rear of the enemy while the Englifli attack¬
ed the entrenchments in front with their bayonets, a
general confufion enfued, the enemy were routed with
coniiderable daughter, and only laved from total de-
ftruClion by the darknefs of the night. The French
India.
44
97 ] I N D
to a man threw down their arms, and furreiadered
themfelves prifoners of war ; all the baggage and can¬
non falling at the fame time into the hands of the
viClors.
On the return of Mr Clive to Fort St David’s, he His ex-
was fuperfeded in the command by Major Laurence. P^°its ur)de*
By him he was detached with 400 Europeans, a few ^Ia-)or
Mahratta foldiers, and a body of Sepoys, to cut oft'
the enemy’s retreat to Pondicherry. In this enter-
prife he was attended with his ufual good fuccefs, took
feveral forts, vanquiihed the French commander M.
d’Anteuil, and obliged him with all his party to furren¬
der prifoners of war. ^
Chunda Saib, in the mean time, lay encamped with Death of
an army of 30,000 men at Syringham, an ifland in the chunda
neighbourhood of Trinchinopoli ; but Major Lau-Sa1^'
rence having found means to intercept his provifions,
he was obliged to fly. Being obliged to pafs through
the camp of the Tanjore general, he obtained a pal's
for the purpofe -, but was neverthelefs detained by the
nabob ; who was an ally of the Englilh, and his head
was ftruck off, in order to prevent any difputes that
might arife concerning him.
After the flight of Chunda Saib, his army was at¬
tacked and routed by Major Laurence; and the ifland
of Syringham furrendered, with about 1000 French fol¬
diers under the command of Mr Law, brother to him ^5
who fchemed the Miffiffippi company. M. Dupleix, M. Dupleix
exceedingly mortified at this bad fuccefs, proclaimed pretend*
Rajah Saib, fon to Chunda Saib, nabob of Arcot;
and afterwards produced forged commiffions from the the^onil
Great Mogul, appointing him governor of all the Car- and affe&s*
natic from the river Kriltnah to the fea. The better the date of
to carry on this deception, a meffenger pretended toan.Inclian
come from Delhi, and was received with all the pomp pnnce*
of an ambaffador from the Great Mogul. Dupleix,
mounted on an elephant, and preceded by mufic and
dancing women, after the oriental falhion, received
his commiffion from the hands of this impoftor ; after
which he affe&ed the ftate of an eaftern prince, kept
his durbar or court, appeared fitting crofs-legged on a
fopha, and received prefents as fovereign of the coun¬
try, from his own council as well as from the na¬
tives.
Thus the forces of the Englilh and French EafT
India companies were engaged in a courfe of hoftili-
ties at a time when no war exiiled between the two
nations ; and while they thus continued to make war
upon each other under the title of auxiliaries to the
contending parties, Gauzedy Khan took poffeffion of
the dignity appointed him by the Mogul j but had not
been in poffeffion of it above 14 days when he was
poifoned by his own filter. His fon Scab Abadin Khan
was appointed to fucceed him by the Mogul; but the
latter being unable to give him proper affiftanee, Sala-
bat zing remained without any rival, and made a pre-
fent to the French commander of all the Englifli pof-
feffions to the northward.
Thus concluded the campaign of 1752. Next year Re:«force-
both parties received confiderable reinforcements ; the ments ar-
Englilh, by the arrival of Admiral Watfon w ith a riTe fr°m
fquadron of ihips of w7ar, having on board a regiment France
commanded by Colonel Alclercroon ; and the French n ^ ”
by M. Gadeheu, commiffary and governor-general of
all their fettlements, on whofe arrival M. Dupleix de- -
parted
’Em 12
4S
Provifional
treaty be¬
twixt the
two na¬
tions con¬
cluded.
I N D [i
parted for Europe. The new governor made the moft
friendly propofals; and defired a ceffation of arms un¬
til the difputes could be adjufted in Europe. Thefe
propofals being readily liftened to on the part of the
Englilh, deputies were fent to Pondicherry, and a pro-
vidonal treaty and truce were concluded, on condi¬
tion that i^either of the two companies Ihould for the
future interfere in any of the differences that might take
place in the country. The other articles related to the
places or fettlements that fliould be retained or poffeff-
ed by the refpeftive companies, until frefli orders
fhould arrive from the courts of London and Ver-
failles; and till then it w'as ftipulated, that neither of
the two nations fhould be allowed to procure any new
grant or ceffion, or to build forts in defence of any
new ellablifhment; nor fhould they proceed to any cef¬
fion, retroceflion, or evacuation, of what they then pof-
feffed j but every thing Ihould remain on the fame foot¬
ing as formerly.
The treaty was publifhed on the I ith of January
1755 ; at the end of which month Admiral Watfon re¬
turned wdth his fquadron from Bombay, and M. Ga-
deheu returned to France'in. the beginning of Febru¬
ary, leaving M. Leyrit his fucceffor at Pondicherry.
M. Buffy, with the Soubahdar Salabat-zing, command¬
ed in the north ; and M. de Sauffay was left to com¬
mand the troops at Syringham. Matters, however,
did not long continue in a ftate of tranquillity. Early
in the year it appeared that the French were endea¬
vouring to get poffeflion of all the provinces of the
Deccan. M. Buffy demanded the fortrefs of Golconda
from Salabat-zing $ and M. Leyrit encouraged the
phoufder or governor who rented Velu to take up
arms againft the nabob. He even fent 300 French
and as many Sepoys from Pondicherry to fupport this
rebel, and oppofe the Englifh employed by the nabob
to colledl his revenues from the tributary princes. In
this office they had been employed ever fince the cef¬
fation of hoftilities ; one half of the revenue being paid
to the nabob, and the other to the company, which
49 now involved them in a kind of military expedition
Expedition into the country of the Polygars, who had been pre-
ofrtieEng- viouf]y fummoned to fend agents to fettle accounts
the country "^ith the nabob. Four of them obeyed the fummonsj
of the Po- hut one Lacheiiaig refufed, and it was therefore refolved
to attack him. The country w-as very ftrong, being
almoft: entirely fortified by nature or art; for it was
furrounded by craggy hills detached from one another,
and covered with bufhes fo as to be impaffable for
any but the natives, who had thrown up works from
hill to hill. Thefe works w’ere indeed very rude, be¬
ing formed of large ftones laid upon one another with¬
out any cement, and flanked at proper diftances by
round earthen towers ; before the wall was a deep and
broad ditch, with a large hedge of bamboos in front,
fo thick that it could not be penetrated but by the hat¬
chet or by the fire. This wTas forced, though not with¬
out fome lofs •, after which another work of the fame
kind, but ftronger, made its appearance j but this being
likewife forced, Lachenaig was obliged to fubmit and
pay his tribute.
The Engliffi army now marched to Madura, a ftrong
Indian town about 60 miles fouth of Trinchinopoli. On
their approach it fubmitted without any oppofition,
ar. \ the inhabitants feemed pleafed with their change-
t
India.
lygars.
5°
Madura
reduced.
98 ] I N D
of government. Here a deputation was received from
a neighbouring Polygar, deliring an alliance, and as a ^
proof of his ffneerity making an offer of two fettle- XweM cw
ments on the fea-coaft of his country oppofite to the fettlements
ifland of Ceylon, which would greatly facilitate their obtained
future commerce with Tinivelly. Before this time^J -j1*
they could not have reached that city but by a circui- 1
tous march of 400 or 500 miles •, but from the new
fettlements the diftance to Tinivelly was no more than
50 miles, and reinforcements or fupplies of any kind
might be fent them from Madras or Fort St David
in four or five days. This offer being accepted, Co-Exploits of
lonel Heron, the Englilh commander, marched to at-Colonel
tack the governor of Madura, who had fled to a place ^eron-
called Coilgoody: on the approach of the Englilh he
fled from this place alfo, leaving the greatell part of
his troops to defend the place. The road was fo rugged,
that the carriages of the cannon broke down ; and as
the troops were not furnilhed with fealing ladders, there
feemed to be little hope of gaining the place, which
was very ftrong. The colonel, however, determined
to make an affault after the Indian manner, by burn¬
ing dowm the gates with bundles of ftraw j and to en¬
courage his men in this new method of attack, he him-
felf carried the fifft torch, being followed by Mohara- S5
med Iffouf, who bore the fecond. The place was ta- His impra-
ken and plundered, not fparing even the temples j dence in
which infpired the inhabitants w’ith the utmoft abhor- idiwdejing-
rence of the vidlors on account of their contempt <rfteinpies
their religion.
After this exploit the army removed to Madura •, and
and a garrifon being left in the place, they proceeded
to Tinivelly, which fubmitted without oppofuion, and
owned the jurifdi<ftion of the nabob j though fome of
the Polygars Hill evaded payment, and therefore hofti¬
lities were commenced againft them. 54
The new expedition was marked by an aft of the Cruel maf-
moft difgraceful cruelty at a fort named Neliecotah, lacre at
40 miles fouth of Tinevelly. It was fortified by a mud ^Nel eeota
wall with round towers. The affault was made with
great refolution, and the troops gained poffelfion of
the parapet without being repulfed. On this the gar¬
rifon called out for quarter, but it was barbaroufly re¬
fufed •, a general maffacre of men, women, and chil¬
dren enfued, only fix perfons out of 400 being fuffered
to efcape with life.
It now appeared that the revenues collefted in this
expedition had not been fufficient to defray the ex-
pences of the army j and a report being fpread that
Salabat-zing was advancing into the Carnatic at the
head of his army, along with M. Buffy the French
commander, to demand the Mogul’s tribute, it was
thought proper to recal Colonel Heron to I rinchino-
poli. Before this, he had been prevailed on by the In¬
dian chief who accompanied him, to convey to him
(Mazuphe Cawn) an inveftiture of the countries of
Madura and Tinevelly for an annualrent of 187,500!.
fterling. In his way he was likewife induced by the
fame chief to make an attempt on a ftrong fort named
Ne/hjtangavil/e, fituated about 30 miles welt of Tine¬
velly j and belonging to a refraftory Polygar. This
attempt, however, proving unfuccefsful lor want of
battering cannon, the colonel returned with Mazuphe
Cawn to Trinchinopoli, where he arrived on the 2 2d of
Ma; ,7W’ The
India.
55
Unfortu¬
nate expe¬
dition and
difgrace of
Colonel
Heron.
5<>
Scheme
formed by
the Englilh
againft the
French.
i k r> [1
The laft expedition of this commander was againfl;
a mud fort named Volfynatam, fituated near the en¬
trance of the woods4belonging to the Colleries. Thefe
people were highly inceni'ed at the plundering of Coil-
goody, and particularly at the lofs of their facred
images which the rapacious conquerors had carried off,
In confequence of this they had already flaughtered a
party of Sepoys whom the commanding officer at Ma¬
dura had fent out to colleft cattle. In their march the
Engliffi army had to go through the pafs of Natam,
one of the moft dangerous in the peninfula. It begins
about 20 miles north of Trinchinopoli, and continues
for fix miles through a wood impaffable to Europeans.
The road which lay through it was barely fufficient to
admit a fingle carriage at a time, at the fame time that
a bank running along each fide rendered it impoffible
to widen it. In moft places the wood was quite con¬
tiguous to the road *, and even whdre part of it had
been felled, the eye could not penetrate above 20
yards.—A detachment of Europeans, pioneers, and
fepoys, were fent to fcour the woods before the main
body ventured to pafs through fuch a dangerous defile.
The former met with no oppofition, nor did any ene¬
my appear againft the latter for a long time. At laft
the march was flopped by one of the heavieft tumbrils
flicking in a flough, out of which the oxen were not
able to draw it. The officers of artillery fuffered the
troops marching before to proceed •, and the officer
■who commanded in the rear of the battalion, not fuf-
pe&ing what had happened, continued his march,
while moft of the Sepoys w7ho marched behind the rear
divifion of the artillery were likewife fuffered to pafs
the carriage in the flough, which choaked up the road,
and prevented the other tumbrils from moving forward,
as well as three field pieces that formed the rear divi¬
fion of artillery, and the whole line of baggage that
followed. In this divided and defencelefs ftate the rear
divifion of the baggage was attacked by the Indians j
and the whole would certainly have been deftroyed, had
it not been for the courage and activity of Capt. Smith,
who here commanded 40 Caffres and 200 Sepoys, with
one fix-pounder. Coniiderable damage, however, was
done, and the Indians recovered their gods; which
certainly were not worth the carrying off, being only
made of brafs, and of a diminutive fize.—Colonel
Heron was tried by a court-martial for mifcondufl
in this expedition ; and being found guilty, wTas de¬
clared incapable of ferving the company any longer :
foon after wffiich he returned to Europe, and died in
Holland.
In the mean time Nanderauze, an Indian prince,
formed a fcheme to get poffeffion of Trinchinopoli •,
and in order to compafs his end with greater facility,
communicated his defign to M. de Sauffay the com¬
mander of the French troops. Rut this gentleman ha¬
ving communicated intelligence to the Englifh com¬
mander, the enterprife mifcarried, and no difference
betwixt thefe two rival nations as yet took place. It
does not, however, appear that the Englifh were in the
leaft more folicitous to avoid hoftilities than the French;
for as foon as the company wrere informed of the ac-
quilitions made by M. Buffy in the Deccan, it was de¬
termined to encourage the Mahrattas to attack Sala-
bat-zing, in order to oblige him to difmifs the French
auxiliaries from his fervice. In order to fucceed in this
99 ] IN D
enterprife, it rvas neceffary to have a commander well India.,
experienced in the political fyftems of the country, as f
wrell as in military affairs •, and for this purpofe Mr
Clive, now governor of Fort St David’s, and inverted
with a lieutenant colonel’s commiffion in the king’s
troops, offered his fervice. Three companies of the
king’s artillery, confifting of 100 men each, and 300
recruits, were fent from England on this expedition,
who arrived at Bombay on the 27th of November-;
when on a hidden the prefidency of Madras took it
into confideration that this expedition could not be The expe-
profecuted without infringing the convention made
with the French commander. “ This (fays Mr Grofe) 1 e"
was adling with too much caution $ for every thing
relating to Salabat-zing and the French troops in his
fervice feemed to have been ftudioufly avoided. The
court of directors had explained their whole plan to the
prefidency of Madras 5 but the fhip wffiich had the let¬
ters on board wras unfortunately wrecked on a rock
about 800 miles eaft of the Cape of Good Hope.”
The whole expedition was therefore laid afide, and the
prefidency of Madras direfted all their force for the
prefent agamft Tulagee Angria, who had long been
a formidable enemy to the Englifh commerce in thofe
parts. 58
The dominions of this pirate confifted of feveral Account of
iflands near Bombay, and an extent of land on the Pirate
continent about 180 miles in length, and from 30 to
60 in breadth. He poffeffed alfo feveral forts that had
been taken from the Europeans by his anceftors ; the
trade of piracy having, it feems, been hereditary in the
family, and indeed followed by moft of the inlrabitants
of this coaft. This was the more dangerous for tradingg
veflels, as the land breezes do not here extend more
than 40 miles out at fea, fo that the {hips are obliged
to keep within fight of land ; and there was not a
creek, harbour, bay, or mouth of a river, along the
wffiole coaft of his dominions, where Angria had not
erefted fortifications, both as ftations of difcovery and
places of refuge to his veffels. His fleet confifted of
two kinds of veffels peculiar to this country, named ^
grabs and gallivais. The former have generally two Defcript'oa
mads, though fome have three } the latter being about ot his fleet.
300 tons burthen, and the former 150. They are
built to draw little water, being very broad in propor¬
tion to their height ; but narrowing from the middle
to the end, where, inftead of bows, they have a prow
projecting like a Mediterranean galley, and covered
with a ftrong deck level with the main deck of the
veffel, from which it is feparated by a bulk-head that
terminates the foi'ecaftle. As this conftruClion fub-
jefts the grab to pitch violently when failing againft
a head fea, the deck of the prow is not inclofed with
fides as the reft of the veffel, but remains bare, that
the water which comes upon it may pafs off without
interruption. Two pieces of cannon are mounted on
the main deck under the forecaftle, carrying balls of
nine or twelve pounds, which point forwards through
port-holes cut in the bulk-head, and fire over the prow;
thofe of the broad-fide are from fix to nine pounders.
The gallivats are large row-boats built like the grab,.
. but fmaller, the largeft fcarce exceeding 70 tons bur¬
den. They have twTo marts, the mizen flightly made,
and the main-mart: bearing one large and triangular fail.
In general they are covered with a fpar deck made of
fplk
India.
do
Their man.
ner of at¬
tacking
Chips.
61
'Unfuccefs-
ful at¬
tempts to
reduce this
'pirate.
6%
Succefs of
Commo¬
dore James
againlt his
forts.
I N D [250
fplit bamboos, and carry only pateneroes fixed on fvvi-
vels in the gunnel of the veffel 5 but thofe of a larger
fize have a fixed deck, on which they mount fix or
eight pieces of cannon from two to four pounders.
They have 40 or 50 ftout oars, by which they may be
moved at the rate of four miles an hour.
Angria had commonly a fleet of eight or ten grabs,
vsith 40 or 50 gallivats 5 which flipped their cables
and put out to fea as foOn ai any veffel had the misfor¬
tune to come within fight of the port or bay where
they lay. If the wind blew with any ftrength, their
confiru£Hon enabled them to fvvim very fwiftly : but if
it was calm, the gallivats rowed, and towed the grabs.
As foon as they came within gunihot of the enemy,
they affembled aftern, and the grabs began the attack,
firing at firft only at the mafts, and choofing the moft
advantageous pofitions for this purpofe. If the veffel
happened to be difmafted, they then drew nearer, and
battered her on all fides till Are ftruck ; but if the de¬
fence was obftinate, they fent a number of gallivats
with 200 or 300 foldiers in each, who boarded from all
quarters fword in hand.
This piratical ftate had for more than 50 years been
formidable to all the nations in Europe ; the Englilh
Eaft India company had kept up a naval force for the
prote&ien of their trade at the rate of more than
50,000!. annually, and after all found it fcarcely ade¬
quate to the purpofe. An unfuccefsful attempt had
been made in 1717, by the prefidency of Bombay,
againff the forts Geriah and Kennary, the principal
ftrong holds of Angria.-—Another was made in 1722,
under Admiral Matthews, againft a fort named Coila-
bley, about 15 leagues fouth of Bombay : but this
alfo mifcarried through the cowardice and treachery
of the Portuguefe, who pretended to aflift the Englifli.
In 1735 Fort Geriah was unfuccefsfully attacked by a
Dutch armament of feven fliips, two bomb-ketches,
and a numerous body of land forces •, while all this
time the piracies of Angria went on fuccefsfully, and
not only trading veffels, but even men of war belong¬
ing to different nations, were captured by him, parti¬
cularly in the month of February 1754, when three
Dutch fhips of 50, 36, and 18 guns, were burnt or
taken by the piratical fleet.
This lafl fuccefs encouraged Angria fo much, that
he began to build veffels of a large fize, boafling that
he fliould be mafter of the Indian Teas. The Mahrat-
tas having implored the afliftance of the Englifh againft
this common enemy, Commodore William James was
fent from Bombay on the 22d of March 1755, with
the Prote&or of 44, the Swallow of 16 guns, and two
bomb-ketches j but with inftru&ions not to hazard the
fleet by attacking any of the pirate’s forts, only to
blockade the harbours, while the Mahratta army carried
on their operations by land. He had fcarce begun his
voyage W7hen he fell in with a confiderable fleet of the
pirates, which he would certainly have taken, had
it not been for the timidity and dilatory behaviour of
his allies, who could not by any means be induced to
follow him. They had, however, invefled three of
the forts, but after a very ftrange manner j for they
durft not approach nearer than two miles, and even
there entrenched themfelves up to the chin, to be fe-
cure againft the fire of the fort, which they returned
3
]
I N 13
only with one four pounder. The commodore, pro- tndu.
voked at this pufillanimous behaviour, determined, for —v—
the honour of the Britifli arms, to exceed the orders
he had got. Running within 100 yards of a fort
named Severndroog, he in a few hours ruined the
walls, and fet it on fire •, a powder magazine alfo blon-
^ng UP> people, to the number of about 1000,
abandoning the place, and embarking on board of eight
large boats, attempted to make their efcape to another
fort named Goa, but were all intercepted and made
prifoners by the EnglilF. The whole force of the at¬
tack being then turned upon Goa, a white flag was
foon hung out as a fignal to furrender. The governor,
however, did not think proper to wait the event of a
capitulation, but without delay paffed over to Severn-
droog, where he hoped to be able to maintain his
ground notwithftanding the ruinous fiate of the forti¬
fications. The fire was now renewed againft; this for-
trefs ; and the f^Smen having cut a paffage through one
of the gates with their axes, the garfifon foon furren-
dered, at the fame time that two other forts befieged
by the Mahrattas hung out flags of truce and capitu¬
lated : and thus were four of Angria’s forts, for fo
many years deemed impregnable, fabdued in one day. ^
Thefe fucceffes were followed by the furrender ofThe pirat*
Bancoote, a ftrong fortified ifland, now called
ViBoria^ and which the Englifh retained in poffeflion 5
but the other forts were delivered up to the Mabrattas. Watfon.
On the arrival of Admiral Watfon in the beginning of
November 1755, it was determined to root out the pi¬
rate at once, by attacking Geriah the capital of his do¬
minions ; but it was fo long fince any Englifhman had
feen this place, and the reports of its ftrength had been
fo much exaggerated, that it was thought proper to
reconnoitre it before any attack was made. This was
done by Commodore James; who having reported that
the fort, though ftrong, was far from being inaccefliblc
or impregnable, it w7as refolved to profecute the en-
terprife with the utmoft expedition and vigour. It
was therefore attacked by fuch a formidable fleet, that
Angria, lofing courage at their approach, fled to the
Mahrattas, leaving Geriah to be defended by his bro¬
ther. The fort, however, was foon obliged to furren¬
der, with no more lofs on the part of the Englilh than
19 men killed and wounded : but it was afterwards ac¬
knowledged, that this fuccefs was owing principally
to the terror of the garrifon, occafioned by fuch a vio¬
lent cannonade ; for their fortifications appeared to
have been proof againft the utmoft efforts of an ene¬
my. All the ramparts of this fort were either cut out
of the folid rock, or built of ftones at leaf! ten feet
long laid edgeways.
In this fortrefs were found 200 pieces of brafs can¬
non, with fix brafs mortars, and a great quantity of
ammunition and military ftores, befides money and
effeefts to the value of 125,000!. Angria’s fleet was
entirely deftroyed, one of the flfip* having been fet on
fire by a fhell from the Englifh fleet, and the flames
having fpread from thence to all the reft. About 2000
people were made prifoners ; among whom were the
wife, children, mother, brother, and admiral of the
pirate : but they were treated with the greateft cle¬
mency ; and his family, at their owm requeft, continued
under the protediion of the Englifh at Geriah. All
the
India.
64
M. LSuffy
difmiffed
by Salabat
zing.
«5
A detach¬
ment ot
Enalifh
troops or¬
dered
ag nnft M.
Buffy, but
’Counter¬
manded.
66
Surajah
Dowla, na¬
bob of ben
gal, an
enemy to
the Eng-
.Jirtn
i ‘isr d [20
tire other forts belonging to Angm foon fubmitted ; fo
that his power on the coaft of Malabar was entirely
annihilated. >
While the affairs of the Engliih went on thus fuc-
cefsfully, M. Buffy had been conftantly employed near
' the perfon of Salabat-zing, whom he had ferved in much
the fame manner that the Engliih had Mohammed Ali
Cawm. As he made ufe of his influence with that
prince, however, to enlarge the poffeffions of the
French, and was continually making exorbitant de¬
mands upon him, the prime minifter of Salabat-zing at
length reprefented to him the danger and fhame of al¬
lowing a fmall body of foreigners thus to give law to
a great prince ; and having formed a powerful com¬
bination againft the French, at laft obtained an order
for their difmiffion. M. Buffy took his leave without
any marks of difguft, having under his command
about 600 Europeans, with 5000 Sepoys, and a fine
train of artillery. His enemies, however, had no mind
to allow him to depart in fafety ; and therefore fent
orders to all the polygars to oppofe their paffage,
fending 6000 Mahrattas after them to harafs them on
their mar h.
Notxvith(landing this oppofition, M. Buffy reached
Hyderabad wdth very little lofs. Here he took pof-
feihon of a garden formerly belonging to the kings of
Golconda, where he refolved to keep his poll until
fuccours fhould arrive from Pondicherry and Mafuli-
patam. Here Salabat-zing propofed to attack, him j
and the better to attain his purpofe, applied to the
Engliih prelidency at Madras for a body of troops to
aflift him in this fervice. Nothing could be more
agreeable to thofe who had the power at that place
than fuch an invitation ; and a detachment of 400 Eu¬
ropeans and 1500 Sepoys was on the point of being
ordered to the affiftance of Salabat-zing, when expreffes
from Bengal informed them of the greateft danger
that had ever threatened the Britilh fettlements in In-
doitan.
This danger arofe from the difpleafure of Surajah
Dowla the new nabob of Bengal. His grandfather
Aliverdy Khan having died in April or May 1756,
Surajah fucceeded to the nabobfliip of Bengal, Ba-
har, and Orixa. He was congratulated on his accef-
fion by Mr Drake the Englifh prefident at Calcutta,
who requelled his favour and prote&ion in behalf of
his countrymen. This was readily promifed, even to
a greater degree than what had been fhown by his
grandfather ; but in a Ihort time his refentment was
incurred by the imprifonment, as it is faid, of Omi-
chund, an eminent Gentoo merchant, who had lived
feveral years under the protection of the Englilh go¬
vernment at Calcutta Of this, however, Surajah
Dowla did not direCUy complain ; but founded his
pretence of war upon the cdnduCt of the Englifh in
repairing the fortifications of Calcutta ; which mdeed
was abfolutely neceffary on account of the great like¬
lihood of a war with the French. On this account,
however, the nabob fignified his difpleafure, and
threatened an attack if the works were not inflantly
demolilhed. With this requifition the prefident and
council pretended to comply 5 but neverthelefs went
on with their works, applying firtl to the French and
then to the Dutch for aflijlance ; but as neither of
Vol. XI. Part I.
Iruf.c
1 ] I N D
thefe nations thought proper to interfere, the Englilh
were obliged to Hand alone in the quarrel. -y——
Surajah Dowla took the field on the 30th of May ^ e6^)t(};
1756, with an army of 40,000 foot, 30,000 horfe,t on agaimt
and 400 elephants ) and on the 2d of June detached Calcutta,
20,000 men to invefl the Englilh fort at Caffumbazar,
a large town fituated on an iiland formed by the
weftern branch of the Ganges. The fort was regular¬
ly built, with 60 cannon, and defended by 300' men,
but principally Sepoys. The nabob pretending a de¬
fire to treat, Mr Watts the chief of the fa&ory, was
perfuaded to put himfelf in his power ; which lie had
no fooner done, than he was made a clofe prilbner,
along with Mr Batfbn a furgeon who accompanied
him. The two prifoners were treated with great in¬
dignity, and threatened with death j but two of the
council who had been fent for by the tyrant’s com¬
mand were fent back again, with orders to perfuade
the people of the faftory to furrender it at difcretion.
This propofal met with great oppofition in the coun¬
cil ; but was at laft complied with, thodgh very little
to the advantage of the prifoners; for they were not
only deprived of every thing they poffeffed, but drip¬
ped almoft naked, and fent to Huquely, where they
were clofely confined.
_ The nabob, encouraged by this fuccefs, marched
direftly to Calcutta, which he inverted on the 15th.
Though he now threatened to drive the Englilh en¬
tirely out of his dominions, yet he propofed an accom¬
modation with Mr Drake, provided he would pay him
his duty upon the trade for 15 years, defray the ex-
pences of his army, and deliver up the Indian mer- 6S
chants who were in the fort. This being refufed, aCa!cutta
fiege commenced, and the place was Taken in three takei\and
days, through the treachery of the Dutch guard * of^rTfon-
who had the charge of a gate. The nabob promifed ers luffo-
on the word of a ibldier, that no harm fhould be donecated*
the Englifh $ neverthelefs they were fhut up in a pri- * See
fon fo ftrait, that out of 146 all peri(bed in a finglecuit*’
night for want of air but 22. It was not, however,
fuppofed that any maffacre at this time was intended;
and it is probable that he only gave orders to confine
the prifoners clofely for the night, without taking into
confideration whether the place they were confined iu
was large or fmall.
The news of this difafter put an end to the expedi¬
tion projected againft M. Buffy j and Colonel Clive 6
was inftantly difpatched to Bengal with 400 Euro- Expedition
peans and 1000 Sepoys, on board of the fleet com-°f admiral
manded by Admiral Watfon. They did not arrive till
the 15th of December, at a village called Fu/ta, fitu-anfi?10’
ated on a branch of the Ganges, where the inhabitants a'ainftThe
of Calcutta had taken refuge after their misfortune, nabob.
Their firft operations were againft the forts Bufhudgia,
Tanna, Fort-William, and Calcutta now in the hands of
the enemy. All thefe were reduced almoft as foon as
they could approach them. An expedition was thea
propofed againft Huegley, a large town about 60
miles above Calcutta, and the place of rendezvous for
all nations who traded to Bengal; its warehoufes and
(hops being always filled with the richeft merchandife
of the country. This was likewife eafily reduced ; and
the city was deftroyed, with the granaries and ftore-
houfes of fait feated on each fide the river j which
C c proved
7T
I N D
India., proved very detrimental to tlie nabob, as depriving him
1 ~v——' 0f t}ie means of fubliftence for his army.
Surajah Dovvla, enraged at this fuccefs of the Eng-
lifli, now feemed determined to crudi them at once
by a general engagement. From this, however, he
was intimidated by a fuccefsful attack on his camp,
which foon induced him to conclude a treaty. This
70 took place on the 9th of February 1757, on ^ie
Treaty con lowing conditions. 1. That the privileges and immu-
cluded with n;ties granted to the Englifh by the king (Mogul)
fliould not be difputed. 2. That all goods with Eng-
liPa orders fhould pafs, by land or water, free of any
tax, fee, or impofition. 3. All the Company’s faflories
which had been feized by the nabob fhould be redored •,
and the goods, money, and effedls, which had been
plundered, fhould be accounted for. 4. That the Eng-
lifh fhould have permiffion to fortify Calcutta as they
thought proper. 5. They fhould alfo have liberty to
coin their own imports of bullion and gold.
War with As certain intelligence was now received of a war
the Irench. tie£Ween France and England, the firfl object that na¬
turally occurred, after the conclufion of this treaty,
was the reduftion of the French power in the eait \
in confequence of which it wTas reprefented to Admiral
Watfon, by a committee of the council of Bengal, that
this was the only opportunity he perhaps might ever
have of afting offenfively againfl them. An attack
would therefore immediately have been made on Chan-
dernagore, had not a deputation arrived from that
place, requefling a neutrality in this part of the world
until matters fhould be finally decided in Europe.
The negociation, however, was broken off on a fug-
geftion that the government of Chandernagore, being
iiibordinate to’‘‘that of Pondicherry, could not render
any tranfaflion of this kind valid. It remained there¬
fore only to obtain the confent of the nabob to make
an attack upon this place : but this feemed not likely
The nlbob to be got ; for in ten days after the conclufion of the
complains treaty, he lent a letter to the admiral, complaining of
of the Eng-his intention. “ It appears (fays he) that you have a
defign to befiege the French faftory near Hooghley,
and to commence hoflilities againft that nation. This
is contrary to all rule and cuflom, that you fhould
bring your animofities and differences into my country j
for it has never been known, fince the days of Timur,
that the Europeans made war upon one another in the
king’s dominions. If you are determined to befiege
the French fa&ories, I {hall be neceffitated, in honour
and duty to my king, to affift them with my troops.
You are certainly bound to abide by your part of the
treaty ftri&ly, and never to attempt or be the occafion
of any troubles or difturbances in future within the
provinces under my jurifdi£lion, &c.” To this Ad¬
miral Watfon replied, that “ he was ready to defift
from his intended enterprize if the French would
agree to a folid treaty of neutrality; or if the nabob,
as foubahdar (viceroy) of Bengal, wxwld, under bis
hand, guarantee this treaty, and promife to proteft the
Englifh from any attempts made by the French againft
their fettlements in his abfence.” This letter did not
prove fatisfaciory ; the nabob having been informed
by the French agent, that the Englifh defigned to
- turn their arms againft him as foon as they had made
themfelves mafters of Chandernagore. This was ftre-
nuoufly denied by the admiral) and a number of let-
India.
73
hfli.
[ 202 ] I N D
ters paffed between him and the nabob, in one of
wfficb the latter made ufe of the following expreffions,
which were fuppofed to imply a tacit confent that
Chandernagore fhould be attacked. “ My forbidding
w’ar on my borders was becaufe the French were my
tenants, and upon this affair defired my proteftion :
on this I wrote to you to make peace, and no inten¬
tion had I of favouring or aflifting them. You have
underftanding and generofity : if your enemy with an
upright heart claims your protedlion, you will give
him his life •, but then you muft be we// fatisfied of the
innocence of his intentions j if not, then whatfoever
you think right, that do.”
Having thus, as was fuppofed, obtained the con-Chander-
fent of the nabob, an attack wTas made on Chanderna-na£ore ta_
gore, which wTas ibon reduced to the neceflity of capi-p£n ^ t^c>
tulating •, though the French made a gallant defence, S
and, as Mr Ives informs us, “ flood to their guns as
long as they had any to fire.” A meffenger was dif
patched with the news to Surajah Dowla three days
after the place had furrendered, intimating alfo that
the French had been purfued fome way up the country.
This intelligence, however, feemed to be by no-means
agreeable, as he could fcarce be induced to return an
anfwer. At laft he pretended difpleafure on account
of the defign of the Englifh to infringe the treaties,
and complained that they had ravaged fome parts of
his dominions. This was denied on the part of the
admiral *, who in his turn accufed the nabob of breach
of promife, and negledt in fulfilling his engagements.
The laft letter fent by Admiral Watfon to the nabob,
of date 19th April 1757, concludes in, this manner.
“ Let me again repeat to you, that I have no other
views than that of peace. The gathering together of
riches is what I defpife ; and I call on God, who fees
and knows the fpring of all our a (Elions, and to whom
you and I muft one day anfwer, to vritnefs to the
truth of what I now write : therefore, if you wrould
have me believe that you wifh for peace as much as I
do, no longer let it be the fubjedl of our correfpondence
for me to afk the fulfilment of our treaty, and you to
promife and not perform it ; but immediately fulfil all
your engagements : thus let peace flourifh and fpread
throughout all your country, and make your people
happy in the re-eftablifhment of their trade, which
has fuffered by a ruinous and deftru£live war.” From
this time both parties made preparations for wrar. The
nabob returned no anfwer till the 13th of June, wFen
he fent the following declaration of war. “ According
to my promifes, and the agreement made between us,
I have duly rendered every thing to Mr Watts, ex¬
cept a very fmall remainder: Notwithftanding this, Mr
Watts, and the reft of the council of the fadlory at
Caffembuzar, under the pretence of going to take the
air in their gardens, fled away in the night. This is
an evident mark of deceit, and of an intention to break
the treaty. I am convinced it could not have hap¬
pened without your knowledge, nor without your ad¬
vice. I all along expelled fomething of this kind, and
for that reafon I wrould not recal my forces from
Plaffey, expelling fome treachery. I praife God, 74
that the breach of the treaty has not been on myT^ctepo*
, „ 0 tition of
part,” 6z.c. # _ the nabob
Nothing lefs was now- refolved on in the Englifh ref0iveci
council at Calcutta than the depofition of the nabob j on.
which
I N D
[ 203 ]
I N D
.75.
Avarici¬
ous and
treacherous
behaviour
of Oiu-
chu'd at.d
the £ng-
lifti.
75
Meer Taf-
Ser.
India, whicli at this time appeared pra&icable, by fupporting
" the pretenlions of Meer Jaffier Ali Cawn, who had
with other noblemen entered into a confpiracy againlf
him. Meer Jaffier had married the filler of Aliverdy
Cawn, the predecefibr of Surajah Dowda 5 and was
now fupported in his pretenlions by the general of the
horfe, and by Jugget Sect the nabob’s banker, who
wras reckoned the richeft merchant in all India. By
thefe three leading men the deiign was communicated
to Mr Watts the Eaiglilh relident at the nabob’s court,,
and by him to Colonel Clive and the fecret committee
at Calcutta. The management of the affair being left
to Mr Watts and Mr Clive, it was thought proper to
communicate the fecret to Omichund, through whom
the neceifary correfpondence might be carried on with
Meer Jaffier. This agent proved fo avaricious, that
it was refolved to ferve him in his own way ; and by
a piece of treachery to him alfo, to gain their point
with both parties. Two treaties were therefore widt-
ten out j in one .of which it was promifed to comply
with Omichund’s demand, but in the other his name
was not even mentioned ; and both thefe treaties were
ligned by all the principal perfons concerned, Admiral
Watfon alone excepted, wffiom no political motives
could influence to fign an agreement which he did not
mean to keep. Thefe treaties, the fame in every re-
fpefl excepting as to Omichund’s affair, were to the
Treaty con-f0n0wing purp0fe : 1. All the effeds and fadories
eluded wi’h belonging to the .province of Bengal, Bahar, and O-
rixa, ihall remain in poffeffion of the Englilh, nor
Ihould any more French ever be allowed to fettle in
thefe provinces. 2. In conlideration of the Ioffes fuf-
tained by the Engliffi company by the capture and
plunder of Calcutta, he agreed to pay one crore of
rupees, or 1,250,000!. fterling, 3. For the effeds
plundered from the Engliffi at Calcutta, he engaged
to pay 50 lacks of rupees, or 625,000!. 4. For the
effeds plundered from the Gentoos, Moors, and others
inhabitants of Calcutta, 20 lacks, or 250,000!. 5. For
the effeds plundered from the American merchants,
inhabitants of Calcutta, feven lacks, or 87,1001.
6. The diftribution of all thefe fums to be left to
Admiral Watfon, Colonel Clive, Roger Drake, Wil¬
liam Watts, James Kilpatrick, and Richard Becher,
Efquires, to be difpofed of by them to whom they
think proper.
All things feeing nowr in readinefs, Colonel Clive be¬
gan his march againff Surajah Dowla on the 13th of
June, the very day on which Surajah Dowla lent off
his laft letter for Admiral Watfon. Before any ad of
hoflility was committed, however, Colonel Clive wrote
the nabob a letter, upbraiding him with his condud,
and telling him at lait, that “ the rains being fo near,
and it requiring many days to receive an anfwer, he
had found it neceffary to wait upon him immediately.”
This was followed by the decifive adion at Plaffey ; in
which the treachery of Meer Jaffier, who commanded
part of the nabob’s troops, and ftood neuter during the
engagement, undoubtedly rendered the vidory more
eafily acquired than it would otherwife have been.
The unfortunate nabob fled to his capital with a few
that continued faithful to him. He reached the
city in a few hours 5 but not thinking himfelf fafe
there, left it the following evening, difguifed like a
Faquir, with only twro attendants. By thefe he appears
India.
77
Surajah
Dowla de¬
feated and
put to
death.
to have been abandoned and even robbed i for on the
3d of July he was found wandering forfaken and almoft
naked on the road to Patna. Next day he was brought
back to Muxadabad j and a few hours after privately
beheaded by Meer Jaffier’s eldeft fon, to whofe care he
had been committed. The ufurper took poffeflion of
the capital in triumph j and on the 29th of June Colo-
nel Clive went to the palace, and in prefence of the ra- Meer Jaf-
jahs and grandees of the court iolemnly handed him tofierpro-
the mufnud or carpet and throne of Hate, where he was0^™6^
unanimoully faluted foubahdar or nabob, and received“a ’ ,r\0^
the fubmiflion of all prefent. 6 ^
While thefe tranfaff ions were going forward with Colonel
the nabob, the utmoft efforts were ufed to expel the^ 'ote’s
French entirely from Bengal. By the articles of capi- xl)e(frion
tulation at Chandernagore, the whole of that garrifon Law
were to continue prifoners of wTar ; but about the time
of iigning the treaty, Mr Law wdth a fmall body of
troops made his efcape out of Caffembuzar, and bent his
march towards Patna. There he had been protected
by the late nabob j and on the commencement of frefh
hoffilities, had collected about 200 French, the only
remains of that nation in Bengal, to make an attempt
to fuccour him. With thefe he was within two hours
march of Surajah Dowla’s camp when the battle of
Plaffey was fought j on hearing the news of which he
flopped : but afterwards being informed of the nabob’s
efcape, he marched again to his affiftance, and was
within a few hours of joining him when he was taken.
Three days after he was purified by Major Eyre Coote
at the head of 223 Europeans, three companies of Se¬
poys, 50 Lafcars or Indian Tailors, and 10 Marmutty
men or pioneers to clear the roads, together with two
pieces of cannon, fix pounders. On this expedition the
major exerted his utmoft diligence to overtake his anta-
goniff, and fpent a very confiderable fpace of time in
the purfuit 5 for though he fet out on the 6th of July,
he did not return to Muxadabad till the iff of Septem¬
ber. Mr Law, however, had the good fortune to ei-
cape j but though the major did not fucceed in what
was propofed as the principal end of his expedition, he
was, neverthelefs, fays Mr Ives, of confiderable fervice
to the company and to his country in general. He had
obliged Ramnarain, the moff powerful rajah in the coun¬
try, to fwear allegiance to Meer Jaffier •, he laid open
the interior ftate of the northern provinces j and, in
conjunction with Mr Johnftone, gave the company fome
infight into the faltpetre bufinefs, from which fuch ad¬
vantages have fince been derived to the public. gc)
Before the return of Major Coote, Admiral Pocock Death of
liad fucceeded to the command of the fleet, in confe- Admiral
quence of the deceafe of Admiral Watfon, who died on
the 16th of Auguft. The joy of the Britiffi was con-
fiderably damped by the lofs of this gentleman, who
had gained a great and deferved reputation both in the
military line and every other. News were alfo re¬
ceived, that the French had been very fuccefsful on
the coaft of Coromandel. Salabat-zing, as has already
been obferved, had applied to the Englilh for affift¬
ance againff the French j but as they were prevented
from performing their agreement by the difafter at
Calcutta, he found himfelf under a neceffity of accom¬
modating the differences with his former friends, and
to admit them again into his fervice. M. Buffy nras
now reinforced by the troops under Mr Law $ who
C c 2 hail
1 N D
f
ludia.
had collected as many Europeans in his journey as
made up 500 with thofe he had at firft. With thefe
he undertook to reduce the Engllih factories of Inge-
ram, Bandermalanka, and Vizagapatnam. As none
Trench de.
ftated at
fea by Ad'
miral Po-
qock.
of the two former places were in any date of defence,
the greateft part of the company’s effedfs were put on
fhipboard on the firft alarm 5 but as Vizagapatnam
was garrifoned by ] 40 Europeans and 420 Sepoys, it
was fuppofed that it would make fome defence. If
any was made, however, it appears to have been very
trifling ; and by the conqueft of this the French be¬
came matters of all the coafts from Ganjam to Maffuli-
patnam. In the foutl\ern provinces the like bad fuc-
cefs attended the Britiih caufe. The rebel Polygars
having united their forces againft Mazuphe Cawn,
obtained a complete victory over him 5 after which
the Englilh Sepoys, being prevailed upon to quit Ma¬
dura, the conqueror feized upon that city for him-
felf.
In the beginning of 1758, the French made an at¬
tempt on Trinchinopoly. The command was given
to M. d’Autreuil, who invefted the place with 900
men in battalic*;, with 4000 Sepoys, 100 huffars, and
a great body of Indian horfe. Trincbinopoli was then
in no condition to withftand fuch a formidable power,
as moft of. the garrifon had gone to befiege Madura
under Captain Caillaud •, but this commander having
received intelligence of the danger, marched back with
all his forces, and entered the town by a difficult road
which the enemy had negledled to guard ; and the
French general, difconcerted by this fuccefsful ma¬
noeuvre, drew off his forces, and returned to Pondi¬
cherry.
This fortunate tivnfaflion was fucceeded by the
fiege of Madura, in which the Englifli were fo vigo-
loufly repulfed, that Captain Caillaud w-as obliged to
turn the fiege into a blockade in order to reduce the
place by famine. But before any progrefs could be
made in this w^ay, Mazuphe Cawn was prevailed upon
to give it up for the fum of 170,000 rupees. A large
garrifon of Sepoys was again put into the place, and
Captain Caillaud returned to Trinchinopoly.
An unfuccefsful attempt was now made by Colonel
Ford on Nellore, a large town furrounded by a thick
mud wall, with a dry ditch on all fides but one, where
there is the bed of a river always dry but in the rainy
feafon. The enterprife is faid to have proved unfucceis-
ful through the unheard-of cowardice of a body of Se¬
poys, who having (heltered themfelves in a ditch, ab-
iblutely refufed to ftir a ftep farther, and rather chofe
to allow7 the reft of the army to march over them to the
affault, than to expofe themfelves to danger. Several
ether enterprifes of no great moment were undertaken ;
but the event was on the whole unfavourable to the
Englifh, whofe force by the end of the campaign was
reduced to 1718 men, while that of the French a-
mounted to 3400 Europeans, of whom 1000 w7ere fent
to Pondicherry.
Both parties now7 received confiderable reinforcements
from Europe -, Admiral Pocock being joined on the
24th of March by Commodore Stevens with a fquadron
of five men of war, and the French by nine men of w7ar
and two frigates, having on board General Tally wdth
a larpe body of troops. The Englifh admiral no foon-
Cr. found himfelf in a condition to cope with the enemy
204 ) i n n
than he went in quett of them •, and an engagement India,
took place, in which the French were defeated with the v
lofs of 6co killed, and a great many w’ounded, while
the Engliffi had only 29 killed and 89 wounded. The
former returned to Pondicherry, where they landed
their men, money, and troops. After the battle three
of the Britiih captains w-ere tried for mifbehaviour, and
tw7o of them difmiffed from the command of their (hips.
As foon as his veffels w7ere refitted, the admiral failed
again in queft of the enemy, but could not bring them They are
to an aftion before the 3d of Augutt, when the FrenchT'tta,ecl a
were defeated a fecond time, with the lofs of 25 l kill- '-con^ bnie»-
ed, and 6©2 wounded.
Notwdthftanding this fuccefs at fea, the Englifh w7ere
greatly deficient in land forces ; the re-ettablilhment of
their affairs in Bengal having almolt entirely drained
the fettlements on the coaft of Coromandel of the troops
neceffary for their defence. The confequence of tin’s 84
wras the lofs of Fort St David, which General Tally re- I a-ce
duced, dettroying the fortifications, demolilhing alfo11^8'^*
the adjacent villages, and ravaging the country in fuch
a manner as filled the natives w-ith indignation, and in
the end proved very prejudicial to his affairs. Fie pro¬
ved fuccefsful, how’ever, in the redufHon of Devicot-
tah, but was obliged to retreat with lofs from before
Tanjore, his army being greatly diftreffed for want of
provifions ; and money in particular being fo deficient,
that on the 7th of Auguft the French feized and car¬
ried into Pondicherry a large Dutch fhip from Batavia,
bound to Negapatnam, and took out of her about 5000I.
in fpecie.
From this time the affairs of the French daily declin¬
ed. On their retreat from Tanjore, they abandoned
the ifland of Seringham ; however, they took Tripaf-
fore, but were defeated in their defigns on the import¬
ant poft of Chinglapet, fituated about 45 miles fouth-
w-eft of Madras. Their next enterpriies on Fort St
George and Madras were equally unfuccefsful. The
latter was befieged from the j-2th of December 1758 to
the 17th of February 1759, when they were obliged to
abandon it with great lofs j which difatter greatly con¬
tributed to deprefs their fpirits, and abate thofe fanguine
hopes they had entertained of becoming matters in this
part of the world.
The remainder of the year 1759 proved entirely fa¬
vourable to the Britiffi arms. M. d’Ache the French
admiral, who had been very roughly handled by Ad¬
miral Pocock on the 3d of Augutt 1758, having refit¬
ted his fleet, and being reinforced by three men of war
at the iflands of Mauritius and Bourbon, now ventured
once more to face his antagonift, who on his part did
not at all decline the combat. A third battle enfuedFrench de-
on the icth of September 1759, when the French, not-j^rd time
withftanding their fuperiority, both in nmnber of ihips* d*™raj
and weight of metal, were obliged to retreat with con-pocock.
fiderable lofs ; having 1500 men killed and wounded,
while thole on board the Englilh fleet did not exceed
569. By the 17th of Oftober the Englifh fleet was
completely refitted j and Admiral Pocock having been
joined by a reinforcement of four men of war, foon af¬
ter. returned to England.
All this time the unfortunate General Tally had been
employed in unfuccefsful endeavours to retrieve the af¬
fairs of his countrymen : ftill, however, he attempted
to a6i on the oft'enfive ; but his fate was at laft decided
1 N D
L 205 ]
I N D
Ii dia.
86
General
Laity de¬
feated at
Wande-
wafli.
8?
All the
French
forts in In¬
dia, and
Pondieher
ry their
capita!, ta¬
ken.
83
Difagree-
ahle fitua-
tion of the
nabob of
Bengal.
by laying fiege to Wandewalh, which had lately been
J taken by Colonel Coote. The advantage in numbers
was entirely in favour of the French general 5 the Eng-
lifh army confiding only of 1700 Europeans, including
artillery and cavalry, while the French amounted to
2200 Europeans. The auxiliaries on the Englilh fide
were 3000 black troops, while thole of the French a-
mounted to 10,000 black troops and 300 Caffres; nor
was the odds lels in proportion in the artillery, the Eng¬
lilh bringing into the field only 14 pieces of cannon and
one howitzer, while the French had 25 pieces in the
field, and five on their batteries again!! the fort. The
battle began about 11 o’clock on the 22d of January
1760, and in three hours the whole French army gave
way and fled towards their camp j but quitted it on
finding themfelves purfued by the Englilh, who took
ail their cannon except three fmall pieces. They col-
lefted themfelves under the walls of Cheltaput, about
I 8 miles from the field of battle, and foon after retired
to Pondicherry. Colonel Coote caufed the country to
be w alled to the very gates of this fortrefs, by way of re¬
taliation for wdtat the French had done in the neigh¬
bourhood of Madras. He then fet about the fiege of
Cheltaput, which furrendered in one day •, a confi-
derable detachment of the enemy was intercepted by
Captain Smith ; the fort of Timmery was reduced
by Major Monfon, and the city of Arcot by Captain
Wood. This laft conqueft enabled the Englilh to re-
ftore the nabob to his dominions, of which he had
been deprived by the French 5 and it greatly weak¬
ened both the French force and intereft in India.
M. Tally, in the mean time, had recalled his forces
from Seringham, by which means he augmented his
army, with 50c Europeans. All thefe were now Hurt
up in Pondicherry, which was become the lail hope of
the French in India. To complete their misfortunes,
Admiral Cornilh arrived at Madras with fix men of
war •, and as the French had now no fleet in thefe parts,
the admiral readily engaged to co-operate with the land
forces. The confequence was the redudlion of Cwical,
Chellambrum, and Verd ohellum, by a ilrong detach¬
ment under Major Monfon *, while Colonel Coote re¬
duced Permucoil, Alamperva, and Waldour. Thus
he was at laft enabled to lay fiege to Pondicherry itfelf.
• Previous to this, however, it had been blockaded by
fea and land, which reduced the place to great ftraits
for wTant of provifions, and induced a mutinous difpofi-
tion among the garrifon. The batteries wTere not open¬
ed till the beginning of December 1760; and the
place capitulated on the 15th of January 1761, by
which an end was put to the power of the French in
this part of the world.
While the Englilh wTere thus employed in effeflual-
ly reducing the power of their rivals in every part of
India, Meer Jaffier, the nabob of Bengal, who had
been raifed to that dignity by the ruin of Surajah
Dovvla, found himfelf in a very difagreeable fituation.
The treafure of the late nabob had been valued at no
lefs than 64 crore of rupees, about 80 millions fterling;
and in expeClation of fuch a vaft fum, Meer Jaftier had
no doubt thoughtlefsly fubmitted to the enormous ex-
aflions of the Engliih already mentioned. On his ac-
cefiion to the government, how’ever, the treafure of
which he became mailer fell fo much Ihort of expecta¬
tion, that he could by no means fulfil his engagements
to them and fupply the expences of government at the Imtuu
fame time. This foon reduced him to the neceffity of y——'
mortgaging his revenues to fupply prefent demands ;
and by this ruinous expedient he put it out of his own
power -ever to extricate himfelf. In this dilemma his
grandees became faftious and difeontented, his army
mutinous for want of pay, and he rendered himfelf
odious to his fubjeCls by the exaClions he was necelfi-
tated to lay upon them. The Englifh, who for their
own intereft had raifed him to the fupreme power, no
fooner found that he was incapable of anfwering their
purpofe any longer, than they began to fcheme againft S$>
him j and in order to have fome colour of reafon for Shameful
pulling down the man whom they had juft fet up, they otc
either invented or gave ear to the moll malicious ca- towards
lumnies againft him. The charges brought againft him. -
him were fhortly thefe : 1. That foon after his advance¬
ment he had refolved to reduce that power which
railed him to the dignity. 2. That, to effeft this, he
afiaifinated or bamlhed every perfon of importance
whom he fufpeCled of being in the Englilh intereft.
3. That he negociated with the Dutch to introduce
an armamrat for the expulfion of the Engliih. 4. That
he had in different inllances been guilty of the deepelt
deceit and treachery towards the Engliih, his belt be-
nefaCtors and allies. 5. That at three different periods
the Englilh commander in chief had been bafely de-
ferted both by the nabob and his fon, when he and the
troops were hazarding their lives for them. 6. That he
meditated a fecret and feparate treaty with Shah-Zad-
dah, the Mogul’s fon, and had intended to betray the-
Englilh to him. 7. That the whole term of his go¬
vernment had been one uninterrupted chain of cruelty,,
tyranny, and oppreflion. 8. That he meditated, and
was near carrying into execution, an infamous fecret
treaty with the Mahrattas, which would have proved
the total dellruftion of the country if it had taken place.
9. That he threw every pofiible obftruftion in the way
of the collection of the Englifh tunhas or "aflignments
upon lands. 10. That he encouraged the obftructions
given to the free currency of the Englilh ficcas \ by
which the company fuffered heavy Ioffes, xr. That by
his cruelties he had rendered it fcandalous for the Eng-
lilh to lupport his government any longer1, and, 12.
That by his mifeonduct, he had brought the affairs of
the company as well as his own into the utmoit danger
of ruin.
In what manner thefe charges w-ere fupported it is
difficult to know1, nor perhaps were the accufers very
felicitous about the ftrength of their evidence. This
feems the more probable, as the accufations of cruelty
were, in fome inftances at leaft, void of foundation.
On the 13th of June 1760, Mr Holwel wrote from
Calcutta to Mr Warren Mailings, that by exprefs he
had received intelligence of the murder of the princeffes
of Aliverdy Khan and Sfiah Amet, in a molt inhuman
manner, by Meer Jaffier’s orders. He was faid to have
fent a jemmatdaar with 100 horfe to Jefferaut Khan
to carry this bloody fcheme into execution ; with fe*
parate orders to the jemmatdaar to put an end to
their lives. He refufed acting any part in the tragedy,
and left it to the other ; who carried them out by night
in a boat, tied weights to their legs, and threw them
overboard. They ftruggled for fome time, and held by
the gunwale of the boat j but by Itrok-es on their heads,
and
I N D [ 206 ]' I N D
India.
90
Different
accounts
of his de¬
molition.
and cnltiiig off their hands, they were at laft forced oft'
and drowned. In like manner we were told that many
others of Surajah Dowla’s relations had perifhed j yet
when it was thought proper to replace Meer Jaifier in
1761, all thefe dead perfons were found dive excepting
two. It muff alfo be remembered, in behalf of the un¬
fortunate nabob, that beiides the fums exacted of him
by the Knglifh at his acceflion, he had ceded to them a
large extent of territory, and granted them fo many im¬
munities in trade, that he had in a manner deprived
himfelf of all his refources} and it was impoflible for
him to defray the neceffary expences without either ex¬
torting money from his fubjedls, or infringing the privi¬
leges he had fo inconftderately granted.
There were two accounts of this remarkable revolu¬
tion publifhed, materially differing from one another.
The firit was given in a memorial drawn up at a con-
fultation at Fort ^Xhlliam, November 10. 1760, where
wTere prefent Henry Vanfittart, Efq. prefident; William
Ellis, B. Sumner, William M‘Guire, Henry Verell,
and Henry Smyth, Efqs. “ We refolved (fays the go¬
vernor) to give the nabob the next day (Oftober 19.
1760) to refleft upon the letters I had delivered him,
propoling fome meafures for regulating thefe abufes. I
heard nothing from him all that day j but found by my
intelligence that he had been in council at his old ad-
vifers, whofe advice, I was fure, would be contrary to
the welfare of the country and of the company. I
therefore determined to aft immediately on the nabob’s
fear. There could not be a better opportunity than the
night of the 19th offered, it being the conclulion of the
Gentoo feaft, when all the principal people of that caff
would be pretty well fatigued with their ceremonies.
Accordingly I agreed with Colonel Caillaud, that he-
(hould crofs the river with the detachment between three
and four in the morning ; and having joined Coflim Ali
Khan and his people, march to the nabob’s palace, and
furround it juft at daybreak. Being extremely defirous
to prevent difturbance or bloodfhed, I wrote a letter to
the nabob, telling him, I had been waiting all the day
in expectation that he would have fettled the urgent af¬
fairs upon which I conferred with him yefterday $ but
his having favoured me with no anfwer, plainly ihowed
t;hat all I could reprefent to him for the good of his
country would have no efteft, as long as his evil coun-
fellors were about his perfon, who would in the end
deprive him of his government and ruin the company’s
affairs. For this reafon I had fent Colonel Caillaud
with forces to wait upon him, and to expel tbofe bad
counfellors, and place his affairs in a proper flate, and
I would fhortly follow. This letter I gave to the co¬
lonel, to fend to the nabob at fuch a time as he fhould
think moft expedient. Meafures were taken at the
fame time for feizing his three unworthy minifters, and
to place Coffim Ali Khan in the full management of
all the affairs, in quality of deputy and fucceffor to the
nabob.
“ The neceffary preparations being made with all
care and fecrecy poffible, the colonel embarked with
the troops, joined Coffim Ali Khan without the leaf!
alarm, and marched into the court-yard of the palace
juft at the proper inftant. The gates of the inner court
being ffiut, the colonel formed his men without, and
fent the letter to the nabob, who was at firft in a great
‘•rage, and long threatened that he would make what
2
refiftance he could, and take his fate. The colonel
forbore all hoftilities, and feveral meffages pafled be¬
tween him and the nabob. The affair remained in
this doubtful ftate for two hours, when the nabob,
finding his perfxfting was to no purpofe, fent a meifage
to Coffim Ali Khan, informing him that he was ready
to fend the feats and all the enfigns of dignity, k*"o-
vided he would agree to take the whole charge of the
government upon him, to difeharge all arrears due to
the troops, to pay the ufual revenue to the king, to
fave his life and honour, and to give him an allowance
fufficient for his maintenance. All thefe conditions
being agreed to, Coffim Ali was proclaimed j and the
old nabob came out to the colonel, declaring that he
depended on him for his life. The troops then took
pofleffion of all the gates and the old nabob was told,
that not only his perfon was fafe, but his government
too if he pleafed, of which it was never intended to de¬
prive him. He anftvered, that he had now no more
bufinefs in the city, where he ffiould be in continual
danger from Coffim Ali Khan ; and if he was permit¬
ted to go and live at Calcutta, he fhould be contented.
Coffim Ali Khan was now placed on the mufnud, and
the people in general feemed much pleafed with the re¬
volution. The old nabob did not think himfelf fafe
even for one night in the city. Coflim Ali Khan fup-
plied him with boats, and permitted him to take away
about 60 of his family, with a reafonable quantity of
jewels. He begged that he might fleep in his boat
that night 5 which he accordingly did, and on the
morning of the 2 2d of Oftober he fet out for Calcutta,
and arrived there on the 29th. He was met by a depu¬
tation from the council, and treated with every mark of
refpeft due to his former dignity.”
The fecond account of this affair was not publifiied
till the 1 ith of March 1762, and was ligned Eyre
Coote, P. Amyatt, John Cavnac, W. Ellis, S. Batfon,
H. Verelft. “In September 1760 (fay they), when
there was not the leaft appearance of a rupture or
difguft between us and the nabob, but friendihip and
harmony fubfifting, Meer Coffim Khan his fon-in-law
came down to Calcutta, and having itaid a ftiort time
returned to Moorfhedabad, A few days after, Mr Van¬
fittart went up to that city on the pretence of a vifit to
the nabob Meer Jaftier. Colonel Caillaud, with 200
Europeans and fame Sepoys, attended him j who, it
was pretended, were going to join the army at Patna.
When Mr Vanfittart arrived at Moradbaug, the nabob
paid him two vilits; at the lail of which Mr Vanfittart
gave him three letters, propofing the reformation of the
abufes in his government, infilled on his nammg fome
perfon among his relations to take charge of the fubah-
fliip, and particularly recommended Coffim Ali Khan,
who was fent for, and the nabob defired to flay till he
came : But the nabob being greatly fatigued, was fuf-
fered to depart to his palace. The night and follow¬
ing day pafled in conceiting meafures with Coffim Ali
how to put in execution the plan before agreed on in
Calcutta, where a treaty was flgned for this purpofe.
In confequence of thefe deliberations, our troops crofled
the river next night, and being joined by Coffim and
his party, furrounded the nabob’s palace. A letter
from Mr Vanfittart was fent in to the nabob, demand¬
ing his compliance with what had been propofed to
him. To this the nabob returned for anfwer, ‘ that he
never
I N D [ 207 ] I N 15
India, never expei?:ed ^iich ufage from the Englifb j that while
v" a force r\as at his gates, he would enter into no terms.’
A meffage was fent in, that if he did not direftly com¬
ply, they fhould be obliged to dorm the palace. Ado'-
nilhed and terrified at this menace, he opened the gates,
exclaiming, that ‘ he was betrayed ; that the Englilh
w;ere guilty of perjury and breach of faith j that he per¬
ceived their defigns againft his government ■, that he
had friends enough to hazard at lead one battle in his
defence : but although no oaths were facred enough to
bind the Englilh, yet as he had fworn to be their faith¬
ful friend, he would never fwerve from his engagement,
and rather fuffer death than dratv his fword againft
them.” So fufpicious was he of being fold, that he de-
fired to know what fum of money Codim Ali Khan was
to give for the fubahfnip, and he would give half as
much more to be continued. He hoped, however, if
they intended to dethrone him, that they would not
leave him to the mercy of his fon-in-law, from whom
he feared the word ; but wilhed they would carry him
from the city, and give him a pb.ee of fafety in Cal¬
cutta. “ This lad requed of the nabob was condrued
in the light of a voluntary refignation. Our troops
took pofiedion of the palace } Meer Codim wTas raifed
to the mufnud •, and the old nabob hurried into a boat
with a few of his domedics and necelfaries, and fent
away to Calcutta in a manner wholly unworthy of the
high rank he fo lately held, as was alfo the fcanty fub-
lidence allowed him for his maintenance at Calcutta by
his fon-in-law. Thus w’as .Taffier Ali Khan depofed, in
breach of a treaty founded on the mod folemn oaths,
and in violation of the national faith.”
According to this account, the fervants of the com¬
pany, w-ho were the proje&ors of the revolution, made
no fecret that there was a prefent promifed them of 20
lacks of rupees from Codim, who wras defirous of mak¬
ing the fird aft of his powTer the affaffination of Jaf-
fier, and was very much difpleafed when he found that
the Englidr intended giving him proteftion at Cal¬
cutta.
It could fcarce be fuppofed that Meer Codim, raifed
to the habobdiip in the manner w’e have related, could
be more faithful to the Englidr than Meer Jaffier had
been. Nothing advantageous to the intereds of the
company could indeed be reafonably expefted from fuch
a revolution. No fucceffor of Meer jafiier could be
more entirely in fubjeftion than the late nabob, from
his natural imbecility, had been. This lad confide-
ration had induced many of the council at fird to op-
pofe the revolution ; and indeed the only plaufible pre¬
tence for it was, that the adminidration of Meer .Taffier
was fo very w'eak, that, unlcfs he was aided and even
controuled by fome perfons of ability, he himfelf mud
foon be ruined, and very probably the intereds of the
Meer Ccf- company along with him. Meer Coffim, however, was
fim f< hemes a man of a very different difpofition from his father-in-
againft the Jaw. As he knew that he had not been ferved by the
Englifh out of frienddiip, fo he did not think of mak¬
ing any return of gratitude; but indead of this, confi-
dered only how he could mod eafily get rid of fuch
troublefome allies. For a while, however, it was ne-
ceffary for him to diffemble, and to take all the advan¬
tage he could of the power of his allies whild it could
he ferviceable to him. By their affidance he cleared
his dominions of invaders, and drengthened his fron¬
tiers againd them ; he reduced, by means of the fame India,
affidance, the rajahs or independent Indian chiels who
had rebelled in the time of his predeceffor, obliging
them to pay the ufual tribute *, by which means he re¬
paired his finances, and thereby fecured the difeipline
and fidelity of his troops. Having thus, by the affid¬
ance of the Engliffi forces, brought his government into
fubjeftion, he took the mod effeftual means of fecuring
himfelf againd their power. As the vicinity of his ca¬
pital, Muxadabad, to Calcutta, gave the Englidi fac¬
tory there an opportunity of infpefting his aftions, and
interrupting his defigns when they thought proper, he
took up his refidence at Mongheer, a place 200 miles
farther up the Ganges, which he fortified in the bed and
mod expeditious manner he could. Being very fenfible
of the advantages of the European difeipline, he refol-
ved to form his army on a new model. For this pur-
pofe he collefted all the Armenian, Perfian, Tartar,
and other foldiers of fortune, whofe military charafters-
he fuppofed might ferve to raife the fpirits of his Indian
forces, and abate their natural timidity. He alfo care¬
fully collefted every wandering European who had
borne arms, all the Sepoys who had been dilmiffed from
the Englidi fervice, didributing them among his troops,
in order to teach them the Englidr exerciie. He chan¬
ged the faffiion of the Indian mulkets from matchlocks
to firelocks; and as their cannon were almod as defi¬
cient as their fmall arms, he procured a pattern of one
from the Englifir, by which he foon formed a train of
artillery •, and having thus done every thing in his
power to enable himfelf to withdand the Englifh by
force of arms, he refolved alfo to free his court from
their emiffaries, by imprifoning or putting to death eve¬
ry perfon of any confequence in his dominions who had
Ihowm any attachment to their intered.
His next dep wras to free himfelf from fome of
thofe redraints which his predeceffor Meer Jaffier, and
even he himfelf, had been obliged to lay upon the trade
of the country, he order to gratify the avarice of his
European allies. At his acceffion indeed he had ce¬
ded to the company a traft of land worth no lefs than
700,000!. annually, befides 70,000!. a-year on other-
accounts. All this, however, was not lufficient; the
immunities granted them in trade were of dill worfe
confequences than even thofe vad concedions. He
knew by experience the didrefs which thefe immuni¬
ties had brought upon his predeceffor, and therefore
determined to put an end to them. In purfuance of He lays
this refolution, he began, in the year 1762, every-^ut,e.s on
where to fubjeft the Englifh traders to the payment^ fraders
of certain duties throughout his dominions, and re¬
quired that their difputes, if beyond the limits of their
own jurifdiftion, fhould be decided by his magidrates..
This gave fuch an alarm at Calcutta, that, in Novem¬
ber 1762, the governor Mr Vanfittart waited on him
in perfon at Mongheer, in order to expodulate with
him upon the fubjeft. The nabob anfwered his re-
mondrances in the following manner. “ If (faid he)
the fervants of the Englifh company were permitted
to trade in all parts, and in all commodities, cudom
free, as many of them now pretend, they mud of
courfe draw all the trade into their own hands, and my
cudoms would be of fo little value, that it would be
much more for my intered to lay trade entirely open,
and colleft no cudoms from any perfon whatever upon
any
I N D
[ 208 ]
I N D
This would draw a num-
country, and increafe
93
A new a-
gieement
concluded
xvith Mr
Vanfittart,
and dif-
owned by
the coun¬
cil.
India, any kind of merchandife.
v her of merchants into the country, ana mcreale my
revenues by encouraging the cultivation and manu-
fafture of a large quantity of goods for fale, at the
fame time that it would effe&ually cut off the princi¬
pal fubjefl of difputes which had diilurbed the good
underftanding between us, an object which 1 have moire
than any other at heart.”
By thefe intimations Mr Vanfittart was very much
difccncerted } nor indeed was it in any perfon’s power
to devife a plaufible anfwer. What the nabob had
threatened was evidently in his power ; and though
he had laid the trade entirely open, no reafonable fault
could have been found with him. The proceeding,
however, tended evidently to deftroy the private trade
carried on by the gentlemen of the faddory j and even
to prejudice, as they faid, that of the company itfelf.
Mr Vanfittart therefore thought proper to fubmit to
certain regulations, by which the trade of the EnglHh
was put under certain reflriddions.
This new agreement being infiantly put in execu¬
tion on the part of the nabob, excited the utmoft in¬
dignation at Calcutta. On the 17th of January 1763,
the council paffed a refolution, difavowing the treaty
made by the governor, and affirmed that he affumed
a right tq which he was by no means authorized 5 that
the regulations propofed were dilhonourable to them as
Englifhmen, and tended to the ruin of all public and
private trade j and that the prefident’s iffuing out re¬
gulations independent of the council was an abfolute
breach of their privileges. They fent orders therefore
to all the fa&ories, that no part of the agreement be¬
tween the governor and nabob ffiould be fubmitted to.
Application was again made to Meer Coffim to per-
fuade him to a third agreement. 5 but before the fuc-
cefs of this negociation could be known, hoftilities
commenced on the part of the Engliffi.
The ctyof There was at that time in the city of Patna (fitua-
ke Hi tthe on t^e ^an§es» about 300 miles above Calcutta),
Engliih buta fortified factory belonging to the Eaft India com-
immediate- pany, where were a few European and Indian foidiers.
ly after re- By this factory the city was fuddenly attacked on the
25th of June 1763, and infiantly taken, though it
was defended by a ftrong garrifon, and the fortifica¬
tions had been newly repaired. The governor and
garrifon fled out into the country on the firll appear¬
ance of danger •, but perceiving that the vidlors took
no care to prevent a firrprife, he fuddenly returned
with a reinforcement from the country, retook the
city, and either cut in pieces or drove into their fort
all the Engliffi who were in it, after having been only
four hours in poffeffion of the place. The Englilh,
diflieartened by this difafter, did not now think them-
felves able to defend their fort againft the Indians ; for
which reafon they left it, with a defign to retreat into
the territories of a neighbouring nabob j but being pur-
fued by a fuperior force, they were all either killed or
taken.
This piece of perfidy, for fuch it certainly was, the
nabob repaid by another, viz. flaughtering the depu-
Etn-ufi) de- tjes w}10 been fent him by the council of Calcut-
yunts. ^ treat about a new agreement with regard to con-
mercial affairs. They fet out from Mongheer on the
24th of June, having been unable to bring Meer Coffim
to any terms j and though he furniffied them with the
94
taken.
95
M-'fiacre
of the
urual paffports, yet, as they were palling the city IndSt.
of Muxadabad, they found themfelves attacked by a
number of troops alTembled for that purpofe on both
fides of the river, whofe fire killed feveral gentlemen
in the boats. Mr Amyatt, the chief of the embaffy,
landed with a few Sepoys, wffiom he forbade to fire, and
endeavoured to make the enemy’s troops underhand
that he was furnifhed with the nabob’s paffports, and
had no defign of committing any hoflilities •, but the
enemy’s horfe advancing, fome of the Sepoys fired not-
withllanding Mr Amyatt’s orders to the contrary. On
this a general confufion enfued, and Mr Amyatt, with
moll of the fmall party who attended him, were cut
in pieces.
Thefe a<5ls of treacherous hoflility w'ere foon follow- ^
ed by a formal declaration of war. Meer Jaffier, not- Me • Jaf-
withflanding the crimes formerly alleged againft him, *'yin
was proclaimed nabob of Bengal, and the army im-f^1^01^
mediately took the field under the command of Major
Adams. The whole force, however, at firfl confifled M jor
only of one regiment of the king’s troops, a few of
the company’s, two troops of European cavalry, ten mary^es
companies of Sepoys, and 12 pieces of cannon. Thefe
very foon came to a£lion with the enemy ; and having fim.
got the better in two fkirmiflies, cleared the country
of them as far as Caffimbuzar river, a branch of the
Ganges, which lay between Calcutta and Muxadabad,
or Moorlhedabad, the capital of the province.
The war was now carried on with uninterrupted
fuccefs on the part of the Englifh ; nor does it appear
that all the pains taken by Meer Coflim to difcipline his
troops had made them in the leall more able to cope
with the Europeans. The Engliffi were fuffered to
pafs the river without oppofition $ but an army of
10,000 Indians were advantageoufly polled between pS
the river and the city. Thefe were entirely defeated, The In-
and Major Adams puffied on diredlly for the capital.cTians ^e“
In his way he found the Indians again llicngly polledtca'ei*'
with intrenchments 15 feet high, and defended by a
numerous artillery. This llrong poll was taken by
llratagem ; a feint being made with a fmall body of
troops againll that part where the enemy had collefted
their greatefl llrength. Thus the attention of the
enemy was drawn entirely to that place, without re¬
garding others where no attack w'as apprehended. The
greatell part of the Englifli army, however, had in the
night-time marched round the Indian fortification, and
by daybreak made a furious alfault on a place where
there was only a flight guard. Thefe inllantly lied j
the intrenchments wTere abandoned ; and the city, which
was protected only by them, fell of courfe into the
hands of the conquerors.
This fuccefs of the Engliffi ferved only to make them
redouble their diligence. They now penetrated into
the heart of the province, crolled the numerous branches
of the Ganges, and traverfed moraffes and forells in
quell of their enemy. Meer Coffim, on the other hand,
was not wanting in his defence ; but the utmoft efforts
he could ufe wrere totally infufficient to Hop the career
of an enemy fo powerful and now flufhed with victory.
The twTo armies met on the banks of a river called Nu- yTeer Cof-
nas Nul/as, on the 2d of Auguft 1763. The Indiansfim entire-
had chofen their poll with great judgment, and had :y clefeated
much more the appearance of &n European army than ^ ^snaS
ever was oUtrved before, not only in their arms
and
INI)
t 209 ]
I N D
India.
TOO
Mongheer
taken.
TOT
Inhuman
uuirder of
the EngliOi
prifoners at
Patna.
and accoutrements, but in their divilion into brigades,
and even in their cloathing. The battle was much
more obtlinate than ufual, being continued for four
hours 5 but though the Indian army conlifted of no
fewer than 20,000 horfe, and 8000 foot, tiie Eng-
lilh proved in the end victorious, and the enemy were
obliged to quit the field with the lofs or all their can¬
non.
From this time the Indians did not attempt any re¬
gular engagement with the Engliih. They made a
Hand indeed at a place called sluda Nulla, which they
had fortified in fuch a manner that it feemed proof againit
any hidden attack. But here alfo they fuftered them-
felves to be deceived in a manner limilar to that above-
mentioned, and the place was taken with great daugh¬
ter. They now abandoned a vaft traft of country j and
though there were feveral very defenfible polls one be¬
hind another, fo much were they diiheartened by this
misfortune, that they never attempted to Hop the pro-
grels of the Englifh, but laid open the whole country
to the very gates of Mongheer.
The next operation was the fiege of Mongheer it-
felf \ 'which notwithftanding all the pains Meer Cofiim
had been at to fortify it, held out no more than nine
days after the trenches were opened : fo that nothing
now remained to complete the conquell of Bengal but
the redudlion of the city of Patna. The unfortunate
Meer Coflim, in the mean time, enraged at the irre-
fiftible progrefs of the Englilh, vented his rage on the
unhappy prifoners taken at Patna j all of whom, to the
number of about 200, he caufed to be inhumanly mur¬
dered. This villany was perpetrated by one Somers, a
German, who had originally been in the French fer-
vice, but deferted from them to the Englilh Eall In¬
dia company, and from the company to Meer Coffim.
This affaffin, by the Indians called Soomeroo, having in¬
vited the Englilh gentlemen to fup with him, took the
opportunity of borrowing their knives and forks, on
pretence of entertaining them after the Englilh manner.
At night, when he arrived, he Hood at fome dillance in
the cook-room to give his orders; and as foon as the two
fill! gentlemen, Mr Ellis and Lulhington, entered, the
former was feized by the hair, his head pu led backward,
and his throat cut by another. On this Mr Lulhington
knocked down the murderer with his fill, feized his
fword, wounded one and killed two before he himfelf
was cut down. The other gentlemen being now a-
larmed, defended themfelves, and even repulfed the Se¬
poys with plates and bottles. Somers then ordered
them on the top of the boufe to fire down on the pri¬
foners ; which they obeyed with reluflance, alleging
that they could not think of murdering them in that
manner, but if he would give the prifoners arms, they
would fight them ; on which he knocked feveral of
them down with bamboes. The confequence was, that
all the gentlemen were either thot or had their throats
cut. Dr Fullarton was the only perfon who efcaped,
having received a pardon from the tyrant a few days
before the maffacre.
This inhumanity was far from being of any fervice
to the caufe of Meer Coffim. Major Adams marched
without delay from Mongheer to Patna ; and as the
place was but indifferently fortified, it could make but
a feeble refiftance. The cannon of the Englilh foon
made a prafticable breach, and in no longer time than
Vol. XL Part I.
eight days this great city was taken by florm. Thus India,
the nabob was deprived of all his fortified places, his
army reduced to a fmall body, and himfelf obliged to pritria la^
fly to Sujah Dowla nabob of Oude, who adted as ken, and
grand vizier to the Mogul. Here he was kindly re- Bengal en-
ceived, and an afylum promifed for his perfon, but ad-t:rijb
mittance was refufed to his army, nor would this prince ^
confent at any rate to make his country a feat of war. 0
The Englilh were now entire mailers of Bengal; for
though Meer Jaffier was proclaimed nabob, it is not to
be fuppofed that he had now any authority farther than
what they pleafed to give him. Major Adams did not
long furvive the conqueit of Patna, which was taken
on the 6th of November 1763 ; he died in the month
of March 1764.
Meer Coffim being thus driven out, an agent was fent
from Calcutta to Sujah Dowla, propofing an, alliance
with him and the Pvlogul, who was along with him, I0.
and offering to affifl: them againfi: Meer Coffim or any Alliance
other enemy who Ihould attempt an invafion of their pmpofed
dominions; in return for which, it was expedled that
they Ihould declare themfelves open enemies to Meer
Coffim, and ufe their utmoft endeavours to feize and
deliver him up with all his effedls. This defign was
communicated to Major Adams on the 8th of Decem¬
ber 1763 ; but as he was next day to refign the com¬
mand of the army, Major Carnac was delired to take
the command upon him, and to watch the motions of
Meer Coffim, as well as to guard the dominions of Meer
Jaffier againft any hoftilities which might be attempt¬
ed. It was alfo refolved, that in cafe Meer Coffim
fliould prevail upon the Mogul and Sujah Dowla to
affilt him, Major Carnac was defired to advance to the
banks of the river Carumnaffa, and there oppofe the
entrance of any hoftile army.
It foon appeared that the friendlhip of the Englilh
was not what Sujah Dowla defired. He coniidered
them as rapacious ufurpers, who having got a/ foot¬
ing in the country under pretence of commerce, could
be fatisfied with nothing lefs than the entire pofieffion ro4
of it, to the ruin of the natural inhabitants. In the Propofed
beginning of February 1764, therefore, it was known afl|ance
that Sujah Dowla had determined to affifl: Meer Coffim
in attempting to recover Bengal. The prefident andj^' '11 °V’'
council on this wrote him, that though they heard fuch
a report, they could not believe it, confidering the
former connections fubfilting between him ana the
chiefs of the company, and were perfuaded he would
not aft in fuch an unjufl: manner : but if it really was
his intention to efpoufe the caufe of Meer Coffim, they
informed him that they were refolved to keep Bengal
free from troubles, and carry the war into the domi¬
nions of Sujah Dowla himfelf. To this the nabob re¬
plied by enumerating the many favours conferred on
the Englilh by the Mogul. “ Notwithftanding thefe
(fays he) you have interfered in the king’s country,
poffeffed yourfelves of diftriCls belonging to the govern¬
ment, and turned out and eftablilhed nabobs at pleafure,
without the confent of the imperial court. Since you.
have imprifoned dependants on the court, and expofed
the government of the king of kings to contempt and
dilhonour ; lince you have ruined the trade of the mer¬
chants of the country, granted protection to the king’s
fervants, injured the revenues of the imperial court, and
exulhed the inhabitants by your aCls of violence ; and
D d fince
India.
105
I N D [21
fince you are continually fending frefli people from
Calcutta, and invading different parts of the royal do¬
minions to what can all thofe wrong proceedings be
attributed, but to an abfolute difregard to the court,
and a wicked defign of feizing the country to yourfelves?
If thefe difturbances have arifen from your own impro¬
per defires, defift from fuch behaviour in future ; in¬
terfere not in the affairs of government •, withdraw
your people from every part, and fend them to their
own country ; carry on the company’s trade as former¬
ly, and confine yourfelves to commercial affairs,” &c.
-An®ther letter, much to the fame purpofe, was fent to
Major Carnac 5 but the prefident and council of Cal¬
cutta, inftead of paying any regard to the remonftran-
ces of the nabob, determined to commence an imme¬
diate and offenfive war againfl: him.
Notwfithftanding this refolution, feveral difficulties
occurred in carrying on a war at this time. The prin-
Sir Hector cipal were the death of Major Adams, whofe name had
Munrofuc. become formidable to the Indians, and the mutinous
feeds Ma- difpofition of the army. The former was obviated by
jor Adams. t^e appo^naent 0f Colonel Hedlor Munro, who, in
military fkill, appeared nothing inferior to his prede-
ccffor; and the mutinous difpofition of the foldiery
■was got the better of by a moft fevere example of the
mutineers, 24 of whom were blown away from the
mouths of cannon. Hoftilnies were commenced on
the part of Meer Coffim, who cut off a fmall party of
Englifh troops, and fent their heads to the Mogul and
Sujah Don la. An army of 50,000 men was col-
lefted, with a moff formidable train of artillery, fuch
as might be fuppofed to follow an European army of
equal numbers. This prodigious armament feems to
have effaced all the caution of Meer Coffim; for though
he had formerly experienced the bad effe&s of enga¬
ging the Englifh in a pitched attle, yet he now thought
proper to try his fortune a fecond time in the fame
way. The two armies met on the 22d of Oftober
1 764, at a place called Buxard, on the river Carum-
naffa, about ico miles above the city of Patna. The
event was fimilar to that of other engagements with
the Englifh, to wrhom it never was poffible for any
advantages either in fituation or number to make the
Indians equal. The allied army was defeated with
the lofs of 6000 killed on the fpot, 130 pieces of can¬
non, a proportionable quantity of military ilores, and
all their tents ready pitched •, while, on the fide of the
conquerors, only 32 Europeans and 239 Indians were
killed, and 57 Europeans and 473 Indians wounded.
The only place of flrength now belonging to the
allies on this fide the river was a fort named Char da
Geer. The reduftion of this place, however, might
well have been deemed impra£licable, as it flood on the
top of a high hill, or rather rock, fituated on the very
brink of the Ganges, by which it could be conflantly
fupplied with provifions •, and as to military flores, it
could not Hand in need of any as long as flones could
be found to pour down on the affailants. Notwith-
fianding all thofe difficulties, however, Colonel Munro
eaufed his foldiers advance to the attack j but they
were received with fuch volleys of Hones, which the
Indians threw' both with hands arid feet, that they were
ie ’.'’f d in a very (hort time j and though the attack
was renewed the next day, it w’as attended with no bet-
Indta.
jo6
Defeats the
India? - . t
Uuxard.
107
Is repulfed
at Chanda
Geer.
to3
o ] I N D
ter fuccefs; on which the Englifh commander encamped
with his army under the walls of Benares.
Soon after this, Colonel Munro being recalled, the
command of the army devolved on Sir Robert Fletcher,
a major in the company’s troops. The nabob, in the
mean time, inftead of attacking the Englifh army at
once, contented himfelf with fending out parties of
light horfe to fkirmifh with their advanced polls, while
the main body lay at the diftance of about 15 miles
from Benares, w’hich rendered it very dangerous for
them to move from their place. On the 14th of
January 1765, however, Sir Robert ventured at mid¬
night to break up his camp under the walls of Benares,
and to march off tov/ards the enemy, leaving a party
to protect that place againft any attempt during his
abfence. In three days he came up with the main
body of Indians, who retreated before him 5 on which
he refolved to make another attempt on Chanda Geer, Geer taken
before which the late commander had been foiled, by Sir Ro«
His fuccefs would in all probability have been no bet-bert Fict"
ter than that of his predeceffor, had not the garriionc^''r^
mutinied for want of pay, and obliged the commander
to furrender the place.
The reduction of Chanda Geer was follow’ed by
that of Eliabad, the capital of the enemy’s country, a
large city on the Ganges, between 60 and 70 miles
above Chanda Geer, defended by thick, and high walls
and a ftrong fort foon after which Sir Robert wras
fuperfeded in the command of the army by Major 109
Carnac. Sujah Dowla in the mean time had been Sui;ih D°W“
abandoned by the Mogul, who concluded a treaty ^
with the Engliih foon after the battle of Buxard. He jyi^raitas.-
did not, however, give himfelf up to defpair, but ga¬
thered together, with great affkluity, the remains of
his routed armiesand feeing that his own territories
could not fupply him with the requiiite number of
troops, he now applied to the Mahrattas for afliftance.
But thefe people, though very formidable to the other
nations of Indoftan, were far from being able to cope no
with the Englifh. On the 20th of May 1765, Gene Wk > are
ral Carnac having affembled his troops, marched im-^n^eatk^»
mediately to attack them ; and having gained a com- aowjaJ
plete victory at a place called Ca//>/, obliged them tofubmits.
retreat with precipitation acrofs the Yumna into their
own country.
Sujah Dowla, now deftitute of every refource, de¬
termined to throw' himfelf on the clemency of the
Englifh. Previous to this, how'ever, he allowed Meer
Coflim and the affaffin Somers to efcape; nor could
any conlideration ever prevail upon him to deliver them
up. Three days after the battle of Calpi, the nabob
furrendered himfelf to General Camac, without itij u-
lating any thing in his own favour, farther than that
he fhould await the determination of Lord Clive con¬
cerning him. hi
In the beginning of February this year died MeerYourgna-
Jaffier Ali Cawn, nominal nabob of Bengal. q'fte sob 01 Ben-
fucceflion w'as difputed betwixt his eldeft furviving fon %J' ^
Najem il Doula, a youth of about 18 years of age, and£ngii(h.
a grandfon by his eldeft fon Miran, at that time only
feven years old. As the Englifh w'ere in reality abfo¬
lute fovereigns of the country, it was debated in the
council of Calcutta whether Meer Jaffier’s fon fhould
be allowed to fucceed, according to the cuftom of the
country,
India.
I N D [21
country, or the grandfon, according to the Englifli
cuftom. The point being carried in favour of Najera,
it was next debated on what terms he ihould be ad¬
mitted to the fucceflion. The late nabob, among
other impofitions, had obliged himfelf to fupport an
army of 12,ooc horfe and as many foot. It was
alleged on this occafion, that he had not fulfilled
his engagement j that he had difoanded mofl of the
troops; that at bell they were but an ufelefs bur¬
den, having never anfwered any purpofe in real fer-
vice, for which reafon the company had been obliged
to augment their military eftablilhment: it was there¬
fore now judged expedient that the nabob Ihould fettle
a fum, upwards of 800,000!. annually, on the rom-
pany, to be paid out of the treafury : that he Ihould
alfo difcard his prime minifter and great favourite
Nuncomar, and receive in his place a perfon appointed
by the council, who wras to a£l in the double capacity
of miniller and governor to aflift and inftrudt him.
The council wrere alfo to have a negative upon the no¬
mination of all the fuperintendants and principal of¬
ficers employed ia collecting or receiving of the re¬
venues ; that he Ihould take their advice, and have their
confent to fuch nominations whenever they thought
proper to interfere in them. He was alfo to receive their
complaints, and pay a due attention to them upon the
milhehaviour of any of the officers who either were ap¬
pointed already or Ihould be in time to come.
With thefe extravagant requifitions the young na¬
bob wras obliged to comply, though he had difcern-
ment enough to perceive that he w7as now an abfolute
Have to the council at Calcutta. Though obliged by
treaty to difmifs Nuncomar from the office of prime
minifter, he ftill continued to fhow him the fame favour,
until at laft he was charged with carrying on a treafon-
able correfpondence with Sujah Dowla, for which the
nabob w'as enjoined to fend him to Calcutta to take
his trial. The unfortunate prince ufed every method
to deliver his favourite from the impending danger,
but to no purpofe : he wTas obliged to fubmit to the
mortification of having all his offers with regard to his
releafe rejected, though the committee St Calcutta af-
terw'ards thought proper to fet him at liberty without
any trial.
Thefe extraordinary powders, exerted in fuch a def-
potic manner by the council of Calcutta for fuch a
length of time, could not but at laft induce their fupe-
riors to circumfcribe them in fome degree, by appoint¬
ing others who Ihould aft independently even of this
council, and who might be fuppofed to be aftuated by
more upright and honourable principles than had hi¬
therto appeared in their conduft. The great charafter
which Lord Clive had already gained in the eaft, juftly
marked him out as a proper perfon for adjufting the
Lord Clive affairs of Bengal. On the 3d of May 1765 he arrived
arrives in jn t]ie wjt]1 fu]j powers as commander in chief,
prefident, and governor of Bengal. An unlimited power
was alfo committed to a feleft committee, conlifting
of his lordftiip and four gentlemen, to aft and deter¬
mine every thing themlelves, without dependence on
the council. It was, however, recommended in their in-
ftruftions, to confult the council in general as often as
it could be done conveniently ) but the foie power of
determining in all cafes was left wfith them, until the
troubles of Bengal ftiould be entirely ended. By thefe
Bengal
with un.
limited
powers.
1 ] I N D
gentlemen a plan of reformation wras inftantly fet about; India,
by which, however, violent difputes were occafion-'
ed : but the committee, diiregarding thefe impotent
efforts, exerted their authority to the full extent, fel-
dom even acquainting the council wfith their tranfac-
tions, and never allowing them to give their opinion on
any occafion.
On taking the affairs of Bengal into thorough con-Suj h Dow-
fideration, Lord Clive found that the fuccefs of the ^ reftorcd.
Britilh arms could be produftive of nothing but wars -7
that to ruin Sujah Dowla was to break down the
ftrongeft barrier which the Bengal provinces could
have againft the incurfions of the Mahrattas and other
barbarous people to the weftward, who had long defola-
ted the northern provinces*, and the Mogul, with whom
the company had concluded a treaty, was utterly unable
to fupport bimfelf, and would require the w hole Engliih
power in the eaft to fecure him in his dignity. His
lordfhip therefore found it neceffary to conclude a
treaty with Sujah Dovvla. The Mogul was fatisfied ”4
by obtaining a more ample revenue than he had for Affairs^of^
fome time enjoyed j by which means he might be ena-^^y
bled to march an army to Delhi to take poffeffion of Lord olive,
his empire. For the company his lordftiip obtained
the office of duan or collector of revenues for the
province of Bengal and its dependencies. Thus Sujah
Dowla was again put in poffeflion of his dominions,
excepting a fmall territory which was referved to the
Mogul, and eftimated at 20 lacks of rupees, or
250,000!. annually. The company were to pay 26
lacks of rupees, amounting to 325,000k fterling.
They engaged alfo to pay to the nabob of Bengal an
annual fum of 53 lacks, or 662,500k for the expences
of government, and the fupport of his dignity. The
remainder of the revenues of Bengal w'ere allotted to
the company, who on their part guaranteed the terri¬
tories at that time in poffeffion of Sujah Dowla and the
Mogul.
Thus the Eaft India company acquired the fove-
reignty of a territory equal in extent to the moft flou-
rilhing kingdom in Europe. By all this, how’ever, they
were fo far from being enriched, that the dii’order of
their affairs attrafted the attention of government, and
gave the Britilh miniftry an opportunity at laft of de¬
priving them of their territorial pofleffions, and fub-
jefting the province of Bengal to the authority of the
crown *. New misfortunes alfo fpeedily occurred, and*See Ha/}
the company found a moft formidable enemy in Hyder ^‘a Com~
Alv, or Hyder Naig. This man, from the rank of
common Sepoy, had raifed himfelf to be one of the War with
moft confiderable princes in the empire of Indoftan. Hyder Aly.
Being fenfible that the power of the Englifh was an in-
fuperable bar to his ambitious defigns, he praftjfed on
the nizam of the Deccan, and partly by promifes, part¬
ly by threats, engaged him to renounce his alliance
with the company, and even to enter into a w^ar againft
them. As he had been at great pains to introduce the
European difeipline among his troops, and had many
renegadoes in his fervice, he imagined, that with the
advantage of numbers he Ihould certainly be able to us
cope with his antagonifts in the open field. In this, He is de-
however, he was deceived j for on the 26th of Sep-feated b7
tember 1767, his army was entirely defeated by Colo-
nel Smith at a place called Errour near Trinomallee ; mi
after "which the nizam thought it advifable to defert his
D d 2 new
I N IJ [21
India. new ally, and conclude another treaty with the Englifh.
1 ^—- J*rC)m the latter, however, he did not obtain peace but
at the expence of ceding to them the duanny of the
Lalegat Carnatic, which includes the dominions of
Hyder Aly and feme petty princes.
Hyder, thus deferted by his ally, transferred the feat
of war to a mountainous country, where, during the
year 1767, nothing decifive could be effected ; while the
Indian cavalry was fometimes enabled to cut off the
fupplies, and interrupt the communications of their
antagonifts. During thefe operations fome (hips were
fitted out at Bombay, which conveyed 400 European
foldiers and about 800 Sepoys to attack Mangalore,
one of Hyder Aly’s principal fea-ports, where all his
fhips lay. This enterprife proved fuccefsful, and nine
fhips were brought awTay 5 but too fmall a garrifon ha¬
ving been left in the place, it was almoft immediately
after retaken, and all who were in it made prifoners by
117 Hyder Aly.
Decline of In the mean time, an injudicious meafure, adopted by
iS air's the EnSliih in their method of managing the army,
with the * Proved not only of the utmoft detriment to their caufe,
caut'c of but occafioned difgraces hitherto unheard of in the hi-
their bad Ifory of the nation, viz. the defertion of officers from
fuccefs. the fervice of Britain to that of a barbarous prince, and
the giving up of forts in fuch a fiiameful manner as
could not but fuggeft a fufpicion that they had been
betrayed.—The original caufe of all this mifehief was
the appointment of jield-depulies to attend the army, and
to control and fuperintend the condudl of the commander
in chief; and thefe, in the prefent inftance, being deeply
concerned in the contradls for the army, took care to
regulate its motions in fuch a manner as beft fuited their
private intereft or convenience. Hyder Aly did not
fail to improve the errors confequent upon this kind of
management to his owm advantage. General Smith had
penetrated far into his country, taken feveral of his for-
treffes, and was in a fair way of becoming mailer of his
capital, when all his operations wTere checked at once
by the field-deputies. His antagonift being thus allow¬
ed fome refpite, fuddenly entered the Carnatic with a
numerous army of horfe, ravaging and deftroying every
thing at pleafure. Thus the Englifh were obliged to
relinquish all their conqueils in order to defend their
own territories ; while this reverie of fortune not only
difeouraged the allies of the English, but even produ¬
ced in them an inclination to defert their caufe, and go
over to Hyder Aly, while thofe who remained faithful
paid dearly for their attachment. The n^bob of Arcot,
the moll faithful ally the Englifh ever had, fuffered ex¬
tremely on this occalion. Hyder Aly had long enter¬
tained a violent enmity again!! this prince ; moll pro¬
bably on account of his inviolable attachment to the
Englilh. His dominions were therefore ravaged with¬
out mercy ; and thus, wdiile Hyder gratified his perfo-
nal refentment againft him, he cut off from the Englilh
one of the principal refources they had for carrying on
the war.
On the return of the company’s forces to the de¬
fence of the Carnatic, they found themfelves very little
able to cope w’ith their adverfary; for, befidcs the
continuance of the fame caufes which had formerly
contributed to their want of fuccefs, they had been
very much weakened in their expedition. Hyder Aly
had alfo the prudence to avoid a genera! engagement,
2 ] IN D
but frequently intercepted the convoys ol the Englilh, India,
cut off their detached parties, and wrearied them out
with long and continual marches. The new'S of his
fuccefs againl! an enemy hitherto invincible by all
the powers 0! India, fo railed his reputation, that ad¬
venturers flocked to him from all parts ; by which
means his cavalry were foon increafed to upwards of
90,000 ; to which, however, his infantry bore no pro¬
portion.
Notwithftanding all his fuccefs, it appears that the
forces of Hyder Aly were altogether unable to cope
with thofe of Britain, even when there was the greateft
imaginable difparity of numbers. A detachment of
the Company’s forces had made an affault upon a fort
called Mulwaggle, in which they were repulfed with
fome lofs. This, with the fmall number of the de¬
tachment, encouraged Hyder Aly to march at the
head of a great part of his army to the protedtion of
the fort. The commanding officer, however, Colonel
Wood, did not helitate, with only 460 Europeans and
2300 Sepoys, to attack his army, conlilling of 14,000
horfe, 12,000 men armed with matchlock guns, and iig
fix battalions of fepoys. The engagement lafted fix Hyder Aly
hours; when at lail Hyder Aly, notwithlianding his defeated by-
numbers, was obliged to retreat, leaving the field co- Colonel
vered with dead bodies ; the lofs of the Britilh beingVl oocb
upwards of 300 killed and wounded. This engage¬
ment, however, w'as attended with no confequences af-
fedling the war in general, which w-ent on for fome
time in the fame manner, and greatly to the difadvan-
tage of the company. The divifions and difeontents
among the officers and council daily inci'eafed, the fol- 1
diers deferted, and every thing went to ruin. The re¬
venues of the eftabliftiment of Madras being at lall un¬
equal to the expences of the war, large remittances were
made from Bengal to anfwrer that purpofe ; and as thefe
wTere made in a kind of bale gold coin, the company is
faid by that means alone to have loll 4c>?C|l-)ol. in the
difference of exchange only. At lall Hyder Aly having
given the Englilh army the flip, fuddenly appeared
within a few miles of Madras ; which occafioned fuch
an alarm, that the prelidency there were induced tg en¬
ter into a negociation with him. The Indian prince,
on his part, u^as very ready to hearken to propofals of irp
peace upon any reafonable terms.. An ofi'eniive and A
defenlive treaty was therefore concluded on the 3d of
April 1769, on the Ample condition that the forts and
places taken on both Aides fticuld be rellored, and each
party fit down contented with their own expences. 120
By this treaty it w:as particularly llipulated, that in Broken by-
cafe of either party being attacked by their enemies,
the other Ihould give them affiilance ; and in this cafe
even the number of troops to be fupplied by each was
fpecified. It foon after appeared, however, that the
prefidency of Madras were refolved to pay very little
regard to their engagements. Hyder Aly having in
a little time been involved in a war with the Mahrattas,
applied for affillance, according to agreement ; but
was refilled by the prdidency, who pretended to fear a
quarrel with the Mahrattas themfelves. As the latter
are a very powerful and warlike nation, Hyder Aly
found himfelf overmatched, and therefore applied feve¬
ral times to the Englifti for the affiilance he had a right
to expeft ; but was confiantly reluied on various pre¬
tences : which convinced him at laff that he could place
Ho
India.
in
War be
twet-n the
I N J) [ 2
no dependence on the friendfhip of the Englifh, and
filled him with an implacable hatred againft them. As
boon, therefore, as he could make up his differences
with the Mahrattas, he refolved to recover his Ioffes,
and revenge him fell’ on thofe faithlefs allies. With this
view he applied himfelf to their rivals the French j
whom no Indian nation ever found backward in fupply-
ing them with the means of defence againfl the Englifh.
By their means he obtained military ftores in the
greateft abundance, a number of experienced officers
and foldiers 5 and the European difcipline was brought
to much greater perfeclion than even he himfelf had ever
been able to bring it before this period, Thus, in a
ffiort time, imagining himfelf a match for the Mahrattas,
he renewed the war j and gained fuch decifive advan¬
tages, as quickly obliged them to conclude an advanta¬
geous treaty with him.
It now appeared that the Engliffi, notwithftanding
ET/Y^r Preten^ed ill-will to quarrel with the Mahrattas,
Mahratta™ not ^ ^ie^tat'on at doing fo when their in-
tereft was concerned. In order to underftand the fub-
fequent tranfadiions, however, we mull obferve, that
the Mahrattas, like other nations of Indoflan, wei-e
originally governed by princes called rajahs, who reign¬
ed at Setterah 5 and though in procefs of time they
came to be divided into a number of petty Hates, yet
they paid a nominal refpedl to the ram-rajah, who had
a right to affemble their chiefs, and order out their
troops on any neceffary occafion. By degrees this dig¬
nity of ram-rajah or fou-rajah (as he was alfo called),
became merely titular, the adminiftration being entire¬
ly pofiefled by the paifinva or chancellor. This office
being ufurped by one particular family, Nana-row, the
reigning paifhwa, feized the ram-rajah and confined
him in a fortrefs near Setterah. At his death he left
two fens Mada-row and Narain-row ; of whom the
former, as being the elder, fucceeded him in the paifh-
waffiip. lonogee Boofla, or Bouncella, the immediate
predecelfor of Moodagee Boofla, rajah of Berar, was
one of the pretenders to the dignity of ram-rajah,
as being the nearelt of kin •, at the fame time that
Roganaut-row, called alfo Ragobah, uncle to Mada-
row himfelf, pretended to the paiffiwafhip. On this ac¬
count the latter was confined by Mada-row, but who
imprudently releafed him a little before his death, and
even recommended to him in the moft affeftionate man¬
ner the care of his brother Narain-row, who was to
fucceed to the paifhwafhip. The care he took in con-
fequence of this recommendation was fuch as mu>ht
eafily have been imagined ; the unhappy Narain row
was murdered, and Roganaut-row the affaflin fled to
Bombay 5 where, on pn'mifing a ceffion of territory,
he was protefted and encouraged in his pretenfions.
The Mai irattas remonftrated againft this behaviour ;
but the Englifti had determined at all events to pro¬
fit by the civil diffenfions of the Indians, and therefore
paid no regard to the juftice or injuftice of their caufe.
The Mahrattas therefore not only made up their dif¬
ferences with Hyder Aly, as has been already men¬
tioned, but became determined enemies to the Englifh,
at the fame time that a dangerous confederacy was
formed among the moft powerful princes of India to
expel from that part of the world thofe intruders whofe
avarice could be fatisfied with no conceflions, and
India.
13 ] 1 N -13
whom no treaties could bind when it ferved their turn
to break them.
The refentment of Hyder Aly was particularly di-
refled againft the prefidency of Madras for the rea-
fons already given 5 he had alfo received freffi provoca¬
tion by their caufing a body of troops march through
his dominions without his leave, and that to the aftift-
ance of a prince for whom he had no great friendfhip 3
alfo by the capture of the French fettlement of Mahie,
on the coaft of Malabar, which he faid was within his
dominions, and confequently that the French were un¬
der his protection. His troops were therefore affem-
bled from every quarter, and the greateft preparations
made for a powerful invafion. The prefidency of Ma¬
dras in the mean time fpent their time in mutual al¬
tercations, negleCIing even to fecure the pafles of the
mountains, through which only an invafion could be
made, until their aCtive antagonift, having feized and i**
guarded thofe palies, fuddenly poured out through them Drea(ftul
at the head of 100,000 men, among whom was a large Eder aE
body of European troops under French officers, and
commanded by Colonel Lally, a man of great bravery
and experience in war.
The alarm was given on the 24th of July 1780 that
Hyder Aly’s horfe were only nine miles diftant from
Madras. The inhabitants inftantly delerted their
houfes and fled into the fort ; while the unrefifted bar¬
barian burnt the villages, reduced the-inferior forts,
and prepared to lay fiege to the capital. It being now
abfolutely neceflary to make lome reliftance, meafures
were taken for affembling the troops 3 in doing which
an exprefs was fent to Colonel Baillie, at that time at
Gumeroponda, about 28 miles from Madras, to pro¬
ceed from thence dire&ly to Conjeveram with the corps
under his command, where the main body was to meet
him. But when the latter was under marching or- Unfortu-
ders, the firft regiment of cavalry pofitively refufed to na)e exF*»
move without money 3 and as they perfifted in their ^ltj‘on ^
refolution, were at laft made prifoners and fent to Ma-£°iili*
dras. rI he main body, then, confifting of 1500 Eu¬
ropeans and 4200 Sepoys, under Sir Hector Munro,
with their train of artillery, proceeded towards Conje¬
veram : and fuch were the fatigues of their march,
that 200 men belonging to the 73d regiment were
left lying on the road. On their arrival at Conje-
verarn, they found the town in flames, great bodies of
vthe enemy’s cavalry advancing on both flanks, and no
appearance of Colonel Baillie’s detachment. The march
of this body had been impeded by a fmall river fwelled
by a fudden fall of rain. On this occafion, the officer
who gives the account of his difafter makes the fol¬
lowing obfervation. “ In this incident we have a moft;
remarkable proof and example of the danger of pro-
craftination, and on what minute circumftances and
fudden fprings of the mind the fortune and the general
iflue of war may depend. Had Colonel Baillie palled
over the Tripaffore without halting, as fome adviled,
and encamped on its fouthern inftead of its northern
bank, the difafter that foon followed would have been
prevented, and an order of affairs wholly different
from that which took place would have fucceeded.”
Hyder Aly having notv raifed the fiege of Arcot,
in which he had been employed, marched towards
Conjeveram 3 in the neighbourhood of which he en-
camped,.
India*
India-
124
He is at¬
tacked by
Tippoo
Saib, but
repulfes
bttn.
S25
Is again at¬
tacked.
I N D [ 214 ] I N D
camped, and in the courfe of feveral days, at different
times, offered battle. On the 6th of September, he
detached his fon Tippoo Saib with the flower of his ar¬
my to cut off the detachment under Colonel Baillie,
who was now' at Perrambaukam, a fmall village diftant
from the main body about 15 miles, he himfelf remain¬
ing in the neighbourhood of Conjeveram, in order to
w atch the motions of Sir liedlor Munro.
The detachment under Tippoo Saib confifted of
30,000 horfe, 8000 foot, with 12 pieces of cannon.
Notwithftanding this fuperiorily in number, however,
they were bravely repulfed by Colonel Baillie’s hand¬
ful of troops •, and a jundlion was effedled with a de¬
tachment under Sir Robert Fletcher, fent by Sir Hec¬
tor Munro on firft hearing the noife of the engage¬
ment.
This junflion wras effecled on the 9th of September,
and next morning orders were given for the whole ar¬
my to march ; Colonel Fletcher’s detachment being
difperfed in different parts of the line. From the
moment they began to march, the enemy played off
their rockets, which, however, did but little execu¬
tion ; but about ten at night feveral guns began to
open on the rear of the Englilh. Colonel Baillie,
therefore, after fome proper manoeuvres, caufed his
troops form a line, while the enemy cannonaded them
inceffantly writh great execution. On this Colonel
Baillie detached Captain Rumley with five companies
of Sepoy grenadiers to llorm their guns •, which fervice
they would have undoubtedly accomplifhed, had not
their march been interrupted by a torrent of water
which at that time happened to be unfordable. Cap¬
tain Rumley therefore returned about half an hour af¬
ter eleven, when the guns of the enemy were heard
drawing off towards the Englilh front, and a general
alarm was perceived throughout their camp ; owing,
as was fuppofed, to their having received intelligence
of the party that had been fent to ftorm their guns.
“ From their noife, confufion, and irregular firing
(fays our author), one would have imagined that a
detachment of our men had fallen upon them with
fixed bayonets. At that critical moment, had a party
of grenadiers been fent againft them, they would have
routed without difficulty the whole of Tippoo’s army.
Having about ten o’clock in the evening advanced a
few hundred yards into an avenue, the detachment re¬
mained there in perfect filence till the morning.
“ Colonel Fletcher being afked by fome officers,
w'hy Colonel Baillie halted r modeftly anfwered, that
Colonel Baillie w'as an officer of eftablifhed reputation,
and that he no doubt had reafons for his conduft.
It cannot, however, be concealed, that this halt af¬
forded an opportunity for Tippoo Saib to draw off
his cannon to a very ftrong port by wffiich the Engliffi
were obliged to pafs j and at the fame time of in¬
forming Hyder of their fituation, and fuggefting to
him the expediency of advancing for the improvement
of fo favourable a conjunfture.
“ On the 1 oth of September, at five o’clock in the
morning, our little army marched off by the right in
fubdivifions, having their baggage on their right flank
and the enemy on their left. A few minutes after
fix two guns opened on their rear, on which the line
halted a few minutes. Large bodies of the enemy’s
2
cavalry now appeared on their right flank ; and juft at
the moment when the pagoda of Conjeveram appeared
in view, and our men had begun to indulge the hopes
of a refpite from toils and dangers, a rocket-boy
was taken prifoner, who informed them, that Hy-
der’s whole army was marching to the affiffance of
Tippoo. Four guns now opened on their left with
great effeft. So hot was the fire they fullained, and
10 heavy the lofs, that Colonel Baillie ordered the
whole line to quit the avenue, and prefent a front to
the enemy •, and at the fame time difpatched Captain
Rumley with ten companies of Sepoy grenadiers to
ftorm the enemy’s guns.
“ Within a few minutes after Captain Rumley had
left the line, Tippoo’s guns were filenced. Rumley’s
little detachment immediately took poffeffion of four
of the enemy’s guns, and completely routed the party
attached to them Captain Rumley, overcome with
fatigue, ordered Captain Gowdie, the officer next in
command, to lead on the party, and take poffeffion of Is attacked
fome more guns placed a few hundred yards in their °y Hyder’s
front. But in a few minutes after, as they were ad- 0 e ai*
vancing tor this purpofe, a hidden cry was heard
among the Sepoys, of horfe ! horfe ! The camp follow¬
ers, whofe numbers were nearly five to one of the
troops under arms, were driven on a part of our line
by the numerous and furrounding forces of Hyder
Aly j who being informed of the embarraffing fitua¬
tion of Colonel Baillie, had left his camp without ftri-
king his tents, with a view to conceal his march from
the Englilh. A great ccnfufion among our troops
was the unavoidable confequence of this hidden onfet.
The Europeans were fuddenly left on the. field of ac¬
tion alone : and at that critical moment a detachment
from the advanced guard of Hyder’s army preffed on
with great celerity between our line and Captain
Rumley’s party. The commanding officer, therefore,
apprehenfive of being cut off from our little army,
judged it moft prudent to retreat.
“ Colonel Baillie, when he was informed that an
immenfe body of horfe and infantry was marching
towards him, and that this was fuppofed to be Hyder’s
main army, faid, “ Very well, we fliall be prepared
to receive them.” Hyder’s whole forces now appear¬
ed inconteftably in view j and this barbarian chief,
who, as was obferved of the Roman general by Pyr¬
rhus, had nothing barbarous in his difeipline, after di¬
viding his guns agreeably to a preconcerted plan, open¬
ed from 60 to 70 pieces of cannon, with an innumer¬
able quantity of rockets.
“ Hyder’s numerous cavalry, fupported by his re¬
gular infantry and European troops, driven on by
threats, encouraged by promifes, and led on by his
moft diftinguiffied officers, bore on our little army in
different quarters without making the leaft impreffion.
Our men, both Europeans and Sepoys, repeatedly pre-
fented and recovered their fire-arms as if they had
been manoeuvring on a parade. The enemy were re-^
pulfed in every attack j numbers of their beft cavalry haviour of*
were killed, and many more were wounded •, even the Eng-
their infantry were forced to give way : and Hyder hflu
would have ordered a retreat, had it not been for the
advice of General Lally, who informed him that it
was now too late, as General Munro was moft pro¬
bably
I N D l 2
India, bably advancing on their rear from Conjeveram 5 for
'v ' which reafon nothing remained but to break the de¬
tachment by their artillery and cavalry.
“ Tippoo Saib had by this time collefted his party
together, and renewed the cannonade ; and at the lame
time that the Englilh were under the necefity of luf-
taining an attack both from the father and fon, two
ct their tumbrils were blown up by Hyder’s guns, and
a large opening made in both lines. They had now
no other ammunition than grape j their guns difeon-
tinued firing j and in this dreadful fituation, under a
terrible fire not only of guns but rockets, lofing great
numbers of officers and men, they remained from half
pad feven till nine o’clock.
“ On this Hyder Aly, perceiving that the guns
w’ere quite filenced, came with his whole army round
their right flank. The cavalry charged them in dif-
tindt columns, and in the intervals between thefe the
in antry poured in volleys of mufquetry with dreadful
I28 effedt. Mhiar Saib, with the Mogul and Sanoor ca-
They aie valry, made the firft impreffion. Thefe were followed
at iaft.de- by the elephants and the Myforean cavalry, which com-
feated. pleted the overthrow of the detachment. Colonel Bail-
lie, though grievoufiy wounded, rallied the Euro¬
peans, and once more formed them into a fquare 5 and
with this handful of men he gained an eminence,
where, without ammunition, and mod of the people
wounded, he redded and repulfed 13 feparate attacks j
but frefh bodies or cavalry continually pouring in, they
were broken without giving way. Many of our men,
defperately wounded, railing themfelves from the ground
received the enemy on their bayonets.
“ Captain Lucas’s battalion of Sepoys, at the time
when our men moved up to a rifing ground, was da-
tioned to the right of the European grenadiers j but
5 ] I N D
that corps, feeing the Europeans in motion, and mif- India,
underdanding perhaps this evolution for a retreat, broke v J'j
in the utmod confufion. The Europeans, bravely fuf-
taining their reputation for intrepid valour, remained
in this extremity of didrefs deady and undaunted,
though furrounded by the French troops, and by Hy¬
der’s cavalry to the number of 40,000. They even
exprefied a defire, though their number did not exceed
400, of being led on to the attack. A party of To-
paffes, who lay at the didance of about 30 yards in .-mr
front, kept up an incelTant fire of fmall arms with
great effed. Many attempts were made by the ene¬
my’s cavalry to break this fmall body of men ; but by
the deady condudd of both our officers and men they
were repulfed.
“ Colonel Baillie, finding that there was now no
profpect of being relieved by General Munro, held
up a dag of truce to one of the chiefs of Hyder’s
army. But this was treated with contempt, and the
furdar endeavoured at the fame time to cut off the co¬
lonel. 1 he reafon the enemy affigned for this was,,
tnat the Sepoys had fired after the fignal was hoided. 149-
A few minutes after this, our men received orders to Fhr >w
lay down their arms, with intimation that quarter'! heir
would be given. This order was fcarcely compliedar ns» but
with, when the enemy rudied in upon them in the^Jdoru<:Ly
mod favage and brutal manner, fparing neither age
nor infancy.nor any condition of life; and, but for
the humane interpofition of the French commanders
Lally and Pimoran, who implored and indbed with
the conqueror to (how mercy, the gallant remains of
our little army mud have fallen a facrifice to that fa¬
vage third of blood with which the tyrant difgraced
his viflory.” (a)
In this unfortunate aflion near 700 Europeans were
killed
(a) In a narrative of the fimenngs of the Englifh who furvived this fatal day, faid to be publiffied by an of¬
ficer m Colonel Baillie s detachment, we find it related, that “ Hyder Aly, feared in a chair in his tent, enioved
the fight of the heads of the flam, as well as of his nrifoners. Colonel Baillie, who was himfelf very much
wounded, was brought to his camp on a cannon, and with feveral other gentlemen in the fame fituation laid at
tae tyrant s feet on the ground and in the open air. In this fituation they faw many of the heads of their coim
trjmen prefented to the conqueror, fome of them even by Engliffi officers, who were forced to perform that hor¬
rid talk ; m a little time, however, Hyder ordered no more heads to be brought to him while the Engliffi Gentle
men were prefent A tent was fitted up for Colonel Baillie and his officers, but without draw or an% thing elfe
to lie upon, though many of them were dangeroufly wounded; and as the tent could only contain 10 perfons
the red were obliged to lie m the open air. When the prifoners we re removed from place-to place they were
wantonly mfulted, and even beaten by thofe.who had the charge of them. If the latter halted to refreih them-
lelves under a tree, they wouid be at the trouble of carrying their prifoners to the fide next to the fun led they
mould enjoy the benefit of the fiiade. Sometimes they were tormented with third, at others the people allowed
them to dunk water out of the palms of their hands, it being reckoned a profanation to allow an European to
drink out of a veflel belonging to an Indian,” Stc. ^
In this narrative are likewife mentioned fome examples of a recovery from wounds, which, if we can depend
on their authenticity, mud undoubtedly ffiow a redorative power in the human body altogether unknown in this
“ Lieutenant Thomas Bowfer received a mufket ball in his leg, and after that eight defperate wounds with
a feymuar. He lay or feven hours on the fpot, deprived of all fen fat ion ; but, towards evening, awakened
from his trance, dripped of all his clothes, except a pair of under drawers and part of his ffiirt, with an intenfe
third, calling out, and imploring a little water from the enemy. Some were moved with compaffion, while others-
anfwered his mtreaties only with infults and threats of immediate death. Some water, however, was Drought
from a pool m the field of battle, about 30 or 60 yards from the place where he lay. It was deeply tinged with
blood ; neverthelefs, Mr Bowfer being furniffied by one of Hyder’s foldiers with an earthen chatty, or pot con¬
tain mg about a mnt, and dire-ded to the place, crawled thither a- well as he could. Though druck with hor¬
ror at the fight of the dead and wounded with which it was ffiled, he quenched his third with the liquid ; and
having
1 N D [21
India.' killed on tlie fpot; the lofs on Hyder Aly’s part was
fo great that he induftrioufly concealed it, being en¬
raged that the conqueft of fuch an inconfiderable body
jfihould coft him fo many of his braveft troops. He
feemed ever after to confider the Englidr with an ex¬
treme degree of terror 5 infomuch that, notwithftanding
his pretended exultation on account of the prefent vic¬
tory, he no fooner heard a report of Sir He&or Munro’s
march to attack him, that he left his camp in the ut-
moft confufion, abandoning great part of his tents and
baggage, as well as the vaft numbers that had been
T30 wounded in the late aftion.
Sir Eyre On the news of Colonel Baillie’s difafler, the fupreme
Coote ap- council 0f Bengal requelled Sir Eyre Coote to take
the^om-0 uPon t^le management of the war » for the carry\ng
mand of on of which a large fupply of men and money was in-
thc army, flantly decreed. This was readily undertaken by the
illullrious officer juft mentioned, notwithftanding his
very precarious ftate of health at that time j and from
the moment he took upon him the management of af¬
fairs, the fortune of the war was changed.
The fpirit of diffenfion, which for a long time had
infe&ed the prefidency of Madras, was indeed the true
caufe of all the misfortunes that had happened. This
was found by Sir Eyre Coote to be even greater than
he had heard by report: the refpetf: and confidence of
the natives was wholly loft } the complaints of the of¬
ficers and foldiers were loud and acrimonious} an in-
a£livity prevailed in all the councils and operations,
while the enemy carried every thing before them. Sir
He&or Munro had been greatly haraffed on his march,
to Madras, whither he had retreated after Colonel
Baillie’s difalter; the forces of Hyder Aly had in¬
verted all the places in that neighbourhood in fuch a
manner as in a great meafure to cut off all lupplies j
and Arcot, the capital city of the moft faithful ally the
Britilh ever had, was taken by florin, together with an
adjoining fort, by which means an immenfe quantity
of ammunition and military ftores fell into the hands of
the enemy.
No fooner had Sir Eyre Coote taken upon him the
command of the Britifti forces, than his antagonift
thought proper to change his plan of operations en¬
tirely. He now detached large parties of his nume¬
rous forces to lay fiege to the principal fortreffes be¬
longing to the company j while, with the braveft and
belt difciplined part, he kept the field againft the Bri-
tilh commander in perfon. On the very firft appear¬
ance of the Britilh army, however, his refolution lail-
6 ] I N D
ed, and he abandoned the fiege of every place he had India*
inverted, retiring to a confiderable diftance on the ' ~r
other fide of the river Palaar, without even difputing
the palfage of it, as it was expefted he would have
done.. 131
A refpite being thus obtained from the incurfions of Pondicher-
this formidable enemy, the next operation was to fe- Revolts,,
cure Pondicherry, whofe inhabitants had revolted. ^5?^
They were, however, eafily difarmed, their magazines reduced,
feized, and all the boats in their poffeffion deftroy-
ed 5 in confequence of which precaution, a hrench
fquadron that loon after appeared off Pondicherry was
obliged to depart without being furniftied with any
neceffaries. But in the mean time Hyder Aly having
dratvn large reinforcements from all parts of his domi¬
nions, refolvtd to try his fortune in a pitched battle.
His army amounted to 200,oco men, 40,000 of whom
were cavalry, and 1 5,000 well difciplined Sepoys. Still,
however, he durft not openly attack the Biitilh army
in the field, but took a ftrong port from whence he
might harafs them on their march. Sir Eyre Coote,
howeVelr, was not on his part backward to make the
attack ; and on the other hand Hyder Aly prepared
to engage him with all poffible advantage. The battle
was fought on the ift of July 1781 > an(l notwith¬
ftanding the vail fuperiority of Hyder Aly’s army, he
was routed with great llaughter. '1 he Indians, how- Qefeats
ever, made a much more obftinate reiiftance than ufual •, Hyder Aiy
the engagement lafled from nine in the morning till
four in the afternoon, and the deficiency of the Englilh
in cavalry prevented them from purfuing the advantage
they had gained. *33
Notwithftanding the lofs of this battle, Hyder Aly
was foon encouraged to venture another. I his wastoj.^
fought on the 27th of Auguft the fame year, on the
very fpot where Colonel Baillie had been defeated. It
was more obftinately contefted than even the former,
being continued with great fury from eight in the
morning to near dulk.. A number of brave officers
and foldiers fell on the part of the Britifti, owing chief¬
ly to the terrible fire of the enemy’s artillery and the
advantageous pofition of their troops. At laft, how¬
ever, the Indian army was totally defeated, and dri¬
ven from every poll it had occupied 3 though from the
obftinate refiftance made at this time, Hyder began
to entertain hopes that his forces might, by a fuc-
ceffion of fuch battles, be at laft enabled to cope with 134
the Engliih. He therefore ventured a third battle in Hyder de-
fome weeks after, but was now defeated with greater
lofs
having filled his chatty, endeavoured to proceed towards Conjeveram. He had not, however, moved from his
place above 200 or 400 yards, when, being quite overcome, he was obliged to he all night in the open air, du¬
ring which time there fell two heavy fhowers of rain. Next morning he proceeded to Conjeveram} but alter
walking about a mile, was met by fome of the enemy’s horfemen, by whom he was brought back pnfoner, and
obliged to walk without any affiftance. When delivered up to the enemy’s Sepoys, he was lo ftill with his
wounds, that he could not ftoop or even bend his body in the fmalleft degree. . , ,
“ The quarter-mafter ferjeant of artillery received fo deep a cut acrofs the back part of his neck, tha
was obliged to fupoort his head with his hands in order to keep it from falling to a fide all the journey. J he
ieaft ffiake or unevennefs of the ground made him cry out with pain. He once and again cealed at¬
tempts to proceed; but being encouraged and conjured by his comnamons to renew his efforts, he did lo,
reached tlJcamp, and at laft, as well as Mr Bo vfer, recovered.”—It is alfo remarkable that according o
our author, out of 3 2-wounded perfons only fix died •, though one would be apt to think that the exceihvely
fevere ufatre they met with would have killed every one.
India.
I3S
A fourth
victory
I N D f2
lofs titan before. Undifeouraged by tills bad fucCefs,
however, he laid fiege to Vellore ; and expecting that
the relief of-it would be attempted, feized a Itrong
pafs through which he knew the Brit’Hh army mult
diredl their march. The Britilh commander accord¬
ingly advanced, and found the enemy in poffeilion of
fome very itrong grounds on both fades of a marfh
through which he was obliged to pafs. Here he was
attacked on all Tides, but principally on the rear, the
enemy directing their force principally againit the bag¬
gage and convoy of provilions deiigned for the gar-
nion. Their utmoit efforts, however, wrere unfuc-
cefsful, and Sir Eyre Coote forced his way to Vellore
in fpite of all oppoiition. Hyder Aly did not fail
to wTait his return through the fame pafs ; and having
exerted his utmoit ikill in polling his troops, attacked
him with the utmoll vigour: but though the Englilh
were affaulted in front and in both flanks at once, and
H7
And like-
wife Trin-
eomaie.
gamed by , . , "     *
the isngiifli.a ileavy cannonade kept up during the whole time of
the engagement, the Indians were at lalt defeated with
great (laughter.
By thefe fucceffes the prelidency of Madras were
row allowed fo much refpite, that an enterprife was
planned againll the Dutch fettlement of Negapatam,
lituated to the fouth of Madras, and in the neighbour¬
hood of Tanjour. A very inconliderable force, how¬
ever, could yet be fpared for this purpofe, as Hyder
though fo often defeated, was Hill extremely
Dutch fet- formidable. Sir Hedtor Munro had the management
tlement of of the expedition : and fo furious wTas the attack of
reduced^"1 t^C fa'lors» the troops left to guard the
f ucu ' avenues to the place veere defeated at the very firlt
onfet. A regular fiege enfued j wdiich, however, was
of very fliort duration, a breach being foon made and
the garrifon furrendering prifoners of war.
Ebe lofs of Negapatain was quickly followed by that
of Erincomale in Ceylon. Admiral Hughes, who had
conveyed Sir Hedtor Munro w-ith the land forces to that
place, and aflifled him with his failors, immediately
after its furrender fet fail for Trincomale, where he
arrived about the middle of January 1782. The fort
of that name was quickly reduced ; but the main
ftrength of the fettlement confifted of a fort named
OJIenburgh, the principal place on the ifland, and by
the capture of which the w7hole fettlement would be
reduced. This fort Hands on a hill which commands
the harbour, but is itfelf overlooked by another hill at
the diflance of no more than 200 yards. Though the
gaining of this poH wTas undoubtedly to be attended
with the lofs of the fort, it does not appear that the
governor even attempted to defend it. A Britilh de¬
tachment of failors and marines therefore took poffef-
lion of it, when the admiral fent a fummons of furren¬
der, reprefenting the inutility of making any farther
defence after the lofs of fuch a pofl j and being ex¬
tremely defirous oi' avoiding an effufion of blood, re¬
peated his arguments at feveral different times. The
governor, however, proving obflinate, the place was
taken by dorm, with the lofs of about 60 on the part of
the British, and very little on that of the Dutch, the
vrftors giving quarter the moment it was afked. Four
hundred Europeans were taken prifoners 5 a large quan¬
tity of ammunition and military flores, with a numerous
artillery, were found in the place; and two Indiamen
Vol. XL Part I.
17] I N D
richly laden, with a number of finall trading veffels, lucfia^
were taken in the harbour. ~“-v—~
A more formidable enemy, however, now made his A 1 1^8.
appearance on the coaH of Coromandel. This tvasSuQMnuy-
Suffrein the French admiral j who fetting out from rives with ;
his native country with 11 fhips of the line and feveral powe ful
Hout frigates, had fallen in with the Hannibal of yo'^ett ^rom
guns, and taken her when feparated from her conforts. Earol)e'
lids fliip, akrng with three others, a 74, a 64, and a
50, had been fent out to the afliflance of Sir Edwrard j
and the three lalt had the good fortune to join him
before the arrival of M. de Suffrein. The latter, fup-
pofing that he had not yet received this reinforcementr
bore down upon the Engliih fquadron at Madras, to
which place they had failed immediately after the cap¬
ture of Trincomale. Perceiving his miHake, however,
he in Hantly bore away. The Engliih admiral pur-
fued, took fix veffels, five of them Englifii prizes, and
the fixth a valuable tranfport laden wdth gunpowder
and other military Hores, befides having on board a
number of land-officers and about 300 regular troops.
This brought on an engagement, in which M. Suf¬
frein, perceiving the rear divifion of the Britilh fleet
unable to keep up with the refi, directed his force I79
principally againff it. The fhips of Admiral HughesEngage-
himfelt and Commodore King fuftained the mofl vio-ment be*
lent efforts of the French, having moftly two, and twfe“.him
fometimes three, veflels to contend with. Thus the Edward
commodore’s fhip was reduced almoff to a wreck ; but Hughes,
about fix in the evening, the wind becoming more fa¬
vourable to the Englifh, the fquadron of the enemy
w7ere obliged to draw off. The lofs of men on the
part of the Britilh amounted to little more than 130
killed and wmunded, but that of the French exceeded
250.
After the battle Sir Edward returned to Madras j
but meeting with no intelligence of Suffrein at that
place, he made the belt of his way for Trincomale,
being apprehenfive of an attack upon that place, or of
the intercepting of a convoy of Hores and reinforce¬
ments at that time expected from England. Suffrein
had indeed got intelligence of this convoy, and was at
that time on his way to intercept it. This brought
the holtile fleets again in fight of each other ; and as
the Britifh admiral had been reinforced by two fliips of
the line, he was now better able to encounter his ad- 140
verfary. A defperate battle enfued, which continued 1 Second
till towards night, when the fliips on both Tides were i0batt!e’
much (battered, that neither could renew the engage¬
ment next day.
_ Though thefe engagements produced nothing de-
cifive, they were neverthelefs of the utmofl prejudice
to the affairs of Hyder Aly, who was thus prevented
from receiving the fuccours he had been promifed
from France ; and he was Hill farther mortified by the j
defeat of his forces before Tellicherry, which place heHydet
had blocked up fince the commencement of hoHilities.-A-ly’s forces
Phis lafl misfortune was the more fenfibly felt, as au defeated at
open paffage was now left for the Englifh into thofe Ielllcher-V-
countries belt affedted to Hyder. His bad fuccefs , , 142
here, however, was in fome meafure compenfated by Brakh-1
the entire defeat of a detachment of about 2000 Eno-’. waite’s de-
lifli infantry and 300 cavalry under Colonel Braith-t^diment
waite, a brave and experienced oflicer. This detach-c“t by
F » . Eippoo
I N D [ 21
fcxfi*- merit, confifling of chofen troops from Sir Eyre Coote’s
v army, lay encamped on the banks of the Coleroon,
which forms the northern boundary of I'anjour. I ip-
poo Saib having procured exaft intelligence of the fi-
tuation of this party, formed a defign of attacking it
while no danger was fufpedled on account of the di-
llance of Hyder Aly’s army. He let out on his
defign with an army of 15,000 horfe and 5000 foot,
accompanied by a body of French regulars’, and ha¬
ving croffed the Coleroon, fuddenly furrounded the
Britilh forces on all Tides. The colonel, perceiving his
danger, formed his men into a tquare, diftributing the
artillery to the feveral fronts, and keeping his cavalry
in the .centre. In this fituation he refilled for three
days the utmod efforts of his numerous enemies, al¬
ways compelling them to retreat with great lofs. At
latt General Tally, rightly conje&uring that the
drength of the Englidr mud be exhauded and their
numbers thinned by fuch defperate fervice, propofed
that the French infantry, which was frefh and entire,
fhould attack one of the fronts of the fquare, while
the forces of Tippoo drould do the dime with the
other three. This lad attack proved fuccefsful; the
Biitidi forces were broken with great daughter, which
however was dopped by the humanity of the French
commander *, who even obtained from lippoo Saib
the care of the prifoners, and treated them with a
tendernefs and humanity they certainly would not
otherwife have experienced. A number of Britifh
officers, however, perithed in the engagement, and only
M3
Cuddalore
taken.
M4
Hyder Aly
defeated a
fifth time
by Sir iiyie
Coote.
one remained umvounded.
In the mean time, the fuccours from France, fo
long expecded by Hyder, made their appearance. As
foon as a junction was foimed, they proceeded, under
the command of M. IDuchetmn, to inved Cuddalore ;
which not being in any fituation to dand a liege', was
furrendered on capitulation. In like manner fottte
other places of fmaller confequence were reduced, un¬
til at lad being joined by Hyder’s numerous forces,
they determined to lay fiege to Vandervafh, a place of
great importance, and the lofs of which would have
been extremely' detrimental to the Englifh, This
quickly brought Sir Eyre Coote with his army to its
relief; but Hyder Aly, notwithdanding his being re¬
inforced by the French, durd not yet venture a battle
in the open field. On this the Britifh commander pro¬
ceeded to attack Arnee, the principal depofitory of Hy¬
der’s warlike dores and neceffaries. Thus the latter
was obliged to quit his advantageous ground ; but he
did fo with fuch fecrecy and fpeed, that he came upon
the Britidi army unawares while preparing for its lad
march to Arnee, now only five miles diftant. Perceiv¬
ing that the march of the Britilh troops was through
low grounds, encompaffed on mod parts with high
hills, he planted his cannon upon the latter; from
which he kept a continual and heavy fire pn the troops
below, while his numerous cavalry attacked them
on every fide. Notwithdanding all difadvantages, the
Britilh commander at lad clofed in with the enemy ;
and after an obdinate difpute completely routed them.
Neither this, however, nor any other engagement with
Hyder Aly, ever proved decifive j for as the want of
cavalry prevented the Britilh general from purfuing
his advantage, fo that ol his antagonid was fo nume-
jrous, that by it he always covered his retreats in fuch
3 J I N D
an effectual manner as to lofe but few men, and in a India.
Ih'irt time to be in a condition to a£t again on the oi- ^ ""s
fenfivc. This was remarkably the cafe at prtdnt) for
notwithdanding this defeat, which happened on the
2d of June 1782, he cut off an advanced body of the
Britifh army five days after ; and haraffed the whole
in fuch a manner, that Sir Eyre Coote, notwithdand¬
ing his fuccefs, was obliged to move nearer Madras ;
foon after which, he was obliged, on account of his bad
date of health, to relinquilh the command of the array
to General Stuart.
Hyder Aly now perceiving that he was likely to be
attended with no fuccefs by land, began to reft his
hopes on the fuccefs of the French by lea. He there¬
fore earneftly requefted M. Suffrein, who poileffed at
that time a decifive fuperiority in the number of fhips,
to lofe no time in attacking the Britilh fquadron be¬
fore it could be joined by a reinforcement which was
then on its way, and was reported to be very formi-
dable. As the French commander was by no means A third fee-
deficient in courage, a third engagement took place
on the 5th of July 1783. At this time the Britilhayd^°‘Jgc‘ ’
had the advantage of the wind, the battle was much0f the
more clofe, and the viddory more plainly on their fide. French,
It is faid indeed, that had not the wind fortunately
drifted in fuch a manner as to enable the French to
difengage their fhips, a total and ruinous defeat would
have enfued. After the engagement, the French ad¬
miral proceeded to Cuddalore, having received intelli¬
gence that a large body of French troops in tranfports
had arrived off the illand of Ceylon, in company with
three (hips of the line. As this feemed to afford hopes
of retaliation, he ufed fuch diligence in refitting his
Ihips, that the fleet was able to put to fea in the be¬
ginning of Auguft-. His intention was to make an
attempt on Trincomale ; and fo svell were his defigns
conduced, that Sir Edward received no intelligence
of the danger, till a Britilh frigate chafing a French
one, which took Ihelter with the fquadron at Trinco¬
male, difeovered it by this accident, and haftened back
with the news to Madras. It was norv, however, too 146
« late j the place was not in a condition to refill a fiege Who ne-
and the French batteries having filenced thofe of the
fort in two days, a capitulation took place on the laftcomaief
day of Augulf.
Sir Edward Hughes having been detained by con¬
trary winds, did not arrive at Trincomale before the ?
2d of September, when he had the mortification to fee
the forts in the hands of the French, and that Suffrein
was in the harbour with 15 fail of the line while he M7
had only 12. He did not hefitate at venturing an a. fourth
engagement with this inferiority, nor did M. Suffreinbattt be-
decline the combat. The event of tire battle was
no other than Ihattering the fleets and killing and ^ ^
wounding a number of men on both Tides. In this,fleet5.
however, as well as in the other engagements, the fupe¬
riority of the Englilh was very manifeft j and in en¬
tering the harbour of Trincomale the French loft a 74
gun Ihip.
The lofs of Trincomale was feverely felt by the Eng¬
lilh •, for while the French lay fafely in the harbour
refitting their fquadron, the Englilh were obliged f°r£n;rTjfrn
that purpofe to fail to Madras. Here the fleet wasfleet fazt*
aflailed by one of the moft dreadful tempefts everteredbya
known on that coaft. Trading veffels to the number dreatlf»l
0 0£teropdh
I N D [2
India, ef near 100 were wrecked, as wrell a tliofe for Madras
~l laden with rice, of which there was an extreme fcarcity
at that place. Thus the fcarcity was augmented to a
famine, which carried off vail numbers of the inhabi¬
tants before fupplies could arrive from Bengal. The
continuance of the bad weather obliged Sir Edward
with his whole fquadron to fail to Bombay ; and there
he did not arrive till towards the end of the year, when
his fquadron was fo much lhattered, that, in order to
repair it with proper expedition, he rvas obliged to di-
ilribute it between the dock-yards of Bombay and the
Portuguefe fettlernent at Goa.
In the mean time Sir Richard Bickerton arrived at
Bombay from England with five men of war, having
on board 5000 troops, after a very favourable paffage ;
having neither feen nor heard of the bad weather which
had defolated the coafts of India. It was likewife the
intention of France to fignalize the campaign of this
year by an immenfe force both by fea and land in In¬
dia. Exclufive of the forces already on the coaft of Co¬
romandel, they were to be joined by 5000 more, all
regulars, from their iflands on the African coaft. Suf-
frein was to be reinforced by feveral fhips of the line,
when it w’as hoped that a decided fuperiority at fea
would be obtained over the Englilh j w'hile their fupe-
rior numbers and artillery on fhore would render them
invincible by any force that could be brought againfl
them. To oppofe thefe defigns, it wras deemed necef-
fary by the prefulency of Bombay to make a power¬
ful diverfion on the coaft of Malabar. Here was fitua-
ted the kingdom of Myfore, the fovereignty of which
had been ufurped by Hyder Aly under the title of
Dayva, as that of the Mahrattas vras by a perfon ftyled
Paijhwa. This kingdom is nearly in the fame parallel
with Arcot. To the northward is the kingdom of
Canara, which is faid to have been the favourite pof-
feftion of Hyder Aly ; the name of its capital is Bid-
nore, which alfo gives name to an extenfive territory,
*49 and was by Hyder changed to that of Hydernagur,
Exped tion The expedition had been fet on foot as early as the end
•fColorel of the year 17815 a ftrong body of forces under the
command of Colonel Humberftone had taken the two
cities of Calicut and Panyan, befides others of leffer
note, and penetrated into the inland country, which
is there difficult and dangerous. Having here made
himfelf mailer of a place called Mongarry Cotta, of
which the fituation commanded the entrance into the
inner parts of the country, he proceeded to attack Pa-
latacherry, a confiderable town at fome miles diftance 5
but being fuddenly environed with a numerous and ho-
flile army, inftead of making himfelf mailer of the
place, it was not w ithout the utmoft difficulty that he
made his efcape after lofing all his provilions and bag¬
gage. A great army, confifting of 20,000 foot and
10,000 horfe, under Tippoo Saib, alio advan.ed againft
him with fuch celerity, that the colonel had only time
to retreat to Panyan, where he was luper(eded in the
-command by Colonel Macleod ; and foon after the
place was invefted by the forces of the enemy, among
whom was General Tally with a confiderable body of
hrench. Two Bntilh frigates, however, having come
to the alfiftance of the place, rendered all the attempts
of the enemy to reduce it abortive. At laft Tippoo
Saib, impatient of delay, made a vigorous effort againfl:
the Bntilh lines; but though both the Indian and
India
1.50
Hucnber-
jlone.
19 ] I N D
French commanders behaved wuth great bravery, the
attack not only proved unfuccefsful, but they w7ere re¬
pulled with fuch lofs as determined Tippoo to abandon
the liege of the place, and retire beyond the river of
Panyan.
As foon as the prefidency of Bombay were acquaint- Unform¬
ed with the fuccefs of Colonel Humberftone, General
Matthews was difpatched to his alfiftance with a power-nlerai Mat¬
ful reinforcement. This expedition, which began the thews,
campaign of 1783 in the kingdom of Canara, has been
related with circumftances fo difgraceful, and fo ex¬
ceedingly contrary to the behaviour for which the Bn¬
tilh troops are remarkable, that we are totally at a lofs
to account for them. On the one hand, it feems fur-
prifing how the national chara£ier could be forfeited
by a particular body, and not by any other part of the
army 5 and on the other, it feems equally furprifing
why fuch calumnies (if we fuppofe them to be fo)
fliould have arifen againft this particular body and no
other part of the army. Such accounts of it, however, The army
were publilhed as railed the indignation of the military charSed
gentlemen, who thought proper to publilh a vindica-'*1!h Sr<:at
tion of themfelves. In the Annual Regifters, frbmtlrsexpediV
whence, next to the gazettes and newfpapers, the ge-tion.
nerality receive what they look upon to be authentic
intelligence, the charafler of this army is treated with
the high eft afperity. “ In the ftory of the conqueft
and recovery of Canara (fays the New Annual Regi-
fter), the Spaniards may be faid to be brought a Se¬
cond time upon the feene, hut not to fit down in fal¬
len and infolen”; profperity after all their crimes. The
Spaniards of Britain were overtaken in the midft of
their career j and he who is more of a man than an
Englishman, will rejoice in the irregular and unmea¬
sured, but at the fame time the juft and merited, ven¬
geance that was inllifled upon them by the prince
whofe dominions they were ravaging !” In fupport
of this dreadful exclamation the following account is
given of the expedition. It began with the putting in
execution a deftgn formed by General Matthews of
carrying the war into the heart of Hyder Aly’s domi¬
nions. For this purpofe the Englilh invefted the city
or Onore, lituated about 300 miles to the fouth of
Bombay, and one of the principal places in the country
of Canara. “ It was taken by affault (fays Dr An¬
drews) with great flaughter, and plundered w’ith cir¬
cumftances of avarice and rapine that difgraced the vic¬
tors ; among whom, at the fame time, great difeontents
arofe concerning the divilion of the fpoil.” “ No quar¬
ter^ (fays the Annual Regifter) ivas given by the vic¬
torious Engliih 5 every man they met was put to the
fword. Upon this occafion we beg leave to tran-
feribe three lines from the private letter of one of the
officers concerned in the expedition. ‘ The carnage
(fays he) w7as great : we trampled thick on the bo¬
dies that were ftrewed in the way. It was rather
£h c’ring to humanity; but fuch are only fecondary
C( nfx ierations, and to a foldier, whofe bofom glows
with heroic glory, they are thought only accidents of
courfe ; his zeal makes him afpire after farther vic¬
tory.’ This part of the peninfula had hitherto been
untouched by the barbarous and unfparing hands of
Europeans, and of confequence was full of riches and
fplendor. In the fortrefs of Onore were found fums
of money to an unknown amount, befides jewels and
E e 2 diamonds.
1 N E) [2
diamonds. A confidevable part of this appears to have
been fecured as private plunder by General Matthews.
The complaints of the military were loud ; they
thought, and naturally, that the acquifition of riches
was the fair and reafonable confequence of the perpe¬
tration of bloodfhed. But their commander turned a
deaf ear to their reprefentations •, and haftened, by add¬
ing new laurels to his fame, to hide the flander that
might othervvife reft upon him.”
From Onore the army proceeded to the neareft for-
treffes on the fea coaft, More and Cundapour. Here
they were joined by a reinforcemenr from Bombay un¬
der the command of Colonels Macleod and Humber-
ftone, with pofitive orders to proceed for Bidnore or
Hydernagur the capital of Canara. On this General
Matthews marched for the mountains called the Ghauts,
where there is a pafs three miles in length, though only
eight feet wide, and which was then ftrongly fortified
and defended by a vaft number of the natives. “ The
Englifti (fay our authors), however, had already ob¬
tained a confiderable reputation by their executions;
and the ufe of the bayonet, the moft fatal inftrument
of war, and which was employed by them on all oc-
cafions, created fuch an extreme terror in the enemy,
as to enable them to furmount this otherwife impreg¬
nable defile.”
The gaining of this pafs laid open the wray to Bid¬
nore the capital, to which a fummons was now' fent.
An anfwer was returned, that the place was ready to
fubrnit, provided the inhabitants wTere not molefted,
and the governor wras permitted to fecure his property.
The wealth of this city was undoubtedly great, but
the eftimates of its amount are very different. By the
accounts of Bombay it was ftated only at 175,000!.
while the officers concerned in the expedition fay that
it was not lefs than i,2oo,ocol. or even 1,920,000!. ;
and even this w’as only public property 5 that feized
upon by the foldiers, and which belonged to private
perfons, was undoubtedly very confiderable alfo.
This treafure was at firft ftiown by the genera! to
his officers, and declared to belong to the army j but
lie afterwards told them that it w7as all the property of
the Mohammedan governor, and had been fecured to
him by the terms of the furrender. It was therefore
fent to Cundapour under the convoy of Lieutenant
Matthew's, brother to the general, to be thence tranf-
mitted to Bombay ; but whether any part of it ever
reached that fettlement or not was never known. The
difeontents of the army were now carried to the ut-
rnoft height ; and the conteft became fo ferious, that
Colonels Macleod, Humberftone, and Shaw, quitted the
fervice altogether, and returned to Bombay. The of¬
ficers charged their general with the moft infatiable
and ffiameful avarice} while he, in return, accufed his
whole army of doing every thing difrefpedlful and in¬
jurious to him •, of paying no regard to order and dif-
cipline, and of becoming loofe and unfeeling as the
moft licentious freebooters.
From Bidnore detachments were fent to reduce fe-
veral fortreffes, the principal of which was Ananpour
or Anantpore. Here orders were iflued for a llorm
and no quarter. Every man in the place was put to
death, except one horfeman who made his efcape after
being wounded in three places. “ The w'emen, un¬
willing to be feparated- from their relations, or expo-
20 ] r n £>
fed to the brutal licentioufnefs of the foldiery, threw India,
themfelves in multitudes into the moats with which “—
the fort was furrounded. Four hundred beautiful wo¬
men, pierced wdth the bayonet, and expiring in one
another’s arms, were in this fituation treated by the
Britiih with every kind of outrage.”
This exploit was fucceeded by the reduclion of
Carwa and Mangalore, which completed the redudlion
ot Canara, when General Matthews put his army in
cantonments for the rainy feafon.
This rapid fuccefs was owing to the death of Hyder
Aly, which happened in the end of the year 1782.
His fon Tippoo Saib, however, having taken poffef-
fion of the government, and fettled his affairs as well
as time would allow, inftantly refumed his military
operations. On the 7th of April 1783 he made his
appearance before Bidnore, fo that General Matthews
had fcarce time to colledl a force of 2000 men, and
to write to Bombay for a reinforcement. But, how¬
ever neceffary the latter muft have been in his circum-
ftances, the prefidtney were fo much prejudiced againft
him by the unfavourable reports of his officers, that
they fufpended him from his commiffion, appoint¬
ing Colonel Macleod to fucceed to the command of
the army.
Tippoo Saib now advanced with a vaft army, fup-
pofed not to be fewer than 150,000 men, covering the
hills on each fide of the metropolis as far as the eye
could reach. The army of General Matthews, alto¬
gether unable to cope with (rich a force, was quickly
driven from the town, and forced to take refuge in
the citadel. Tippoo having cut off their retreat by
gaining poffeffion of the Ghauts, laid clofe fiege to
the fortrefs which in lefs than a fortnight was obliged
to capitulate. The terms propofed were, that all pub¬
lic property fhould remain in the fort ; that the Eng¬
lifti ftiould engage not to aft againft Tippoo for a fti-
pidated time 5 that they fhould march out with the
honours of war ; that they ihould pile their arms, and
have full liberty to proceed unmolefted with their pri¬
vate property to the fea-coaft, from thence to embark
for Bombay •, and in this capitulation the garnfons of
Ananpour and other inland fortreffes were alfo in¬
cluded.
All thefe terms were broken by Tippoo, who faid
that they had forfeited their title to liberty by a breach
of the articles of capitulation, in embezzling and" fe-
creting the public money, which was all, in good faith,
to be delivered up. That this was really the cafe Items
to be univerfally acknowledged. In the Annual Re-
gifter wre are told, that “ to prevent too much money
being found in the poffeffion of one man, the general
ordered bis officers to draw' on the paymafter-general
for whatever films they wanted. Vv'hen the fort was
furrendered to the fultan, there was not a fingle rupee
found in it.” By this circumftance the fate of the
garrifon was decided. General Matthews was fent for
next morning to a conference. He was not, however,
admitted to his prefence, but immediately thrown into
chains. Moft of the other principal officers w ere, on
various pretences, feparated from the army. The ge¬
neral and his companions were conduced to Seringa-
patam the capital of Myfore ; and after having expe¬
rienced a variety of feverities, were at laft put to death
by pcitbn. In this manner the general tmd 20 officers
perilfied.
I N D
India. periilieJ. The poifon adminiftered was the milk of the
" v ' ’ cocoa-tree, which is faid to be very deadly.
The above account was repeatedly complained of as
partial, and at lalt openly contradicted in a pamphlet
entitled “ A Vindication of the Conduct of the JLng-
liih Forces” employed in that expedition, and publiihed
by order of the Ealt India Company. In this pamph¬
let the circumftance moft found fault with was that
regarding the women at Anantpore, which was poli-
tively contradicted. On this account, therefore, the
publilhers of the above-mentioned work retract that
part of their narrative, as being founded in mifrepre-
fentation. Notwithltanding this vindication, however,
they {till draw7 the followdng conclufions. “ It is al¬
ready fufficiently evident, how little has been effected
by this vindication of the ^Bombay officers. The great
outlines of the expedition remain unaltered. It is {till
true that a remarkable degree of feverity was employed
in the held ) that, in the capture of the fortreffes of
Canara, the principle of a ftorm and no quarter was
very frequently applied •, and that the acquihtion of
money was too much the governing object in every
flage of the undertaking. The vindication of the of¬
ficers has therefore done them little fervice ; and it
happens here, as it generally does in the cafe of an im-
perfeft reply, that the majority of the facts are rather
llrengthened and demonltrated by the attempt to refute
them. With refpedt to the concluhon of the ftory,
the treafures of liydernagur, and the charge brought
againft them by Tippoo, that they had broken the
terms of the capitulation, and that when the fort w;as
furrendered not a rupee was to be found in it ; thefe
circumftances are palled over by the officers in the pro-
foundefl filence. It was this that roufed the fultan to
vengeance 5 and it is to this that he appeals for his juf-
tification in difregarding a capitulation which had been
firh diiTolved by the vanquifhed Engliffi.”
The vindication above alluded to was figned by one
major and 52 fubaltern officers. It feems not, how¬
ever, to have given entire fatisfaflion to the military
gentlemen themfelves, as other vindications have ap¬
peared, faid to be written by officers 5 but thefe being
anonymous, can be fuppofed to add very little weight
to that already mentioned, where fuch a refpedlable
body have figned their names. We fliall therefore
drop a fubjecl fo difagreeable, and the invefligation of
which at the fame time is entirely foreign to the plan
of this work.
It now remains to give feme account of the w'ar with
the Mahrattas, begun, as was formerly hinted, on ac¬
count of the protection afforded to the affaffin Roga-
Account of naut-row. This man had formerly obliged the Mogul
rheMahrat-to take flicker in the E-ngliffi faftory at Bengal ; but
t.a war, being unable to keep up his credit among his country¬
men, was expelled as already related. On his arrival
at Bombay, an alliance was formed betwixt him and
the Englith government ; by which the latter engaged
to replace him in the Mahratta regency in confidera-
tion of fome valuable ceffions of territory. The fu-
preme council of Bengal, howrever, difowned this trea¬
ty, and concluded one with the Mahrattas in the month
of March 1776; by which it was agreed that they
ffiould provide for Ragobah’s fubfiilence according to
hfs rapk, cn condition of his refiding in their country.
1 N D
This being not at all agreeable to Ragobab, he fled India,
once more to Bombay, where a new confederacy was ”~v
entered into for his refloration. The council of Bengal
approved of this on account of the approaching rupture
with France ; and in confequence of this, a detachment
was, in February 1778, ordered to march acrofs the
continent of India. By fome mifmanagement in this
expedition, the whole army wras obliged to capitulate
wdth the Mahratta general on the 9th of January 1779.
One of the terms of the capitulation was, that a body
of troops which were advancing on the other fide
ffiould be obliged to return to Bengal. But General
Goddard, the commgnder of thefe forces, denying the
right of the council of Bengal to remand him, proceed¬
ed on his inarch, and arrived on the 18th of February.
Here he received orders to conclude a new treaty, if it
could be obtained on eafier terms than that of the capi¬
tulation, by which it had been engaged to cede all our
acquifitions in the country of the Mahrattas.
Such extreme difregard to any flipulations that
could be made, undoubtedly provoked the Mahrattas,.
and induced them to join in the confederacy with Hy-
der A ly already mentioned. The war, how'ever, was
fucceTsfully begun by General Goddard in January 1780.
In three months he reduced the whole province of Gu-
zerat. Madajee Scindia the Mahratta general advan¬
ced to oppofe him ; but as he did not choofe to venture
a battle, the Engliih general itormed his camp, and
totally routed him. Other exploits u’ere performed in
the coiufe of this campaign *, during which the gover¬
nor-general (Mr Haftings) feeing no hopes of an accom¬
modation, entered into a treaty with the rajah of Go-
hud, and with his confent Major Popham reduced a
fortrefs in his dominions named GuallLr* garrifoned
by the Mahrattas, and hitherto reckoned impreg¬
nable.
Thefe fuccefles were followed by the dreadful incur-
fions of Hyder Aly already related, which put a Hop
to the conquefis of General Goddard 5 all the forces he
could {pare being required to affifl: the army under Sir
Eyre Coote. The laid exploit of General Goddard was
the reduclion of the ifland ot Salfette, and of a ftrong
fortrefs named Baffein in its neighbourhood. The army
of Scindia, confiding of 30,000 men, w7as alfo defeated
this year by Colonel Carnac ; and the Mahrattas, dif-
heartened by their Ioffes, coniented to a feparate peace
with the Englifh, leaving Hyder Aly to manage the
.war as he thought proper.
In the mean time, however, the expences incurred
by thefe wars were lb high, that Mr Haftings, who
w7as obliged to furnifh them fome how or other, was re¬
duced to the greateft difficulties. For this purpofe not
only all the treafure of Bengal was exhaufted, but it
was found neceflary to draw extraordinary contributions
from the Biitifh allies, which was productive of many
difagreeable circumftance-s. One of the molt remark- ,
able was the revolt of Benares. The rajah of this Benares,
country had formerly put himfelf under the protection
of the Engli, Hi, who on their part agreed to fecure his
dominions to him on condition of his paying an annual
fubfidy to the nabob of Oude. In 1770 the rajah died,
and was fucceeded by his fon Cheit Sing, who held the
fovereignty at the time we fpeak of. On the death of
the nabob in 1775? a nevv treaty was made with his-
fucceffor,,,
[ 221 ]
i n r> [2
fucceffor, by which the fovereignty of Benares was
transferred to the Eaft India Company, an acquifition
equivalent to 240,000!. per annum ; at the fame time
that the fubfidy paid by Sujah Dowla, and which, by
JLord Clive, had been fixed at 36,000!. and afterwards
raifed to 252,000!. was now augmented to 312,000!.
per annum.
On receiving intelligence in July 1778, that war had
aelually commenced between France and England,
Cheit Sing was required to pay 50,000!. as his lhare of
the public burdens. Such a demand was paid with ex¬
treme reluclance on the part of a prince who already
contributed 240,000!. and probably thought that an
abundant equivalent for the proteflion enjoyed. The
fame requifition, however, was made the two fucceed-
ing years, but with a promife that the demand Ihould
ceafe when peace was reftored. Inlfead of any prelent
alleviation, however, a body of troops was alfo quar¬
tered upon him, and he was likewife obliged to pay for
their maintenance, left he Ihould not voluntarily pay
the additional 50,000!. In November 1780, in addi¬
tion to all thefe demands, he was alfo required to fend
into the field fuch a body of horfe as he could fpare ;
but this requifition, owing to fome mifunderftanding, was
never complied with. '
In July 1781 Mr Haftings having, it is faid, recei¬
ved fome intelligence that the opprefled rajah meditated
rebellion, fet out on a viiit to the nabob of Oude, and
in his way propofed to clear up the mifunderftanding
with him. The method by which he intended to clear
up this mifunderftanding was to lay a fine upon the poor
prince of 400,000!. or 500,000!. •, and as a reafon for
doing fo, it was alleged that the late rajah had left a
million fterling in his treafury ; a fum which was con¬
tinually incr*sfing. Cheit Sing advanced to the bor¬
ders of his territories to meet the governor general, be¬
haved with all imaginable fubmiftion ; and having got
private intelligence of what was meditated againft him,
offered to pay down 200,000!. This was refufed ; and
the governor-general having reached the capital, forbade
the rajah his pvefence, and by a letter acquainted him
with his caufes of complaint. Cheit Sing fent a very
fubmiftive anfwer ; but as he endeavoured to exculpate
himfelf, Mr Haftings was fo far from being fatisfied,
that he put the prince under an arreft.
Such an unheard-of proceeding excited the utmoft
furprife and refentment in fubjefts accuftomed to re¬
gard their fovereign with a degree of reverence little
ihort of adoration. On the very day of the arreft they
affembled tumultuoufly, cut in pieces the guard which
had been fet on the palace, and carried off their prince
in triumph. It does not appear, however, that this
was any other than a tranfitory tumult ; for though they
could eafily have cut off the governor-general, they
made no attempt againft him. Cheit Sing protefted
his innocence, and made the moft unlimited offers of
fubmiffion, but all in vain. His government was de¬
clared vacant, and the zemindary beftowed on the next
heir ; the annual fubfidy to the government of Bengal
xvas augmented from 240,000!. to 400,000!. annually.
The miferable rajah was forced to fty his country ; and
his mother, though promifed leave to retire upon condi¬
tions, was attacked in her retreat and plundered by the
foldiers. After all his endeavours to procure money,
however, Mr Haftings found this adventure turn out
3
22 j INI)
much lefs profitable than he had expe£led ; for the trea-
fury of the fugitive prince was feized and retained by '’■""“""v
the foldiery. ^ I'^e,
As to the nabob of Oude, a newT treaty was conchid-^^5 w;th
ed with him 5 the defign of which was evidently to eafe the nabob
him of fome of the burdens to which he tvaS at that time Oude.
fubjefled. Part of the Britifn troops were therefore
withdrawn from his dominions. As Fizulla Kuan, the
moft profperous of his dependents, had been called up¬
on to furnilh a body of 5000 horle to join the nabob’s
army, and had not complied with the requifition, the
guarantee of his treaty with the nabob, formerly execu¬
ted, was withdrawn ; but it being afterwards difeovered.
that his territory was not equivalent to the claims of the
governor, the treaty wras renewed on payment of a
flight fine. As the widow of Sujah Dowla was fufpetft-
ed of favouring the late rajah Cheit Sing, the reigning
prince was allowed to reclaim the treafures of his father
in her pofteffion, on condition of paying her a certain
llipulated allowance annually. The treafures were
feized as payment of the debts of the prince to the
company.
Hoftilities continued in India between the French
and Englifii till the year 1783 was far advanced, and
long after tranquillity had been reftored to other parts
of the world. In the beginning of the feafon for atftion
the governor and council of Bengal determined to fend
an ample fupply to the prefidency of Madras, that they
might be enabled to put an end to the war, which Tip-
poo feemed willing to profecute with even more vigour
than his father had done. For this purpofe Sir Eyre
Coote, who, for his health, had gone to Bengal by
fea, fet fail once more for Madras, being intrufted with
a large fum of money for the neceffary expences of
the war. In his paffage he was chaced for forty-
eight hours by two French men of war. The folicitude
and fatigue he underwent during this time, being almoft
conftantly upon deck, occafioned a relapfe, fo that he
died in two days after his arrival at Madras. His
death was greatly lamented, as the greateft expectations
had been formed of a happy conclufion being put
to the war by his extraordinary military talents, for
which he had already acquired fo great a reputation in
India.
The invafion of Tippoo’s dominions having called
him off from the Carnatic, General Stuart took the op¬
portunity of attacking him in another quarter. Colo¬
nel Fullarton was defpatched w.th a large body of
troops to invade the province of Coimbatour. This
he executed with great fuccefs •, oven aiming the coun¬
try, taking feveral fortrefles, and making a very alarm¬
ing diverfion on this fide of Tippoo’s dominions. Ge¬
neral Stuart, however, having ftill greater defigns in
view’, was obliged to recal this gentleman in the midlt
of his fuccefs. The fiege of the itrong fortrefs of Cud - Cuddalore
dalore was the operation which now engaged his atten-I1;iiucc€&-
tion. It was now become the principal place of arms^J1^
belonging to the French •, was ftrongly fortified, and tv 1(5 *
garrifoned by a numerous body of the heft troops in ^ n‘
France, as well as a confiderahle number of Tmpoo’s
choiceft forces. The fiege therefore proved fo diftlcult,
that though the Englilh difplayed the utmoft valour
and military {kill, they were not able to reduce tie
place until hoftilities were interrupted by the news of a
general pacification having taken place in Europe. In
this
I N D [2
India, this Gege a remarkable circumflaitcc took place, viz.
" v ' that of a corps of Sepoy grenadiers encountering and
overcoming the French troops oppofed to them with
fixed bayonets. For this remarkable inftance of valour,
they not only received the higheft applaufe at the time,
but provifion was made for themfelves and families by
the prelidencies to which they belonged.
After the reduction of Hydernagur, and the deftruc-
tion of the army under General Matthews, the Fng-
lilh poffeiled only three places of confequence in the
kingdom of Canara. Thefe were Mangalore, Onore,
and Carwa. The liege of all thefe places was underta¬
ken at once. Mangalore, the principal port in the
country, was defended by a very numerous garrifon un¬
der Major Campbell. Tippoo fat down before it on
the 19th of May ; and the attack and defence were
both conduced with the greateil fpirit and adlivity.
N otwithilanding the utmofl; elforts of the befiegers,
however, and that the garrifon were reduced to the laft
extremity for want of provilions, they held out in fpite
of every difficulty, until the general pacification being
concluded, the place was afterwards delivered up. In
other parts nothing more happened than an indecifive
engagement between M. Suffrein and Admiral Hughes ;
fo that the Britiffi empire in Bengal was for that time
fully edpblifhed, and continued unmolelled by foreign
enemies, till the ambition of Tippoo Saib again promp¬
ted him to invade the territories of the nabob, an ally
of Britain. This again brought on a war with that
reftlefs, but able prince ; in this war the Britiffi were
joined by the Mahrattas, and the conduct of it wasen-
trulled to Lord Cornwallis.
Among the various ufurpers who fuddenlv rofe to the
rank of fovereign princes on the fall of the Mogul em¬
pire, Ilyder Aly was the moft fuccefsful. A maker in
diffimulation and treachery, he laboured, while in a
humble ftation, to acquire the confidence of his fuperi-
ors, that he might the more completely betray them.
Thefe qualities, fo neceffary to a fuccefsful ufurper, were
in time accompanied with confiderable military fki.U,
and great talents for government. Hence the power
which he at firft fo treacheroufly obtained, was foon
augmented by frefli acquifitions j and the territories
which he conquered were governed with a fyfiematic
arrangement and rigorous juflice, which fpeedily aug¬
mented their population, and increafed his own re-
15S fources.
and of lip- [jjs fori) Tippoo Sultan, though far inferior to his
jrf.o , u tan. fatper jn t|je art; Df government, in moderation, and in
the general fteadinefs of his charafter, was, however,
diftinguifhed in India as an excellent officer and intre¬
pid warrior j qualities which effeflually fficured him the
confidence of his troops. The operation of the fyftem
eilablilhed by his father, and the warlike complexion
of Ins own chara£ler, continued to fupport the general
profnerity of his dominions, which were enlarged on
ail tides by conquefis from his neighbours, and were
ftrengthened by a great number of the molt impregnable
fortreffes in the peninfula.
Hence the power ot the Myforean kings, which in
its rire had been often combated, and fometimes de¬
feated by the Mahrattas, at laid acquired a decided af-
cendency in the fouth of India. The difeipline and fi¬
delity of their troops, till iheir late aggreflions on the
Britiffi, had conftantly been increafing in reputation )
H7
CharaAer
of Hyder
Aly,
23 ] I N D
and fully evinced the excellent regulations which had India,
been elfabliffied for the army. The government
both princes was ftridl;; that of the lalt, violent and ar¬
bitrary. It was kill, however, the defpotifm of an
able and warlike fovereign, who may rigoroully check,
but does not dekroy thofe fubje&s which muk form the
means of his future aggrandifement.
From thefe caules the extenhve territory of the My-
fore and its dependencies had not, in the courfe of ma¬
ny years, fuffered materially, cither from infurredtion
or external invafion ;—a felicity but rarely experienced
in any quarter of India. When they were invaded by
the Britiffi and their allies, under the conducl of Lord
Cornwallis, the whole country was found in a high
kate of cultivation, and filled with inhabitants. The
regular army confiked of 70,000 men ; and the troops
employed in the garrifons, in the police, and in the
collection of revenue, amounted, by the molt authen¬
tic accounts, to twice that number. This vak eka-
bliffiment was fo completely furniffied with artillery in
the numerous forts, and in the field, that upwards of
400 cannon were found in the outworks of the capital
alone. The mok frequent bar to the efficiency of na¬
tive armies, is the want of regular pay : an obkacle
the provident fultan had removed, by gradually amaf-
kng vak treafures, which he fecuied in the forts, or in
the capital ; and by improving his revenue, which
amounted annually to upwards of three millions kerling.
The power and refources of the Myforean dominions,
thus formidable in themfelves, cannot be fairly ekimat-
ed, unlefs we take into account their advantageous po-
ktion and the charafter of the fovereign. Lying in the
heart of the Deccan, and krengthened by innumerable
forts, they command the adjoining frontiers of all
their neighbours ; while the reklefs and enterprifing
fpirit of the prince has long obliged all around him to
keep m a kate of conkant military preparation, to them
nearly as expenkve as that of a&ual war. Few years
were fuffered to elapfe, in which their territories were
not either menaced or actually invaded. The open and
defencelefs frontier of the Carnatic was frequently the
objeck of thefe incurfions *, and the territory of our ally,
the nabob of Arcot, had often fullered devakations
that are kill remembered with Horror. The Britiffi,
who were bound by treaty to be the protectors of this
prince, had their own territories plundered extenfivelyj
and, on one occafion, had been forced to fubmit to an
ignominious peace, which was dictated to them at the
gates of Madras.
O • • I KG
The French officers in India, many of whom had Influence cl
long been entertained in the fervice ot Tippoo, hadr e '•ench
communicated to his policy that marked hokility againftove ^
the Britilh nation, by which it was fo peculiarly dikin-latter*
guiffied. A fplendid embaffy, which had been difpatch-
ed to France, retu-ned previous to 1789, before the
. breaking out of the late war ; which mu be regarded
as the commencement of a regular* fykem of hokility
for the entire overthrow i f the Britilh power in the
eak.
Although the events of the French revolution ope¬
rated to divert their attention from profecuting the ob-
jeiks of this new alliance, the power of Tippoo had
become fo form dable to the Britilh government, that
the revenues of Madras and Bombay were inadequate
to fopport the forces necefiary for their defence. Large
fupplies
I N D
[ 224 ]
I N D
160
His excef-
five ambi¬
tion unites
different
ftates a-
gainfl him.
flip plies botli of troops and of money were required from
Europe j and experience had fully proved, that unlefs
the power of the kings of Mylore was reduced, the
Britilh poflefiions in the call could not be retained with¬
out incurring an annual lofs to the ftate.
Happily the power, talents, and ambition of the pre-
fent fuhan were fully known to the whole of India.
His views of univerfal conquefl: had alarmed all the
native powers of the peninlula 5 and both the Nizam
and the Mahrattas w’ere roufed to combine for their
own defence. Tippoo was the firft Mohammedan
prince, fince the eflablifhment of the Mogul empire,
who openly difclaimed the authority of the king of
Delhi, or Great Mogul. He was the firil alfo to im-
prefs coin with his own titles; a mark of difrefpe6l
which none of the native governments had ever {hewn.
The great feal which he adopted foon after his father’s
death, and which he affixed to all his public deeds, de¬
clared him to be “ the meffenger of the true faith,” and
announced his ambition to appear as a prophet as well
as conqueror. In the fpirit of eaftern vanity, he not
only declared himfelf the greateft king on earth, but
announced himfelf to be the reftorer of the Mohamme¬
dan faith ; and to avail himfelf of the enthufiafm of his
feft, he invites all true Muffulmans to join his ftand-
ard, and not only to drive the European infidels out of
India, but to eftabliffi the empire of Mohammed over
the wrorld.
An ambition fo openly avowed, and to an extent fo
inordinate, created immediate alarm among the native
powers of India. It rendered an union peculiarly necef-
fary between the Nizam and the Mahrattfts ; ftates
who dift’ered in religion, in government, and in every
point of intereft, except that fear, which combined
them againfl this powerful adverlary, who wras ever
ready to attack them, and who, in faft, already com¬
manded their fouthern frontier.
The policy of the Britiffi, wdio had earlier forefeen
the danger, led them to adopt a Hill more vigorous
preparation than the native powers. Four additional
regiments had been raifed in Europe, and fent to India
under General Abercromby and Colonel Mufgrave ;
and as early as 1788, there were in that country thir¬
teen European battalions, confiffiing of 8000 men, be-
fides the troops in the company’s eftabliffiment. Earl
Cornwallis, and feveral of the firft officers in the Bri-
tifti fervice, were appointed to command them, under
a new fyftem, by which the powers of the governor-
general and commander in chief were united in the
fame perfon. Thus the counteraction of different au¬
thorities was avoided, and every advantage fecured
which might give efficiency to the operations of war¬
fare.
Happily for the execution of thofe views of defence,
the climate of the Myfore, like all the central parts of
the peninfula of India, is temperate and healthy, in a
degree fuperior to that of any other region of the globe
lying within the tropics. The monfoons which deluge
the coafts of Malabar and Coromandel, have their force
broken as they approach the high mountains of the in¬
terior, where they fall out in {bowers, which, though
heavy, are not commonly of long continuance. The
verdure of the country is thus preferved $ and the tem¬
perature of the climate is moderated throughout almoft
the whole year. The Britiffi army was therefore able
to remain conftantly in the field, during the whole tvar j Inclfa.
and although they did not enter into cantonments, or
leave their tents, yet the health of the troops did not
materially fuffer. j6t
The military operations againft Tippoo may there-Operat'ons
fore be divided into campaigns, not fo much from the
change of feafon, as from the fuccefs or failure of the1^”^11”1
feveral plans of attack that were carried on againft that
prince. The firft campaign commenced in the month
of June 1790, and was diredled to the fouthern part of
the peninfula, with a view to relieve the rajah of Tra-
vancore, whofe country had already been attacked by
the fultan. During it, the main army was commanded
by General Meadow's ; and before the end of the year,
it effedled the reduefion of his rich provinces below the
mountains *, while the Bombay troops, under General
Abercromby, conquered the valuable diftridls below
the Ghauts on the weft and north, as far as the river
Baliapatam.
The fecond campaign wTas carried on by Earl Corn¬
wallis in the heart of Tippoo’s dominions. 'Though
unfuccefsful in effedling its ultimate objedt, it was dif-
tinguiftied by the capture of the important fortrefs of
Bangalore in the interior of the country j an event
which fixed the feat of war in the enemies territory,
and wjas decifive of its final fuccefs. A fuccefsful battle
was alfo fought in the vicinity of Seringapatam 5 and a
demonftration made againft that capital, wffiich, from
the advanced feafon and the fwelling of the Cavery,
proved abortive.
The laft failure, wffiich muft in part be aferibed to
the delay of the Mahratta armies, and the want of pro-
vifions, was fpeedily followed by the arrival of thefe
allies, and by preparations for a freffi campaign. As
thefe new efforts completely humbled the fultan, and
produced a fuccefsful termination of hoftilities, it is ne-
ceffary to detail them more particularly.
The feafon of the year,- which, after the battle in
1791, prevented an immediate attack of Seringapatam,
wTas alfo unfavourable to the numerous draught cattle
belonging to the army. They were infedled with an
epidemic diforder, wffiich was aggravated by famine,
and killed them in vaft numbers •, while the remainder,
from difeafe and hunger, became unfit for fervice. Mean¬
while the fcarcity of grain, of arrack, and every article
of fubfiftence, daily increafed : this fcarcity became at
laft fo urgent, that the camp followers, which in India
are four times as numerous as the fighting men, were
reduced to the neceftity of devouring the putrid flelh of
the dead bullocks j and to add to all thefe calamities,
the fmallpox unfortunately raged in the camp.
Similar diftrefies were fuffered by the Bombay army,
who, with infinite labour, had dragged their artillery
for 50 miles through the moft fteep and difficult paffes,
in order to co-operate wffiffi Lord Cornwallis. Unable
to form a jundtion, from the fwelling of the Cavery
and the badnefs of the roads, they were compelled to
retrace their fteps over thofe vaft wmody mountains,
wffiich form the immenfe and impregnable barrier be¬
tween the kingdom of Myfore and the Malabar coaft.
In this perilous retreat, the battering train of both ar¬
mies was unavoidably loft, being too unwieldy to be
moved by the fmall portion of draught cattle wffiich
nowT furvived •, upwards of 40,000 had already periffied
fince the commencement of the campaign.
Difappointed
I N D [2
India. Difappolutcd of the relief and a Alliance which the
1 junilion of the Bombay troops might have afforded, the
Diftrefs of P0^1^011 °f ^)e raain army became a fcene of the greateft
t)ie aimj. diftrefs. The tents and clothing of the troops, as well as
their provifions, were nearly worn out. Great part of the
horfes of the cavalry were fo far reduced by want and fa¬
tigue, that they were unable to carry their riders. The
ground at Caniambaddy, where it had encamped for a
few days to favour the jundlion, or to protedl the re¬
treat, of General Abercromby, was covered to an ex¬
tent of feveral miles, with the carcafes of the cattle and
horfes; and the laft fight of the gun carriages, carts,
and ftores of the battering train, left in flames, was the
melancholy fpedacle which the troops beheld, as they
paffed along, on quitting this deadly camp.
Fortunately for them in this dreadful fituation, they
were met, before they had finilhed the firll day’s
march, by the allied force of the Mahrattas, under
Purferam Bow and Hurry Punt. Every defpatch fent
to thefe chiefs had been intercepted by the vigilance of
the enemy. They were aftoniihed when they learned
the difatters which had been occafioned by their delay :
their arrival, which evinced their fincerity in the caufe,
produced general fatisfadion in the Britilh camp, and
a convidion, that the ruin of the fultan, though de¬
layed, mull now become certain and inevitable. Tip-
poo himlelf, on feeing his enemies firm and adive in
their union, was not infenfible to the dangers that
awaited him. Before the allied armies left the vicinity
of his capital to forward their preparations for a new
campaign, he made overtures to Lord Cornwallis for
the conclufion of a peace; but that nobleman would
liften to no terms of accommodation in which his allies
were not included, and which were not preceded by
the releafe of all the prifoners that had been detained
during the prefent and former wars.
Jundion The arrival of the Mahratta troops, amounting to
Wuh the 32,000 cavalry, however fortunate it might be deemed
Mahrattas. t]ie critical moment in which it happened, brought
little additional effedive ftrength to the allied army.
Their battalions were unwieldy, irregular, and ill-dif-
ciplined : their force had declined as much as Tippoo’s
had advanced in improvement; and they were at pre¬
fent far inferior to thofe troops who, under Madha
Row, had defeated Hyder Aly in 1772. Their chiefs
were, however, overjoyed that they had effeded a
jundion nearly on the fpot where that fignal vidory
had been obtained. They were pleafed at having met
the Britifti army without having occafion to try their
ftrength fingly with Tippoo, of whofe difcipline and
abilities in the field they entertained a deep apprehen-
fion.
To avoid confufion and interference, they were en¬
camped at a diftance from the Britifh troops. Their
ground, from the number of followers, and their fami¬
lies, had the appearance of a large town, or of a whole
nation emigrating from its territory. The tents of the
chiefs arc placed around their general’s, without any re¬
gularity or order. They are of all dimenfions, and of
every variety of colour, refembling houfes rather than
Appearance canvas. The ftreets, winding and crofting in every di-
uLp!' rc&ion> Fefent the appearance of a great fair 5 in
\vhich fmiths, jewellers, merchants, and mechanics, are
difplaying their wares, and as bufily employed in their
Vol. XL Part I.
25 ] I N D
trades, as if they lived in their own capital, and enjoyed India,
a profound peace *. *”7"^ ^
The ftate of their artillery, upon which modern war-^-
fare fo much depends, will at once demonftrate the im-^r^ Cam*
perfection of the military fyftem among the Mahratta/>aig« in
ftates. In the conftruCtion of their gun carriages, they in
make little ufe of iron, but for their ftrength they trull b
to the bulk and folidity of the timber: Hence they are
unwieldy from their weight, and clumfy beyond all be¬
lief 5 the wheels, in particular, are heavy and low, be¬
ing formed of large folid pieces of wood united toge¬
ther. The guns themfelves are ponderous in the ex¬
treme, and of the moft irregular dimenfions 5 each is
painted in a fantaftic manner, and bears the name of
fome one of their gods. Not a few7 are dragged after
the army long after they have ceafed to be ferviceable,
from the great ellimation they are held in, on account
of paft atchievements which they are fuppofed to have 165
performed for the ftate. Some of thefe ufelefs impedi- at?d ftate
ments of a march are dragged along at the immenfe?-^mu
expence of 100, and fometimes 150 draught cattle
yoked in pairs. The moft infurmountable obftacle to
the efficiency of the Mahratta artillery, was the fear-
city of ammunition with which they were provided at
this period j fubfequent improvements have enlarged
this fupply, and rendered them far more formidable to
their enemies.
The infantry of this nation holds a rank, if poffi-
ble, ftill more contemptible than their artillery. Its
officers are half-caft Portuguefe or French ; and the
privates confift of outcalls of every defeription, who are
uniform in nothing but in the wretched condition of
their mufkets, ammunition, and accoutrements. The
Mahrattas themfelves hold them in contempt, ride
through them on the march, without ceremony, or even
the appearance of refpedt. If there happen to be a
few Europeans among the officers and men, wffiich in
thefe times was but feldom the cafe, they execrate the
fervice, and till they find an opportunity of efcape
continue to deplore their fate.
The cavalry is the favourite portion of a Mahratta
army; and it is to his horfes, and the bazars, that the
attention of every chief is almoft folely direfted. On
marching days, the baggage and infantry move off at
daybreak, while the chiefs and their principal followers
remain upon the ground fmoking their hookahs till they
have advanced fome miles; they then follow, each pur-
fuing his owm route, attended by his principal people ;
while the: inferior ranks difperfe over the country to
plunder and forage in every dire6tion. l( 6
The troops of the Nizam at this period joined Lord Troops of
Cornwallis and the Mahrattas; their ftate of equip-Nizam
ment and difcipline was almoft in every refpeft as-’61?tIie
wretched as that of the Mahrattas. Their forces, when i5ntlfIl‘
united, amounted to about 80,000 men; and if to thefe
be added four times the number of camp followers,
brinjarries, and the carriage department, the number
of ftrangers to be fubfifted in the Myfore alone, cannot
be much lefs than half a million. That no diftruft,
jealoufy, or countera&ion, fhould have difturbed the
combined operations of fuch an immenfe multitude,
muft be aferibed to the unexampled moderation and vi¬
gilant conduct of the commander in chief. Such a vaft
army hat} never taken the field in India in the Britiffi
F f caufe t
1 N D [ 226 ] IN D
India, cauie ; yet no murmurs, or even the flighted appear- To the fiege of this tremendous fortrefs, Lieutenant- In
* v ance 0f diflruft, were ever manifefted by the allies to- colonel Stewart commanding the right wing of the ' v '
wards the Britilh commander. They fubmitted with main army was appointed. The attempt commenced on
implicit confidence not only to his arrangements in car- the 10th of December, when this otficer pitched his
rying on the war j but, which was little to be expefted camp within three miles of the north fide of the rock. 168
among allies fo much alive to their particular interefis, The formidable appearance of the place itfelf, had with-Savendroog
they acquiefced in his difiribution of the conquered drawn the attention of the troops from a circumlfance befieged»
territories with a deference which evinced the molt per- which pioved on trial the chief obftacle to tne execu-
fe£t confidence in his liberality and juftice. tion of their arduous attempt. It confilted in the for-
The ffeady co-operation, "however, of any native mation of a gun road from the camp to the foot of the
power with the Britifh army in the field, is a circum- mountain. This w>as found a work of incredible la-
ftance hardly to be looked for, and muff therefore prove hour, fince it led_through a long trad of rocky hills,
a reiource on which no commander would choofe to re- thickly planted with bamboos, and after every effort,
ly. His patience will often be feverely tried by their the battering guns were. Hill to be dragged over rocks
irregularities and delays ^ and in the moff critical emer- of confiderable height, ano ''i an alcent alrnofl perpen-
gencies his views may be fruftrated by their want of dicular.
punctuality, or by a total failure in then engagements. llns celebrated rock, fo difficult of approach, and 01
Even in the article of provifions, the prefence of the fuch immenfe flrength, is no lefs famed for a noxious
native armies, bating the temporary relief at their firft atmofphere, occafioned by the hills and immenfe trafts
junCtion, proved a much greater annoyance than a be- of wood by which it is furrounded j the appellation of
nefit; for it increafed the number of mouths to be fup- Savendroog, or Roch of death, is laid to have been given
plied, in a country defolated by its friends as w!ell as it from the noxious and fatal nature of its cuinatt.
by the hoflile armies. ^ Tippoo Sultan, fenfible of all its advantages, congratu-
The'com- With thefe coadjutors, Lord Cornwallis fet out in lated his army on the infatuation of the Britifh which
binecl army t'he month cf June, towards Bangalore. He determi- had at lafl led them to an enterpnfe which would
moves for- ned on a new and cjrcu;tous route, northward by Nag- fpeedily operate their difgrace, and terminate in their
’ gemungulum, that he might accomplifh fome of the ruin. One half of the Europeans, he afleited, would
important objeHs neceffary to enable the confederates be deftroyed by difeafe, and the other^half he was con-
to commence another campaign. He had to enable fident would be killed in tbe aflauit. Ihe garnlon
the Mahrattas to withdraw the polls, which they had which Tippoo had feleCled for the Ration of Saven-
left on their march, when they advanced from Poonah droog were of the fame fentiments with their mailer :
towards Seringapatam. He had to confine the fultan regarding the attempt to reduce it as madnefs, they
to as final 1 a portion of his territory as praClicable, fortunately, trufted more to its itrength, than to their
and thus to oblige him to confume the provifions which own exertions for its defence j and hence, little or no
he had laid up for the defence of his capital: and, laft- oppofition was made to the ereCfion of our batteries,
ly,he had to gain time for cblleaing and bringingforward farther than the ill-direaed fire of their artillery pro-
the vail flores of camp equipage, provifions, and fupplies, duced. _
which he had ordered for the fucceeding campaign. In three days, during which it was found neceffary
In order to facilitate the communication between to advance the batteries nearer to the wall, a pradi-
the Myfore and the Carnatic, from which the fupplies cable breach was efFeHed, and a lodgment made for
were chiefly to be drawn j the various hill forts, which the troops within twenty yards of the breach. The
command the different paffes, were to be reduced, florming party, which confifted chiefly of Europeans,
Many of thefe fortreffes, from their fituation upon high was led by Lieutenant-colonel Niibet, and was di-
and precipitous rocks, are of fuch ftrength that they vided into four different parties of attack, m order
have always been deemed impregnable by the native to lecuie both hills into which the mountain was di-
armies of India. In ancient times they formed the in- vided, and to diflradl the attention of the enemy. i<y9
accedible retreats of the rajahs who flill retained their Each party fucceeded in gaining its objedtj for a arc! taken,
independence; and it was not till the vigorous admini- large body of the enemy who were feen in the morn-
ll rati on of Tippoo and his father, that they were ing coming down for the defence of the breach, on
brought into fubjedion and garrifoned by the Myfor- obferving the Europeans advancing to the ilorm, was
can trooo? J feized with a panic, and tied. The eallern hill im-
Among thefe forts, Savendroog, ChittledroOg, and mediately above the breach, was carried by Captain
Kiftnaghurv are the moft remarkable in point of na- Gage, without meeting, or even overtaking, the ene-
tural ftrei-mth. The firff of thefe confifts of a vaft my J the main body of which endeavoured to gain the
mountainous rock, which rifes above half a mile in weliein hill, and, nad they effefled their objeH, the
perpendicular height above its own bafe, which covers fiege muff have recommenced. Happily, however, the
* a fpace cf eight or ten miles in circumference. T his pathway leading from the breach to this hill is fo
rock is furrounded by walls on every fide, and defend- fteep and narrow that the fugitives impeded each otner,
ed by crofs barriers w'herever it was deemed acceflible. and the affailants prefled them fo hard, that they enu-r-
Towards the upper part, the immenfe pile is almoft pre- ed the different batteries along with the enemy. In
efipitous, and has the farther advantage of being divid- thefe numbers were killed, among whom was tne fe¬
ed on the top into two hills, which have each their de- cond killadar 5 and the citadel on the fummit ot the
fence® and are capable of beinR-maintained indepcipdcnt hill was at laft gained, where the firft killadar was
of the garlifon in the lower works. made pnfoner. So dole and critical was the puriuit
o on
India.
T7°
Other
I N D [2
on tins fortunate occafion, that a ferjeant of the yift
regiment, when at fome diltance, fnot the man who
wras in the a£l of Ihutting the firft gate j and upon this
occurrence, almoft accidental, the fate of the citadel
hinged. It was indantly taken, without the lofs of a
fingle man ; although an hundred of the enemy had
been killed during the advance, and many had perithed
by falling from the precipices in endeavouring to ef-
cape. Only one private foldier was wounded in this
remarkable allault of the impregnable fortrefs of Saven-
droog : it formed a difplay of fuccefsful prowefs, for¬
tunate almoft beyond example ; and it exhibited before
the enemy, in open day, an inflance of intrepidity, of
high value to the reputation of the army and the inte-
refts of the India government.
The beneficial confequences of this important cap¬
ture, were fenfibly felt at the different forts, almofl im¬
pregnable, by which this part of the country is fo re¬
markably Urengthened. Colonel Stewart’s detachment,
which had been fo much diftinguifhed by this atchieve-
ment, marched in two days againfl: Outredroog, ano¬
ther fortrefs ftrengthened by five different walls, and fo
fteep as to prove tenable by a handful of men againfl
the largeft army. After the refufal of a fummons to
ftrongholds furrender, the lower fort wras efcaladed wuth fuch rapi¬
dity, that the killadar requefled a parley. While this
was in agitation, an appearance of treachery wras dif-
covered in the upper fort, where the garrifon wrere feen
moving and pointing their guns againlt the affailants.
Fired at this fight. Lieutenant MTnnes led on the
florming party with impetuofity; fome of the gates were
inflantly broken, others w^ere efcaladed, till five or fix
different wralls on the face of the fteep rock were paf-
fed, w-hen the troops gained the fummit, and put the
garrifon to the fword. So panic-ftruck were the ene¬
my, when they faw7 a fingle European above the walls,
that they could make no refiftance. The killadar w7as
made prifoner, a number of the garrifon was killed,
and not a few, terrified at the approach of Europeans
with their bayonets, are faid to have precipitated them-
felves from the rocks.
The affault of thefe fortreffes, which had hitherto
been deemed impregnable, made fo ferious an impref-
fion on the enemy, that in none of the hill forts, how¬
ever inacceflible, did they afterwards make an attempt
to. refift the Britifh troops. Hence, the ftrong moun¬
tainous country between Bangalore and Seringapatam,
which, ftudded with forts, had fo much checked all
communication, now afforded fecurity to the convoys.
Thefe now reached the army.without oppofition ; and
the fupplies of warlike ftores of every defcription were
as completely re-eftablilhed as they had been at the be¬
ginning of the laft campaign.
To prevent any future fcarcity of the great article
of grain, the commander in chief encouraged the na¬
tive brinjarries, a clafs of men whofe employment is
purchafing grain where it is cheap, and felling it to the
army. By conftantly affording regular payment and
a good price to thefe native merchants, they fupplied
the camp to an extent far exceeding what could ever
be furnifhed by the moft extenfive carriage eftablifh-
ment. The grain-dealers had at this time paffes for no
lefs than 50,000 bullocks, whofe rice was inftantly paid
foi, as foon as it reached the camp, and orders given
India:.
171
Effedis of
thefe fuc-
ceffcs.
27 ] _ I N D
for purchafing more from whatever quarter it could be
procured. This brought forth the refources of the ene- v
mies country as well as our own; for feveral of Tippoo’s
brinjarries, tempted by the certainty of payment and a
high price, fold their rice in the Britilh camp. 17a
Supplies being thus provided to an extent far ex-^>rePar‘i'
ceedmg every former example, the allied armies, and
the different detachments, were ordered to affemble for c;ijv5pajr:f,.
another campaign. The Bombay troops, deftined again
to a£l from the fame quarter as laft feafon, marched
from Cananore, and arrived at the foot of the Poodi-
cherrim Ghaut in the month of December. Several
weeks of hard labour were neceffary to drag the artillery
through woods extending near 60 miles, and over
mountains of immenfe height. Thefe mountains, which
on the weft command a view of the Malabar coaft, and
on the call of the country of the Myfore, form an ele¬
vated ridge towering into the clouds, on which the ri¬
vers are feen taking their rife, and flowing in different
direftions, till they reach the eaftern and weftern (bores
of the peninfula. The friendly territory of the Coorga
rajah furrounds the interior of this formidable pals,
where a fmall oppofition might bid defiance to a whole
army. This circumftance enabled the Bombay troops,
confiding of 8400 men, with all their baggage and ar¬
tillery, and a fupply of rice for 40 days, to penetrate
with fafety into the Myfore frontier, which they reached
on the 22d of January 1792. To facilitate the return
of our army, batteries were conftrudled, and the de¬
fence of this pafs committed to Lieutenant-colonel
Peche with 300 men, a precaution which had not the
fultan overlooked, he would have differed no invafion
on this quarter of his dominions.
I he Mahratta forces, which had ieparated from the
main army at Bangalore, had fpent the feafon of the
monfoon in a train of exploits which feemed to imply
more than their ufual (hare of adlivity. With the affift-
ance of the Bombay detachment of three native battalions,
they took the important poll <af Simoga, after defeating
Reza Saib and near 10,000 of the fultan’s cavalry^
T. his brilliant fuccefs encouraged Purferam Bow to en¬
gage in an enterprife againft Bednore, which had near¬
ly fruftrated the whole plan of the campaign, by pro-
tradling his jundlion with General Abercromby beyond
the ftipulated time. From this attempt, however, he was
diverted by the arrival of Cummer ud Deen Khan, one
of .Tippoo’s bed generals, who had been difpatched
againfl: him. This chieftain retook the fort of Si¬
moga ; but being too weak to encounter the Bow in
the field, the Mahrattas effefted their jundlion Avith
the Bombay army, though fome what later than the ap¬
pointed feafon. The main army under Lord Cornwal¬
lis, which had been fo adlively employed during the
rains in fubduing the hill forts, and in colledling the
neceffary ftores and reinforcements, was ordered ulti¬
mately to affemble at Outredroog, one of the ftrongeft
of Tippoo’s forts, which was fituated within 50 miles
of his capital. Phis place, being equally fpacious and
ftrong, was fitted up as a general hofpital, and formed
into a magazine for the grain and public ftores that
were not immediately needed for the army. The bat¬
tering train under Colonel Duff, and the laft convoys
under Colonel Floyd, having fafely joined, the main
army was at laft fully prepared to refume its enterprifes
F.f 2 againft
I N D [ 228 ] I N D
India, againft the iultan, who, in imitation of his father, when
'—v™ formerly attacked in 1767, had encamped with the
whole of his force in a ftrong pofition under the walls
of his capital.
One jun&ion more was dill expefled y that of
the Nizam or Soubah from Gurramcondah, the lower
fort of which he had captured. This prince having
left a ftrong force to garrifon the place, marched again
to meet Lord Cornwallis, who w-as detained in expec¬
tation of this event for feveral days beyond the time he
had appointed for leaving Outredroog. On the 25th
of January, the young prince at laft arrived with bis
army 5 his youth and inexperience were put under the
guidance of a minifter 60 years of age, a man of great
talents and eftabliftied reputation. The confederacy,
which thus united the chief powers in the peninfula for
the overthrow of a formidable and ambitious enemy,
was attended alfo by an ambaffador, who arrived at this
time, from Madajee Boonlla the rajah of Berar. The
Pefliwa and the Nizam were themfelves in the field on
their refpeftive frontiers, and all India looked with
anxious expe£!ation to the event of this important cam-
,73 paign.
The allied On the I ft of February the allied armies marched
army ap- from Hooleadroog, the laft hill fort of which they had
proaches to taken polTeftion, lying at the diftance of only 40 miles
patarna from Seringapatam. Tippoo’s cavalry, which had been
fent out to harafs them on the march, made little im-
preflion, and were therefore chiefly occupied in burn¬
ing the intermediate villages, and in laying wafte the
country. The laft march of the 5th of February,
ftretched acrofs a range of barren hills lying fix miles
north-eaft of Seringapatam. From thefe heights, a
view of the whole city was prefented to the army, and the
encampment of the fultan under its walls. Every cir-
cumftance was eagerly viewed by our troops 5 and,
from the fultan’s pofition, it was evident he meant to
defend the place in perfon, and to make it the grand
concluding fcene of the war.
The camp of the allies was pitched on the north
fide of the illand. T he Britifti formed the front line,
and extended its wdiole length on both fides of the
Lockany, a fmall river which at this place flows into
the Cavery. The referve was placed a mile in the
rear, to afford fpace for the baggage and ftores •, and
the Nizam and Mahrattas were ftationed ftill farther
in the rear, to prevent interference with the Britifti
camp.
Oppofite to Seringapatam, on both fides of the river,
a large fpace is inclofed by a bound hedge which
marks the limits of the capital, and affords a refuge to
the peafants during the incurfions of cavalry. Tippoo’s
front line, or fortified camp, lay immediately behind
this hedge, where it was defended by heavy cannon in
the redoubts, and by a large field train advantageoufty
placed. In this line there were 100 pieces of artillery,
and in the fort and ifland which formed his fecond
line there were above thrice that number.. 1 he re¬
doubts on his left wrere entrufted to two of his beft offi¬
cers, and a corps of Europeans commanded by Mon-
fieur Vigie •, Sheik Anfar, a general of eftabliftied re¬
putation, was ftationed on the right, and the Carighaut
hill; while Tippoo himfelf commanded the centre,
having his tent pitched in the fultan’s redoubt. I he
fort and ifland, where there was the greateft number of
guns, were entrufted to Syed Saib and other comman-
ders. The whole army of the fultan, thus ftationed, v—
confifted of about 50,000 men.
Ever fince the junftion of the allied armies, Tippoo
finding he could not keep the field, employed his chief
attention, and the labours of his main army, in fortify¬
ing this camp, and in ftrengthening his defences in the
fort and ifland. The country had already been laid
wafte in the former campaign ; and the fultan feemed
to reft his hopes, that the ftrength of his works and
the valour of his army W'ould protraft the fiege, till
the want of fupplies, or the approach of the monfoon,
would again force his enemies to abandon their enter-
prife, as they had been compelled to do on former
occafions.
Impreffed with thefe ideas, Tippoo made no attempt
to interrupt our reconnoitring parties, who had been
bufily employed on the firft day after their arrival in
examining his camp. The diftance of our pofition, and
the abfence of the armies under General Abercromby
and Purferam Bow, increafed his fecurity : for he did
not imagine that Lord Cornwrallis would venture to
attack him without their afliftance ; far lefs could he
believe that a fortified camp, defended by the guns of
his capital and a powerful army, wTould be attempted
by infantry alone, without guns, and in the uncertain¬
ty of night.
The promptitude and fpirit of Lord Cornwallis had
fuggefted far different ideas, and a plan of attack which
was bold beyond even the expedlations of his own ar¬
my. On the evening of the fixth of February, juft
after the troops had left the parade, orders were iffued
for an attack at 7 o’clock of the enemies camp and
lines in three divilions. The Britilh camp was left to
be defended by the artillery and cavalry; while the af-
failants who were inftantly furnifhed with guides and
fcaling ladders, marched in perfett confidence that muf-
kets alone would prove the fitteft inftruments for open¬
ing their way into the enemy’s camp.
No part in the execution of this bold enterprife was
aftigned to the troops of the allies; nor was the intend¬
ed affault even communicated to them, till after the ^
columns had marched. It was perhaps good policy to Tippoo’s
conceal from them a meafure fo repugnant to all their camp at-
maxims of war, and in which they could not poflibly raclrecb
concur. This opinion feems juftified by the furprife
and conftcrnation which they difplayed, on learning
that Lord Cornwallis, like a common foldier, wTas per-
fonally to lead the attack on the enemies fortified
camp. They not only deemed his fuccefs impoffible,
but they dreaded that the ruin of the allied armies
would be involved in the attempt.
The three columns into which the affailants had
been divided, marched with equal intrepidity to exe¬
cute the different obje&s that had been allotted them :
many obftacles intervened ; various conflicts enfued in
different quarters of the enemies camp; each party, was
uncertain of the fate of the reft, and each individual
of his affociates. The return of day at laft removed
their fears and uncertainty, by difclofmg the complete
fuccefs which had crowned their exertions throughout
the whole line of attack.
The right column commanded by General Meadows
had met with more impediments than the reft ; it at¬
tacked and carried the end gahy a redoubt on the ene¬
mies
I N D [2
India, mies left, which was defended by eight guns, and a
—r 1 numerous garrifon, nearly 500 of which fell in this at¬
tack. Confiderable lofs was alfo fuftained by the Bri-
tilh in this redoubt. After its capture, the column
was again formed in its original order, and marched
with a viewT to fupport the centre under Lord Cornwal¬
lis ; but miilaking the proper track, and making
too wide a circuit, it reached the Carighaut hill on the
enemies right, which had already been carried by Col.
Maxwell.
The centre column about 11 o’clock forced through
the bound hedges, amidlt a heavy fire from the fultan’s
redoubt and Tippoo’s lines. Theie, however, were alfo
forced. The troops were now enabled to crofs the river,
and penetrate into the ifiand. So clofely did they prefs
upon the fugitives, that they would have entered the
citadel along with them, but for the precaution of raif-
ing the drawbridge, which they had drawn up at the
moment of entering the place. So precipitately had
Tippoo been forced to abandon his tent in the fultan’s re¬
doubt, that his filver (licks, pikes, and mathematical in-
ftruments, wTere found fcattered in the place. The fort
being inacceffible from the removal of the bridge, the
advanced party forced into the town or pettah, which
had been alnioft abandoned for the defence of the bat¬
teries. Here they found 27 half-flarved Europeans,
loaded with irons, and confined in a dungeon. Some of
thefe unhappy men, who were now relieved, had been
cruelly given up to Tippoo by Admiral Suffrein ; others
were deferters, whom Tippoo, however, had treated with
equal feverity.
The left divifion of the attack, which w'as command¬
ed by Lieut. Col. Maxwell, wTas deftined to take poffef-
fion of the Carighaut hill, and from thence to defeend
and penetrate into the ifland on the right flank of the
enemy. Thefe objects were effeiSed with rapidity, and
but little lofs, except in eroding the Cavery, which was
deep and rapid, and at the fame time tlrongly defend¬
ed by the enemy’s batteries. In eroding the dream,
which at this place was neck deep, the ammunition was
unavoidably damaged ; but the troops preiTed forward
with the bayonet, and at lad joined the other divifions
who were now affembled at the pettah.
The enemy having lod all their podtions on the north
fide of the river, where the fiege was to commence, and
almod the whole of the ifland, every material object of
the affault was fecured. On the fide of the Britilh, the
lofs, though confiderable, was fmall in proportion to the
importance of the viftory, and the difafters of the ene¬
my } of whom, it afterwards appeared, that no lefsthan
20,000 had either deferted, or been flain in the vari¬
ous conflicts during this night of enterprife, danger, and
death.
On the 7th, the enemy, as if afhamed of the rapidity
with which their dift’erent pods had been abandoned,
made feveral attempts to recover them. Their efforts
were directed chiefly to the fultan’s redoubt, command¬
ed by Major Sibbald. Expofed to the guns of the
fort, and the batteries on the ifland, the major’s little
party defended the place for the whole day ; and hav¬
ing fuccefsfully repulfed the different affaults of the ene¬
my, they at laft, weary of the attempt, defifted from
the enterprife. The endeavour which the fultan’s troops
made to regain the pettah, met with a fimilar check ;
and the night of the 7th would have afforded foire rc-
fndia.
r75
29 ] I N D
pofe to the army, had not the rumour of an intended
attack by Tippoo during the night, kept them on the
alert. That fuch an attack had been meditated, there
was full evidence •, but both the chiefs and the foldiery
were fo much difpirited by the fatal train of events that
had fo rapidly taken place during the laff; twenty-four
hours, that they could not be induced to fecond the
zeal of their fovereign. During the various confliffs of
the 6th and 7th, the fatigues and dangers of the Bri-
tifli army were fevere ; and its loi’s in killed, wounded,
and miffing, was far from being inconfiderable (536
men). The extent and importance of the acquifitions
gained by this brilliant conteit feemed, however, to
compenfate every facrifice that had been made. It now
occupied the lines and polls from which the enemy had
been driven ; and the works which had been fo com¬
pletely fortified for the defence of the capital, now be¬
came lines of circumvallation for its attack. The troops
on the one fide rvere broken and difpirited j on the o-
ther they were in perfe£l order, and animated with their
recent fuccefs. The Europeans in the fervice of Tip-
poo, after the difaftrous events of the iaft two days, now
defpairing of his fortunes, deferted to our army j and
many of them enlifled with the Mahrattas $ others re¬
tired to the French fettlements. After their departure,
the fultan’s army never encamped in order, or afiumed a
formidable appearance.
The Britifli army, now in poffeflion of the iiland andari(*
town of Seringapatam, was immediately employed in6 1
making the neceflary preparations for the fiege of the
fortrefs or citadel. This enchanting ifland being plen¬
tifully watered by the Cavery, and a vaft number of
interfering canals, maintains a perpetual verdure : on
the eaft, it is decorated by the buildings of the fort,
which occupies a mile fquare •, on the weft, by the Laul
Baug, containing the maufoleum of Hyder Aly, adorn¬
ed by tall cypreffes, (haded walks, and a variety of
trees, whofe foliage and perennial verdure announce an
everlafting fpring. The mofques and religious build¬
ings were converted into hofpitals for the wounded and
fick j and the trees, now for the fint time aflailed by
the axe, furniftied materials for fafeines and gabions for
the approaching liege.
The proud mind of the fultan could not remain tran¬
quil, on feeing his beautiful gardens and all his im¬
provements threatened with deftruftion, by an enemy
who was alfo preparing to deprive him of his citadel
and all that remained of his power. His indignation
was exprefled by a continual difeharge of cannon from
the fort, directed againft the ifland, the redoubts, and
every party of ours that feemed within his reach. Some
of his (hot ranged as far as the camp, aimed apparently
at head quarters : but the diftance of the feveral pods
was too great ; and his ineffeftual cannonade ferved ra¬
ther to proclaim the wrath of the fovereign, than mate¬
rially to annoy his enemies.
Tired by thefe repeated efforts, which he faw were
vain, and worn out by the ebullitions of his own anger,
Tippoo at laft began to meditate ferioufly on the neeef-
fity of a peace, the only means by which he could ex¬
tricate himfelf from his perilous (late. In order to
fmooth the way for his overtures, he previoully liberated
two Britifli officers, who had been detained contrary to
capitulation in Coimbatore ; thefe officers, till now the
vi6li;ns of his cruelty, he loaded with prefents, and made
them
I N D
[
.5°
India.
175
Treaty of
tliem the bearers of a letter to Lord Cornwallis fuing for
peace. Another expedient, more daring, but far lefs
honourable, was nearly at this time praciifed to attain
his deliverance. A fmall party of horfemen were de-
fpatched to the Britilh camp in the night, for the pur-
pofe of aflaffinating the commander in chief: as drag¬
gling parties of the Nizam’s horfe wrere near, the
troopers, miitaken for friends, had little difficulty in en¬
tering the camp ; and, but for an accident, might have
effected their purpofe. Detedled, however, by their in¬
quiries for his lordffiip’s tent, they were fired at by a
party of recruits j and fuch was the fpeed with which
they made off, that they fuffered little damage in this
difgraceful enterprife, which is fo often reforted to by
the princes of India. This was the fecond attempt a-
gainft the commander’s life during the prefent war :
that both were unfuccefsful, mud be afcribed to that in¬
toxication in which the natives are plunged, before
they can be induced to venture upon fuch hazardous
deeds.
Though Tippoo had recourfe to thefe vile proje&s,
which he knew wrere countenanced by the practice of
his country, he did not trud to them folely for his de¬
fence. The Bombay army which w?as at this time ap¬
proaching, he combated and haraffed by every effort of
honourable war : its jundtion, however, wdth the main
army was effedted on the x6thj and on the fecond night
after this event, the trenches w'ere opened, and a paral¬
lel formed w'ithin 800 yards of the north face of the
fort. General Abercromby, dationed on the fouth quar¬
ter with a ftrong detachment, was ordered to cannonade
it from the heights. This attack being diredled againft
the weaked part of the fort, occafioned the greated
alarm. Tippoo himfelf, therefore, at the head of his
troops, marched to diflodge the general : being fuppor-
ted by the guns of the fort, he maintained the adtion
for the whole day ; but towards evening, he w’as forced
to retreat.
This defperate effort was the lad that Txppoo made
for his defence. His affairs hadened to a crifis ; cabals
■were formed by the chiefs, and his troops deferted in
multitudes during the night. Plenipotentiaries from
the allies, fince that, had been treating wdth his vakeels j
his haughty fpirit, hitherto untradfable, was now forced
to yield to their demands. He faw his capital blockaded
on every fide by a powerful army, plentifully fupplied
wdth proviiions, wffiich mud infallibly reduce his troops
by famine, diould they even prove fuccefsful in repell¬
ing its affaults *, even his lad hopes of relief from the
monfoon, and the fwelling of the river, were thus final¬
ly cut off.
On the 23d of February, therefore, the preliminaries
ed^6 Tf”" Peace were figne<I by Tippoo, amidd the conflidling
poo.^ emotions of pride, refentment, and fear; and orders
were iffued to the troops on bothfides to ceafe from far¬
ther hodilities ; a dipulation, of which the dread of an
immediate afiault alone inforced the obfervance.
By the terms of this treaty, Tippoo was compelled to
pay, as an indemnification for the expences of the war,
three crore and 30 lacks of rupees at two indalments, the
] I N D
fird to be advanced immediately, and the fecond at the Intfia.
end of four months. Other articles of this indrument v 1 ?
provided farther, that the whole prifoners taken from
the allied powers from the time of Hyder Aly, diould
be unconditionally redored ; that no lefs than one-half
of his territories diould be ceded to the allies ; and that
two of Tippoo Sultan’s three elded fons diould be
given as hodages, for the due performance of the
treaty.
The candid and upright condudt of Lord Cornwndlis
had gained the full confidence of all the allies. So
complete was the afcendancy he poffeffed over their
councils, that they fubmitted without a murmur to all
the arrangements which he propofed ; a circumdance
(confidering the deep intereds which wrere at dake) that
mud be regarded as not the lead extraordinary in this
campaign.
The terms of this agreement, wdiich refembled a ca¬
pitulation more than a treaty, were hard, and Tippoo
with great difficulty was prevailed on to fubferibe to
them. Another druggie, perhaps dill greater, yet re¬
mained for his family. This arofe from the didrefs in
his feraglio, on parting with his children. The fultan
was entreated to requed another day for making pre¬
parations for their departure; and Lord Cornwallis,
though he had already dilpenfed with their accompany¬
ing the treaty, as fird agreed, had the humanity to grant
this requed.
About noon day on the 26th the princes mounted His fons de-
their elephants richly caparifoned, and attended with at‘verccl UP
fplendid retinue left the fort, the walls and ramparts oPs ^°^aSes-
which were crowded wath multitudes of fpedfators. A-
midd the vad multitudes wffiom curiofity or affeftion
had drawn out to witnefs this feene, Tippoo himfelf
was beheld danding above a high gateway, through
which, as they paffed, the princes were faluted by the
guns of the fort ; a compliment which they again re¬
ceived as they approached the Britifh camp. They
were feated in filver howdahs, attended by their father’s
minider, and a numerous retinue. The procedion which
they thus formed, wras equally grand and intereding.
It was led by feveral camel harcarras and dandard-
bearers, carrying green flags fufpended from rockets,
followed by one hundred pikemen with fpears inlaid
wdth filver. Their guard of two hundred Sepoys, and
a party of horfe, brought up the rear (c).
In this order the princes proceeded till they ap¬
proached the tent of Lord Cornwallis, who had order¬
ed a battalion of Sepoys for their reception ; where the
commander in chief embraced them wdth a cordiality
and tendernefs that refembled parental affedlion. The
manners, drefs, and appearance of the young princes
themfelves, formed an intereffing fpedlacleto their Euro¬
pean holds. Bred up from their infancy with infinite care,
and infirudled to imitate in their manners the referve
and politenefs of more advanced age, all prefent were
aifoniflied to obferve the corredtnefs and propriety of
their conduft. Abdul Kalick, the eldeft, was of a dark
complexion, even among the natives of India ; but his
countenance was marked by thoughtfulnefs and intelli¬
gence.
(c) For the fuhftance of this account we are indebted to an eye wdtnefs, Major-general Dirom; who has favour¬
ed the public wdth an excellent narrative of this campaign.
I N D [ 231 I I N D
India. gence. The younger, Mooza ud Deen, was remarka-
' J 'v bly fair ; a regular fet of features, with an open appear¬
ance, rendered him the general favourite, and more ad¬
mired than his. brother. Clothed in red turbans and
long white mullin gowns, every where Iparkling with
emeralds, rubies, and pearls, their external decorations
difplayed a brilliancy far furpafling every European
idea of drefs, and feemed to realize thofe laboured de-
fcriptions of fplender, which are in the weftern world
only feen in the pages of romance. Thus attired, the
young princes, immediately after their reception, were
leated on each fide of Lord Cornwallis, when Gulam
Aly, the head vakeel of Tippoo, thus addrefied the Bri-
tifli general : “ Thefe children were thislmorning the
Ions of the fultan my mailer : Their fituation is now
changed : They muil look up to your lordihip as their
father.”
The condudd of the commander in chief had perhaps
fuggelled this addrefs : he had in fa£t received the
boys, as if they had been his owm fons 5 and he again
anxioufly allured the vakeels, and the young princes
themieives, that every poffible attention would be ihowm
j^S them, and the greateib care taken of their perfons.
The r re- The fcene became more intereiling j the faces of the
caption by children brightened up ; and not only their attendants,
waifs'"0 ”" kUt t^le fpe&ators, were delighted to obferve, that
any feais they might have harboured were removed,
and that they would foon be reconciled to their change
of fituation. With regard to the youngeft, this defira-
ble'objedt wTas likely to be firfi: attained. He was the
favourite fon, and was faid to be the fultan’s deftined
heir : his mother, a beautiful and delicate woman, had
loft her brother in a late adfion ; and fhe herfelf had
died of fright a few days before the attack of the lines.
Thefe circumftances, together with his own captivating
appearance, drew- to the youngeft boy the greateft {hare
of attention, and rendered his fituation doubly inte-
refting.
After being regaled, in the eaftern manner, with
otter -of rofes and betel nut 5 the princes were prefent-
ed each with a gold watch from Lord Cornwallis, a
gift from which they feemed to receive great delight.
On this occafton the minifters of the Nizam and the
Mahrattas attended with their iuites ; and when the ce¬
remony of their reception was ended, the princes were
led back to the tents furnifhed by the fultan, which
were of a green colour, an emblem of majefty which
11 ip poo always had carried with him into the field.
'1 he detaining of Tippoo’s fons as hoftages, may be
deemed a rigorous condition impofed on that prince j
the event, however, fbon proved, that without this pre¬
caution, he never could have been induced, unlefs by a
renewal of hoftilities, to fulfil the terms of the treaty.
'I he value of the money to be received, as well as the
rents of the different diftridfs to be ceded, were keenly
difputed. W hen the territory of the Coorga rajah, in.
particular, w?as required, the demand feemed unexpedf-
ed both by the fultan and his minifters, and wTas at firft
received with aftoniftiment and difdain. This rajah
was confidered as a chief caufe of the wTar, and Tippoo,
therefore, wiftied to crufh him. Lord Cornwallis feem¬
ed equally refolute in his defence j for he again manned
the works, and threatened to recommence the attack.
Happily, his flock of provifions was ample} and al¬
though upwarus of 400,000 ft rangers and half a mil- India.
lion of cattle were daily to be fed, the fupply was fufti- y——o
cient for the whole ; while one million fteriing of the .
fine impofed on Tippoo, had already been paid. The
firm determination of the commander in chief, aided bv
thefe circumftances, which were not unknown to the
fultan, damped his refolution. His refentment cooled,
and he finally implemented the terms agreed upon,
copies of which were delivered to the confederated
powrers.
The war againft Tippoo, which was now happily ter¬
minated, placed the dominions of the India Company and
of their allies in a ftate of fafety and tranquillity which
they had never enjoyed fince the aggrandifement of his
ambitious family. In the former campaigns againft
the Myfore, the civil and military powers were placed
in feparate hands} meafures were planned without
either energy or uniformity of fyftem } and their exe¬
cution being entrufted to other hands, feldom difplay¬
ed the promptitude or vigour neceffary to their fuc-
cefs. They had often ended in the accumulation of
debt,'without adequate advantage } fometimes they pro¬
duced the devaftation of the company’s pciTefiions; and
hitherto they had uniformly increafed the power and
pretenfions of the formidable adverfary whom they
were meant to fubdue.
This war juft concluded, was followed by effefls
fuxted to the energy and perfeverance with which it had
been condudled. ihe one half of his dominions wTas
at once wrefted from the hands of the common enemy}
and while his power was thus diminifhed, an additional
ftrength and fecurity was conferred on his neighbours,
by that impregnable barrier which was added to their
territories. In the three different campaigns the ful¬
tan’s lofs had been great } in the laft, it feemed almoft
irredeemable, not lefs than 67 forts were taken, 8co
cannon fell into the hands of the allies } and the killed,
■wounded, and miffing of Tippoo’s troops amounted to
49,000 men. At the conclufion of the treaty very
few places of ftrength Were left in his poffeftion } his
treafury was drained, and the ftrength and fpirit of his
army completely broken. To the moderation of the
Britifh commander alone it was owing that he ftill re¬
mained a fovereign ; for he was at laft completely in
the power of the victors. This moderation, but little
merited by a cruel and vindictive enemy, he eafily
forgot when his power was afterwards revived, and he
permitted his French counlellors to perluade him that
he was again able to contend againft the Britifh govern¬
ment.
In the meantime, however, the India Company’s Advaruages
territories fenfibly felt the advantages of the treaty of trea~-
Seringapatam. The prefidency of Madrafs, which ty t0 the
was moft expofed to inroads from the Myfore, has byC0:npany’
that event fecured a chain of forts along its frontiers
which has ever fince effeClually freed it from the evils
of invafion. I he Carnatic, recovered from its former
calamities, muft improve its revenue, while it is defend¬
ed at a lefs expence. The Malabar coaft and prefi¬
dency of Bombay has experienced, ever fince the vi&ory
at Seringapatam, a ftate of ftill greater fecurity than
the Carnatic. It contains a country the moft varied
and perhaps the moft fertile in India, which under a.
regular government may be improved to an extent at
prefent'
India.
1S0
and to the
allies.
I N D [ 232 ] I N D
prefent ulmoft inconceiveable. Hitherto, from being a
fcene of conftant war and bloodfhed, it has not been fuf-
fered to develope its refources.
While the relative lituation of the Britifh and the
fultan were thus improved by the pacification, the inte-
retts of our allies were perhaps Hill more elfentially be¬
nefited The Mahrattas have gained an addition of
ifrength as well as territory, by enlarging their frontier
from Darwar to the Tumbudra •, and the Nizam has
gained a fimilar advantage, being Hrengthened on the
one fide by the fame river, and on the other by the
Sanar and Gungecotta. Both powers are by their
pofition placed nearer the aid of the Britifh, to whom
they muft in future look up for their defence againft all
their enemies, as well as the aggreflions of the My-
forean armies. During the feven years tranquillity that
fucceeded this memorable campaign, the armies of both
thefe powers, having no external enemy to call forth their
exertions, gradually relaxed in difcipline, and aflumed a
ftill more tumultuary and unmilitary appearance.
On the other hand, the troops of Tippoo, from his
unconquerable hoftility to the Britiih power, and from
the fecret inftigations of the French, were kept in a
Bate of conftant preparation, by which their difcipline
was improved. The influence of time, and the re¬
fources of a vigorous government, gradually repaired
the vaft Ioffes which had been fuftained during the
three laft campaigns. The power of the Myforean
court had indeed been much impaired, but it had loll
none of that antipathy and hatred againft the neigh¬
bouring flates by which it had always been diftinguifh-
cd.
Of all the confederated powers engaged in this war,
the Britifh derived, perhaps, the fmalleft (hare of the
diredl and immediate advantages which refulted from it.
The prize-money (hared by the army, although in-
creafed by the renunciation of the ft)ares of Earl Corn¬
wallis and General Meadows, was not great; and the
territories that were ceded to the India Company being
difunited and at a diftance, feem to have been demand¬
ed rather with a view to weaken the common enemy
than to add to their refources. Prior to the year 1799,
the period of the final conqueft of Seringapatam and
the Myfore, more than two-thirds of the ancient terri¬
tory of the Mogul empire ftill remained in the hands of
populous and independent ftates, profeffmg either the
Hindoo or Mohammedan faith. Among the latter, the
Nizam and the king of Myfore ftill held the chief
rank*; while five powerful Mahratta chiefs, the adher¬
ents of Brahmanifro, occupied the firft ftation in the
former elafs.
Some of thefe princes, during the former wars in
Hindoftan, had individually arranged themfelves on
the fide of the monarchy of France, againft that of Bri¬
tain. Thefe rival and leading powers in Europe, had
for near a century occupied a fimilar pofition in the
eaft, which decided in fome meafure the fate of Alia,
The republican councils, however, by which the French
government had been lately fubverted, embraced a
much wider range in their foreign policy.
They attempted to form at once all thefe different
princes #olle(ftively into a combination, which they
hoped might become the inftrument of their own ambi¬
tion. Hence proceeded their warm profellions of
philanthropy to the natives, and their new-born zeal
a
for improving their condition, and for refeuing them IniT
from the rapacity and tyranny of the Britiih. The v"~'
fame unperilhable third after external conqueft and
univerial dominion which inftigated that nation to
attempt thofe momentous changes, which were lately
beheld in Europe, began to difplay their violence in
the eaft, and to charadlerize the whole of the French 181
policy in Afia. Confidential agents had already been
difperfed over the territories of thefe princes; officers
from France had been (ecretly lent out and appointed4
to their armies. For feveral years thefe agents had
been feduloufly employed not only in dilciplining their
troops, but in promoting among the native princes a
combination for the purpofe of fubverting the Britilh
government, and for annihilating throughout the pen-
infula every power that might be deemed hoftile to
their own.
Thefe fchemes of ambition, wild and romantic as
they may feem, have been executed with complete
fuccefs over almofl one half of Europe ; and it mull
be confeffed, that the power of the mighty confederacy
which was proje&cd in the eaft, was more than fuffi-
cient to fubjugate the whole of India, had it been poi-
fible to effeift the Heady co-operation of its members in
any common fyftem of policy, A clofer view of it will
evince its power and efficiency for tlie execution of
the moft extenfive plans even of French ambition.
The Mahratta empire, by being properly confoli-
dated, muft of itfelf command an immenfe force.
Stretching throughout the whole length of the peninfu-
la, from the bay of Bengal to the banks of the Indus,
its population has been eftimated at no lefs than forty
millions of fouls; while its known revenue has been
found to amount to feventeen millions fterling. Thefe
refources, however ample, it muft be noticed, are far
more efficient in India than in Europe ; they have
there been found by adtual experiment, adequate to the
ellablifhment and conftant maintenance of an army of
upwards of 300,©00 men. Nor has the progrefs of the
French emiffaries in communicating European taffies
to this immenle force, been at all inadequate to the
vaft fchemes of their policy, or to the magnitude of their
undertaking; many battalions in the fervice of the
Pefhwa and of Holkar, but more efpecially in the efta- ,
blifhment of Scindiah, have been found in a ftate of
difcipline that might have been deemed creditable in
moft European armies. Among the troops of this lat¬
ter prince, the brigade of General Perron has long been
diftinguifhed by a fyftem of tallies hardly inferior to
that of the Britifti Seapoys; it confifts of about 40,000
men, who are regularly regimented and brigaded, and
as completely clothed and accoutred as the Britifh
troops. The pay of this force is regularly iffued, a
rare occurrence in India ; and while in the field, its
operations are fuftained by a well appointed artillery,
confifting of upwards of 40 pieces of ordnance.
To the charge of this favourite portion of his army
Scindiah has for fome time paft committed the capital
of the empire, and the cuftody of the venerable but
unfortunate Shah Alluro 5 a monarch who, it is (aid,
has reached the uncommon period of 90 years; and
who, it would appear, is more wafted and broken down
by an unexampled load of calamity, than by either the
weight or feeblcnefs of his fingular age. The forcible
reftraints to which this unhappy prince has for many
years
I N D
Tndis.
iSa
Vigorous
govern¬
ment of
Marquis
Welle fly.
years been fubjefted, eafily enabled the French party
' among Scindiah’s troops to wreft from him the fan ft ion
of the imperial name, and the femblance at lead: of le¬
gitimate authority j a matter of fome moment, as it
ferved to fereen the progrefs of uftirpation. It was ac¬
cordingly in the vicinity of the capital, and almoft in
the prelence of the dethroned emperor, that the projefts
of French ambition feemed to tend to maturity with the
moll Heady and rapid courfe. Condderable advances
bad already been made towards the formal cedion of
the important provinces of Agra and Delhi to the
French government, and towards their final union with
that didant kingdom.
Fortunately for the independence of the neighbour¬
ing dates, and the fafety of the Britidi empire, that
nobleman who at this critical period had been appoint¬
ed to the government of India poffeffed a complete
knowledge of the charafter and views of the French
nation. Soon after the arrival of the marquis of Wel-
lelly in the ead, his innate penetration, and unwearied
indudry in acquiring the knowledge of Indian politics,
enabled him to difeover the whole range and extent of
thofe plans of hoflility which the French had medi¬
tated in Ada. He was fully apprifed of the dangerous
fituation of the Britilh empire in that quarter of the
globe j and wath equal promptitude and energy he em¬
ployed the whole refources of its powTer in order to avert
or repel the danger.
It was, however, at Hyderabad in the Deccan that
the impatience and aftivity of French intrigue fird
compelled him to meet adtual holtility in the field : an
infurreftion of the French officers there had w'reded
from the Nizam the wdiole authority over his army,
and in faft, had already converted that faithful and
peaceable ally of the Britiih into an open enemy. By
a fudden and unexpected movement of a (mall part of
our army, that had been prepared for this purpofe, thefe
officers were all fuddenly apprehended, and the allegi¬
ance of the Nizam, and the fubordination of his army,
were almod indantaneoufiy redored. This fir ft act of
the marquis Wellefly, though fcarcely heard of in
Europe, certainly augured favourably of his govern¬
ment 3 for it not only paved the way to his fubfequent
fuccefs againft the Myfore, but from its promptitude
and deciiion it deferved to be ranked among the moll
meritorious meafures of his whole adminiftration.
The vengeance of the king of Myfore, for his former
Ioffes and defeats, had not luffered him to enjoy a mo¬
ment of tranquillity after the late pacification (d). He
had in faft: been railing up a Mohammedan confe¬
deracy, which was to confift of the grand feignior, the
Perfian chiefs, the nabob of Oude, and the Nizam 3 and
was intended for a purpofe, no lefs fplendid in the eyes
of the faithful, than the extirpation, not only of the
Britiih, but of all the enemies of Iflamifm throughout
Hindoftan. The army of this prince was fully pre¬
pared to take the field, but the fortunate event that has
Vol. XI. Part I.
1 233 ]
I N D
India-
jud: been related, had deprived him of the co-operation of
the Nizam, his neared, and therefore his mod efficient v
ally.
The native princes of India are in general far more
prompt in imbibing refentment, and in learning maxims
of hoftility againft their neighbours, than cautious or
prudent in their application. Their French inftruftors
were alfo, at this period, fo much intoxicated with the
new form which their own government in Europe had
affume'd, that they had inftituted a fociety, in the capi¬
tal of Mylore, for the romantic purpofe of fpreading
the doctrine of liberty and equality among the defpots
and daves of Alia. The fovereign of Myfore himfelf
was eafily perfuaded to become an honorary member
of this inftitution, where he appeared among its affoci-
ates under the name of Citizen Tippoo, an appellation
perhaps the mod awkward and incongruous that had
ever been affumed by an eaftern defpot. The wild
and frantic orifons that wrere daily poured forth in this
club, in favour of an imaginary liberty, wTere condant-
ly accompanied with fentiments of detefiation, and
vows of eternal hoftility, againft the Britiffi government 3
its forces were therefore inftantly prepared and march¬
ed into the field to meet an aggredion, which there
had been fo little care taken to conceal. Pad experi¬
ence had taught the Britiih officers to avoid the purfuit
of a native army in its rapid and difeurfive evolutions in
the field 3 the Britidi, therefore, marched direftly to¬
wards the capital of the enemy, which fell, but not till
two decided victories bad been obtained without its
walls, and alio an obftinate defence had been made in 183
the interior of the city. In this lad conflift (e), which Fal1 of TlP*
was maintained by both the affailants and the natives
with equal valour and obftinacy, much blood was fpilt, 13 Ca^1
and the lives of many brave men were loft, among the
reft that of Tippoo Sultaun, wdiofe body was found,
after long fearch, among heaps of the llain, where he
had fallen nobly defending the lad bulwark of his king,
dom, and wffiere, how'ever unfortunate he may be deem¬
ed in other refpefts, he at lad met with a fate not un¬
worthy of his bravery.
By the pacification at Hyderabad, the fall of Se-
ringapatam, and the death of Tippco Sultaun, the
Mohammedan branch of the grand confederacy, which
the French had raifed againd the Britiffi power in In¬
dia, was completely broken and fimftly dedroyed. For
although the few remaining adherents of the deceafed
monarch made fome defperate efforts for the reftoration
of his family, thefe were rendered abortive By the afti¬
vity and vigilance of thofe Britiffi officers who had
been left in charge of the conquered country (f). The
c.impaign againft the Myfore w^as, therefore, completed
by a fignal aft of juftice, as creditable to the govern¬
ment of India, as the late brilliant fucceffes had been
honourable to the Britiih arms. The greater part of the
vanquifhed territory wras reftored to the rajah of My¬
fore, and his ancient family again mounted that throne,
G g from
(d) Effefted by Marquis Cornwallis.
(K) ^1,'s niemorable attack wras led by General Baird, w’ho had been for three years confined in a dunneon by
the tyrant. . &
(f) Particularly by Sir Arthur Wellefly, who fignalized himfelf by the defeat of Doondea Waugh, the moft
ueady adherent of rippoo* °
\
1 N D
[ 234 ]
I N D
India, from vvliicli they had been driven by the treachery and
11 v-— ufurpation of Tippoo and his father : nor did the ven¬
geance of the Britiih, though hurled with fuch de-
Itrutdive rapidity againlt the moll formidable and in¬
veterate of all their enemies, prevent them from afford¬
ing fympathy and relief to the furviving family of the
Myf’orean kings ; ample endowments were let apart for
their fupport, which they Hill continue to enjoy, with
perhaps equal comfort, and certainly with greater fe-
curity, than in the mod; profperous days of the fortunes
of their houfe.
This train of important and fuccefsful events took
place during the fliort fpace of only a few months after
the arrival of the marquis of Wellefly, and they cer¬
tainly entitled his adminifhation to rank with the moft
a&ive and brilliant that had ever been dlfplayed by any
governor of India 5 according, however, to his views
of the Hate of that country, he muff have regarded his
labours as fcarcely half finifhed. He faw the immenfe
power of the Mahratta empire Hill remaining not only
unbroken, but daily increafing, and confolidating under
the aflive and unceafing operation of French induence.
A French Hate, as already noticed, of large extent
and formidable power, had been framed by the fuccef-
five labours of Generals de Boyne and Perron, around
the capital of India. This nafcent power the all-de¬
vouring ambition of the new emperor had already
grafped as a rich prize, and its deHruction became
therefore abfolutely neceffary to the fafety of our empire
in India, fince, amidif all the multiplied aggreffions of
his neighbours, the ufurper had uniformly diHinguifhed
the Britiflr nation as the marked, though perhaps not
the ultimate objedl of his hoflility.
The reduction of a hoflile power fo immediately in
the vicinity of our pofieflions, might certainly have
juflified a war; but as no adlual aggreflion had yet been
committed in that quarter, it was on the other fide of
the peninfula that the marquis of Wellefly was again
firfl called upon for the aftive fupport of the intereifs of
his government: the danger became at once prefling
and immediate by the ufurpation of the whole Mahrat¬
ta power by a Angle chief ; and the caufe of the fugitive
184 was identified with our own.
No balance The politics of India were never fo refined, or con-
ot power f1(jerate> as to admit of a balancing fvflem, by which
the overgrown power of any individual Hate might
be prevented from endangering the independence of
the refl. Hardly any circumflance of common danger
has ever been deemed fufficiently urgent, to unite the
native princes in the defence of the country even againfl
foreign invafion. During the contefl between the Bri-
tifli and the king of Myfore, the Mahrattas pbferved a
fufpicious neutrality : they gazed on the combatants with
an indifference that bordered on fatuity ; and which
flrongly foreboded the diffolution of their Hate. After
the fall of that kingdom, their empire affually fell into
a Hate of anarchy that demanded the mofi prompt
meafures of precaution for the fafety of the BritiHi ter¬
ritories, and thofe of its allies, which lay around its
frontiers. The conHitution of their err pire, originally
ill eonitrudled and undefined, had lately been rauicaliy
changed. The ancient rajahs of Satarah, who had
originally laid the foundation of its power, and ex¬
tended its influence over the peninfula with luch un¬
exampled rapidity, had gradually funk from the rank
known in
Indian po¬
litics.
of fovereigns to imbecillity, and, owing to the per- India,
fonal ambition of their fervants, fell into a Hation, if v J
not of abfolute privacy, at kail of complete infignifi-
cance.
Their miniflers, already become hereditary in their
offices, and too powerful for controul, had fulficient'
influence to remove the feat of government from Sa¬
tarah, and to conflitute the town of Poonah the capital
of the empire. There, removed from the eyes of the
princes, they no longer deigned to preferve further al¬
legiance, than the femblance of delegated power ; they
accordingly retained the appellation of Pefhwa, but
compelled the fubordinate members of the contederacy
to acknowledge them as the legitimate organ of the
whole executive power of the Hate, whether civil or
military. It is, however, fcarcely pofiible, accurately
to define either the rights or the power attached to
the Pefhwa, after his being acknowledged repreien-
tative of the fupreme head of the empire. The ex¬
tent of his prerogatives feems to have varied at dif¬
ferent times, according to the perfonal talents and am¬
bition of each incumbent in the exercife of this recent
power.
Bajee Rao, the prefent Pefhwa, from that imbecillity
and indolence which in Afia is fo often attached to
high flation, had devolved upon inferior agents almofl
the whole of the aftive duties of his ofhee. His
power had frequently been difputed or controlled ;
he had at different times nearly become a prey to the
ambition of the fubordinate chiefs; and, at the period
now under review, though defended by Scindiah, he
had been completely defeated by Holkar’s troops,
and obliged to flee for fecurity beyond the limits of his
own dominions.
The danger to the Britilk poffeifions, and thofe of
their allies, became preffing and immediate, from this
ufurpation of almofl the whole Mahratta power by the
hands of a Angle chieftan ; and the caufe of the Pcfliwa
thus became identified with that of our India govern¬
ment.
A treaty of defenfive alliance between the India
Company and the Pefliwa, was therefore drawn up at
the earnefl folicitation of that prince, and was finally
ratified at Baffein, where he had fled from the aggref¬
fions of Holkar for protection. By this inflrument, it
was ftipulated, that he fliould be reltored to his domini¬
ons, and to the exercife of his legitimate authority, on
condition of his maintaining, for the defence of his ter¬
ritories, and at his own expence, a brigade of Britiih
troops; which it was at firit agreed fliould confift of
6000, but afterwards the number was increafed to
10,000 men.
The terms of this convention were no fooner arranged,
than the Bririfli army, under Sir Arthur Wellefly,
marched towards Poonah with that promptitude and deci-
ficn which have always diftinguiflied the fervices of this ^
valuable officer. The rapidity of his movements, and Poonalrla-
his unexpected advance, faved the capital from deftruc-ken-
tion ; for the troops of Holkar, who had continued to
pillage the city, fince it fell into their pofleflion, had at
laft refolved to finilh the cataftrophe, by fetting it on
fire. Alarmed, however, by the hidden approach pf
the Britifli army, they fled from the place with the ut-
moft precipitation, and foon after abandoned the ter¬
ritory of Poonah. Room was thus made for the peace¬
able
I N D
[
India.
186
Combina¬
tion of the
Mahratta
’.hiefs.
able refloration of the depofed fovereign •, and the Pefli-
J wa, when he afterwards arrived, was received by hisfub-
jecls, not merely with fubmiffion and quietnefs, but with
every mark of the lincereit joy and fatisfaclion. During
his abfence the inhabitants had been fubjected to the fevered
forms of military execution ; and forced to fubmit to the
various exactions of a chief the mod needy, defperate,
and rapacious, of all the leaders of the predatory bands
of his countrymen. When, therefore, they again beheld
their lawful fovereign, they greeted his return by falutes
from all the forts in his kingdom, and tedified their joy,
by illuminations on the tops and acclivities of the hills
throughout the whole vicinity of Poonah.
Thus far ‘the meafures of the governor of India
wore an afpe6t of confideucy and vigour, which au¬
gured well in favour of their ultimate fuccefs. The
judice of his interference at this time, to check the
overgrown power of an afpiring adverfary, and to
luccour the didrefs of a fallen prince, will hardly be
quedioned by fuch as are verfant in the politics of In¬
dia : Nor will it be denied, fince all the Mahratta princes
exerciled the right of making treaties themfelves, that
the fame privilege belonged to the head of the empire.
According to thefe views, the defenfive treaty of
Baffein was not only avowed by the parties, but freely
• communicated to the red of the chiefs, who explicitly
declared, that it contained no dipulations injurious
either to the principles of their conditution, or to the
jud rights of any member of the Mahratta confederacy.
On the other hand, its advantages ■were fudiciently ob¬
vious. It had the immediate effedd of redoring a depo¬
fed prince to his throne, and to the exercife of his ac¬
knowledged rights, as wrell as of checking a dangerous
ulurpation. It detached from the influence of French
councils a very important branch of the Mahratta con¬
federacy, and therefore coincided with the general
tendency and fpirit of the Britifh policy in the eafl.
But the power of the Pefhwa, and the predominant
rights which, by the conditution of the empire, were at¬
tached to his office, had, as was already noticed, be¬
come a grand objeft of ambition among the more con-
fjderable chiefs. Scindiah had for many years labour¬
ed to gain an afcendency at the court of Poonah, and
on feme occafions a&ually pofieffed a powerful influ¬
ence on its councils. Ragojee Boonfla had, from fa¬
mily connexion, fome grounds for the advancement of
his own claims to this office ; while Holkar had lately,
by the fortune of war, had the whole authority placed
within his grafp, and in the name of Amrut Rao, bro
ther to the Pefhwa, had a£iually begun to exercife its
different prerogatives.
The final deprivation of thefe chiefs, of fo fair an
objeiff of ambition as the general controul of the whole
Mahratta empire, feemed to reproach their indolence
and want of ambition ; and the nearer they confidered
its attainment, the ftronger the jealoufy and difap-
pointment which its lofs occafioned. The deep refent-
ment thus excited among thefe chiefs, though unac¬
knowledged by themfelves, w'as the true caufe of that
open hoflility which they were now about to commence
a gain ft the Britifh power. Thus impelled by the
ftrong emotions of difappointed ambition, Scindiah and
the rajah of Nagpore entered into a clofe engagement
to fruftrate the arrangements lately ftipulated by the
treaty of Baffein. In order to execute tiffs purpofe,
35 ] IN I>
each chief fet on foot a large army, which was marched Inffia.
from different quarters to a point of union, bordering “ w—
on the territories of the Nizam, an ally of the India
company.
This menacing pofition they maintained for a con-
fiderable time, in order to complete their own prepara¬
tions, and the more eftecfually to urge Holkar to join
their confederacy, nor could they be perfuaded to aban¬
don it by the ftrongeft remonltrances of our govern¬
ment againft military preparations (o unneceffary for
their own defence, and in a fituation fo incompatible
with the peace and fafety of the Britilh allies. Howt-
ever unwilling the marquis of Weflelly might be to
hazard the tranquillity and fafety of the Britifh empire
in the eaft by entering into a conteft with thefe power¬
ful chiefs, whofe dominions athially ftretched over
more than one-half of the peninfula of India, he had
however no alternative left him. The full and pofi-
tive information which he had from various fources ob¬
tained, of the nature and extent of the hoftilities that had
for fome time paid been meditated, was now confirmed
by the menaces of the enemy, and the adtual prepara¬
tions that he had made to carry them into execution.
He forefaw the dangerous crifts which was now fo near
at hand ; and the hollow profeflion of friendftffps which
were conftantly fent in reply to his remonftrances, did
not for a moment prevent him from bringing forward
the whole refources of his government to defeat their
enterprifes. 1S7
A combination of the Mahratta empire, fo extenfive Armies fens
and powerful as that now formed by the confederates, ^
had never hitherto been brought into aHion againft the
Britifh power ; and it muft be acknowledged alfo, that
a fyftem of defence, equally prompt, vigorous, and com-
prehennve, was never planned by any former governor
of Britifli India. Five different armies, each of con-
fiderable force, were fpeedily prepared, brought into
the field, and ready to invade the vaft territory of the
enemy, nearly at the fame period of time. The value
of the previous arrangements that had been formed
with the Nizam and the PeftnvS, particularly the fub-
fidiary treaties, was now diftintflly felt. By them the
Britifh army was enabled to proceed through the
friendly territories of allied chiefs, to the very bounda¬
ry of the Mahratta dominions, where it was joined by
a large fubfidiary force both from Hyderabad and
Poonah, which materially promoted the fuccefs of the
campaign. The marquis thus was enabled to attack
the extenfive dominions of the enemy, from alrnoft
every affailable point, by an effort almoft fimultaneous.
On the fouth they were invaded by a powerful divi-
fion of the Madrafs army under Sir Arthur Welle fly ;
in Guzerat, on the weft, by Colonel Murray, and a
ftrong detachment of the Bombay troops ; a fimilar ef¬
fort was alfo made by General Lake on the northern
extremity of Scindiah’s dominions, where the main
ftrength of his army was ftationed in conjunffion with
the celebrated brigade of General Perron. On the
eaft, in Bundelcund, the fame fyftem of attack was
purfued, where the adherents of the confederacy All
Mohammed and Plimnut Bahaudur were overpowered
and difperfed. During the execution of all thefe ope¬
rations, the provinces of Balafore and Cuttack were
wrefted from the rajah of Nagpore, by the immediate
diredlion and under the aufpices of the governor-gene-
G g 2 rai
I N D [ 236 ] I N D
India, pal liimfelf who had planned and combined all thefe af-
' faults with a degree of judgment and accuracy which
fecured their uniform fuccels, and which has proved as
creditable to his own talents as the prompt execution of
his plans has been honourable to our Indian armies.
But the circumftance which appears molt fignally to
have promoted the fuccefs of this eventful campaign,
was the ample and unreftricted authority which was
conferred on the different commanders carrying on their
operations f^ far removed from the feat of government.
It was thus thefe officers were enabled to meet every
new exigency by the unreftrained application of all
their refources, and to furmount or evade unforefeen
difficulties, as they happened to ariie, by the immediate
exercife of diferetionary power. The unexampled ra¬
pidity of our victories, and vaft extent of the conqueiis
that were made in the ffiort fpace of a few months,
mult be in lome meafure alfo aferibed to that juft tri¬
bute of commendation which was lo impartially and
liberally bellowed on the officers and troops after their
hard-fought battles. This approbation, equally merited
and ufeful, infpired the army with a juft confidence in
its own ftrengtb, and preferved among the troops un¬
common alacrity amidft their fatigues and danger.
The ftrong partiality wffiich the marquis of Wellef-
]y muft have naturally felt for the brilliant fervices of
bis brother, on no occafion prevented him from dis¬
cerning the merits of other officers, and from confer¬
ring on them their juft (hare of applaufe. Immediately
after the battle of Delhi, he expreffes his fenfe of the
fervices of General Lake and his army in the following
fpirited and patriotic terms in his general orders to the
troops. He obferves, that “ on reviewing the rapid
fuccefles obtained by our arms within the ftiort fpace of
a few months, every loyal fubje£t of the Britilh empire
muft be animated with the molt zealous emotions of
juft pride anti national triumph. I have already ex-
preffed the fentiments of gratitude and admiration with
which I contemplated the conduct of his excellency
the commander in chief, and his army, in the aftion of
the 29th of Auguft, asd in the gallant affault of the
fortrefs of Ally Ghur on the 4th of September. The
decilive viftory gained on the 1 ith, in the battle of
Delhi, juftifies the firm confidence I repofed in the bra¬
very, perfeverance and difeipline of the army, and in
the fkill, judgment, and invincible intrepidity of their
illuftrious commander. The glory of that day is not
furpaffed, by any recorded triumph of the Britilh arms
in India •, and is attended by every circumftance calcu¬
lated to elevate the fame <3f Britilh valour, to illuftrate
the chara&er of Britilh humanity, and to fecure the
liability of the Britilh empire in the eaft.”
The bravery of Sir A. Wellelly and His army, their
atchievements in the memorable battles of Aflye and
Argaum in the Deccan, were not lefs confpicuous*, nor
were the general merits of this officer lefs worthy of
thofe liberal and manly encomiums which he received
from the marquis. Both commanders enjoyed the ap¬
probation of their fovereign, and received from him
thofe honours which are the reward of valour. Fortu¬
nately too for the interefts o# the Britilh empire, affail-
ed at this period by the moft inveterate of all its ene¬
mies, the folid advantages refulting from thofe well
eontefted battles were not inferior to the fplendour of
thfdx: atchjevement.
Their immediate confequences were the defeat of India,
the combined armies of the confederate chiefs \ and, ' -v——
from the lofs of their artillery, an irreparable blow
their ftrength and refources throughout the whole ofjlan^ fuc_
tbe Deccan. Thefe profperous relults were, no doubt,cedes,
aided and accelerated by the aufpicious progrefs of the
the army at ail the different points from which it invad¬
ed the Mahratta empire. Soon after thefe fucceffes^
the French officers attached to Scindiah’s army, after
having quarrelled with the native firdars and with each
other, abandoned the fervice of that chief: after the ex¬
ample of Perron their principal partizan, they fubmlt-
ted to the proteftion of the Britiffi commander, who
fuffered them to retire with whatever property they
had acquired, and had been able to bring away.
Thus the grand fabric of French power which that
nation had been anxioully railing up, with the affum-
ed fan£tion of the imperial authority, and the more effi¬
cient fupport of the Mahratta power, wras at laft brok¬
en down, and completely deftroyed throughout the
whole of India. The conqueft of Balafore and Cuttack
by Colonel Harcourt feemed well calculated to prevent
its future renovation ; for it connedfed the twm presi¬
dencies of Bengal and Madrafs, and united the Britilh
territories along the whole extent of the Coromandel
coaft, wffiere they now prefent an unbroken and hoftile
frontier againft every inroad from the Ihore, and form
a barrier againft the introdudlion of French fupplies,
and officers to difeipline the armies of every inimical
power.
The ftrong detachment of the Bombay army under
Colonel Murray, though engaged in .enterprifes appa¬
rently lefs fplendid, wTere equally ferviceable in promot¬
ing the important refults of the campaign. This officer
not only defended the coaft and Britilh territory in that
quarter, and thofe of our ally the Guickar rajah 5 but
he alfo reduced the fortreffes of Broach, Powanghur,
and other polls of importance. Thus, in every quarter
of this extended warfare, was the Britilh caufe trium¬
phant -on the Ihores of Guzerat and Balafore, on
the mountains of the Deccan, and in the plains of Del¬
hi, her banners were fupported with equal energy and
fpirit •, and victory everywhere continued fteadily to fol¬
low them.
In the fpace of a few months, a rapid fucceffion of
events had taken place, of fufficient importance to
change completely the relative condition of the Britilh
empire, and the different powers of India. Its powder
was enlarged ; and its afcendency among the neigh¬
bouring Hates was without controul. Seven hundred
pieces of cannon had been taken from the enemy •,
their armies routed and difperfed. Eight fortreffes had
been reduced, either by liege or by efcalade. The
mighty ftrength of the French and Mahratta confede¬
racy had been fuddenly crulhed throughout a territory
extending over 1000 miles fquare. What feemed, how¬
ever, of no lefs importance, in thefe warlike times, and
in the critical fituation of the Britilh empire, then at¬
tacked and threatened with invafion, by its moft power¬
ful and inveterate enemy in Europe j her military re¬
putation was heightened *, the laurels Ihe had lately ga¬
thered in Syria and Egypt were refrelhed 5 and Ihe en¬
joyed a fatisfaftory proof, that amidft increafing luxury
and imminent danger, no portion of the enterprife and
valour of her armies had been loft. Nor is it to be for-*,
gotten
. ^ ■
I N D [ 237 ] I N I>
India, gotten that all her late victories in the eaft, had been
“ v— * obtained over troops, not in the ordinary circumftances
of Indian armies. They had been difciplined by Euro¬
pean officers, and led with intrepidity and Ikill. The
proficiency they had made in European tadtics was fo
great, that during the a£tion at Afiye, the Mahrattas
made no lefs than five different changes of pofition, and
fuftained on the fame day an equal number of affaults,
before they yielded the conteft. It was by the point of
the bayonet alone, that they were at lad compelled to
relinquifh their guns ; 100 of which were taken on the
field of battle, by an army fcarcely amounting to a
tenth-part of the number of that which they had, with
fuch Angular bravery, driven trom the field.
Peace con- The Mahratta confederacy being finally fubdued, a
«iuded. peace was concluded between the India Company,
Dowlut Rao Scindiah, and the Berar rajah, in January
1804. The ffiort period of tranquillity that fucceeded
this event, was fpeedily interrupted by Holkar, another
powerful chief, whofe expulfion of the Peffiwa had
originally occafioned the war. This prince, though he
kept aloof from the confederacy of his countrymen,
with an indifference which fcemed to argue at once a
deficiency of patriotifm and a want of found policy,
was, neverthelefs, found to maintain the conteft for his
independence with far greater (kill and bravery than
any prince whom the Britifh arms had oppofed in
India.
The power and refources of Holkar had gradually
been increaled, like that of the other chiefs, by the in-
trodudtion of European officers into his army, and by
an improved fyftem of difcipline which was thus efta-
bliffied. Thus formidable itfelf, his power was render¬
ed almoft unaffailable, from the nature of his country,
which is uncommonly mountainous, and, during the
rains, impaffable from jungles and moraffes. His Ikill
in maintaining the predatory warfare, fo congenial to a
Mahratta army, was far fuperior to that of the other
chiefs ; whofe experience had fo fully taught him the
danger of Hiking any regular engagement with Euro¬
pean troops. Thus, although his territories were invad¬
ed on all fides by detachments of the company’s forces,
he conftantly eluded their attacks j and by the lingular
rapidity of his movements, he was enabled fuddenly to
affemble almoft his whole force, and overpower wffiatever
detachments he might find at a diftance from fupport.
In this fituation, the troops under Colonel Monfon were
furprifed. This officer had marched againft his capital
Indoor, in concert with Colonel Murray, who had
reached the place from Bombay, and captured it with¬
out much oppofition. His lefs fortunate coadjutor,
however, after being betrayed by his guides, and de-
ferted by a part of his troops, whs attacked by a fupe¬
rior force, under Holkar himfelf, before which he was
forced to retreat towards Agra, through a country im-
paflable from the rains, and deftitute of provifions.
After feveral difaftrous conflifts, during a retreat of fe-
ven weeks, which degenerated into a flight, the greater
part of his guns, and the whole of the baggage and mi¬
litary ftores, were loft. A few only of the troops reach¬
ed Agra at midnight*, in a ftate of extreme diftrefs j
the greater part had been overtaken in their flight, and
were either maffacred, or cruelly mutilated, by their
ferocious purfuers.
Colonel Willot of the Bengal artillery svas almoft
equally unfuccefsful in an attack which he had planned Ir-ha.
againft a ftrong poft in the interior : he failed in the
attempt ; and foon after died of the wounds he had re¬
ceived. It was in Bundelcund, and the country of the
Rohillas, that Holkar received the moft coniiderable
checks, which produced a reverfe of fortune. From
both thofe territories he was completely driven by Lieu¬
tenant-colonel Fawcet and General Smith.
Parties of his cavalry had been repeatedly defeated
by Lord Lake : but the rapidity of their movements as
often faved them from deftrudftion \ and it was not till
the decifive battle of Deeg, on the 13th of November,
that the main ftrength of this enterprifing chief was
completely broken. At this place, his army, trufting
to the great ftrength of its pofition, behind fucceffive
ranges of batteries, was induced to hazard a general ac¬
tion. From thefe different batteries, which extended
to the depth of two miles, they 'were fucceffively driven
by the gallant General Frazer, wffio had the credit of
forcing a pott which had been deemed impregnable 5
and which at this period was defended by 24 battalions
of infantry, and 150 pieces of cannon.
In this brilliant atchievement the general was wound¬
ed in the leg, and foon after was obliged to be carried
off the field. The completion of the vi£tory thus fell
to Colonel Monfon, who now faw complete vengeance
inflifted for his part difafters, and for the unexampled
cruelty of his enemy j 2000. of whom were killed, ei¬
ther in the battle or during the retreat. An immenfe
number was wounded, and among thofe many confider-
able chiefs j while 87 pieces of cannon fell into his
hands, which partly confifted of the fame guns which
he had himfelf loft during his difaftrous retreat to
Agra.
Had Holkar confided merely to his effefilive force in.
the field, his caufe might have now been regarded as
defperate. His boldnefs, however, and his unexampled
fuccefs, had gained him the fupport of feveral of the
native princes. Among thefe he had feduced the rajah
of Bhurtpore, an ally of the Britiffi, and the chief of
the celebrated caft of the Jauts, the moft warlike tribe
in upper India. General Lake was therefore obliged
to concentrate his army, and to employ it in the reduc¬
tion of Bhurtpore, a fortrefs which experience has pro¬
ved to have been the ftrongeft and moft impregnable in
the whole peninfula. While thus employed, the dif-
perfed troops of Holkar had time to rendezvous in dif-
tant quarters 5 and were fuccefsful in cutting off his
fupplies of provifions, and in plundering the furround¬
ing diftrifts, by that predatory mode of warfare, for;
which the Mahrattas have always been celebrated.
The redudftion of Bhurtpore, thus defended by the-
indefatigable efforts of Holkar, by its intrepid garrifon,
and its own natural ftrength, proved the moft arduous
enterprife which the Britith troops had ever under¬
taken in Afia. The fuccefs of the befieged in repelling
four different affaults, animated them with freffi courage,
and intrepidity, The rajah and his whole tribe wTere
usited by the ties of blood, as well as of civil authority.
They had claim to. a high cqfi among the natives,
which they knew muft be forfeited forever by uncondi¬
tional fubmiflion : Unfortunately thefe were the only
terms which General Lake, in the peremptory inftruc-
tions which were given for its reduftion, was permit¬
ted to accept. The rajah, therefore, having collefled in
the .
1 N D .. t 23
the fort, Ills women, his children, and his treafures, refol-
ved to bury them all withhimfelf under its ruins, rather
than fubmit to terms which were deemed as di (graceful
to his religion and his rank, as they were mortifying to
his feelings as a foldier.
Compelled by the orders of his fuperior, and un¬
daunted by all the paid difafters which the troops had
already fullered, General Lake refolded to hazard ano¬
ther attempt. In the account given of it in his difpatch
to the governor-general, dated 22d February, he ob-
ierves, that “ it appeared our failure on the 20th w-as
to be accounted for, in a great meafure, by the occur¬
rence of unexpected accidents and delays, as part of the
corps who formed the Harming party had furmouuted
the principal difficulty, and had nearly gained the fum-
niit of the ballion •, where, I was informed, a few hours
more battering W'ould make the afeent perfectly eafy,
I determined to make another attempt yefferday.
“ The party for this fervice conffffed of the whole
European force, and the two battalions of the native
infantry of the Bengal army 5 and the greater part of
his majeffy’s 55th and 86th regiments, the grenadier
battalion, and the flank companies of the iff battalion
3d regiment, from the Bombay divifion. The whole
moved on to the attack about three o’clock in the af¬
ternoon, under the command of the honourable Briga¬
dier Monfon. The troops, moft confident of fuccefs,
commenced the attack, and perfevered in it for a con-
fiderable time, with the moft determined bravery ; but
their utmoft exertions were not fufficient to enable them
to gain the top of the breach. The baftion, which
was the point of attack, was extremely deep j the re¬
finance oppofed to them was vigorous, and as our men
could only mount by fmall parties at a time, the ad¬
vantages were very great on the fide of the enemy.
Difcharges of grape, logs of wood, and pots filled with
combuftible materials, immediately knocked down thofe
who were afeending •, and the whole party, after hav-
ing engaged in an obftinate conteft for two hours, and
fuffering very fevere lofs, was obliged to relinquifti the
attempt, and to retire to our trenches.” The lofs of
the Britiffi army in this laft affault, and that of the
2otb, amounted to 300 killed, and 1564 wounded ;
its whole lofs during the different attacks, amounted to
upwards of 3000 of the braveft of our troops j while
the unconditional furrender of the place, though the ul¬
timate object of all thefe perilous attempts, was never
attained.
The rajah, however, again propofed the terms he
had formerly offered and confeated to pay three lacks
of rupees to the army, and the expences of the war.
Hoftages were given for the regular difeharge of thefe
fums, at different inftalments. Thus the laft prince in
India who reufted the Britifti arms, was found to have
made the moft glorious defence of his independence,
and to have fecured for himfelf the moft honourable
terms. Holkar himfelf, after having been often beat¬
en, was at laft deferred by almoft the whole of his
troops, and was obliged to efcape with a retinue fo
fcanty, as was hardly fufficient for the proteftion of his
perfon. In this manner, an arduous campaign of 11
months was completed, after occafioning a greater lofs
of blood and treafure than had, perhaps, ever been in¬
curred by the fubiugation of anyfingle chief. Nor did
this daring and magnanimous prince deign to tender
2
3 ] 1 n r>
fubmiffion, or to fue for peace, till the marquis of Wei- Imlia
lefly had returned to Europe 5 till he had beheld theT i1
downfall of all the leading men of his nation j and tillF"c •v •* Cl *;
like another Galgacus, he had fecured to himfelf the
honour of being the laft prince who had dared to up¬
hold the ftandard of independence in his native coun¬
try.
Thus ended the conteft between the Britith govern¬
ment and the Mahratta ftates ;—a combination of mili¬
tary chiefs who had fuddenly emerged from obfeurity,
and rofe to the higheft rank among the native powers.
Their growing influence had invariably been hoflile
both to the Mohammedan and Britith power. Their
vicinity was the fertile fource of intrigue, ftratagem,
and war : By their downfall, the India Company has
obtained a full afcendency over the peninfula •, time and
future experience will drew whether this new authority
ihall better promote the peace and profperity of that po¬
pulous country.
India Company. See Company.
India Rubber. See Caoutchouc.
INDIAN, in a general fenfe, denotes any thing be¬
longing to the Indies, Eaft or Weft.
Indian Berry. See Menispermum,'}
Indian Bread. See JatropHA,
Indian Corn, or Maize. -See Zea, i Botany
Indian CreJJes. See Trop^EOLUM, j Index.
Indian Fig. See Cactus,
Indian Pagod-tree. See FlCUS, J
Indian Ink, See Ink.
Indian Reed. See Canna, Botany Index.
INDICATION, in Physic, whatever ferves to di-
reeft the phyftcian how to aft.
INDICATIVE, in Grammar, the firft mood or
manner of conjugating a verb, by which we fimply
affirm, deny, or alk fomething: as, amant, “ they love
non amant, “ they do not love j” aitiant ne I “ do they
love r” See Grammar.
INDICTTON, in Chronology, a cycle of 15 years.
See Cycle.
INDICTMENT, in Law, one of the modes of pro-
fecuting an offender. See Prosecution.
In Englifti law, it is a written accufation of one or
more perfons of a crime or mifdemeanor, preferred to,
and prefented upon oath by, a grand jury. To this
end, the ftieriff of every county is bound to return to Blackft.
every feffion of the peace, and every commiffion of oyer Comment.
and terminer, and of general gaol-delivery, twenty-four
good and lawful men of the county, fome out oi every
hundred, to inquire, prefent, do, and execute ail thofe
things, which on the part of our lord the king (hall
then and there be commanded them. They ought to
be freeholders; but to what amount is uncertain :
which feems to be cafus omijfus, and as proper to be
fupplied by the legiflature as the qualifications of the
petit jury j which were formerly equally vague and un¬
certain, but are now fettled by feveral afts of parlia¬
ment. Horvever, they are ufually gentlemen of the
belt figure in the county. As many as appear upon
this pannel, are fworn upon the grand jury, to the a-
mount of twelve at the lead, and hot more than twenty-
three that twelve may be a majority. Which num¬
ber, as well as the conftitution itfelf,. we find ex-^.^ ^
aftly deferibed fo early as the laws of King Ethelred :
Exeant feniores duodi citn thani, et prmfeClus cum eis, ut 1
jurent
I N D ' [2
Indi<flment._/tf/Y«/ fuper fanBuarium quod eis in manus datur, quod
v—— nolint ullum innocenlum accufare, ncc aliquem noxium
eelare. In the time of King Richard I. (according to
Hoveden), the procefs of elefting the grand jury, or¬
dained by that prince, was as follows : Four knights
were to be taken from the county at large, who chofe
two more out of every hundred ; which two affociated
to themfelves ten other principal freemen, and thofe
twelve were to anfwer concerning all particulars re¬
lating to their own dilhiff. This number was probably
found too large and inconvenient ; but the traces of
this inftitution dill remain, in that fome of the jury
muft be fummoned out of every hundred. This grand
jury are previoufly inftructed in the articles of their in¬
quiry, by a charge from the judge \^ho prefideS upon
the bench. They then withdraw to lit and receive in-
di&ments, which are preferred to them in the name of
the king, but at the fuit of any private profecutor 5 and
they are only to hear evidence on behalf of the profe-
cution : for the finding of an indictment is only in the
nature of an inquiry or accufation, which is afterwards
to be tried and determined 5 and the grand jury are only
to inquire upon their oaths, w'hether there be fufficient
caufe to call upon the party to anfwer it. A grand
jury, however, ought to be thoroughly perfuaded of
the truth of an indictment, fo far as their evidence goes;
and noi: to reft fatisfied merely with remote probabili¬
ties : a doCfrine that might be applied to very oppref-
five purpofes.
The grand jury are fworn to inquire only for the bo¬
dy of the county, pro corpore comitatus; and therefore
they cannot regularly inquire of a fa£t done out of that
County for which they are fworn, unlefs particularly
enabled by aft of parliament. And to fo high a nicety
was this matter anciently carried, that where a man was
wounded in one county, and died in another, the offen¬
der was at common lawT indiftable in neither, becaufe
no complete aft of felony was done in any one of them :
but by ftatute 2d and 3d Edw. VI. c. 24. he is now’in¬
diftable in the county wdrere the party died. And, by
ftatute 2 Geo. II. c. 21.'if the ftroke or poifoning be
in England, and the death upon the fea or out of Eng¬
land, or vice vcrfa, the offenders, and their acceffories,
may be indiftcd in the county where either the death,
poifoning, or ftroke, fhall happen. And fo in fome
other cafes ; as particularly, where treafon is commit¬
ted out of the realm, it may be inquired of in any
county within the realm, as the king ftiall direft, in
purfuance of ftatutes 26 Hen. VIII. c. 13. 33. ; Hen.
VIII. c. 23. 35.; Hen. VIII. c. 2. 5. 6. ; Edw. VI.
c. II. And counterfeiters, walhers, or minifliers, of
the current coin, together wdth all manner of felons and
their acceffories, may, by ftatute 26 Hen. VIII. c. 6.
(confirmed and explained by 34 and 35 Hen. VIII.
c. 26. § 75, qS.) be indifted and tried for thofe offen¬
ces, if committed in any part of Wales, before the juf-
tices of gaol-delivery and of the peace, in the next ad¬
joining county of England, wrhere the king’s writ run¬
neth : that is, at prefent in the county of Hereford or
Salop ; and not, as it ftiould feem, in the county of
Chefter or Monmouth : the one being a county pala¬
tine where the king’s writ did not run ; and the other
a part of Wales, in 26 Hen. VIIE Murders alfo,
whether committed in England or in foreign parts, may,
by virtue of the ftatute 33 Hen. VIII. c. 23. be inqui-
39 1 . I N D
red of and tried by the king’s fpecial commiflion in any Indictment*
fhire or place in the kingdom. By ftatute io and 11  '
W. III. c. 25. all robberies, and other capital crimes,
committed in Newfoundland, may be inquired of and
tried in any county in England. Offences againft the
black aft, 9 Geo. I. c. 22. may be inquired of and
tried in any county of England, at the option of the
profecutor. So felonies, in deftroying turnpikes, or
works upon navigable rivers, erefted by authority of
parliament, may, by ftatutes 8 Geo. II. c. 20. and 1 ^
Geo. III. c. 84. be inquired of and tried in any adja¬
cent county. By ftatute 26 Geo. II. c. 19. plundering
or Healing from any veftel in diftrefs or wrecked, or
breaking any ftiip contrary to 12 Ann. ftatute 2. c. 18.
may be profecuted either in the county where the faft
is committed, or in any county next adjoining ; and if
committed in Wales, then in the next adjoining Eng-
lilh county : by which is underftood to be meant, fuch
Englilh county as, by the ftatute 26 Hen. VIII. above
mentioned, had before a concurrent jurifdiftion of felo¬
nies committed in Wales. Felonies committed out of
the realm, in burning or deftroying the king’s Ihips,
magazines, or ftores, may, by ftatute 12 Geo. III. c. 23.
be inquired of and tried in any county of England, or
in the place where the offence is committed. By ftatute
13 Geo. III. c. 63. mifdemeanors committed in India
maybe tried upon information or indiftment in the
court of king’s-bench in England ; and a mode is mark¬
ed out for examining witneffes by commiftioa, and tranf-
mitting their depofitions to the court. But, in general,
all offences murt be inquired into, as wTell as tried, in
the county where the faft is committed. Yet if larceny
be committed in one county, and the goods carried into
another, the offender may be indifted in either ; for
the offence is complete in both. Or he may be indift¬
ed in England for larceny in Scotland, and carrying
the goods with him into England, or vice verfa; or
for receiving in one part of the united kingdom goods
that have been ftolen in another. But for robbery,,
burglary, and the like, he can only be indifted w’here
the faft was aftually committed : for though the carry¬
ing away and keeping of the goods is a continuation of
the original taking, and is therefore larceny in the fecond
county, yet it is not a robbery or burglary in that jurif- %
diftion. And if a perfon be indifted in one county for
larceny of goods originally taken in another, and be
thereof convifted, or Hands mute, he fhall not be ad¬
mitted to his clergy ; provided the original taking be
attended with fuch circumftances as would have oufted
him of his clergy by virtue of any ftatute. made previous
to the year 1691.
When the grand jury have heard the evidence, if
they think it a groundlefs accufation, they ufed former¬
ly to endorfe on the back of the bill, Ignoramus ; or,
We know nothing of it: intimating, that though the
fafts might poflibly be true, that truth did not appear
to them. But now they affert in Englifti more ab-
folutely, Not a true bill; or (which is the better way)
Not found; and then the party is difcharged without
farther anfwer. But a frelh bill may afterwards be -
preferred to a fubfequent grand jury. If they are fa¬
tisfied of the truth of the accufation, they then indorfe
upon it, “ A true bill anciently, Billa vera. The
indiftment is then faid to be found, and the party
Hands indifted. But to find a bill, there muft at leaft
twelve-
I N
Tndi&ment. twelve of the jury agree
s"—of England of the lives of the fubjedls, that no man
can be convi&ed at the fuit of the king of any capi¬
tal offence, unlefs by the unanimous voice of twenty-
four of his equals and neighbours 5 that is, by twelve
at lead of the grand jury, in the firft place, affent-
ing to the accufation ; and afterwards by the whole pe¬
tit jury of twelve more, finding him guilty upon his
trial. But if twelve of the grand jury affent, it is a
good prelentment, though ibme of the reft difagree.
And the indifhnent, when fo found, is publicly deli¬
vered into court.
Indi&ments muft have a precife and fufficient cer¬
tainty. By ftatute 1 Hen. V. c. 5. all indiftments
muft fet forth the Chriftian name, furname, and addi¬
tion of the ftate and degree, myftery, town, or place,
and the county of the offender ; and all this to identify
his perfon. The time and place are alio to be afcer-
tained,' by naming the day and townftiip in which the
faff w^as committed : though a miftake in thefe points
is in general not held to be material, provided the
time be laid previous to the finding of the indictment,
and the place to be within the jurifdiiftion of the court j
unlefs where the place is laid, not merely as a venue,
but as part of the defcription of the facl. But
fometimes the time may be very material, where there
is any limitation in point of time afligned for the pro-
fecution of offenders 5 as by the ftatute 7 Will. III.
c. 3. which enafts, that no profecution thall be had
for "any of the treafons or mifprifions therein mention¬
ed (except an affaflination defigned or attempted on
the perfon of the king), unlefs the bill of indiament
be found within three years after the offence commit¬
ted : and, in cafe of murder, the time of the death
muft be laid w'ithin a year and a day after the mortal
ftroke was given. The offence itfelf muft alio be fet
forth with clearnefs and certainty , and in fome crimes
particular words of art muft be ufed, which are fo ap¬
propriated by the law to exprefs the precife idea which
it entertaius of the offence, that no other words, how¬
ever fynonymous they may feem, are capable of doing
it. Thus, in treafon, the facts muft be laid to be done
“ treafonably, and againft his allegiance anciently,
proditorie et contra ligeantue fuce debitutn elfe the in-
difilment is void. In indictments for murder, it is
neceffary to fay that the party indicted “ murdered,”
not “ killed” or “ flew,” the other 5 which, till the
late ftatute, was expreffed in Latin by the word mur-
dravit. In all indictments for felonies, the adverb
“ felonioufly,” felonice, muft be ufed ; and for burg¬
laries alfo, burglariter, or, in Englifti, “ burglarioufly :”
and all thefe to afcertain the intent. In rapes, the
word rapuit, or “ ravifhed,” is neceffary, and muft
not be expreffed by any periphrafis, in order to render
the crime certain. So in larcenies alfo, the words fe¬
lonice cepit et afportavit, “ felonioufty took or carried
away,” are neceffary to every indictment ; for thefe
only can exprefs the very offence. Alfo, in indictments
for murder, the length and depth of the wound thould
in general be expreffed, in ordter that it may appear to
the court to have been of a mortal nature : but if it
goes through the body, then its dimenfions are imma¬
terial, for that is apparently fufficient to have been
the caufe of the death. Alfo, where a limb, or the
lij^e, is abfolutely cut off, there fuch defcription is need-
3
D t 240 ] I N D
for fo tender is the law lefs. Laftly, in indictments, the value of the thing Indictment
which is the fubjeCt or inftrument of the offence muft ;ofera
fbinetimes be e^prefled. In indictments for larcenies ^ - ■»
this is neceffary, that it may appear whether it be grand
or petit larceny *, and whether .entitled or not to the be¬
nefit of clergy. In homicides of all forts it is neceflary j
as the weapon with which it is committed is forfeited to
the king as a deodand. For the manner of procefs upon
an indictment, fee Process.
Indictment, in Scots Law, the name of the fum-
mons, or libel, upon which criminals are cited before
the court of jufticiary to Hand triad. See Law
Index.
Plea to Indictment. See Plea.
INDIES, Eaft and Weft. See India and Ame¬
rica.
INDIGENOUS, of indigena, denotes a native of a
country, or that which was originally born or pro¬
duced in the country where it is found. In this fenfe,
particular fpecies of animals and plants are faid to be
indigenous in the country where they are native, in op-
polition to Exotic.
INDIGESTION, a crudity or want of due coCtion
of the food in the ftomach. See Digestion.
INDIGETES, a name which the ancients gave to
fome of their gods.
There are various opinions about the origin and fig-
nification of this word. Some pretend it was give*
to all the gods in general ; and others, only to the de¬
migods, or great men deified. Others fay, it was gi¬
ven to fuch gods as were originally of the country, or
rather fuch as were the gods of the country that bore
this name •, and others again hold it Was aferibed to
fuch gods as were patrons and proteClors of particular
cities. Laftly, others hold indigetes to be derived from
inde genitus or in loco degens, or from inde and ago, for
dego, “ I live, I inhabit j” which laft opinion feems the
moft probable.
In effeCt it appears, 1. That thefe indigetes were alfo
called local gods {dii locales), or topical gods, which is
the fame thing. 2. The indigetes were ordinarily men
deified, who indeed were in efleCt local gods, being
efteemed the proteClors of thofe places where they
were deified j fo that the fecond and third opinions are
very confiftent. 3. Virgil joins patrn with indigetes,
as being the fame thing, Georg, i.ver. 498. “ Dnpatrii,
indigetes?'1 4. The gods to whom the Romans gave the
name indigetes were, Faunus, Vella, Aimeas, Romulus,
all the gods of Italy ; and at Athens, Minerva, fays
Servius \ and at Carthage, Dido. It is true, we meet
with Jupiter indiges: but that Jupiter indiges is 7Eneas,
not the great Jupiter $ as we may fee in Livy, lib. i.
cap. 3. in which laft fenfe Servius affures us, indiges
comes from the Latin in diis ago, “ I am among the
gods.”
Among thefe indigetes gods, there is none more ce¬
lebrated, nor more extenfively worlhipped, than Her¬
cules.
INDIGO, a dye prepared from the leaves and fmall
branches of the Indigofera Tindlona. See the next
article.
INDIGOFERA, the indigo plant, a genus of
plants belonging to the diadelpbia clafs •, and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 3 2d order, Papilionacecc.
See Botany Index.
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I N D f 241 ] 1 H D
Ttwiigofcra. ’This plant requires a fmootli rich foil, well tilled,
*' v ~ and not too dry. The feed of it, which, as to figure
and colour, refembles gunpowder, is fown in little
furrows that are about the breadth of the hoe, two
or three inches deep, at a foot’s diltance from each
other, and in as llraight a line as poffible. Continual
attention is required to pluck up the weeds, which
would foon choak the plant. Though it may be
fown in all feafons, the fpring is commonly preferred.
Moifture caufes this plant to Ihoot above the furface
in three or four days. It is ripe at the end of two
months. When it begins to flower, it is cut with
pruning-knives; and cut again at the end of every fix
weeks, if the weather is a little rainy. It lafts about
two years, after which term it degenerates •, it is then
plucked up, and planted afrelh. As this plant foon
exhaufts the foil, becaufe it does not abforb a fufficient
quantity of air and dew to moiften the earth, it is of
advantage to the planter to have a vaft fpace which
may remain covered with trees, till it becomes ne-
ceffary to fell them in order to make room for the
indigo.
Indigo is difiinguilhed into two kinds, the true and
the bajlard. Though the firfl: is fold at a higher
price on account of its fuperiority, it is ufually advan¬
tageous to cultivate the other, becaufe it is heavier.
The firfl: will grow in many different foils \ the fecond
facceeds beft in thofe which are mort expofed to the
rain. Both are liable to great accidents. Sometimes
the plant becomes dry, and is deftroyed by an infe6l
frequently found on it ; at other times, the leaves,
which are the valuable part of the plant, are devoured
in the fpace of 24 hours by caterpillars. This laft
misfortune, which is but too common, has given
eccafion to the faying, “ that the planters of in¬
digo go to bed rich, and rife in the morning totally
ruined.”
This prcdu&ion ought to be gathered in with great
precaution, for fear of making the farina that lies on
the leaves, and is very valuable, fall off by {baking it.
When gathered, it is thrown into the fteeping-vat, which
is a large tub filled with water. Here it undergoes a
fermentation, which in 24 hours at furtheft is com¬
pleted. A cock is then turned, to let the wTater run
into the fecond tub, called the mortar or pounding tub.
The fleeping-vat is then cleaned out, that frefli plants
may be thrown in •, and thus the work is continued
without interruption.
The water which has run into the pounding-tub is
found impregnated with a very fubtile earth, which
alone conftitutes the dregs or blue fubftance that is
the obje£l of this procefs, and which mull be feparated
from the ufelefs fait of the plant, becaufe this makes
the dregs fwim on the furface. To effeft this, the
water is forcibly agitated with wooden buckets, that
are full of holes and fixed to a long handle. This
part of the procefs requires the greateft precautions.
If the agitation be difcontinued too foon, the part
that is ufed in dyeing, not being fufticiently feparated
from the fait, u’ould be loft. If, on the other hand,
the dye were to be agitated too long after the com¬
plete feparation, the parts would be brought together
again, and form a new combination *, and the fait re¬
ading on the dregs w'ould excite a fecond fermenta¬
tion, that would alter the dye, fpoil its colour, and
Von. XI. Part I*
make tvhat is called burnt indigo. Thefe accidents tndipofers,
are prevented by a clofe attention to the leaft alte- T ^ vMual.
rations that the dye undergoes, and by the precaution ^
which the workmen take to draw out a little of it
from time to time in a clean veffefr When they per¬
ceive that the coloured particles colleft by feparating
from the reft of the liqubr, they leave off thaking the
buckets, in order to allow time to the blue dregs to
precipitate to the bottom of the tub, where they
are left to fettle till the water is quite clear.—
Holes made in the tub, at different heights, are
then opened one after another, and this ufelefs water
is let out.
The blue dregs remaining at the bottom having
acquired the confidence of a thick muddy liquid,
cocks are then opened, which draw it off into the
fettler. After it is ftill more cleared of much fuper-
fluous water in this third and laft tub, it is drained
into facks; from whence, when water no longer filters
through the cloth, this matter, now become of a thickei*
confidence, is put into chefts, where it entirely lofes
its moifture. At the end of three months the indigo
is fit for fale.
It is ufed, in wafhing, to give a bluifh colour to
linen : painters alfo employ it in their water-colours;
and dyers cannot make fine blue without indigo.
The ancients procured it from the Eaft Indies; in
modern times, it has been tranfplanted into America.
The cultivation of it, fucceflively attempted at diffe¬
rent places, appears to be fixed at Carolina, St Do¬
mingo, and Mexico. That which is knowm under the
name of Guatimala indigo, from wdience it comes, is
the moft perfe£l of all.
There are two kinds of indigo prepared in the
Eaft Indies, particularly on the coaft of Coroman¬
del, at Pondicherry, &c. Of thefe the worft kind
is ufed for giving the body of colour to the dyed
fubftance, the other being employed only to give it a
glofs afterwards. The fineft is prepared on the coaft
of Agra, Mafulipatam, and Ayanoo, but efpecially in
the iiland of Java *, but this laft, being extremely dear,
is very little ufed by the dyers. The beft ought to
float on the furface of w^ater j its colour ought to be a
very dark blue inclining to violet, bright and fpark-
ling, efpecially when broken. It may be tried by
diffolving a little in a glafs of water : if pure, it will
mix equably with the liquor j but if otherwife, will
feparate and fall to the bottom. Another method of
trying the goodnefs of this fubftance is by fire j for the
pure indigo wull be entirely confumed, w’hile the ex¬
traneous particles will remain. The pounded indigo
is much more fubjefl to adulteration than fueh as is
fold in cakes or tablets; as the afhes or dirt with
which it is mixed are very apt to feparate from the
pure colouring fubftance wdien Handing in a liquid
ftate, as it muft always do before the moifture is eva¬
porated : whence, on breaking a bit of indigo fo adul¬
terated, the extraneous matter will be perceived in ftrata
of a different colour.
INDIVIDUAL, a particular being of any fpecies,
or that which cannot be divided into two or more beings
equal or alike.
The ufual divifion in logic is made into genera, or in¬
to genufes ; thofe genera into fpecies ; an'cf thofe fpe¬
cies into individuals.
H h INDIVISIBLE,
I- ”"‘rble
I N . D [ 242
INDIVISIBLE, among metaphyflcians.—A thing
is faid to be abfolutely indivijible that is a fimple be
ing, and conhfts of no parts into which it may be di¬
vided, Thus, God is indivijible in all refpefts \ as is
.aifo the human mind j not having extenfion, or other
properties of body.
Indivisibles, in Geometry, the elements or prin¬
ciples into which any body or figure may be ultimately
refolved j wrhich elements are fuppofed to be infinitely
fmall; thus, a line may be faid to confiit of points, a
furface of parallel lines, and a folid of parallel and fi-
milar furfaces.
INDORSEMENT, in Law, any thing written
on ;.he back of a deed j as a receipt for money re¬
ceived.
There is likewife an indorfement, by way of affign-
ment, on bills of exchange and notes of hand ; which
is done by waiting a perfon’s name on the back thereof.
1NDOSTAN, or Hindostan, Proper India, or
the Empire of the Great Mogul. See Hindostan.
INDUCTION, in Logic and Rhetoric, a confe-
quence drawn from feveral propofitions or principles
fini laid down. See Logic •, and Oratory, N° 3 2.
Induction, in Law, is putting a clerk or clergy¬
man in poffefiion of a benefice or living to which he
is collated or prefented. See the article Parson.—
Induction is performed by a mandate from the bilhop
to the archdeacon, who ufually iffues out a precept
to other clergymen to perform it for him. It is
done by giving the clerk corporal poffeffion of the
church, as by holding the ring of the door, tolling a
bell, or the like ; and is a form required by lawr, with
intent to give all the parilhioners due notice and fuf-
ficient certainty of their new’ minilter, to whom their
tythes are to be paid. This therefore is the invetti-
ture of the temporal part of the benefice, as inftitu-
tion is of the fpiritual. And when a clerk is thus
prefented, inftituted, and indufted into a redtory, he
is then, and not before, in full and complete pofieflion 5
and is called in law perfona imperfonata, or parfon im-
parfonnee.
INDULGENCES, in J:he Romilh church, are a
remillion of the punilhment due to fins, granted by
the church, and fuppofed to fave the {inner from pur¬
gatory.
According to the dodtrine of the Romilh church,
all the good works of the faints over and above thofe
which were necelTary towards their owm juftification,
are depofited. together with the infinite merits of Jefus
Chrift, in one inexhauftible treafury. The keys of this
were committed to St Peter, and to his fucceffors the
popes, who may open it at pleafure, and by tranf-
ferring a portion of this iuperabundant merit to any
particular perfon, for a fum of money, may convey
to him either the pardon of his own fins, or a releafe
for any one in whom he is interefted, from the pains
of purgatory. Such indulgences were firfi invented
pi the nth century, by Urban II. as a recompenfe
for thofe wdio went in perfon upon the glorious enter-
prife of conquering the Holy Land. They were af¬
terwards granted to thofe who. hired a foldier for that
purpofe j and in procefs of time were bellowed on
fuch as gave money for accomplilhing any pious work
enjoined by the pope.
] I N D
The power of granting indulgences has been great- Tndulgen-
ly abufed in the church of Rome. Pope Leo X. in cc-s- ,
order to carry on the magnificent llruclure of St Pe¬
ter’s at Rome, publilhed indulgences, and a plenary
remilfion, to all fuch as Ihould contribute money to¬
wards it. Finding the projeft take, he granted to
Albert eleftor of Mentz, and archbilhop of Magde¬
burg, the benefit of the indulgences of Saxony and
the neighbouring parts, and farmed out thofe of other
countries to the highelt bidders •, who, to make the bell
of their bargain, procured the ablelt preachers to cry
up the value of the ware. The form of thefe indul¬
gences was as follows : “ May our Lord Jefus Chrilt ^bertfonr
have mercy upon thee, and abfolve thee by the merits’
of his molt holy paffiori. And I, by his authority,
that of his blelTed apoilies Peter and Paul, and of the
moll holy Pope, granted and committed to me in thefe
parts, do abfolve thee, firlt from all ecclefiallical cen-
fures, in whatever manner they have been incurred j
then from all thy fins, tranfgrefiions, and exceffes, how
enormous foever. they may be, even from fuch as are
referved for the cognizance of the holy fee, and as
far as the keys of the holy church extend : 1 remit to
you all punilhment which you deferve in purgatory on
their account } and I reilore you to the holy facra-
ments of the church, to the unity of the faithful, and
to that innocence and purity which you polfefied at
baptilm ; lo that when you die, the gates of punilh-
ment lhall be Ihut, and the gates of the paradife of
delight lhall be opened : and if you lhall not die at
prelent, this grace ihall remain in full force when you
are at the point of death. In the name of the Father,
and of the Son, and of the Holy Gholt,”
The terms in which the retailers of indulgences
deferibed their benefits and the necefilty of purchafing
them, are fo extravagant, that they appear almoll in¬
credible. If any man (faid they) purchafes letters of
indulgence, his foul may reft fecure with refpedl to
its falvation. The fouls confined in purgatory, for
whole redemption indulgences are purchafed, as foon
as the money tinkles in the cheft, inftantly efcape from
that place of torment, and afeend into heaven. That
the erficacy of indulgences was fo great, that the moll
heinous fins, even if one Ihould violate (which was
impoflible) the mother of God, would be remitted
and expiated by them, and the perfon be freed both
from punilhment and guilt. That this was the un-
fpeakable gift of God, in order to reconcile men to
himfelf. That the crofs ere&ed by the preachers of
indulgences was equally efficacious with the crofs of
Chrift itfelf. “ Lo 1 the heavens are open ; if you
enter not now, when will you enter ? for twelve pence
you may redeem the foul of your father out of pur¬
gatory j and are you fo ungrateful, that you will not
refeue your parent from torment ? If you had but one ’
coat, you ought to ftrip yourfelf inftantly, and fell it,
in order to purchale fuch benefits,” &c.
It was this great abufe of indulgences that contri¬
buted not a little to the firft reformation of religion
in Germany, where Martin Luther began firft to de¬
claim againlt the preachers of indulgences, and after¬
wards againll indulgences themfelves : but fince that
time the popes have been more fparing in the exercife
of this power: however, they Hill carry on a great
trade
I N E [ 243 ] INF
Indult trade with them to the Indies, where they are pur-
chafed at two rials a-piece,' and fometimes more,
nebriants. pUpe l^ewife grants indulgences to perfons at
the point of death ; that is, he grants them, by a brief,
power to choofe what confelfor they pleafe, who is
authorifed thereby to abfolve them from all their Iins
in general.
INDULT, in the church of Rome, the power of
prefenting to benefices granted to certain perfons by
the pope. Of this kind is the indult of kings and fo-
vereign princes in the Romifii communion, and that
of the parliament of Paris granted by feveral popes.
By the concordat for the abolition of the pragmatic
fandtion, made between Francis I. and Leo X. in 1516,
the French king has the power of nominating to billrop-
rics, and other confiftorial benefices, within his realm.
At the fame time, by a particular bull, the pope granted
him the privilege of nominating to the churches of
Brittany and Provence. In 1648 Pope Alexander VIII.
and in 1668 Clement IX. granted the king an indult
for the bilhoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, wrhich
had been yielded to him by the treaty of Munfter; and
in 1668 the fame Pope Clement IX. granted him an
indult for the benefices in the counties of Roufillon,
Artois, and the Netherlands. The cardinals like-
wife have an indult granted them by agreement between
Pope Paul IV. and the facred college in 1555, which
is always confirmed by the popes at the time of their
eledlion. By this treaty the cardinals have the free
difpofal of all the benefices depending on them, and
are empowered likewdfe to bellow7 a benefice in commen-
'dam.
INDULTO, a duty, tax, or cullom, paid to the
king of Spain for all fuch Commodities as are imported
from the Weft Indies in the galleons.
INDUS, a large river of Afta, which rifes in the
mountains which feparate Tartary from India, and
difcharges itfelf into the Indian ocean. See Hindos-
TAN and INDIA.
INEBRIANTS, are defined to be fuch things as
affeft the nerves in a particular and agreeable manner,
and through them alter and difturb the functions of
the mind. They are properly divided into native and
artificial ; the former chiefly in ufe among the orien¬
tal and other nations, the latter principally throughout
Europe.
Natural Inebriants, are, 1. Opium ; in ufe all over
the ealt, and of which the Turks, through cuftom,
fwallovv a drachm. 2. Peganum harmala, Syrian rue.
'The feeds are fold in Turkey for this purpofe ; and
with thefe, as Bellonius relates, the Turkifh emperor
Solyman kept himfelf intoxicated. 3. Maflac of the
Turks, or bangue of the Perfians j prepared from the
dull of the male-flow7er of hemp, or from the leaves.
4. Bangue of the Indians, from the leaves of the hibif-
cus fabdarift’a. 5. Seeds of various fpecies of the datura,
or thorny apple. 6. Pinang, or betel of the Indians.
7. Roots of black henbane. 8. The hyofcyamus phy-
ialoides. 9. Berries of the deadly nightlhade. 10. Leaves
of millfoil, are ufed by the Dalekarlians to render their
beer intoxicating. 11. 'Tobacco, and feveral others lefis
material are mentioned > fuch as clary, faftron, and
darnel.
Artificial Inebriants, are fermented liquors from fari¬
naceous feeds •, wanes, and fpirits drawn by diftillation. Inertia
With thefe is ranked the nebtar of the gods, and the H
anodyne medicine of Homer, commonly called nepen- , J 1
thes; and the fpells by which Medea and Circe pro¬
duced their inchantments.
INERTIA of Matter, in Philofophy, is defined
by Sir Ifaac Newton to be a paflive principle by w'hich
bodies perfift in their motion or reft, receive motion
in proportion to the force impreliing it, and refift as
much as they are refilled. It is alio defined by the
fame author to be a power implanted in all matter,
whereby it refills any change endeavoured to be made
in its Hate. See Mechanics.
INESSE is applied to things which are a£lually
exifting.
Authors make a difference between a thing in ejfe,
and a thing in pojfe t a thing that is not, but may be,
they fay is m pcffe, or potential but a thing apparent
and vifible, they fay is in ejfe, that is, has a real be¬
ing eo inflqnti; whereas the other is cafual, and at *beft
but a polTibility.
INFAL 1ST AGIO, an ancient punilhment of fe¬
lons, by throwing them among the rocks and fands,
cuftomarily ufed in port-towns. It is the opinion of
fome waiters, that infaliftatus did imply fome capital
punilhment, by expoling the malefafifor upon the fand
till the next tide carried him away •, of which cuftom,
it is laid, there is an old tradition. However, the pe¬
nalty feems to take its name from the Norman falefe,
oxfalefa, which lignified not the fands, but the rocks
and cliffs adjoining, or impending on the fea-lliore.
Commijit feloniam ob quam fiat fufpenfus, utlegatus, vcl
alio modo morn damnatus, &c. vel apud Dover infali¬
ftatus, apud Southampton fubmerfus, &c.
INFALLIBLE, fomething that cannot err, or be
deceived.
One of the great controverfies between the Prote-
ftants and Papifts, is the infallibility wdiich the latter
attribute to the pope 5 though, in fafr, they them-
felves are not agreed on that head, fome placing this
pretended infallibility in the pope and a general coun¬
cil.
INFAMY, in Law, is a term which extends to
forgery, perjury, grofs cheats, &c. by which a perfon
is rendered incapable of being a witnefs or juror, even
though he is pardoned for his crimes. I
INFANCY, the firft part of life.—Fred. Hoffman
fays, that the human fpecies are infants until they be¬
gin to talk, and children to the age of puberty.—Ana¬
tomy difcovers to us, that during infancy there is much
imperfeclion in the human frame j e. g. its parts are
difproportioned, and its organs incapable of thofe
fundHons which in future life they are deligned to per¬
form. The head is larger in proportion to the bulk
of the body than that of an adult. The liver and
pancreas are much larger in proportion than in ad¬
vanced life j their fecretions are more in quantity alfo.
The bile is very inert •, the heart is Itronger and larger
than in future life ; the quantity of blood fent through
the heart of an infant, in a given time, is alfo more
in proportion than in adults. Though thefe circum-
ftances have their important ufefulnefs, yet the imper-
fedlion attending them fubjedts this age to many in¬
juries and dangers from which" a more perfedl ftate is
H h 2 exempted.
INF t 244 ] INF
infant exempted. Percival obferves, in Ins Ejfays Med.
— * ' atui J?xp. that of all the children who are born alive,
two-thirds do not live td be two years old.
Infants have a larger proportion of brain than adults,
hence are moft fubjeft to nervous diforders; and hence
the diagnoftics of difeafes are in many refpedls obfcure
or uncertain, as particularly thofe taken from the pulfe,
which, from the irritability of the tender bodies of in-
lants, is fuddenly afFedled by a variety of accidents
too numerous, and feemingly too trivial, to gain our
attention. However, no very great embarraflfment
arifes to the pra&itioner from hence : for the diforders
in this date are generally acute, lefs complicated than
thore in adults, and are more eafily difcovered than is
generally apprehended.
INFANT, denotes a young child. See Infancy.
Infants, among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans,
were Twaddled as foon as they were born, in a manner
fimilar to that pra&ifed by the moderns. The Jews
circumcifed and named their infant children on the 8th
day from the birth. Upon the birth of a fon, the
Grecians crowned their doors with olive—of a daugh¬
ter, with wool. The infant was walked in warm water,
and anointed with oil—by the Spartans with wine ; it
was then drefled, and laid in a balket, or on a Ihield if
the father was a warrior, particularly among!! the Spar¬
tans. At five days old they ran with it round the fire,
and the mother’s relations fent prefents. The Greeks
named their children on the tenth day, the Romans
on the ninth : The naming was attended with facri-
fices and other demonftrations of joy. The maternal
office of fuckling their own children was never decli¬
ned, when circumftances would permit. How much
different is this from the unnatural delicacy obferved
by modern mothers, a delicacy which to the child is
cruelty ! The 40th day was a day of folemnity for the
mother. The names of children wTere regiftered both
by the Greeks and Romans. See Register.
For an account of the cuftom of expofmg infants,
fee Exposing.
Infants were kept from crying in the ftreets by
means of a fponge foaked in honey. Nurfes had alfo
their bugbears and terrible names to frighten the chil¬
dren into peace :—The figure w'ith which they were
principally intimidated was Mopftoyvx.uovy a fort of raw-
head and bloody bones.
Infant, in Law, is a perfon under 21 years of age j
whofe capacities, incapacities, and privileges, are va¬
rious.
1. In criminal matters. The law of England does
in fome cafes privilege an infant under the age of 21,
as to common mifdemeanors •, fo as to efcape fine,
imprifonment, and the like : and particularly in the
cafes of omiffion, as not repairing a bridge, or a high
Way, and other fimilar offences j for, not having the
command of his fortune till the age of 21, he wants
Sladji. the capacity to do thofe things which the law requires.
Comment But where there is any notorious breach of the peace,
a riot, battery, or the like, (which infants when full-
grown are at leaf! as liable as others to commit) •, for
thole, an infant above the age of 14 is equally liable
to fuffer as a perfon of the full age of 21.
With regard to capital crimes, the law is ffill more
minute and circumfpef! ; diflinguiihing with greater
nicety the feveral degrees of age and diferetion. By
the ancient Saxon lawq the age of twelve years was Infant,
eflablilhed for the age of poflible difcrction, when firft 'r“~
the underflanding might open ; and from thence till
the offender W’as 14, it was a‘tas puberlatiproximo, in
which he might, or might not, be guilty of a crime,
according to his natural capacity or incapacity. This
was the dubious flage of diferetion •, but, under twelve,
it was held, that he could not be guilty in will, neither
after fourteen could be fuppofed innocent, of any ca¬
pital crime which he in fa6! committed. But by the
law, as it now ftrnds, and has flood at leaf! ever fince the
time of Edward III. the capacity of doing ill, or con-
tradling guilt, is not fo much meafured by years and
days, as by the flrength of the delinquent’s under¬
flanding and judgment. For one lad of 11 years old
may have as much cunning as another of 14; and in
thefe cafes our maxim is, that malitia fupplet cetatc?n.
Under feven years of age, indeed, an infant cannot
be guilty of felony •, for then a felonious diferetion is.
almoil an impofflbility in nature : but at eight years
old, he may be guilty of felony. Alfb, under 14,
though an infant fhall be prima facie adjudged to be doli
incapax, yet if it appear to the court and jury that he
v;?Lsdolicapax, and could difeern between good and evil,
he may be convifled and fuffer death. Thus a girl of
13 has been burnt for killing her miftrefs : and one
boy of ten, and another of nine years old, who had
killed their companions, have been fentenced to death,
and he of ten years aftually hanged ; becaufe it ap¬
peared upon their trials, that the one hid himfelf, and
the other hid the body he had killed ; which hiding
manifefted a confcioufnefs of guilt, and a diferetion
to difeern between good and evil. And there was an
inftance in the laft century, where a boy of eight years
old was tried at Abington for firing two barns j and*
it appearing that he had malice, revenge, and cunning,
he was found guilty, condemned, and hanged accord¬
ingly. Thus alfo, in very modern times, a boy of
ten years old was convidled on his own confeflion of
murdering his bedfellow- j there appearing in his whole
behaviour plain tokens of a mifehievous difpofition ;
and, as the fparing this boy merely on account of his
tender years might be of dangerous confequence to
the public, by propagating a notion that children might
commit fuch atrocious crimes with impunity, it was
unanimoufly agreed by all the judges, that he was a
proper fubjecl of capital punifhment. But, in all
fuch cafes, the evidence of that malice, which is to
fupply age, ought to be flrong and clear beyond all
doubt and contradiflion.
2. In civil matters. The ages of male and female are
different for different purpofes. A male at 12 years old
may take the oath of allegiance j at 14 is at the years
of diferetion, and therefore may confent or difagree to
marriage, may choofe his guardian, and, if his difere¬
tion be affually proved, may make his teftament of his
perfonal eflate j at 17 may be an executor j and at 21
is at his own difpofal, and may aliene his land, goods,
and chatties. A female alfo at feven years of age may
be betrothed or given in marriage •, at nine is entitled
to dower : at I 2 is at years of maturity, and therefore
may confent or difagree to marriage, and, if proved
to have fufficient difcretion, may bequeath her perfonal
eflate 5 at 14 is at years of legal diferetion, and may
choofe a guardian j at 17 may be executrix } and at 21
may
I N F
Infant, may dlipofe of herfelf and her lands.
in male or female is 21 years, which age is completed
on the day preceding the anniverfary of a perfon’s
birth j who till that time is an infant, and fo ftyled in
law. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, women
were never of age, but fubjeft to perpetual guardian-
fhip, unlefs when married, niji convenijjent in tnanum
viri: and when that perpetual tutelage wore away
in procefs of time, we find that, in females as well as
males, full age was not till 25 years. Thus by the
cOnftitution of different kingdoms, this period, which
is merely arbitrary, and juris pq/itivi, is fixed at dif¬
ferent times. Scotland agrees with England in this
point*, (both probably copying from the old Saxon
conftitutions on the continent, which extended the age
of minority ad annum vigejimum primum, et eo ufque ju-
iienesfib tutelam reponuntj: but in Naples perfons are
of full age at 18 ; in France, with regard to mar¬
riage, not till 3© j and in Holland at 25.
The very difabilities of infants are privileges; in
order to fecure them from hurting themfelves by their
own improvident a6fs. .An infant cannot be fued but
under the protection, and joining the name, of his
guardian ; for he is to defend him againft all attacks as
well by law as otherwife : but he may fue either by his
guardian, or prochcin arny, his next friend w’ho is not his
guardian. This prochein atny may be any perfon who
will undertake the infant’s caufe; and it frequently hap¬
pens, that an infant, by his prochein amy, inltitutes a fuit
in equity againft a fraudulent guardian.
With regard to eftates and civil property, an infant
hath many privileges. In general, an infant ftiall lofe
nothing by noneclaim, or negleCt of demanding his
right j nor (hall any other laches or negligence be
imputed to an infant, except in fome very particular
cafes. .
It is generally true, that an infant can neither aliene
his lands, nor do any legal aCf, nor make a deed, nor
indeed any manner of contraCl, that will bind him.
But Hill to all thefe rules there are fome exceptions :
part of which were juft now mentioned in reckoning
up the different capacities which they affume at differ¬
ent ages : and there are others, a few of which it may
not be improper to recite, as a general fpecimen of the
whole. And, firft, it is true, that infants cannot aliene
their eftates*, but infant truftees, or mortagees, are
enabled to convey, under the direction of the court of
chancery or exchequer, or other courts of equity, the
eftates they hold in truft or mortgage, to fuch perfon
as the court ftiall appoint. Alfo it is generally true,
that an infant can do no legal aft: yet an infant, who
has an advowfon, may prefent to the benefice when it
becomes void. For the law in this cafe difpenfes with
one rule, in order to maintain others of far greater
confequence : it permits an infant to prefent a clerk
(who, if unfit, may be rejefted by the bifliop), rather
than either fuffer the church to be unferved till he
come of age, or permit the infant to be debarred of
his right by lapfe to the biihop. An infant may alfo
purchafe lands, but his purchafe is incomplete; for,
when he comes to age, he may either agree or difagree
to it, as he thinks prudent or proper, without alleging
any reafon ; and fo may his heirs after him, if he dies
without having completed his agreement. It is, far-
[ 245 ] 1 N F
So that full age ther, generally true, that an infant, under 21, can make-
no deed but wdrat is afterwards voidable : yet in fotr.e
cafes he may bind himfelf apprentice by deed indented
or indentures, for feven years 5 and he may by deed or
will appoint a guardian to his children, if he has any.
Laftly, it is generally true, that an infant can make
no other contraft that will bind him : yet he may bind
himfelf to pay for his necefl'ary meat, drink, apparel,
phyfic, and fuch other neceffaries j and likewife for his
good teaching and inftruftion, whereby he may profit
himfelf afterwards.
INFANTE, and Infanta, all the fons and daugh¬
ters of the kings of Spain and Portugal, except the
eldeft : the princes being called infantes^ and the prin-
ceffes infantas.
INFANTRY, in military affairs, the whole body of
foot-foldiers, whether independent companies or regi¬
ments..—The word takes its origin from one of the in¬
fantas of Spain, who, finding that the army com¬
manded by the king her father had been defeated by
the Moors, affembled a body of foot-foldiers, and with
them engaged and totally routed the enemy. In me¬
mory of this event, and to diftinguilh the foot-foldiers,
wTo were not before held in much confideration, they
received the name of infantry.
Heavy-armed In fas try, among the ancients, were
fuch as w7ore a complete fuit of armour, and engaged
with broad ftiields and long fpears. They were the
fiowTer and ftrength of the Grecian armies, and had
the higheft rank of military honour..
Light-armed Isfantry, among the ancients, wrere
defigned for Ikirmifhes, and for fighting at a diftance.
Their weapons were arrows, darts, or flings.
Light Infastry, among the moderns, have only
been in ufe fince the year 1656. They have no camp
equipage to carry, and their arms and accoutrements
are much lighter than thofe of the infantry. Light
infantry are the eyes of a general, and the givers of
fleep and fafety to an army. Wherever there is
found light cavalry, there ftiould be light infantry.
They fhould be accuftomed to the pace of four miles
an hour, as their ufual marching pace, and to be able
to march at five miles an hour upon all particular oc~
cafions. Moft of the powers on the continent have
light infantry. It is only of late years that light infantry
came to be ufed in the Britilh army : But now every
regiment has a company of light infantry, whofe ftaticn
is on the left of the regiment, the right being occupied
by the grenadiers.
INFATUATE, to prepoffefs any one in favour of
fome perfon or thing that does not deferve it, fo far as
that he cannot eafily be difabufed -The word infa¬
tuate comes from the Latin fatuus “ fool j” of fari,
“ to fpeak out,” which is borrowed from the Greek gau,
whence (petrtif, which fignifies the fame with vates in La¬
tin, orin Englifti j and the reafon is, becaufe
their prophets or priefts ufed to be feized with a kind
of madnefs or folly, wLen they began to make their
prediftions, or deliver oracles.
The Romans called thofe perfons infatuati, W’ho fan¬
cied they had feen vifions, or imagined the god Faunus,
whom they called Fatuus, had appeared to them. This,
word is more generally applied by the moderns to per¬
fons who are what the vulgar oaU bewitched, or under
fomci;
Ii fecVon
II
Infibu!a-
tion.
I N F [ 2
fomc peculiar defHny which it appears impoffible fur
them to fhun.
INFECTION, among phyficians. See CoNTA-
GIOX.
INFEF FMENT, in Scots Law, the folerr.nity of the
delivery of an heritable fubjeft to the purchafer,
INFER li®, lircriiices offered by the Romans to
the Du Manes, or the fouls of deceafed heroes or other
illuflrious perfons, or even any relation or perfon whofe
memory was held in veneration. Thefe facrifices con-
fided of honey, water, wine, milk, the blood of vic¬
tims, variety of balfamic unguents, chaplets, and loofe
flowers. The vklims upon thefe occafions were gene¬
rally of the fmaller cattle, though in ancient times they
facrificed flaves or captives : But what a (hocking view
does this give us of their fentiments of human na¬
ture, as if nothing but murder, cruelty, and human
blood, could fatisfy or prove acceptable to a human
foul ! The facrifices were ufually black and barren.
The altars on which they were offered were holes dug
in the ground.
The honey, water, wine, See. were ufed as libations,
and were poured on the tombs of children by children,
on thofe of virgins by virgins, and on thofe of married
men by women. The inferice were offered on the 9th
and 30th days after interment amongft the Greeks, and
repeated in the month Anthefterion. The whole of this
article applies equally to the Greeks and the Romans.
INFIBURATION, in antiquity. It was a cu-
flom among the Romans to infibulate their finging
boys, in order to preferve their voices; for this ope¬
ration, which prevented their retracing the prepuce
over the glans, and is the very reverfe to circumcifion,
kept them from injuring their voices by premature and
prepofterous venery •, ferving as a kind of padlock, if
not to their inclinations, at lead to their abilities. It
appears by foroe paffages in Martial, that a lefs decent
ufe was made of infibulation among the luxurious Ro¬
mans : for fome ladies of diftinftion, it feems, took
this method of confining their paramours to their own
embraces, Juvenal alfo hints at fome fuch prafffice. Cel-
fus, a chaite author, fays infibulation was fometimes
practifed for the fake of health, and that nothing de-
ffroys it more than the filly practice this operation feems
intended to prevent. This pra&ice is not perhaps like¬
ly to be revived ; if, however, any one who has fuffered
in his conffitution by prepoflerous venery, fhould be
able to get children, and fliould be, inclined to prevent
the fame misfortune in them by infibulation, the me¬
thod of doing it is thus; The (kin which is above the
glans is to be extended, and marked on both (ides with
ink, where it is perforated, and then fuffered to retvaflt
jtfelf. If the marks recur upon the glans, too much
of the {kin has been taken up, and we muff make the
marks farther 5 if the glans remain free from them,
they (how the proper place for affixing a fibula: then
pafs a needle and thread through the (kin where the
marks are, and tie the threads together ; taking care
to move it every day, until the parts about the perfo-
rations are cicatrifed : this being effefted, take out the
thread, and put in the fibula \ which the lighter it is the
better.
Authors have not determined wffiat the fibula of the
ancient furgeons was, though no doubt it was for diffe-
4-6 ] INF
rent purpofes. In the prefent cafe, the fibula feemsAo Infidel,
mean a ring of metal, not unlike what the country peo- 11 fi'jd ')’•
pie put through the nofes of fwine.
IN! IDEE, a term applied to fuch perfons as are
not baptized, and that do not believe the truths of the
Chriftian religion. See Deist.
INFIDELITY, in a general fenfe, denotes want of
faith or belief in regard to any fubjefl or tranfaclion.
Religious ItifiDEinr fignifies a di(belief of Chriftia-
nity.
Of all the methods (fays an elegant modern ef-
fayiil*) which the vanity of man has devifed with a * Knox's
view to acquire did in Ft ion, there is none eafier than
that of profeffing a diffielief of the eftablifficd religion. J°-
That which (hocks the feelings of thofe with whom
we converfe, cannot fail of attracting notice j and as
the vain are ufually confident, they utter their doubts
with an air fo oracular and deeifi.ve, us induces the
fitnple to think them profoundly wife. Audacity, with
little ingenuity, will attraft the eyes of fpeblators, and
this will fufficiently anfwer the purpofe of many among
the profeffed unbelievers. One might be diverted, it
one wjere not hurt, at feeing a circle of filly admirers,
gaping and fixing their eyes on fome half-learned and
impudent prater, who throws cut oblique infinuations
againft the Bible, the clergy, or the facrament. Thefe
are fertile topics of wit and ingenuity j but it might
mortify the vanity of fome very vain wwiters and talk¬
ers, if they w-ere to recoiled, what is undoubtedly true,
that it is a fpecies of wit and ingenuity wdiich not only
the vileil, but the mod ftupid and illiterate* of man¬
kind, have frequently difplayed in all its poflible per-
fedion.
There is indeed no doubt, but that vanity is one of
the principal caufes of infidelity. It muff be the foie
caufe of communicating it to others, by writing or
converfation. For let us fuppofe the cafe of a very
humane, judicious, and learned man, entertaining doubts
of the truth of Chriltianity : if he cannot clear his
doubts by examination, he will yet recoiled that doubts
are no certainties j and, before he endeavours to pro¬
pagate his fcepticifm, he will a(k himfelf thefe que-
ftions ; “ Am I quite convinced that what I doubt of
cannot poffibly be true ? If I am convinced of it, am I
fure that the publication of my opinions wall not do
more harm than good > Is not the difturbing of any
long-eftablilhed civil confiitution attended with confu-
(ion, rebellion, bloodflied, and ruin ? And are not the
majority of men more ftrongly attached to the religion
than the government of their forefathers ? Will it ferve
my country to introduce difeontent of any fpecies ?
May not thofe innovations in religion, which difeon¬
tent many introduce, lead to all the evils which are
caufed by frenzy and fanaticifm ? Granting that I
were able to make a party formidable enough to crufli
oppofition and to exterminate Chriftianity, ftxll am I
certain that I ad, in this inftance, like a good member
of fociety ? For is not this fyftem, whether w'ell or ill
founded, friendly to fociety ? I mufi confefs it $ its
greateft enemies have acknowledged it. What motive
then can induce me to divulge my doubts of its authen¬
ticity ? Not the good of mankind ; for it is already
allowed by unbelievers, that the good of mankind is
interefted in the belief of its divine original. Is it for
my
Infidel’’.
INF f 247 ] INF
my own good, and with a view to be convinced ? I
will not deceive myfelf: my motive, I fufpedV, is of
another kind ; for do I read thofe books which have
been already written to fatisfy limilar doubts ? No¬
thing but the vanity of appearing to be wiler than my
credulous neighbours can induce me to interrupt the
happinefs of their belief. But vanity of this fort,
which tends to difturb fociety, to injure the national
morals, and to rob many thoufand individuals of a co¬
pious fource of fweet and folid comfort, muft be pro¬
nounced extreme wickednefs, even according to the
obvious dictates of natural religion. I (hall aft the
part of a good citizen and a good man, by conforming
to a fyftem whofe beneficial influence I feel and con-
fefs, and by endeavouring to acquire a belief in that
which has for fo many centuries been eftablilhed,
and which promifes to foothe me in diitrefs with the
fweeteft confolations, and to brighten the difmal hour
of death, by the hope of a more glorious and happy
Itate of exiltence. At all events, I lhall have the
fatisfaftion of having commanded myfelf fo far, as not
to have run the hazard of endangering the welfare of
my fellow-creatures, either here or hereafter, by in¬
dulging a degree of vanity, which, in a creature fo
weak and fo ihort-lived as myfelf, is a folly very in-
confillent with the fuperior wifdom which I feem to
arrogate.
“ I will venture to repeat (continues our author), that
all writers againft Chriftianity, however they may af-
fefl even the extremes of benevolence, honour, philo-
fopby, and enlargement of mind, are afhiated by vani¬
ty and wickednefs of heart. Their motives are as mean,
felfifh, narrow, and in every refpefl unjuitifiable, as
the tendency of their writings is mifchievous. Their
malice is often impotent, through the foolilh fophirtry
of their arguments ■, but, if ever it be fuccefsful, it is
highly injurious : and indeed, confidering their motives
and the probable confequences of their endeavours, the
infidel writer is a greater enemy to fociety, and confe-
quently guiltier, according to all the principles of fo-
cial union, than the thief or the traitor. Perfecution
would, however, only promote his caufe, and his pro¬
per punilhment is contempt.
“ It is certainly no derogation from the charafter of a
man of fenfe, to conform, even while he is fo unfortu¬
nate as to doubt their truth, to the opinions of his
country. His conformity will probably lead him to a
train of actions and of thought, which, in due time,
will induce him to believe. But, if that fhould not
happen, yet he will aft, as very wife and very great
men have a<51ed, in paying a refpe&ful deference to the
avowed conviftion of others. The moft intelligent and
powerful men of ancient Rome, not only appeared to
believe a very abfurd and hurtful fyftem, but aflifted in
all its ceremonies as priefts. Even Socrates, who evi¬
dently entertained fome notions adequate to the dig¬
nity of the one great and fupreme Being, yet thought
it was a duty which he owed to his country, lo far to
conform to the wretched eftablifliment, as to order in
his dying w-ords a facrifice to ATculapius. This ex¬
ternal conformity to the national religion ought not to
be confounded with hypocrify. If indeed it is carried
to extremes, or zealoufly affefled, it certainly is very
blameable and contemptible deceit; but while it keeps
within the bounds of reafon and moderation, it ought
to be called a decent deference to the opinions of the Infidelity,
majority, arifing from humility, and from a define to y
maintain the tranquillity of the ftate, and to continue
an innocent and ufeful fyftem, which has and will al¬
ways greatly contribute to leffen the quantity and de¬
gree both of moral and of natural evil.
“ The eafieft, after all, or at leaf! the moft effefiual
method of appearing in any character, is really to be
what we with to appear. But belief, you will fay, is
not in our porver, and how can rve believe what appears
to us incredible ? Certainly you cannot while it ap¬
pears incredible. But let me afk you, whether you
have taken any pains-to believe, or have at once and
at a glance perfuaded yourfelf, that the Chriftian re¬
ligion is totally fake i1 It is probable that a great num¬
ber of fceptical writers never gave themfelves the
trouble to read thofe Scriptures which they warmly
oppofe. They hear objeftions, they read objections,
and they find, that from men of reputed wit and inge¬
nuity the objections often originate. They alfo wifh
to be reputed men of wit and ingenuity, and there¬
fore eagerly adopt the language and fentimenfs of the
order. Perhaps the vanity and pride of this clafs
of men will render all attempts to convince them
abortive j but to modeft doubters, and to thofe whofe
good fenfe and good difpolitions lead them to wifh to
adopt the religion of their country, it may not be
ulelefs to fuggelt advice, with a view to facilitate their
conviction.
“ The chief thing required is to free themfelves from
the pride of human reafon. Humility (and furely our
blindnels and imperfections are iufficient to render us
humble, if we would be reafonable), humility wall
open our hearts, and belief will find admiflion. Sin¬
cere endeavours, feconded by prayers, will never fail
to help our unbelief. But, alas ! a fine, gay, fpirited,
liberal, and enlarged modern philofopher, would be
alhamed to be found on his knees, or with a Teftament
in his poffeftion. There is fcarcely any vicious a6t, or
any vicious book, which would put him fo much to the
blufti.
“ A modeft w'ell-meaning man might, how'ever, one
fhould think, diveft himfelf of thofe prejudices w-hich
prevent the poflibility of belief, by the following foli-
loquy : ‘ I find myielf placed in a world abounding
with evil and mifery. Under the immediate preifure
of it, I feel my heart inclining, like the needle to the
north, by its natural tendency, to the Deity for flip-
port. Man, of all animals, is the only one who has the
fenfe of religion. Feeling this diftinCHve propenfity
of my nature, I look around to difeover to what ob-
jeft, and in what manner, that part of my fellow crea¬
tures, who live in the fame fociety with myfelf, pay
their adoration. I find a fyftem of religion already
eftablilhed, and which has been eftablilhed in the molt
enlightened countries of the earth near 2000 years. I
refolve to examine it. It claims that refpeft from its
antiquity and univerfality. Many difficulties appear
on the fir ft infpeClion. My reafon is often ftartled, and
my belief weavers. But I will not yet give up a point
of fo ferious importance, without further and clofer
attention to it. I refleCf, that 2000 years is a vaft
fpace in the age of the world. How many myriads
of men like myfelf have lived and died in the faith du¬
ring that time ! And were all of them fools or hypo¬
crites ? ,
INF [ 248 ] INF
infinite critcs ? It could not have been, tan the underftand-
’ fi 'Itefi a P°0r ^n(^‘v^ua^> ju^ come into the world, and
" mals hardly knowing where he is, comprehend on intuition
*»—-y—— an obje£t of fuch magnitude, and make the mighty
difcovery which has efcaped millions of the wifeft and
nioft learned of mortals ? Or, fuppofing that they all
perceived the deception, am I then at lait the only ho-
neft man who will confefs it ? I am alhamed to avow
fuch an idea to myfelf. But yet, if I reject what
they received, furely I avow it in the more expreffive
language of my ccnduft. Pride, I fear, is the foun¬
dation of my fcepticifm ; and humility mud form the
bafis of my belief. I will check my own prefumption,
and rejeft the cavils of vain and foolilh philofophy.
Shall a poor weak creature, who cometh up like a
flow’er, and is cut down, who fleeth as a fliadow, and
mever continueth in one day, prefume to pronounce de-
^idvely in that little period, in which he has fcarcely
time to look about him before he dies, againd a fy-
dem w'hich has drong internal and external evidence
of divine original, which is mod ufeful and comfortable,
and which has been admitted among a great portion
of mankind during almod 20 centuries ? No, it is the
fird wifdom to be humble. Humility will be follow’ed
by grace, and grace by faith, and faith by falvation.
It plainly appears, that I can lofe nothing by belief,
but fome of thofe excedive and irregular enjoyments,
which w'ould dedroy my health and life ; but I may
podibly gain a glory and a happinefs w’hich diall con¬
tinue to all eternity.”
INFINITE, that which has neither beginning nor
end : in wdiich fenfe God alone is infinite.
Infinite is alfo ufed tofignify that which has had a
beginning, but wall have no end, as angels and human
fouls. This makes what the fchoolmen call infinitum
a parte pofi ; as, on the contray, by infinitum a parte
ante, they mean that which has an end, but had no be¬
ginning.
Infinite antities. The very idea of magnitudes
infinitely great, or fuch as exceed any adignable quan¬
tities, does include a negation of limits ; yet if w'e
nearly examine this notion, w’e (hall find that fuch mag¬
nitudes are not equal among themfelves, but that there
are really, befides infinite length and infinite area,
three feveral forts of infinite folidity , all of which are
quantitates fiui generis, and that thofe of each fpecies are
in given proportions.
Infinite length, or a line infinitely long, is to be
confidered either as beginning at a point, and fo infi¬
nitely extended one way, or elfe both ways from the
fame point*, in which cafe the one, which is a begin¬
ning infinity, is the one half of the whole, which is
the film of the beginning and ceafing infinity j or, as
may be faid, of infinity a parte ante and a parte pofi,
which is analogous to eternity in time and duration, in
which there is always as much to follow as is part, from
any point or moment of time ; nor doth the addition
or fubduftion of finite length, or fpace of time, alter
the cafe either in infinity or eternity, fince both the one
or the other cannot be any part of the whole.
INFINITESIMALS, among mathematicians, are
defined to be infinitely fmall quantities.
In the method of infinitefimals, the element, by which
any quantity increafes or decreafes, is fuppofed to be
infinitely fmall 5 and is generally expreffed by -two or
I
more terms, fome of which aj*e infinitely lefs than the Infinitive
relt} which being negledled as of no importance, the H
remaining terms form what is called the difference of n u‘ence*
the propofied quantity. The terms that are neglected in
this manner, as infinitely lefs than the other terms of
the element, are the very fame which arife in confe-
quence of the acceleration or retardation of the gene¬
rating motion, during the infinitely fmall time in
which the element is generated : fo that the remaining
terms exprefs the elements that would have been pro¬
duced in that time, if the generating motion had con¬
tinued uniform : therefore thofe differences are accu¬
rately in the fame ratio to each other as the generating
motions or fluxions. And hence, though in this me¬
thod infinitefimal parts of the elements are negletted,
the conclufions are accurately true without even an in¬
finitely fmall error, and agree precifely with thofe that
are deduced by the method by fluxions. See Flux¬
ions.
INFINITIVE, in Grammar, the name of one of
the moods, which ferve for the conjugating of verbs.
See Grammar.
INFINITY, the quality which denominates a thing
infinite. See Metaphysics.
INFIRMARY, a kind of hofpital, where the weak
and fick are properly taken care of.
INFLAMMABILITY, that property of bodies
which difpofes them to kindle or catch fire. See Che¬
mistry, N° 336. p. 490.
INFLAMMATION, in Medicine and Surgery, a
rednefs and (welling of any part of the body, attended
with heat, pain, &c. See Medicine Index.
Inflammation of Oils by concentrated Acids. See
Chemistry, N° 876 and 893.
INFLATION, formed from in and fiatus ; of//<9,
“ I blow *,” blowing up, the aft of ftretching or fill¬
ing any flaccid or diftenfible body with a flatulent or
windy fubltance.
INFLECTED rays. See InfieBed Rats.
INFLECTION, called alfo a dffraBion, and deflec¬
tion, in Optics, is a property of light, by reafon of
which, when it comes within a certain diftance of any
body, it will either be bent from it, or towards it j
which is a kind of imperfeft refleftion or refraftion.
See Optics.
INFLECTION, or Roint of Inflection, in the
higher geometry, is a point where a curve begins to
bend a contrary way.
Inflection, in Grammar, the variation of nouns
and verbs, by declenfion and conjugation.
INFLUENCE, a quality fuppofed to flow from the
heavenly bodies, either with their light or heat 5 to
which aftrologers idly afcribe all fublunary events.
Alchemifls alfo, who to this afcribe the philofophers
Hone, tell us, that every thing in nature is produced
by the influence of the ftars, which, in their paffage
through the atmofphere, imbibe many of its moift
parts, the groffeft whereof they depofite in the fands and
earths where they fall; that thefe, filtrating through
the pores of the earth, defcend even to the centre,
whence they are driven, by the central fire, back again
to the furface j and in their afcent, by a natural kind
of fublimation, as they find earths duly difpofed, they
form natural bodies, as metals, minerals, and vege¬
tables, &c. Thus, it is pretended, that chemifiry,
confifting
INF [ 249 ] IN G
Tnforrua- cor.fifting of an artificial imitation of thefe natural ope-
j tion, rations, and in applying aftive principles to paffive prin-
■ ‘a‘iner- ciples, can form natural bodies, make gold, &c.
INFORMATION, in Law, is nearly the fame in
the crown-office, as what in other courts is called a
declaration. See Prosecution.
Informations are of two forts; firft, thofe wffiich are
partly at the fuit of the king, and partly at that of a
fubjedl; and fecondly, fuch as are only in the name of
the king. The former are ufually brought upon penal
ftatutes, which inflidt a penalty upon conviflion of the
offender, one part to the u(e of the king, and another
to the ufe of the informer. By the Uatute 31 Eliz.
c. 5. no profecution upon any penal ftatute, the luit
and benefit whereof are limited in part to the king
and in part to the profecutor, can be brought by any
common informer after one year is expired fince the
commiffion of the offence ; nor on behalf of the crown,
after the lapfe of tw?o years longer ; nor, where the for¬
feiture is originally given only to the king, can fuch
profecution be had after the expiration of tw’o years
from the commiffion ef the offence.
The informations that are exhibited in the name of
the king alone, are alio of two kinds : firft, thofe
which are truly and properly his own fuits, and filed
ex officio by his own immediate officer, the attorney-
general : fecondly, thofe in which, though the king
is the nominal profecutor, yet it is at the relation of
fome private perfon or common informer ; and they are
filed by the king’s coroner and attorney in the court
of king’s bench, ufually called the majler of the crown-
office, wdro is for this purpofe the Handing officer of the
public. The objebls of the king’s own profecutions,
filed ex officio by his own attorney-general, are pro¬
perly fuch enormous mifdemeanors, as peculiarly tend
to dillurb or endanger his government, or to moleft or
affront him in the regular difcharge of his royal func-
Hlackjt. tions. For offences fo high and dangerous, in the pu-
Commeni. niffiing or preventing of which a moment’s delay would
be fatal, the law has given to the crown the power of
an immediate profecution, without waiting for any pre¬
vious application to any other tribunal: which power,
thus neceffary, not only to the eafe and fafety, but even
to the very exiftence, of the executive magilfrate, wras
originally referved in the great plan of the Englifh con-
flitution, wherein provifion is wifely made for the due
prefervation of all its parts. The objefts of the other
fpecies of informations, filed by the mafter of the crown-
office upon the complaint or relation of a private fub-
je<ff, are any grofs and notorious mifdemeanors, riots,
batteries, libels, and other immoralities of an atro¬
cious kind, iiot peculiarly tending to dilturb the go¬
vernment (for thofe are left to the care of the attorney-
general), but which, on account of their magnitude
or pernicious example, deferve the moll: public animad-
verfion. And when an information is filed, either
thus, or by the attorney-general ex ojicio, it muff be
tried by a petit jury of the county w'here the of¬
fence arifes : after which, if the defendant be found
guilty, he muff refort to the court for his puniffi-
ment. See a hillory and vindication of this mode of
profecution in the work cited on the margin, vol. iv.
P- 3°9—31 2-
INFORMER fnformator') in I^aw, a perfon that
informs againit, or profecutes in any of the king’s
VOL. XI. Part I.
courts, thofe that offend againlf any law or penal lla- lafiM-fUon
tute. See Information. in^m rr
Informers were very common both in Greece and ^
Rome. Every corner of the llreets wfas peilered wfith
fwarms of turbulent rafcals, who made it their conftant
bufinefs to pick up ftories and catch at every occafion to
accufe perfons of credit and reputation : Thefe by the
Greeks were called Evvotpciilxi ; for a more particular ac¬
count of whom, fee -the article Sycophant.
Amongll the Romans, informers were of two forts,
mandatores and delatores. Thefe played into each other’s
hands ; the former marking down fuch perfons as they
pretended to have found guilty of any miidemeanor,
and the other profecuting them. What tended to iu-
creafe the number of thefe peftilent fellow's was, that
the informers w’ere entitled to a fourth part of the
effe£ts of the perfon convifled. Wicked princes re¬
warded and countenanced this mifchievous tribe ; but
Titus fet on foot a moll diligent fearch after them,
and punilhed fuch as he found with death or banilh-
ment. Trajan alfo is praifed by Pliny for a fimilar
condutfl.
INFRACTION (formed from in, and the fupine
of frango, “ I break,”) a rupture or violation of a
treaty, lalv, ordinance, or the like.
INFR AL APSARII, the name of a fe£l of prede- '
ftinarians, who maintain, that God has created a cer¬
tain number of men only to be damned, wnthout allow¬
ing them,the means neceffary to fave themfelves, if
they would ; and they are thus called, becaufe they
hold that God’s decrees were formed infra lapfum, after
his knowdedge of the fall, and in confequence thereof;
in contradidinftion to the SuPRALAPSArians.
INFRA scapuearis, in Anatomy. See Anatomy,
Table of the Mnfc/es.
Infra Spinatus, in Anatomy. See Anatomy ibid.
INFULA, in antiquity, was a mitre worn by the
Roman and Grecian priells upon the head, from
which on each fide hung a ribband. The covering
the head with a mitre was rather a Roman than a
Grecian cutlom, introduced into Italy by iEneas, who
covered his head and face at the performance of facri-
fice, left any ill-boding omen Ihould dillurb the rites.
The infulae were commonly made of wool, and were
not only wrorn by the prieits, but wTere put upon the
horns of the viflims, upon the altar and the temple.
The infulae were alfo called vittce.
INFUND1BULIFORM, in Botany, an appella¬
tion given to fuch monopetalous or one-leaved fiow'ers
as refemble a funnel in fhape, or wdiich have a narrow <
tube at one end, and gradually widen towards the limb
or mouth.
INFUSION, in Pharmacy, an operation, whereby
the virtues of plants are drawn out, by fteeping them in
fome convenient fluid without boiling.
INGELSHEIM, a town of Germany, in the pala¬
tinate of the Rhine, remarkable for having been the
refidence of the emperor; feated on the river Salva,
on an eminence, from wffience there is a charming pro-
fpeft. E. Long. 8 5. N. Lat. 49. 58.
INGENUOUS, in a general fenfe, fignifies open,
fair, and candid.
Ingenuous (ingenuusf in Roman antiquity, an'
appellation given to perfons born of free parents, who
had never been (laves : for the children of the liberti,
I i er
I N G f 250 ] I N G
or perfons who had obtained their liberty, were call¬
ednot wgenui; this appellation of ingenuus
being referved for their children, or the third genera¬
tion.
INGEST A, is ufed by forne authors to exprefs all
forts of aliment taken into the body.
INGLEVIES, the crop or craw of granivorous
birds, ferving for the immediate reception of the food,
where it is macerated for fome time before it is tranf-
rnitted to the true flomach.
INGOLSTADT, a hand fome town of Germany,
and the flrongeft in Bavaria, with a famous univerfity
and a handfome clmrch. The hcufes are built with
flone, and the flreets large. It is feated on the Danube,
in E. Long. 11. 10. N. Lat. 48. 42.
INGOT, a mafs of gold or filver melted down, and
caff in a mould, but not coined or wrought.
INGRAFTING, in Gardening. See Grafting,
Gardening Index.
INGRATITUDE, the oppoflte of gratitude. See
Gratitude.
Ingratitude is a crime fo fhameful, that there never
was a man found who would own himfelf guilty of
it, and, though too frequently pra&ifed, it is fo ab¬
horred by the general voice, that to an ungrateful
perfon is imputed the guilt or the capability of all other
crimes.
The ungrateful are neither fit to ferve their Maker,
their country, nor their friends.
Ingratitude perverts all the meafures of religion and
fociety, by making it dangerous to be charitable and
good natured. (See Gratitude). Howrever, it is
better to expofe ourfelves to ingratitude than to be want¬
ing in charity and benevolence.
Great minds, like Heav’n, are pleas’d with doing good}
Though the ungrateful fubjects of their favours
Are barren in return.
1. In a little work intitled Friendly Cautions to
Officers, the following atrocious inftance of ingratitude
is related. An opulent city in the w’efl of England,
little ufed to have troops with them, had a regiment
lent to be quartered there : the principal inhabitants
and weakhieft merchants, glad to fiiow their hofpita-
lity and attachment to their fovereign, took the firft
opportunity to get acquainted with the officers, in¬
viting them to their houfes, and fhowing them every
civility in their power. This wTas truly a defirable
fituation. A merchant, extremely eafy in his circum-
ftances, took fo prodigious a liking to one officer in
particular, that he gave him an apartment in his own
houfe, and made him in a manner abfolute maker of
it, the officer’s friends being always welcome to his
table. The merchant wras a widower, and had only
two favourite daughters} the officer in fo comfortable
a ffation caff his wanton eyes upon them } and too fa¬
tally fucceeding, ruined them both. Dreadful return
to the merchant’s mifplaced friendfhip! The confe-
quence of this ungenerous abfion was, that all of¬
ficers ever after were fhunned as a public nuifance, as
a pefl to fociety: nor have the inhabitants perhaps
yet conquered their averfion to a red-coat.
2. We read in Rapin’s Hiftory, that during Mdh-
mputh’s rebellion, in the reign of James II. a certain
perfon knowing the humane difpofition of one Mrs
Lraunt, vvhofe life was one continued exefeife of bene- Ingraii-
ficence, fled to her houfi?, where he was concealed and tU(le'
maintained for iome thee. Hearing, however, of the v
proclamation, which promifed an indemnity and re¬
ward to thofe who diicovcred fuch as harboured
the rebel-, he betrayed his bene fa £1 refs} and fuch
was the fpirit of juflice and equity which prevailed
among the minilters, that he was pardoned and recom-
penfed for his treachery, while foe was burnt alive for
her charity !
3. The following inffance is alio to be found in the
fame hiftory.—Humphry Bannifter and his father
were both fervants to and raifed by the duke of Buck¬
ingham } who being driven to abfeond, by an unfortu¬
nate accident befalling the army he had raifed againft
the ufurper Richard III. he without footman or
page retired to Bannifter’s houfe near Shrcwibury, as
to a place where he had all the reafon in the world to
expeef fecurity. Bannifter, however, upon the king’s
proclamation promifing icool. reward to him that
fliould apprehend the duke, betrayed his maker to John
Merton high fherifif of Shropfhire, who fent him un¬
der a ftreng guard to Salifbury, where the king then
was, and there in the market-place the duke was be¬
headed. But Divine vengeance purfued the traitor
Bannifter} for demanding the loool. that was the
price of his mafter’s blood, King Richard refufed
to pay it him, faying, “ He that would be falfe to
fo good a maker, ought not to be encouraged.” He
was afterwards hanged for manflaughter, his eldeft
fon run mad and died in a hog-fty, his fecond became
deformed and lame, and his third fon was drowned in a
fmall puddle of water. His eldeft daughter was got with
child by one of his carters, and his fecond was feized
with a leprofy whereof fhe died.—/Iff. of Eng. 8vo.
vol. i. p. 304.
The following barbarous inftances are from ancient
Hiftory.
4. When Xerxes king of Perfia was at Celene, a Fid. Herod,
city of Phrygia, Pythius, a Lydian, who had his re-*• vii. c. 3S.
fidence in that city, and next to Xerxes was the moft^enejCaj,ft/*
opulent prince of thofe times, entertained him and hhcra’j[
whole army with an incredible magnificence, and made
him an offer of all his wealth towards defraying the
expences of his expedition. Xerxes, furprifed and
charmed at fo generous an offer, had the curiofity to
inquire to wfoat a fum his riches amounted. Pythius
made anfwer, that having the defign of offering them
to his fervice, he had taken an exaft account of them,
and that the lilver he had by him amounted to 2000
talents (about 255,000!. fterling), and the gold to
4,000,000 of darics (about 1,700,000!. fterling),
wanting 7000. All this money he offered him,
telling him, that his revenue was fufficient for the
fupport of this houfehold. Xerxes made him very
hearty acknowledgments, and entered into a particular
friendfhip with him, but declined accepting his prefent.
The fame prince who had made fuch obliging offers
to Xerxes, having defired a favour of him fome time
after, that put of his five fons who ferved in his army,
fie would be pleafed to leave him the eldeft, in order
to be a comfort to him in his old age : the king was
fo enraged at the propofal, though fo reafonable in it-
felf, that he caufed the eldeft; fon to be killed before
the eyes of his father, giving the latter to underftand^
TNG [ 2^1 ]
I N H
Ingrefs that it was a favour he fpared him and the reft of his
M ^ children. Yet this is the fame Xerxes who is fo much
l__ admired for his humane redediion at the head of his
numerous army, “ That of fo many thoufand men, in
loo years time there would not be one remaining j on
which account he could not forbear weeping at the
uncertainty and inftability of human things.” He
might have found another fubjeft of refleftion, which
would have more juftly merited his tears and aftliftion,
had he turned his thoughts upon himielf, and conii-
dered the reproaches he deserved for being the inftru-
menl of haftening the fatal term to millions of people,
whom his cruel ambition was going to facrifice in an
unjuft and unneceffary war.
Zon&r. An- j. Bafilius Macedo the emperor, exerciftng himfelf in
na/.rom.iu hunting, a fport he took great delight in, a great flag
P- running furioufly againft him, faftened one of the
branches of bis horns in the emperor’s girdle, and
pulling him from his horfe, dragged him a good dif-
tance, to the imminent danger of his life 5 which a
gentleman of his retinue perceiving, drew his fword
and cut the emperor’s girdle afumler, which difen-
gaged him from the beaft, with little or no hurt to his
perlon. But obferve what reward he had for his pains:
“ He was fentenced to lofe his head for putting his
fword fo near the body of the emperor j” and fullered
death accordingly.
INGRESS, in djlronomy, fignifies the fun’s enter¬
ing the firft fcruple of one of the four cardinal iigns,
efpecially Aries.
INGRIA, a province of the Ruffian empire, lying
on the gulf of Finland, being about 130 miles in
length, and 50 in breadth. It abounds in game and
filh ; and here are a great number of elks, which come
in troops from Finland in the fpring and autumn. It
was conquered by the Czar Peter the Great, and Pe-
terfburgh is the capita! town. It is bounded by the
river Neva, and the gulf of Finland, on the north ;
by Great Novogorod, on the call and fouth : and by
Li vnnia, on the weft.
ING ROSSER, or Engrosser, in common law,
is one who buys up corn growing, or any provifions by
wholefale, before the market, to iell again. See Fore¬
stalling.
It alfo fignifies a clerk who wuites records or inftru-
ments of law on Ikins of parchment. See Engros¬
sing.
INGUEN, in slnatomu, the fame with what is ether-
wile callen groin.
INGULPHUS, abbot of Croyland, and author of
the hiftory of that abbey, was born in London about
A. D. 1030. He received the firft part of his edu¬
cation at Weftminfter j and when he vilited his father,
who belonged to the court of Edward the Ccnfeflbr,
he was fo fortunate as to engage the attention of Queen
Edgitha. 'I hat amiable and learned princefs took a
pleafure in examining our young fcholar on his pro-
grefs in grammar, and in difputing with him in logic j
nor did Ihe ever difmifs him without fome prefent as a
mark of her approbation. From Weftminfter he went
to Oxford, where he applied to the ftudy of rhetoric,
and of the Arifiotelian philofopby, in which he made
greater proficiency than many of his contemporaries.
When he was about 21 years of age, he was intro¬
duced to William duke of Normandy (who vifited the
court of England, A. D. 105!, and made himfelf Inga'phus,
fo agreeable to that prince, that he appointed him his In 5iller-
fecretary, and carried him with him into his own do-
minions. In a little time he became the prime fa¬
vourite of his prince, and the difpenfer of all prefer¬
ments, humbling fome, and exalting others, at his
pleafure } in wdiich difficult ftation, he confefleth, he
did not behave with a proper degree of modeliy and
prudence. This excited the envy and hatred of many
of the courtiers $ to avoid the effefts of which, he ob¬
tained leave from the duke to go in pilgrimage to the
Holy Land. With a company of 30 horfemen, he
joined Sigfrid duke of Mentz, wffio, with many Ger¬
man nobles, bifiiops, clergy, and others, was prepar¬
ing for a pilgrimage to Jerufalem. When they were
all united, they formed a company of no fewrer than
7000 pilgrims. In their way they fpent lome time at
Conftantinople, performing their devotions in the feve-
ral churches. In their paflage through Lycia, they
were attacked by a tribe of Arabs, who "killed and
wounded many of them, and plundered them of a pro¬
digious mafs of money. Thofe who efcaped from this
difafter, at length reached Jerufalem, vilited all the
holy places, and bedewed the ruins of many churches
with their tears, giving money for their reparation.
They intended to have bathed in Jordan ; but beinrr
prevented by the roving Arabs, they embarked on
board a Genoefe fleet at Joppa, and landed at Brundu-
fium, from whence they travelled through Apulia t©
Rome. Having gone through a long courfe of devo¬
tions in this city, at the feveral places diftinguiffied for
fanclity, they feparated, and every one made the bell
of his way into his owrn country. When Ingulph and
his company reached Normandy, they were reduced
to 20 half-ftarved wretches, without money, clothes, or
horfes : A faithful picture of the difaftrous journeys in¬
to the Holy Land, fo common in thofe times. Ingulph
was now fo much difgufted with the world, that he refol-
ved to foriake it, and became a monk in the abbey of
Fontenelle in Normandy ; in which, after fome years,
he was advanced to the office of prior. When his old
mafter was prenaring for his expedition into England,
A. IX ic66, he was fent by his abbot, with 100
merits in money, and 1 2 young men, nobly mounted
and completely armed, as a prefent from their abbey.
Ingulph having found a favourable opportunity, pre¬
ferred his men and money to his prince, who received
h«m very gracioufly ; fome part of the former affedlion
for him reviving in his bofom. In confequence of this
he railed him to the government of the rich abbey of
Croyland in Lincolnfinre, A. D. 1076, in which he
fpent the lait 34 yeais of his life, governing that fociety
with great prudence, and protefling their poffeffions
from the rapacity of,the neighbouring barons by the fa¬
vour of his royal mafter '1 he lovers of Englilh hifto¬
ry and antiquities are much indebted to this learned ab¬
bot, for his excellent hiftory of the abbey of Croyland.,
from its loundation, A. D. 664, to A. D. 1091, into
which he hath introduced much of the general hiftory
of the kingdom, with a variety of curious anecdotes
that are now here elfe to he found. Ingulph died of the
gout, at his abbey, A. D. 1 icp, in the 79th year of
his age.
INHALER, in Medicine, a machine for breathing
in warm fleams into the lungs, recommended by Mr
I i 2 Mudge
1 N G
Ii heritjrccjMuclge in the cure of the cattarhous cough. The
. 11. bodv of the iniirument holds about a pint} and the
I jcctiCii. gancj^e^ v.hich is fixed to the fide of it, is hollow. In
the lower part of the veffel, where it is foldered to the
handle, is a hole, by means of which, and three others
on the upper part of the handle, the water, when it is
poured into the inhaler, will rife to the fame level in
both. To the middle of the cover a flexible tube
about five or fix inches long is fixed, with a mouth-piece
of wood or ivory. Underneath the cover there is a
valve fixed, which opens and (huts the communication
between the upper and internal part of the inhaler
and the external air. When the mouth is applied to
the end of the tube in the a£f of infpiration, the air
ruflms into the handle, and up through the body of
warm water, and the lungs become, confequently,
filled with hot vapours. In expiration, the mouth
being flill fixed to the tube, the breath, together
with the fleam on the furface of the water in the
inhaler, is forced up through the valve in the co¬
ver. In this manner, therefore, the whole aft of
refpiration is performed through the inhaler, with¬
out the r.eceffity, in the aft of expiration, of either
breathing through the nofe, or removing the pipe from
the mouth
INHERITANCE, a perpetual right or interefl
in lands, invefled in a perfon and his heirs. See
Descent.
INHIBITION, a writ to inhibit or forbid a judge
from farther proceeding in a caufe depending before
him.
Sometimes prohibition and inhibition are put toge¬
ther, as of the fame import } but inhibition is moft
commonly a writ iffuing out of a higher court-chriflian
to a lower; and prohibition out of the king’s court to
an inferior court.
Inhibition, in Scots Laiv, a diligence obtained at
the fuit of a creditor againll his debtor, prohibiting
him from felling or contrafting debts upon his eflate to
the creditor’s prejudice.
INJECTION, the forcibly throwing certain liquid
medicines into the body by means of a fyringe, tube,
clyfler-pipe, or the like.
Injection, in Surgery, the throwing in fome liquor
or medicine into a vein opened by incifion. 1 his
praftice, and that of transfufion, or the conveying the
arterial blood of one man, or other animal, into ano¬
ther, were once greatly praftifed, but are now laid
alide.
Anatomical Injection, the filling the vefiels of a hu¬
man, or other animal body, with fome coloured fub-
'llance, in order to make their figures and ramifica¬
tions vifible.
I. The bell account of the method of injefting the
fanguiferous veffels of animals, is that by the late
Dr Monro, publilhed in the Medical Ellays, vol. i.
p. 79.
“ The iniirument with which the liquor is commonly
thrown into the veffels is a tight eafy going fyringe of
brafs, to which feveral Ihort pipes are fitted, and can
be fixed by ferews, the other extremities of thefe pipes
being of different diameters without any ferew, that
they may Hide into other pipes, which are fo exaftly
adapted to them at one end, that when they are preffed
a little together, nothing can pafs between them : and
1 N G
becaule their cohefipn is not fo great as to refill the Injeftioir.
pulhing force of the injeftion, which would drive oft
this fecond pipe, and fpoil the whole operation 5 there¬
fore the extremity of this fecond fort of pipes, which
receives the firlt kind, is formed on the outfide into a
fquare, bounded behind and before by a riling circle,
w'hich hinders the key that clofely grafps the fquare-
part from Hiding backwards or forwards } or a bar of
brafs mud Hand out from each fide of it to be held writh
the fingers. The other extremity of each of thefe fe¬
cond fort of pipes is of different diameter } and near it
a circular notch, capable of allowing a thread to be
funk into it, is formed ; by this, the thread tying the
veffel at which the injeftion is to be made, will not be
allowed to Hide off.
“ Befides this form deferibed, common to all this
fecond fort of pipes, we ought to have fome of the
larger ones, with an additional mechanifm, for particu¬
lar purpofes •, as, for inftance, when the larger veffels
are injefted, the pipe failened into the veffel ought ei¬
ther to have a vr^ve or a Hop-cock, that may be turn¬
ed at pleafure, to hinder any thing to get out from
the veffel by the pipe } otherwife, as the injeftion, in
fuch a cafe, takes time to coagulate, the people em¬
ployed in making the injeftion mull either continue
all that while in the fame pollute } or, if the fyringe
is too foon taken off, the injefted liquor runs out and
the larger veffels are emptied. When the fyringe is
not large enough to hold at once all the liquor necef-
fary to fill the veffels, there is a neceffity of filling it
again. If, in order to do this, the fyringe was to be ta¬
ken off from the pipe fixed in the vcffel, fome of the
injeftion would be loll, and what was expofed to the
air would cool and harden •, therefore fome of the pipes
ought to have a reflefted curve tube coming out of
their fide, with a valve fo diipofed, that no liquor
can come from the llraight pipe into the crooked one*
but, on the contrary, may be allowed to pafs from the
crooked to the llraight one : the injeftor then, taking
care to keep the extremity of the retlefted pipe irn-
merfed in the liquor to be injefted', may, as foon as he
has pulhed out the firit fyringeful, fill it again by
only drawing back the fucker} and, repeating this
quickly, will be able to throw feveral fyringefuls into
the veflels.
“ All thefe different forts of pipes are commonly
'made of brafs.
“ The liquors thrown into the veffels, with a defign
to fill the fmall capillary tubes, are either fuch as
will incorporate with water, or fuch as are oily :
both kinds have their advantages and inconveniences}
wrhich I lhall mention in treating of each, and (hall
conclude with that which I have found by experience
to fucceed bell.
“ All the different kinds of glue, or ichthyocolla,
fyths, common glue, &c. diilolved and pretty much
diluted, mix eafily with the animal fluids, wdfich is of
great advantage, and wTill pafs into very Imall veffels
of a well-chofen and prepared fubjeft, and often an-
fwer the intention fufficiently, where the defign is on¬
ly to prepare fome very fine membrane, on which no
veffels can be expefted to be feen fo large as the eye
can dilcover whether the tranfverfe feftions of the vef¬
fels would be circular, or if their fides are collapled.
But when the larger vefftls are alfo to be prepared*
there
r 252 1
I N j [ 253 ] I N J
there is a manifeft difadvantage to the uftfulnefs and
beauty of the preparation •, for if nothing but the glu¬
tinous liquor is injefted, one cannot keep a fubjeft fo
long as the glue takes of becoming firm ; and there¬
fore, in diffedling the injedled part, feveral veffels will
probably be cut and emptied. To prevent this, one
may indeed either foak the part well in alcohol, which
coagulates the glue •, but then it becomes fo brittle,
that the lead; handling makes it crack *, and if the pre¬
paration is to be kept, the larger velfels appear quite
fhrivelled, when the watery part of the injedtion is
evaporated: or the efflux of the injedtion may be pre¬
vented, by carefully tying every veflel before we are
obliged to cut it; dill, however, that does not hinder
the veflels to contradl when the glue is drying. If, to
obviate thefe didiculties, the glutinous liquor drould
fird be injedled in fuch quantity as the capillary veffels
will contain, and the coipmon oily or waxy injedlion is
puihed in afterwards to keep the larger veffels didended,
the wax is very apt to harden before it has run far
enough •, the two forts of liquors never mifs to mix ir¬
regularly, and the whole appears interrupted and bro¬
ken by their foon feparating from each other j which
is dill more remarkable afterwards, when the watery
particles are evaporated.
“ Spirits of wine coloured mixes with water and
oils, and ffo far is proper to fill the very fmaller vef¬
fels with : but, on the other hand, it coagulates any
of our liquor it meets, which fometimes blocks up the
veffels fo much, that no more injedlion will pafs ; then
it fcarce will fufpend fame of the powders that prove
the mod durable colours j and as it entirely evaporates,
the veffels mud become very fmall; and the fmall quan¬
tity of powder left, having nothing to ferve for connec¬
ting its particles together, generally is feen fo inter¬
rupted, that the fmall ramifications of veffels rather
have the appearances of random fcratches of a pencil,
than of regular continued canals.
“ Melted tallow, with a little mixture of oil of tur¬
pentine, may fometimes be made to fill very fmall vef-
feb, and keeps the larger ones at a full dretch ; but
where any quantity of the animal liquors are dill in
the veffels, it is liable to dop too foon, and never can
be introduced into numbers of veffels, which other li¬
quors enter ; and it is fo brittle, that very little hand¬
ling makes it crack, and thereby renders the prepara¬
tion very ugly (a).
“ The method I have always fucceeded bed with,
in making what may be called fubtile or fine injections,
is, fird throw in coloured oil of turpentine, in fuch a
quantity as might fill the very fmall veffels; and, imme¬
diately after, to pufh the common coarfe injeclion into
the larger ones. The oil is fubtile enough to enter
rather fmaller capillary tubes than any colouring can j
its refinous parts, which remain after the fpintuous
are evaporated, give a fufficicnt adhefion to the par¬
ticles of the fubdance with which it is coloured, to
keep them from feparating, and it intimately incor¬
porates with the coarfer injetfion •, by w'hich, if tbe injec¬
tion is rightly managed, it is impodible or the fh irped eye
to difcover that two forts have been made ufe of (b).
All the liquors with which the veffels of animals
are artificially filled, having very faint, and near the
fame colours, w7ould not all appear in the very fmall
veffels, becaufe of their becoming entirely diaphanous,
without a mixture of fome fubdance to impart its co¬
lour to them j and where feveral forts of even the lar¬
ged veffels of any part w7ere filled, one fort could not
be didinguiflied from another, unlefs the colour of each
was different j which has likewife a good effeft in
making preparations more beautiful. Wherefore ana-
tomids have made ufe of a variety of fuch fubdances,
according to their different fancies or intentions*, fuch
as gamboge, faffron, ink, burnt ivory, &c. which can
be eaffly procured from painters. My defign being
only to confider thofe that are fit to be mixed with the
injecting liquors propoftd to fill capillary veffels, which
is fcarce ever to be done in any other, except the branch¬
es of the arteries and of fome veins, I diall confine
myfelf to the common colours employed to thefe lad
named two forts of veffels, which colours are red, green,
and fometimes blue, without mentioning the others,
which require very little choice.
“ Anatomids have, I imagine, propofed to imitate
the natural colours of the arteries and veins in a living
creature, by filling the arteries with a red fubdance,
and the veins with a blue or green : from which, how¬
ever, there are other advantages, fuch as the drong
relleftion which fuch bodies make of the rays of light,
and the unaptnefs mod fuch bodies have to tranfmit
thefe fame rays, without at lead a confiderable reflec¬
tion of the rays peculiar to themfelves y or, in other
words, their unfitnefs to become completely pellucid ;
without which, the very fine veffels, after being in¬
jected, would dill be imperceptible. The animal or
vegetable fubdances made ufe of fpr colouring injec¬
tions, fuch as cochineal, laque, rad. anchufee, brazil¬
wood, indigo, &c. have all one general fault of being
liable to run into little knots which dop fome of the
veffels : their colour fades fooner when kept dry y they
more eafily yield their tinCture when the parts are pre-
lerved in a liquor $ and rats,, mice, and infe£ts, will;
take them for food : for which reafons, though I have
frequently fucceeded in injeCting them, I rather prefer
the mineral kind, fuch as minium or vermilion for red ;
of which this lad is, in my opinion, the bed, becaufe
it gives the brighted colour, and is commonly to be
bought finely levigated. The green-coloured: powder
« generally
(a) Rigierus (IntroduB. in notitiam rerum natur. &c. 4to, Hague, I743» titul. Balfamuni) gives Ruyfch’s me¬
thod of injefting and preferving animals, which, he fays, Mr Blumentrod, preiident of the Peterlburg aca¬
demy, affured him was copied from the receipt yiven in Ruyfch’s own hand-writing to the Czar. According to
this receipt, melted tallow, coloured with vermilion, to which, in the dimmer, a little white wax was added,
was Ruyfch’s injeefing ceracia materies.
(b) Mr Ranby’s injecting matter, as publifhed by Dr Hales, [Hcemaf . Ex. 21.) is white rofin and tallow,
of each two ounces, melted and drained through linen ; to which was added three ounces of vermilion, or finely,
ground indigo, which was fird well rubbed with eight ounces of turpentine varnilln.
I N J
InjecUrm- generally ufeti is verdigrife ; but I rather choofe that
“ ^ preparation of it called dijliiled verdigrife ; becaufe its
colour is brighter, and it does not io often run into
Imall knots as the common verdigrife, but diffolves in
the oily liquors.
“ The method of preparing the injedlisn compofed
of thefe materials, is to take for the due one, a pound
c! clear oil of turpentine, which is gradually poured on
three ounces of vermilion, or dillilled verdigrife finely
powdered, or rather well levigated bv grinding on
marble ; ftir them well with a fmall wooden fpatula till
they ate exadlly mixed, then llrain all through a fine lin¬
en rag. The feparation of the groffer particles is, how¬
ever, rather better made, by pouring fome ounces of
the oil upon the powder, and after llirring them to¬
gether itrongly, flop rubbing with the fpatula for a
iecond or fo, and pour off into a clean veffel the oil
with the vermilion or verdigrife fufpended in it 5 and
continue this fort of operation till you obferve no
more of the powder come off; and all that remains is
granulated. The coarier injection is thus prepared:
Take tallow, 1 pound ; w'ax, bleached white, 5 oun¬
ces ; falad oil, 3 ounces : melt them in a fkillet put
over a lamp : then add Venice turpentine, 2 ounces ;
and as foon as this is diffolved, giadually fprinkle in
of vermilion or verdigrife prepared, 3 ounces ; then
pafs all through a clean, dry, warmed linen-cloth,
to feparate all the groffer particles ; and, when you
defign to make it run far into the veffels, fome oil
of turpentine may be added immediately before it is
ufed.
“ The next thing to be confidered, and indeed what
chiefly contributes to the fuccefs of inje&ions, is the
choice and preparation of the fubjeft wbofe veffels are
to be filled.
In choofing a fit fubjedf, take thefe few general
rules : 1. The younger the creature to be injeffed is,
the injedtior. will, caieris paribus, go farthefl, and vice
verfa. 2. The more the creature’s fluids have been dif-
folved and exhauffed in life, the fuccefs of the operation
will be greater. 3. The lefs folid the part defigned to
be injected is, the more veffels will be filled. 4. The
more membranous and tranfparent parts are, the injec¬
tion ihows better ; whereas, in the folid very hard parts
of a rigid old creature, that has died with its veffels
full of thick ftrong blood, it is fcarcely poflible to injeft
great numbers of fmall veffels.
“ Therefore, in preparing a fubjeft for injecling,
the principal things to be aimed at are, To diffolve
the fluids, empty the veffels of them, relax the folids,
and prevent the injedlion’s coagulating too foon. To
anfwer all thefe intentions, authors have propofed to
injtdf tepid or warm water by the arteries, till it re¬
turns clear and untinged by the veins, and the veffels
are thereby fo emptied of blood, that all the parts ap¬
pear white ; after which, they pufh out the water by
forcing in air; and laftly, by prefFmg with their hands,
they fqueeze the air alfo out. After this preparation,
N J
one can indeed injefl very fubtilely ; but generally there Injeflion.
are inconveniences attend it. Fur in all the parts where —y——*
there is a remarkable tunica cellulofa, it never miffc' to '
be full of thenyater, which is apt to fpoil any parts de-
figned to be preferved either wet or dry ; and fome
particles of the water feldom mifs to be mixed in the
larger as well as fmaller veflels with the oily injection,
and make it appear difeontinued and broken : where-
'fore it is much better to let this injection of w'ater
alone, if it can be poflibiy avoided, and rather to mace¬
rate the body or part to be injefled a conliderable time
in water, made fb warm (c) as one can hold his hand
eafiiy in it; taking care to keep it of an equal warmth
all the time, by taking out lome of the water as it cools,
and pouring in hot water in its place ; by which the
veffels will be fufficiently {oftened and relaxed, the blood
will be melted down, and the injedlion can be in no
danger of hardening too Coon ; whereas, if the water
is too hot, the veffels {brink, and the blood coagu¬
lates. From time to time we fqiieeze out the liquids
as much as poflible at the cut veffel by which the in¬
jection is to be thrown in (d). The time this mace¬
ration is to be continued, is always in proportion to
the age of the fubjedl, the bulk and thickneff of what
we defign to inject, and the quantity of blood we ob¬
ferve m the veffels, which can only be learned by ex¬
perience ; at leaff, however, care ought to be taken,
that the whole fubject, or part macerated, is per¬
fectly well warmed all through ; and that we conti¬
nue the preffure with our hands till no more blood can
be brought away, whatever poiition we put the lub-
je£t in.
When the fyringe, injedions, and fubjecls, are all
m readinefs, one of the fecond fort of pipes is chofen,
as near to the diameter of the veffel bv which the injec¬
tion is to be thrown as poflible ; for if the pipe is too
large, it is almoft needlefs to tell it cannot be introdu¬
ced. I the pipe is much fmaller than the veffel, it is
fcarce poflible to tie them fo firmly together, but, by
the wrinkling of the coats of the veffel, fome Imall
paffage will be left, by which part of the injeClion will
fpring back on the ir.jeCfor in the time of the opera¬
tion, and the nearelt veffels remain afterwards undi-
llended, by the lofs of the quantity that oozes out.
Having chofen a fit pipe, it is introduced at the cut
orifice of the veffel, or at an incihon made in the fide
of it; and then a waxed thread being brought round
the veffel, as near to its coats as poflible, by the help
of a needle, or a flexible eyed probe, the furgeon’s knot
is made with the thread, and it is drawn as firmly as
the thread can allow ; taking care that it {hall be funk
into the circular notch of the pipe all around, other-
wife it will very eafiiy Aide off, and the pipe will be
brought out probably in the time of the operation,
which rums it.
“If there have been large veffels cut, which com¬
municate with the veffels you defign to injeft, or if
there are any others proceeding from the fame trunk,
which
t 25+ 1
(c) Ruyfch orders a previous maceration for a day or two in cold water; which muff have a better effefl in
pneltinp the blood than warm wTater has.
(d) When Ruyfch intended to injedf the whole body, he put one pipe upwards, and another downwards, in
the defeending aorta.
3
T N J [ 255 ] I N J
Injedion. which you do not refolve to fill, let them be all care- take out the fyringe to clean it, and allow fufficient Injection,
 fully now tied up, to fave the injected liquor, and time for the coarfe injeftion to coagulate fully, before v—^
make the operation fucceed better in the view you then any part is differed. Ruyfch, immediately after throw-
have. ing in the injedtion, put the body into cold water, and
“ When all this is done, both forts of inje&ions are ftirred it continually for fome time, to prevent the ver-
to be warmed over a lamp, taking care to dir them milion to feparate from the tallow,”
conftantly, left the colouring powder fall to the bot- II. The inje&ion of the lymphatic fyftem is much
tom and burn (e). The oil of turpentine needs be more difficult than that of the fanguiferous, on account
made no warmer than will allow the finger to remain of the extreme fmallnefs of the veffels ; fo that till very
in it, if the fubjeft has been previoufiy well warmed lately it was almoft quite impradticable. Methods in-
in v/ater ; when the maceration has not been made, deed had been attempted for this purpofe ; but by rea-
the oil ought to be fealding hot, that it may warm fon of the improper form of the inftruments, and the
all the parts which are defigned to be injefted. The inferior Ikill of anatomifts in former times, we may
coarfe injection ought to be brought near to a boiling, juftly look upon this as one of the moft modern 3m-
In the mean time, having wrapt feveral folds of linen provements in anatomy.
round the parts of the fyringe which the operator is The firft thing to be confidered, when the lympha-
to gripe, and fecured the linen with thread, the fyringe tics are to be injected, is a proper method of difeover-
is to be made very hot by fucking boiling water feveral ing them ; for this is by no means an eafy matter, on
times up (f), and the pipe within the veflel is to be account of their fmallnefs and tranfparency.—To find
warmed by applying a fponge dipped in boiling water • out thefe veffels, the fubjeft muft be viewed in a proper
to it (g). place, where the light is neither very ftrong nor very
“ After all is ready, the fyringe being cleared of the weak. Mr Sheldon, wffio has written a treatife upon
water, the inje&or fills it with the finer injedfion ; and this fubjeft, recommends a winter forenoon from ten to
then introducing the pipe of the fyringe into that in the two ; it being chiefly in the winter feafon that anatomi-
veffel, he preffes them together, and either with one cal preparations are made, and becaufe at that time of
hand holds this laft pipe firm, with the other gripes the the day the light is more clear and fteady. He fays
iyringe, and with his bread pulhes the fucker ; or, alfo, from his own experience, that the light paffing
giving the pipe in the veffel to be held by an affiftant, through the glafs of a window is better for this purpofe
in any of the ways mentioned in the defeription of thefe than the open air, as the veffels are more diftindly feen,
forts of pipes, he gripes the fyringe with one hand, and The injeding of the veffels is likewife rendered more
pufnes the fucker with the other, and confequently difficult in the open air by the eafe with which the hu-
throws in the injeciion, which ought to be done flow- midity is evaporated from them. It will likewife be
ly, and with no great force, but proportioned to the neceflary to incline the part in various wmys to the light,
length and bulk of the part to be injected and ftrength as fome of the veflels are moft eauly difcoverable in "one
of the veflels. The quantity of this fine inje&ion to pofition and fome in another. The laifteal trunks under
be thrown in is much to be learned by ufe. The only the peritoneal coats of the inteftines, and the lympha-
rule I could ever fix to myfelf in this matter w^as to tics on the external furface of the liver, &c. particular-
continue pulhing till I was fenfible of a flop which ly require this method. He difeommends the ufe of
would require a confiderable force to overcome. But magnifying glaffes. “ I am perfuaded (fays he), that
this will not hold where all the branches of any veffel thofe who attempt to find them through this medium
are not injefted ; as for inftance, when the veffels of will not acquire that vifus eruditus which is obtained to
the thorax only are to be injefted : for the aorta bears a furprifing degree by thofe who have been much expe-
too great a proportion to the branches fent from it, rienced in injecting lymphatic veffels. A lateral light
and therefore lefs fine inje&ion is requifite here. As is likewife preferable to a horizontal, or even to an ob-
foon as that flop is felt, the fucker of the fyringe is to lique fky-light.
be drawn back, that the neareft large veffels may be “ The fubjeefs irruft be laid upon a table of fufficient
emptied. Then the fyringe is taken off, emptied of height, which might be" contrived with a ledge fixed
the fine inje&ion, and filled with the coarfer, wffiich is to the table in fuch a manner as to be w'ater'-proof;
to be pulhed into the veflels quickly and forcibly, hav- which would be ufeful for preventing the ouickfllver
ing always regard to the ftrength and firmnefs of the which is almoft always neceffary - for injeffing thefe
veffels, bulk, &c. of the part. Continue to thruft the veflels, from being loft. The furface of the table (hould
fucker, till a full ftop, or a fort of puffi backwards, likewife be hollowed, fo that the mercury which falls
is felt, when you muft beware of thrufting any more, may be colle&ed in the middle, where a hole with
©therwife fome of the veffels will be burft, and the a ftopper may be made to take out oecafionally the
whole, or a confiderable lhare of the preparation you quieklilver which collects. Such a table would alfo be
defigned, will be fpoiled by the extravafation ; but ra- convenient for holding water for the purpofe of fteeping
ther immediately ftop the pipe by the turn-cock, and membranous parts which are frequently to be injected j
and
(e) 'Ruyfch melts his tallow by the heat of warm wrater, into which he puts the veffel containing the in¬
jection. °
(f) He warms his fyringe by laying it on hot coals.
. ,(G) warms his pipe, by putting the body, after the pipe is fixed in the veffel, into hot water. When this
is to be done, a cork ought to be put into the pipe, to prevent the water getting into the veffel that is to be ia-
jeCled. *
I N J [ 256 ] 1 N J
TnjctTHon. and winch, from being expofed to the air, become
“ dry j which all’o it is inconvenient and hazardous to
move into water during the time of operation. Even a
common table with a hole cut in the middle may an-
fwer the puruofe : the hole may be round or fquare ac¬
cording to the fancy of the anatomitt ; but the table
mult be conftrufted of fuch materials as are not liable
to warp in warm water. Shou’d the anatomift not be
provided with either of thefe tables, the parts muft be
laid in a tray or earthen dilh, that the quickfilver may
be faved.”
The materials for inje&ing thefe veffels are only
quickfilver, and the ceraceous or coarfe injeftion of ana-
■tomills •, the former being always ufed in injefting the
lymphatics and la£!eals, it being almoft impofiihle to
fill them with another fluid in the dead body. The
ceraceous injeflion is chiefly ufed for the thoracic
dmri ; and in fome particular inftances, where the
lymphatic trunks have been found larger than the
ordinary fize, a coarfe injeftion has been made ufe
of.
Inje&ions of the lymphatics may be made even
while the animal is alive, and that without any great
cruelty, by feeding it with milk previous to its being
itrangled. Of all the barbarous methods of opening
the animal while alive, the moil ufeful feems to be that
of Mr Hunter, who directs to perforate the fmall in-
teftines, and throw in ftarch-water with folutions of
mufk, or indigo and ftarch-water. “ In a word (fays
Mr Sheldon), any gelatinous fluids rendered opaque
with fuch colours as will be abforbed, are extremely
ufeful for experiments of this kind •, for much more
may be feen by examining the veflels diftended with a
coloured fluid from natural abforption, than by anato¬
mical injection praftifed in the dead body.” Lieber-
kuhn firft difcovered the ampullulae by feeding chil¬
dren in whom the lafteal glands were obftru&ed pre¬
vious to their death with milk *, by which means
not only the lacteal trunks became diftended with
chyle, but likewife the ampullulae. Thus abforbing
mouths of the lafteal veffels were difcovered by Lieber-
kuhn 5 and in a fimilar manner Afellius difcovered the
lafteals themfelves. Thus alfo Euftachius difcovered
the thoracic du6t in a horfe •, and Mr Hewfon traced
the la&eal veffels, lymphatics, and thoracic du6t, in
birds, by making ligatures on the root of the mefen-
tery, and other parts, which had been previoufly fed
with barley. Mr Hunter likewife was enabled to ob-
ferve the ladteals of a crocodile when ditlended with
chyle.
The coarfe injection for the lymphatics is made of
mutton-fuet and yellow refin, in the proportion of two
thirds of refin to one of fuet. If required of a thick¬
er confiftence, we may add a fmall quantity of pure
wax : if of a fofter quality, we may augment the quan¬
tity of fuet : Orpiment or king’s yellow is generally
made ufe of; though others are equally proper, provi¬
ded they be fine enough.
The inftruments neceffary for inje&ing the lymphatic
veffels are the injefting tube and pipes, lancets, blowr-
pipes, knives, fciflars, forceps, needles, and thread.
The old injedling tube has been found in a manner en¬
tirely ufelefs, the pipe being fixed in a glafs tube two
or three feet long •, which is one of the reafons why,
before the time of Hewfon, fo little of the lymphatic
1
fyftem could be inje&ed. Tubes of fuch a length are Injetftior.
entirely unmanageable by one perfon, and it is impofli- .
ble to perform the operation properly wuth two. To
perform it in the belt manner, the inftrument fliould be
held in the hand like a pencil or pen. The inftruments
ufed by our author are tubes made either of glafs or of
brafs j which, when filled with mercury, may be held
in the hand like a pen : a glafs tube, however, is pre¬
ferable to the metallic one. It is fomewhat in the Ihape
of a trumpet j fix inches and a half in length, an inch
and a half broad where broadeft, and three-eighths of
an inch where narroweft. A collar of fteel half an
inch broad and three quarters of an inch long is ce*
mented to this pipe, and a fmaller tube of the fame me¬
tal is fcrewed upon the end of the collar $ the whole
terminating in a capillary tube about an inch in length.
This laft is the moft difficult part of the whole w ork to
execute \ it ftiould be drilled out of a folid piece of me¬
tal, and not made of a thin bit of plate foldered, as
thefe are apt to turn ragged in the edges, and the folder
is alfo liable to be deftroyed by the mercury. Thofe
ufed by Mr Sheldon were made by drilling a fmall hole
lengthwife through a bit of well-tempered wire. It is
cleaned by means of a very fmall piece of fteel-wire ca¬
pable of pafling through the bore of the tube. This
ought to be annealed left it ffiould break $ in which cafe
the broken bit could not eafily be got out. Very fmall
tubes may be made of glafs drawn out as fine as we choofe j
and though very apt to break, they are eafily repaired.
They ought to be very thin, that they may be eafily
melted. Sometimes it has been found convenient to fit
the collar wfith a fteel ftop-cock.
The brafs tube reprefented by our author is about
nine inches and a half in length, and half an inch wide
where wideft. The collar is a full quarter of an inch
broad, and three quarters of an inch long \ a fteel
piece and capillary tube being fcrewed to it as in the •
other.
The lancets are to be exquifitely (harp, in oi'der to
cut into the lymphatic veffels. The latter are eafily in¬
flated by the fmall filver blow-pipes ufually put up in
the diffeifting cafes by the London mathematical inftru¬
ment makers: differing knives, fine-pointed fciffars,
accurately made differing forceps, with ftraight or
crooked needles, are likewife fubftituted with advantage,
as not being affedfted by the quickfilver.
We muft next confider the proper fubjedls for injec¬
tion. Mr Sheldon recommends, that they ffiould be as
free from fat as poffible : he has always found in the
human fubjedl thofe wffio died univerfally dropfical, or
of an afcites or anafarca, to be the beft, for the follow¬
ing reafons, viz. in fuch there is little or no animal oil,
and but a very fmall quantity of red blood •, both of
which, when they occur in great abundance, very much
impede the difcovery of the lymphatic veffels ; but
wffien the cellular veffels are loaded with water, the ab-
forbents are more readily traced, and with lefs rilk of
wounding them in diffedion : the preparations alfo, par¬
ticularly the dried ones, are more lafting. This cir-
cumftance is found to be of moft confequence in prepa¬
ring the abforbent veffels of the trunk and extremities
of the human fubjeft. Of all the vifcera in young fub-
je£ls, only the liver and lungs can be injected with
fuccefs j and thefe may be fiiccefsfully injedded even in
the foetus. It will be moft proper to begin the opera¬
tion
*
I N J
Injedtion. tion upon the fubje& immediately after death, as lymph
  or chyle v.ill then be more readily found in the veffels,
than when we wait a longer time. In preparing the
la&eals, previoully diftended with milk in the living
fubjedl, it is proper to have ;the intebines and mefentery
plunged (with the ligature upon the root of the latter)
into reftiiied fpirit of wine. This procefs will coagu¬
late the chyle ; and the fluid being opaque, the veflfels
will be beautifully feen when we mean to prepare the
parts, by preferving them in proof-fpirit, as wet fpeci-
mens : “ In this way (fays Mr Sheldon) I have made
in the dog one of the moil natural preparations that can
be feen of the lafteals inje&ed from their orifices by the
natural abforption.” We may alfo prepare the ladleals
by the method ufed by Mr Hunter, already mention¬
ed ; by which they will be very confpicuous, by the
indigo abforbed from the cavity of the inteftines. By
tying the thoracic du£t near its infertion into the angle
formed between thfe fubclavian and jugular veins on
the left fide, or by tying thefe veins on both fides,
we may diftend almoft all the abforbents of the animal.
Thus we are enabled to purfue thefe veflels in many
parts where they have not yet been difcovered, w'here
they can fcarcely be traced by injedlion, and even in
lome parts where it is utterly impoflible for the injec¬
tions to reach them.
Another method, fometimes fucrefsfully ufed by our
author, was firft pra&ifed by Malpighi. In this the
part is to be fteeped in water, and the liquid changed
as long as it appears tinged with blood 5 fuffering the
parts afterwards to remain in the fame water till the
putrefadlion begins. As foon as this begins to take
place, the air which is extricated will diftend the lym¬
phatics, fo that they may be eafily feen, and then in-
jefted with quickfilver. It is, however, remarkable,
that this method will not in general an fiver fo well in
the human fpecies as in quadrupeds ; the air having ne¬
ver pafled by putrefaction into the human laCfeals in
any of the fubje&s wdiich Mr Sheldon tried, though it
will take place in thofe of the horfe or afs and ma¬
ny other animals: drawing of the lafleals may like-
wife be made in this method to very great advantage.
In fome parts of the human body alfo this method
may be employed to advantage •, as the liver, heart,
&c. It may likewife be ufeful to make ligatures on
the large trunks ef the veflels previous to the macera¬
tion, that thus the air may be confined as foon as it is
extricated from the coats by putrefadion. Our au¬
thor adds, that if ligatures w’ere made upon the wrifts
and legs in articr/lo mortis, or immediately after death,
the lymph would be flopped in the veflels, the latter
would become diftended, and might be injeCled with
the greateft facility by the common method after tak¬
ing off the ligature. Mr Sheldon in fuch a cafe re¬
commends the tourniquet. “ I have reafon (fays he)
to believe, that abforption goes on as long as mufcular
irritability remains ; which la ft continues a conliderable
time after the general fcfe of the animal is loft.” On
this, however, we cannot forbear toremaik, that mak-
ing ligatures for fuch purpofes upon a human crea¬
ture in articulo mortis, or even immediately after death,
favours fo much of barbarity, that wre cannot think it
will be often praClifed. In fome cafes, even in the
dead fubjeCl, ligatures are ufeful j as when wre are
fearching for the lymphatics in the fingers and toes.
Vol. XI. Part I.
[ 257 J
I N J
In thefe it is ufeful to ftroke up the parts with the Inje&ioh.
finger, by which means the fmall quantity of lymph ——y,“““
remaining in the vefiels will be forced upwards, and
flopped by the ligature ; after which the veflfels may¬
be eafily injefted with quickfilver, as- already men¬
tioned.
To injeCl the veflels, we muft open one or more of
them, dire£ling the point of the lancet almoft always
towards the trunk or trunks of the veflels, and taking
care not to carry the incifton through the oppofite
fide. If the veffels happen to lie under the perito¬
neum as the laCleals, or under the pleura as the lym¬
phatics of the lungs, we may a* into their cavity
through thefe membranes. In injeCting thofe of the
extremities, however, and in many other parts of the
body, it is abfolutely neceffary to diffed the veflels we
defign to fill away from the fat and reticular fubftance
before we attempt to open them wfitn the lancet. The
tube with the pipe affixed to it is previoufly to be filled
with mercury : the anatomift then inflates the veffel by
means of the blow-pipe, takes the tube from the affift-
ant, and introduces the fmall tube into the punClure.
In this operation it will be found neceffary not to carry
the tube farther into the veflel than is fufficient to give
the mercury a free paffage ; for if we introduce it farth¬
er, the paffage of the mercury will be impeded by the
pipe being pufhed againft the fide of the veffel. Should
not the fluid be able to effeCl a paffage, it will then be
neceffary to prefs upon the furface of it in the tube with
our fingers. If it defeend freely, and without any of it
paffing between the fide of the veffel and fmall pipe, wre
have only to fill up the tube with mercury as the latter
defeends *, but if it gets out, we muft then tie the vef¬
fel. This, however, (hould always be avoided if :>of-
fible ; becaufe, if not very dexteroufly performed, the
operator will be apt to feparate the tube from the vef¬
fel 5 and on this account the punClure ought always to
be very fmall, no larger indeed than is neceffary to al¬
low the pipe to get in with difficulty. As the injeClion
proceeds, the preffure upon the furface of the quickfil¬
ver muft be carried on higher and higher in the courfe
of the lymphatic, till we come near the gland or glands
into which the veflels terminate j otherwife we (hall
feldom get the cells of the glands, or the veffels emer¬
ging from the oppofite fide of the glands, well injeCled.
In injeCting the lymphatic veflels of the extremities, it
will be ufeful to faife the part where the pipe is in-
ferted higher than the other end of the limb, and to
make the affiftant prefs with his hands along the fldn
in the courfe of the veffels, which will favour the pro-
grefs of the injeCtion* When the veflels are fufficiently
filled, which may be known by the fwelling of them,
and by the refiftance the mercury meets with, the af-
fiftant pafles a ligature about the veffel and ties it above
the punClure before the anatomift: withdraws the injec¬
tion-pipe.
The method of infeCling the larger trunks or thora¬
cic duCl with the coarfe injeClion is exaClly iimilar to
that already deferibed for the fanguiferous veffels.
Mr Sheldon, however, recommends the ufe of fome
pipes of a particular conftruClion invented by himfelf.
The improvement confifts in ihaping the ends of the
pipes like a pen 5 taking care to make the edges and
point bkmt, to avoid cutting the veffel when we intro¬
duce them. Thus much larger tubes than thofe com-
K k monly
l \
I N J [2:
Inie&ion. Tnonly in ufe tnay be admitted •, and there is no occafion
*“ to make any bulb or riling near the extremity of thefe
final! pipes to prevent the thread from flipping off: for
this will certainly hinder us from inferting pipes of fuch
di.imeter as might otherwife be done.
Having thus fhown the method of injefting the lym¬
phatics, our author next proceeds to defcribe the me¬
thod of differing and preparing them either for imme¬
diate demonflration, or for prefervation for any length
of time. In the difleClion, great care is requnite, on
account of the exquilite thinnefs of their coats : but if
this Ihould happen by accident, it will then be neceffary
to introduce the pi * at the ruptured part •, and having
fecured it above and below with ligatures, to fill it a-
gain as before direfted. Our author recommends, for
the purpofe of diffedfion, fuch knives as are made ufe of
by the Germans and French in tracing the nerves.
They muft be made thin in the blade like lancets, and
not much larger. A variety of different ihaped blades,
fome fingle and others double edged, will be neceffary
for various parts of the body 5 the fault of the common
difledling knives being that they are too thick in the
blade, which makes them foon blunt, and occaffons the
trouble of perpetual grinding, which is not the cafe
with thofe juil recommended. A fharp-pointed forceps
is neceffary, in order to lay faff hold of the fmalleft por¬
tion of cellular fubflance but they ought not to be fo
lharp as to endanger the pundluring of the veffels : nor
fh'-uld they by any means be bowed or ftiff in the
fpring, to prevent the fingers of the operator from being
wearied in the operation. They fhould alfo be made
in fuch a manner as to hold large as well as fmall por¬
tions of reticular fubftance. FordiffedHons of this kind,
fii*e-pointed fciffars and lancets fixed in handles are fome-
times necefiary •, and it is frequently of ufe to plunge
the parts into water, in order to loofen the reticular
membrane connedfed with the outfide of the coats of
the veffels ; by which means they may be diffedfed more
eafily, and with lefs danger of wounding them. The
blood may be extradfed by frequently changing the wa¬
ter. After being injedled with quickfilver, the parts
fhould not be allowed to remain long in the water, be-
-caufe the volatile alkali formed by putrefadlion is apt to
change the colour of the mercury.
The difledlion being performed, the preparation is
then to be preferved either in a wet or dry Hate, ac¬
cording to its nature. Preparations of the larger parts,
•as the trunk or extremities, fhould be preferved dry ;
and to dry them eftedlually, they fhould be expofed to
a free current of air, but not to the rays of the fun •,
and the veffels fhould be difplayed in their natural
fituation. When fully dried, they ought then to be
varniihed over with tranfparent fpirit or copal varnifh :
which will not only preferve them from infedls, but
render them more beautiful, and the veffels more
confpicuous. They fhould then be inclofed in glafs
cafes, where they are to be placed in a horizontal
pofition, and handled as little as poffible.
To make preparations of the thoracic dud!, we muft
in the firft place fill the aorta, vena cava fuperior, and
vena azygos or intercoflalis, with coarfe injedlion *,
'then fill, with the fame, the veffels below the right
crus-or little mufcle of the diaphragm. The dud! is
ibmetimes prepared with quickfilver j but Mr Sheldon
recommftnds to anatomifts to make drawings of any
8 ] I N J
thing new or remarkable in their preparations of"the Inj
lymphatic veffels with quickfilver ; as moft of thofe
fpecimens, particularly fuch as are dried, become at
laft totally ulelefs by reafon of the drying of the vef-
lels and the efcape or blackening of the mercury ; or
from the varnifh growing more and more opaque with
age. The quickfilver injedfion, however, in fome
cafes is very ufeful. Thus, for Inftance, if we wifh
to demonftrate the valves in the thoracic dudl, or any
other large abforbent veffel, we need only injed! the
veffels with quickfilver, diffed! and dry them, then cut
them open, and let the mercury run out : after which
the valves will appear by making iedlions in the coats
of the veffels. This may be done Hill better by varnifh-
ing the veffels three or four times before the fedlions
are made 5 becaufe the varnifti will ftrengthen the fides
of the veffel. In wet preparations the valves in the
cavities of thefe parts may likewife be demonftrated
by opening them j or by inverting the veffels and fuf-
pending them in proof malt-fpirits. Thus the valves
that cover the terminations of the thoracic dud! on the
infide of the angle formed between the jugular and
fubclavian veins on the left fide, and thofe which ter¬
minate the lymphatics on the light fide of the neck,
arm, and lungs, may be beautifully demonftrated. Spe¬
cimens of the ladfeal veffels, of the abforbents of the
heart, lungs, liver, fpleen, diaphragm, kidneys, &c.
may be kept wet or dry, according to the particular
nature of the preparation or view of the anatomift.
Some preparations are the better for being dried and
afterwards immerfed in phials full of oil of turpentine j
by which means the fieih will be rendered tranfparent,
the veffels diftindlly feen, and the veffels appear ex¬
tremely beautiful. The only difadvantage of this me¬
thod is, that the parts on which the veffels pafs, do
not at all preferve their natural bulk by reafon of their
Ihrinking up ; and as the wet preparations are free
from this inconvenience, Mr Sheldon does not hefitatc
at affigning them a decided fuperiority over the dry
ones.—Sometimes it is neceffary to fix the preparations
upon ftiff paper or pafteboard, on account of their
weight after being injeiled with mercury. The paper
or pafteboard on which they are faftened ought to be of
various colours, according to the nature of the prepa¬
ration, in order to form a proper ground for ftiowing
the lymphatic veffels. Such fmall preparations as are
preferved in fpirits, or oil of turpentine, may be kept
in bottles well clofed with Hoppers ; and the larger in
common preparation glaffes. Our author deferibes a .
ftmple method of flopping the mouths of thefe prepa¬
ration glaffes, by which means the ftopper is rendered
nearly as durable as the glafs itfelf. “ In order to
execute it, let the anatomift take care to have the up¬
per furface of his bottles made plain, by defiring the
workmen at the glafs-houfe to flatten them in the ma¬
king. This they will eafily do in forming the round
ones, but the flat bottles are attended with confiderable
difficulty. The right way to make them, I believe,
would be to blow them in moulds of various fizes; the
workman fhould likewife form the bottoms of the bot¬
tles perfedlly flat, that they may ftand upright and ftea-
dy. Bottles of this form being provided for the larger
preparations, we grind the upper furface of them on
a plain plate of lead, about a quarter of an inch thick,
and two feet in diameter j firft with fine emery and wa¬
ter,
I N J
[
tiijecVon. ter, tlien •with poxvdered rotten (tone, or putty firft wet
—' wjth w'ater and at laft dry j fo that the furfacc may be
reduced to an exa£t horizontal plane, and of as fine a
poliih as plate-glafs. This will foon be done, as the
manoeuvre requires but little dexterity ; and the ana-
tomill fhould be provided with a confiderable number
of thefe glaffes prepared as above directed. To the
top of each bottle a piece of plate-glafs, cut by a dia¬
mond, is to be adapted fo as completely to cover, but
not protect over, the edge of the bottle. When thefe
two fmooth furfaces are put upon each other, with a
drop of water between, the attraction of cohefion is
fo confiderable, that it requires great force to feparate
them.”
Many preparations of the lymphatics, and other
parts preferved in bottles, do not require any firings
to fufpend them j particularly when fixed on pafteboard
or paper : fuch as require fufpenfion fhould be tied to
firings fixed to the preparation below, and to fmall
holes drilled in the fubftance of the glafs at the bottom
of the neck or to fmall bits of glafs that may be
fixed on the infide of the fame part. The preparation
i« thus fufpended in limpid proof malt-fpirit, the
bottle being alraoft completely filled •, the upper and
poliihed furface of the bottle, and the plate of glafs,
are to be wiped clean and dry $ a drop of folution of
gum arabic is to be put on the poliihed furface of the
bottle, the top ftrongly and fteadily prefled upon it,
fo as to bring the two furfaces into as clofe contaft as
pofiible $ after which the bottle is to be placed in a
cool airy place to dry. A piece of wet ox-bladder,
freed from fat, and foaked in water till it becomes mu¬
cilaginous, is then to be placed over the top, the air
prefled out from between it and the glafs ; after which
it mull be tied with a packthread dipped in the folu¬
tion of gum arabic. The bladder being cut off neatly
under the laft turn of the thread, is then to be dried,
the firing taken cautioufly off, and the top and neck
painted with a compofition of lamp-black mixed vvith
japam\ers gold fize : this foon dries, and leaves a fine
fmooth glofly furface, from which the dirt can at
any time be as readily wiped off as from a mirror. By
this method large bottles are as eafily and effeclually
fecured as fmall ones •, and it is found to anfwer as well
as the bermetical fealing of glaffes, which in large vef-
fels is a’together impracticable. If the bottoms have
any inequalities which prevent them from ftanding
fteady, they may be eafily made perfe&ly flat by grind¬
ing them with emery on the plate above-mentioned.
The tops, if well gummed, will even remain perfectly
fixed on the glaffes without the bladder : though in
the common upright ones it may be advifable to put it
on as a defence. Our author informs us, that fince
his making this difeovery, he has ufed glafs faucers j
with flat tops gummed on. In thefe veflels the prepa¬
rations, by reafon of their horizontal pofture, appear
to great advantage. Thus he has exhibited very early
abortions in their membranes, and fome other prepa¬
rations that cannot be fufpended or viewed conveni¬
ently in the perpendicular diredion. Some very deli¬
cate preparations, particularly thofe intended to be
viewed with the mierofeope, thofe of the ampullulte
ladcae of Lieberkuhn, and of the valves of the abfor-
bents, may be preferved either in fpirits or dry in
tubes clofed in the manner jurt mentioned, and will
Ink.
59 ] INK
appear to great advantage. Some of 'the dry’ ones Iniffiogp
may alfo be advantageoufly placed in fquare oblong
boxes, made of pieces of plate or white glafs neatly
gummed together, with narrow flips of white or co¬
loured paper, and the objeds may be conveniently
viexved in this manner. With refped to the ftopper
bottles, which are very convenient for holding fmall
preparations, our author advifes the ftoppers to be per-
fedly well ground j that they pafs rather lower dowrn
than the neck of the bottle for the convenience of
drilling two holes obliquely through the inferior edge
of the fubftance of the fiopper, oppofite to each other,
for the convenience of fixing threads to hold the fub-
jed j for if the threads pafs between the neck and
fiopper, a fpace .will be left ; or if the ftopper be well
ground, the neck of the bottle will be broken in en¬
deavouring to prefs it down. On the other hand, if
any fpace be left, the thread, by its capillary attradion,
will ad from capillary attradion, raife the fpirits from
the bottle, and caufe evaporation, which will Hkewife
take place from the chink between the ftopper and
neck.
INISTIOGE, a poll town of Kilkenny, in the pro¬
vince of Leinfter ; 63 miles from Dublin. It is alfo a
borough, and returns two members to parliament •, pa¬
tronage in the reprefentative of Sir William Fownes.—
It has two fairs.
INITIATED, a term properly ufed in fpeaking
of the religion of the ancient heathens ; where it figni-
fies being admitted to the participation of the facred
myfteries. The word comes from the Latin initiatus,
of initiarey initian ; which properly fignifies to begin
facrificing, or to receive or admit a perfon to the begin¬
ning of the myfteries, or of ceremonies of lefs import¬
ance.
The ancients never difeovered the deeper myfteries
of their religion, nor even permitted fome of their tem¬
ples to be open, to any but thofe w7ho had been initiated.
See Mystery.
INJUNCTION, in Law, a wrrit generally grounded
upon an interlocutory order or decree out of the court
of chancery or exchequer, fometimes to give poffeftion
to the plaintiff, for want of the defendant’s appearance j
fometimes to the king’s ordinary court, and fometimes
to the court-chriftian, to ftop proceedings in a caufe,
upon fuggeftion made, that the rigour of the law, if
it take place, is againft equity and confcience in that
cafe, that the complainant is not able to make his de¬
fence in thefe courts, for want of wfitneffes, &c. or
that they adl erroneoufty, denying him fome juft ad¬
vantage. The writ of injundlion is direSed not only
to the party himfelf, but to all and Angular his coun-
fellors, attorneys, and folicitors; and if any attorney,
after having been ferved with an injun&ion, proceeds
afterward contrary to it, the court of chancery will
commit the attorney to the Fleet for contempt. But
if an injun&ion be granted by the court of chancery
in a criminal matter, the court of king’s bench may
break it, and protect any that proceed in contempt
of it.
INJURY, any wrong done to a man’s perfon, re¬
putation, or goods. See Assault.
INK, a black liquor ufed in writing, generally made
of an infufion of galls, copperas, and gum-arabic.
The properties which this liquor ought to have, are,
K k 2 1. To
INK [ 260 ] INK
1. To flow freely from the pen, and fink a litt e into
the paper, that the writing be not eafily difcharged.
2. A very deep black colour, which fhould be as deep
at firft as at any time afterwards. 3. Durability, fo
that the writing may not be fubjecl to decay by age.
4. Ink fhould be dellitute of any corrolive quality,
that it may not deltroy the paper, or go through it
in Inch a manner as to render the writing illegible.
No kind of ink, however, hath yet appeared which is
pofleiTed of all thefe qualities. The ink ufed by the
ancients was polTeifed of the fecond, third, and fourth
qualities above-mentioned, but wanted the firft. Dr
Lewis hath difeovered its compofition from forne paf-
fages in ancient authors. “ Pliny and Vitruvius (fays
he) exprefsly mention the preparation of foot, or what
we now call lamp-black, and the compolition of wri¬
ting-ink from lamp-black and gum. Diofcorides is
more particular, fetting down the proportions of the
two ingredients, viz. three ounces of the foot to one
of the gum. It feems the mixture was formed into cakes
or rolls } which being dried in the fun, were occafional-
ly tempered with water, as the cakes of Indian ink are
among us for painting.”
In Mr Delaval’s Treatife on Colours, p. 37. he ac¬
quaints us, that with an infufion of galls and iron
filings, he had not only made an exceedingly black and
durable ink, but by its means, without the addition of
any acid, dyed filk and wmollen cloth of a good and
lafting black. This kind of ink, however, though
the colour is far fuperior to that of any other, has
the inconvenience of being very eafily difcharged, ei¬
ther by the fmalleft quantity of any acid, or even by
fimple wrater ; becaufe it does not penetrate the paper
in fuch a manner as is neceflary to preferve it from the
inftantaneous action of the acid or of the water. Du¬
ring the adlion of the infufion of galls upon the iron
in making this kind of ink, a very confiderable effer-
vefcence takes place, and a quantity of air is difcharged,
the nature of which has not yet been examined.
The materials ufually employed for the making of
ink are, common green vitriol, or copperas and galls;
but almoft all of them are deficient in durability, wdiich
is a property of fuch importance, that Dr Lewis hath
thought the fubjeft of ink-making not unworthy of his
attention. From experiments made by that author,
he infers, that the decay of inks is chiefly owing to a
deficiency of galls j that the galls are the moft perilh-
able ingredient, the quantity of thefe, which gives
the greateft blacknefs at firft (which is about equal
parts with the vitriol)* being infufficient to maintain the
colour : that, for a durable ink, the quantity of galls
cannot be much lefs than three times that of the vitriol j
that it cannot be much greater without leffening the
blacknefs of the ink : that by diminilhing the quantity
of water, the ink rs rendered blacker and more durable j
that diftilled water, rain-water, and hard fpring-water,
have the fame effects : that white wine produces a deep¬
er black colour than water ; that the colour produced
by vinegar is deeper than that by wine 5 that proof-
fpirit extradls only a reddilh browm tinge; that the
laft-mentioned tinfture finks into, and fpreads upon,
the paper ; and hence the impropriety of adding fpi-
lit of wine to ink, as is frequently direfted, to prevent
m^uldinefs or freezing : that other aftringents, as oak-
bark, biftort, floe-bark, &c. are not fo effe&ual as
galls, nor give fo good a black, the colour produced
by moft of thefe, excepting oak-bark, being greeniih :
that the juice of floes does not produce a black colour
with martial vitriol j but that, neverthelefs, the wri¬
ting made with it becomes black, and is found to be
more durable than common ink : that inks m&de with
faturated folutions of iron, in nitrous, marine, or acetous
acids, in tartar, or in lemon juice, were much inferior
to the ink made with martial vitriol : that the co¬
lour of ink is depraved by adding quicklime, which
is done with an intention of dertroying any iupera-
bundant acid which may be fuppoied to be the caufe
of the lofs of the colour of ink : that the belt method
of preventing the eft'echs of this fuperabundant acid is
probably by adding pieces of iron to engage it 5 and
that this conje&ure is confirmed by an inftance the
author had heard, of the great durability of the co¬
lour of an ink in which pieces of iron had been long
immerfed : and lallly, • that a decoftion of logwood
ufed inftead of watet, fenfibly improves both the beau¬
ty and deepnefs of the black, without difpofing it to
fade. The fame author obferves, that the addition of
gum-arabic is not only ufeful, by keeping the colour¬
ing matter fufpended in the fluid, but alfo by prevent¬
ing the ink from fpreading, by which means a greater
quantity of it is colledted on each ftroke of the pen.
Sugar, which is fometimes added to ink, is found
to be much lefs effectual than gums, and to have the
inconvenience of preventing the drying of the ink.
The colour of ink is found to be greatly injured by
keeping the ink in veffels made of copper or of lead,
and probably of any other metal, excepting iron, which
the vitriolic acid can diflblve.
The foregoing experiments point out for the belt
proportions of the ingredients for ink. One part
of green vitriol, one part of powdered logwood,
and three parts of powhered galls. The belt men-
ftruum appears to be vinegar or white wane, though
for common ufe water is fuflicient. If the ink be re¬
quired to be of a full colour, a quart, or at moft three
pints, of liquor, may be allowed to three ounces of
galls, and to one ounce of each of the othfcr two in¬
gredients. Half an ounce of gum may be added to
each pint of the liquor. The ingredients may be all
put together at once in a convenient veflel, and well
fhaken four or five times each day. In 10 or 12 days
the ink will be fit for ufe, though it will improve by
remaining longer on the ingredients. Or it may be
made more expeditioufly, by adding the gum and
vitriol to a decodfion of galls and logwood in the men-
ftruum. To the ink, after it has been feparated from
the feculencies, fome coarfe powder of galls, from
which the fine dull has been fifted, together with one
or tw’o pieces of iron, may be added, by which its du¬
rability will be fecured.
In fome attempts made by the Dodlor to endow
•writing ink wfith the great durability of that of the an¬
cients, as w’ell as the properties which it has at pre-
fentj he firft; thought of ufing animal glues, and then
of oily matters. “ I mixed both lamp-black (fays
he) and ivory-black with folution of gum-arabic, made
of fuch confiftence as juft to flow fufficiently from the
pen. The liquors wrote of a fine black colour $ but
whan
INK [26
when dry, part of the colour could be rubbed off,
efpecially in moift weather, and a pencil dipped in wa¬
ter wathed it away entirely.
“ I tried folutions of the animal-glues with the
fame event. Ifinglafs or fiih glue being the moft dif¬
ficultly diffoluble of thefe kinds of bodies, I made a
decoflion of it in water, of fuch ftrength that the li¬
quor concreted into a jelly before it was quite cold :
with this jelly, kept fluid by fufficient heat, I mixed
fome ivory-black: charatiers drawn with this rriix-
ture on paper bore rubbing much better than the
others, but were difcharged w’ithout much difficulty
by a wet pencil.
“ It was now ffifpe&ed, that the colour could not
be fufficiently fixed on paper without an oily cement.
As oils themfelves are made mifcible with watery fluids
by the intervention of gum, I mixed fome of the fofter
painters vamifli, aftermentioned, with about half its
weight of a thick mucilage of gum-arabic, working
them well together in a mortar till they united into a
fmooth uniform mafs : this was beaten with lamp-black,
and fome water added by little and little, the rubbing
being continued till the mixture was diluted to a due
confiftence for writing. It wrote freely, and of a full
brownifh black colour : the charadlers could not be dif¬
charged by rubbing, but water walked them out, though
not near fo readily as any of the foregoing. Inftead
of the painters varniffi or boiled oil, I mixed raw lin-
feed oil in the fame manner with mucilage and lamp-
black*, and on diluting the mixture with water, obtain^
ed an ink not greatly different from the other.
“ Though thefe oily mixtures anfwered better than
thofe with Ample gums or glues, it was apprehended
that their being difchargeable by water would render
them unfit for the purpofes intended. The only way
of obviating this imperfection appeared to be, by
ufing a paper which ffiould admit the black liquid to
fink a little into its fubftance. Accordingly I took
fome of the more finking kinds of paper, and common
paper made damp as for printing *, and had the fatif-
fadtion to find, that neither the oily nor the Ample
gummy mixtures fpread upon them fo much as might
have been expeCted, and that the characters were as
fixed as could be defired, for they could not be walked
out without rubbing off part of the fubftance of the pa¬
per itfelf.
“ All thefe inks muff be now and then ftirred or
Ihaken during the time of ufe, to mix up the black
powder, which fettles by degrees to the bottom : thofe
with oil muff be well ffiaken alfo, though ncJt ufed,
once a-day, or at leafl: once in three or four days, to
keep the oil united with the water and gum 5 for,* if
once the oil feparates, which it is apt to do by Hand¬
ing at reft for fome days, it can no longer be mixed
with the thin fluid by any agitation. But though this
imperfeCt union ©f the ingredients renders thefe inks
lefs fit for general ufe than thofe commonly employed,
I apprehend there are many occafions in which thefe
kinds of inconveniences wall not be thought to coun¬
terbalance the advantage of having writings wffiich we
may be affured will be asTafting as the paper they are
written upon. And indeed the inconvenience may be
in a great meafure obviated by ufing cotton in the ink-
Itand, which, imbibing the fluid, prevents the fepara-
tion of the biapk powder diffufed through it.
i ] I N K
“ All the inks, however, made on the principle Ink.
we are now, fpeaking of, can be difcharged by walk- —Nr—**-'
ing, unlefs the paper admits them to fink into its fub-
flance. The ancients were not infenfible of this im-
perfeCIion j and fometimes endeavoured to obviate it,
according to Pliny, by ufing vinegar, inltead of water,
for tempering the mixture of lamp-black and gum. I
tried vinegar, and found it to be of fome advantage,
not as giving any improvement to the cement, but by
promoting the finking of the matter into the paper.
As this walking out of the ink may be prevented by
ufing a kind of paper eafy enough to be procured, it is
fcarce to be confidered as an imperfection 5 and in¬
deed, on other kinds of paper, it is an imperfeCtion only
fo far as it may give occafion to fraud, for none of thefe
inks are in danger of being otherwife difcharged than
by defign. The vitriolic inks themfelves, and thofe of
printed books and copperplates, are all difchargeable 5
nor can it be expeCted of the ink-maker to render wri¬
tings fecure from frauds.
“ But a further improvement may yet be made,
namely, that of uniting the ancient and modern inks
together ; or ufing the common vitriolic ink inltead of
water, for tempering the ancient mixture of gum and
lamp-black. By this, method it ffiould feem that the •
writings would have all the durability of thofe of for¬
mer times, with all the advantage that refults from
the vitrolic ink fixing itfelf in the paper. Even where
the common vitriolic mixture is depended on for the
ink, it may in many cafes be improved by a fmall ad¬
dition of the ancient compofition, or of the common
Indian ink which anfwers the fame purpofe : when the
vitriolic ink is dilute, and flows fb pale from the pen, .
that the fine ftrokes, on firfl: writing, are fcarcely vi-
fible, the addition of a little Indian ink is the readiell
means of giving it the due blacknefs. By this admix*
ture it may be prefumed alfo that the vitriolic ink will
be made more durable, the Indian ink in lome meafure
covering it, and defending it from the aClion of the air.
In all cafes, wdiere Indian ink or other fimilar compofi-
tions are employed, cotton ihould be ufed in the ink-
lland, as already mentioned, to prevent the fettling of
the black powder.”
Since the invention of printing much lefs attention
than formerly has been paid to the. making of ink, fo
that now* the art feems to be in a great meafure loft.
This wall appear from a comparifon of i'ome ancient
manufcripts with the writings of modern times. It
being of the utmoft importance, however, that public
records, wills, and other valuable papers, which cannot
admit of being printed, ffiould be written with ink of
a durable quality, this inattention feems to have been
very culpable, and a reftoration of the method of ma¬
king writing ink a very valuable acquifition. “ The ne-
ceffity (fays Mr Aftle*) of paying greater attention to* Origin of
this matter may readily be feen, by comparing the rolls Alphab.
and records that have been written from the 15th ^riting.
century to the end of the 17th, with the writings we
have remaining of various writings from the 5th to
the I 2th centuries. Notwithftanding the fuperior au-
tiquity of the latter, they are in excellent prefervation j
but we frequently find the former, though of more
modern date, fo much defaced that they are fcarcely
legible.”
Our author agrees with Dr Lewis in the opinion
that
Ink.
~v—
i n k r
that tli? ancient inks were compoied of foot or ivory
black inftead of the galls, copperas, and gums, which
form the compofition of ours. JBefides their black
inks, however, the ancients ufed various other colours,
as red, gold and filver, purple, &c. Green ink was
frequently ufed in Latin manufcripts, efpecially in the
latter ages •, and it was frequently employed in iigna-
lures by the guardians of the Greek emperors till their
-wards were of age. Blue or yellaw ink was feldora
ufed except in manufcripts; but (fays Mr Aftle) the
yellow has not been much in ufe, as far as we can learn,
thefe 600 years.” Some kinds of charaiders, particu¬
larly the metallic, were burnilhed. Wax was ufed by
the Latins and Greeks as a varniih, but efpecialiy by
the former, and particularly in the 9th century. It
continued a long time in vogue.
A treatife upon inks was publifhed by Peter Cani~
parius profelTor of medicine at Venice $ of which an
edition was printed at London in j66o. It is-divided
into fix parts. The firft treats of inks made from py¬
rites, Hones, and metals j the fecond of Inch as are
made from metals and calces ; the third from foots and
vitriols ; the fourth of the different kinds of inks ufed
by the librarii or book-writers, by printers, and en¬
gravers likewife of flaming or writing upon mar¬
ble, ffucco, or fealiolia, and of encauffic modes of
writing; alfo of liquids for painting or colouring lea¬
ther and linen or woollen cloth : relloring inks that
had been decayed by time j together with many me¬
thods of effacing writing, reftoving decayed pa¬
per, and different modes of fecret writing. The fifth
treats of writing inks made in different countries
from gums, woods, the juices of plants, &c, as well
as of different kinds of varnifhes. The fixth treats of
the different methods of extrafling vitriol, and the
chemical ufes of it,
IVeckerus dc Secretts, a treatife printed at Bafil in
1612, contains a number of curious particulars con¬
cerning ink. He gives alfo receipts for making gold
and filver inks, compofed both with thefe metais and
without them *, dire&ions for making inks for fecret
writing, and for defacing them; though in this laft
part there are many particulars bordering too much on
the marvellous.
In the Philofophical TranfafHons for 1787, Dr Blag-
den gives fome account of a method of reftoring de-
cayed inks fio as to render them legible. His expe¬
riments originated from a converfation with Mr Aftle
already quoted, on the queftion whether the inks make
eight or ten centuries ago, and which are found to
have preferved their colour very well, were made of the
fame materials now employed or not ? In order to
decide the queftion, Mr Aftle furnilhed the doflor
with feveral manuferipts on parchment and vellum from
the 9th to the 15th centuries inclufively. Some of
thefe were ftill very black; others of different fhades,
from a deep yellowifti brown to a very pale yellow, in
fome parts fo faint that it could foarcely be feen. This
was tried with fimple and phlogifticated alkalies, the
mineral acids, and infufion of galls. From thefe ex¬
periments it appeared that the ink anciently employed
was of the fame nature as at prefent: the letters turn¬
ed of a reddilh or yellowith brown tvith alkalies be¬
came pale, and were at length obliterated by the di¬
lute mineral acid'. The drop of acid liquor, which
62
] INK
had been put upon a letter, changed to a deep blue
or green on the addition of phlogifticated alkalies j with
an infufion ol galls, in fome cafes the letters acquired
a deep tinge, in others a flight one. “ Hence fays the
dodlor) it is evident, that one of the ingredients was
iron, which there is no reafon to doubt was joined with
the vitriolic acid ; and the colour of the more perfect
MSS. which in fome was a deep black, and in others
a purplifh black, together with the reilitution of that
colour in' thofe which had loft it by the infufion of
galls, fufficiently proved that, another of the ingredients
was aftringent matter, which from hiftory appears to
have been that of galls. No trace of a black pigment
of any fort v'as difeovered *, the drop of acid, which
had completely extracted a letter, appearing of an uni¬
form pale and ferruginous colour, without an atom of
black powder, or other extraneous matter floating in
it.”
As this account differs very materially from the for-
mer extracted from Mr Aftlt’s writings, lb the reafon
given for the continuance of the colour differs no Id’s.
This, according to Dr Blagden, “ feems to depend very
much on a better preparation of the material upon
which the writing was made, namely the parchment
or vellum ; the blacked letters being generally thefe
which had funk into it the deepeft. Some degree of
eftervefcence was commonly to be perceived when acids
were in contact with the furfaee of thefe old vellums.
I was led, however, to fufpeef, that the ancient inks
contained rather a lefs proportion of iron that the more
modern $ for, in general, the tinge of colour produ¬
ced by the phlogifticated alkali in the acid laid upon
them, feemed lefs deep; which, however, might de¬
pend in part upon the length of time they have been
kept; and perhaps more gum was ufed in them, or
they were waftted over with fome kind of varnifh,
though not fuch as gave any glofs.”
Among the fpecimejis with which our author was
favoured by Mr Aftle, there was one which differed
very materially from the reft. It was faid to be a ma-
nufeript of the x 5th century : the letters were of a
full engrofling hand, angular without any fine itrokes,
broad, and very black. None of the chemical folvents
above mentioned feemed to produce any effeft, Moft
of them feemed rather to make the letters blacker,
probably by cleaning the furface *, and the acids, after
having been rubbed ftrongly upon the letters, did not
ftrike any deeper tinge with the phlogifticated alkali.
Nothing could obliterate thefe but what took off part
of the vellum ; when fmali rolls of a dirty matter were
to be perceived. “ It is therefore unqueftionable (fays
the do£for) that no iron was ufed in this ink j and,
from its refiftance to the chenaical folvents, as well as
a certain clotted appearance in the letters when exa¬
mined clofely, and in fome places a flight degree of
glofs, 1 have little doubt that they were formed of a
footy or carbonaceous powder and oil, probably fome-
thing like our prefent printers ink; and am not with¬
out fufpicion that they were a&ually printed.”
On examining this MS. more fully, our author was
convinced that it was really a part of a very ancient
printed book. In confiderin^ the methods of reftoring
the legibility of decayed writings, our author obferves,
that perhaps one of the belt may be to join phlogifti¬
cated alkali with the calx of iron which remains 5 be-
caufe
Ink.
INK [ 263 ] INK
gave a bluifli tinge to
intenfity ; “ probably
thing of an acid nature
tion of their colour.”
caufe the precipitate formed by thefe two fubftances
greatly exceeds that of the iron alone. On this fubjeft
Dr Blagden difagrees with Mr Bergmann 5 but to bring
the matter to a tell, the following experiments were
made.
1. The phlogiftxcated alkali was rubbed in different
quantities upon the bare writing. This, in general,
produced little efFeff: 5 though, in a few inftances, it
the letters, and increafed their
(fays the do£lor) where fome-
had contributed to the diminu-
2. By adding, befides the al¬
kali, a dilute mineral acid to the writing, our author-
found his expeffations fully anfwered ; the letters then
changing quickly to a very deep and beautiful blue.
It is but of little confequence whether the acid or phlo-
giliicated alkali be firft added 5 though upon farther
confideration the dodtor inclined to begin with the
alkali. The reafon is, that when the alkali is firlt
put on, the colour feems to fpread lefs, and thus not
to hurt the legibility of the writing fo much as would
otherwife be done. His method is to fpread the al¬
kali thin over the writing with a feather, then to touch
it as gently as poffible upon or nearly over the letters
with the diluted acid by means of a feather or bit of
ftick cut to a blunt point. The moment that the acid
liquor is applied, the letters turn to a fine blue, be¬
yond comparifon ftronger than the original trace of
the letter 5 and by applying a bit of blotting-paper to
fuck up the fuperfluous liquid, we may in a great mea-
fure avoid the ftaining of the parchment : for it is this
fuperfluous liquor which, abforbing part of the colour¬
ing matter from the letters, becomes a dye to what¬
ever it touches. Care ought, however, to be taken
not to allow the blotting paper to come in contadl
with the letters, becaufe the colouring matter may ea-
fily be rubbed off while foft and wet. Any one of the
three mineral acids will anfvver the purpofe effectually.
Dr Blagden commonly ufes the marine. But which-
jever of the three is ufed, it ought to be diluted fo fai¬
rs not to be in danger of corroding the parchment 5
after which the degree of ftrength feems not to be a
matter of great nicety.
Another method of refloring the legibility of old
writings is by wetting them with an infufion of galls in
white wine : but this is fubjeft to the fame inconve¬
nience with the former, and is befides lefs efficacious.
The doftor is of opinion that the acid of the galls by
itfelf would be better for the purpofe than the infufion
of the whole fubffance of them ; and he thinks alfo
that a preferable kind of phlogifucated alkali might be
prepared either by purifying the common kind from
iron as much as poffible, or by making ufe of the vo¬
latile alkali inftead of the fixed. Mr Aflle mentions a
method of reitoring the legibility of decayed writings j
but fays that it ought not to be hazarded left a fufpi-
cion of deceit fliould arife.
A method has been propofed of preventing ink from
decaying by walking over the paper to be written upon
with the colouring matter of Pruffian blue, which will
not deprave it in colour, or any other refpedl. By
writing upon it with common ink afterwards, a
ground of Pruffian blue is formed under every ftroke j
and this remains'ftrong after the black has been de¬
cayed by the weather, or deftroyed by acids. Thus
the ink will bear a larger proportion of vitriol at firft,
and will have the advantage of looking blacker when
firft written.
Indian Ink, a valuable black for water-colours,
brought from China and other parts of the Eaft In¬
dies, fometimes in large rolls, but more commonly in
fmall quadrangular cakes, and generally marked with
Chinefe characters. Dr Lewis, from experiments
made on this fubftance, hath fhown that it is compofed
of fine lamp-black and animal glue : and accordingly,
for the preparation of it, he defires us to mix the lamp¬
black with as much melted glue as is fufficient to give
it a tenacity proper for being made into cakes j and
thefe when dry, he tells us, anfwered as well as thofe
imported from the Eaft Indies, both with regard to
the colour and the freedom of working. Ivory black,
and other charcoal blacks, levigated to a great degree
of finenefs, anfwered as well as the lamp-black ; but
in the ftate in which ivory-black is commonly fold, it
proved much too gritty, and feparated too haitily from
the water.
Printing Ink, is totally different from Indian ink,
or that made ufe of in writing. It is an oily compo-
fition, of the confidence of an ointment: the me¬
thod of preparing it was long kept a fecret by thofe
whofe employment it was to make it, and who were in-
terefted in concealing it; and even yet is but imper¬
fectly known. The properties of good printing ink
are, to wrork clean and ealily, without daubing the
types, or tearing the paper; to have a fine black co¬
lour ; to wath eafily off the types ; to dry foon; and
to preferve its colour, without turning brown. This
laff, which is a moft neceffary property, is effectually
obtained by fetting fire to the oil with which the print¬
ing ink is made tor a few moments, and then extin¬
guishing it by covering the veffel (a). It is made to
wafti eafily off the types, by ufing foap as an ingre¬
dient ; and its working clean depends on its having a
proper degree of ftrength, which is given by a certain
addition oi rofin. A good deal, however, depends oh
the proportion of the ingredients to each other ; for if
too much foap is added, the ink -will work very foul,
and daub the types to a great degree. The fame thing -
will happen from ufing too much black, at the fame
time that both the foap and black hinder the ink from
drying ; while too much oil and rofin tear the paper,
and hinder it from waffling off.—The following receipt
has been found to make printing ink of a tolerable
good quality. “ Take a Scots pint of lintfeed oil,
and fet it over a pretty brilk fire in an iron or copper
veffel capable of holding three or four times as much.
When it boils ftrongly, and emits a thick fmoke, kindle
it with a piece of paper, and immediately take the vef¬
fel off the fire. Let the oil burn for about a minute ;
then extinguiffi it by covering the veffel; after it has
grown
(a) This is mentioned by Dr Lewis in his Philofophical Commerce of Arts > but he feems not to have beeru
acquainted with the method of giving it the other neceffary properties
INK
grown pretty cool, add two pounds of black rofin,
and one pound of hard foap cut into thin flices. If
the oil is very hot when the foap is added, almoft the
whole mixture will run over the veifel. The mixture
is then to be fet again over the fire j and when the
ingredients are thoroughly melted, a pound of lamp¬
black, previoufly put through a lawn lieve, is to be
flirred into it. The whole ought then to be ground
on a marble ftone, or in a levigating mill.
Though* the above receipt is greatly fuperior to
any that hath been hitherto publiihed, all of which
are capitally deficient in not mentioning the necef-
fary ingredients of rofin and foap ; yet it mull be ac¬
knowledged, that ink made in this manner is inferior
in point of colour, and is likewife more apt to daub
the types and make an indiftinft impreflion, than fuch
as is prepared by fome of thofe who make the ma-
nufadlure of this commodity their employment ; fo
that either a variation in the proportion of the ingre¬
dients, a nicety in the mixture, or fome additional in¬
gredient, feems neceffary to bring it to the requifite
perfedlion.
Ink for the rolling Prefs, is made of lintfeed oil
burnt in the fame manner as that for common printing
ink, and then mixed with Francfort black, and finely
ground. There are no certain proportions which can
be determined in this kind of ink j every workman
adding oil or black to his ink as he thinks proper,
in order to make it luit his own tafle.— Some, how¬
ever, mix a portion of common boiled oil, which has
never been burnt : but this muft neceflarily be a bad
pradlice, as fuch oil is apt to go through the paper j
a fault very common in prints, elpecially if the paper
is not very thick. No ioap is added \ becaule the
ink is not cleared off from the copperplates with alka¬
line ley as in common printing, but with a brufh dip¬
ped in oil.
Ink is alfo an appellation given to any coloured
liquor ufed in writing. Different kinds of theie inks may
be prepared by the dire&ions given under the article
■ CoLOVR-Mahing.
Sympathetic Ink, a liquor with which a perfon may
write, and yet nothing appear on the paper after it is
.dry, till fome means are ufed, as holding the paper to
the fire, rubbing it over with fome other liquor, &c.
Thefe kinds of ink may be divided into feven claffes,
with refpedf to the means ufed to make them vifi-
ble; viz. i. Such as become vifible by palling ano¬
ther liquor over them, or by expofing them to the
vapour of that liquor, 2. Thofe that do not appear fo
long as they are kept clofe, but foon become vifible
on being expofed to the air. 3. Such as appear by
firewing or lifting fome very fine powder of any colour
over them. 4. Thofe which become vifible by being
expofed to the fire. 5. Such as become vifible by
heat, but difappear again by cold or the moifture of
the air. 6. Thofe which become vifible by being wet¬
ted with water. 7. Such as appear of various colours.
I. The fir ft clafs contains four kinds of ink, viz. fo-
lutions of lead, bifmuth, gold, and green vitriol, or
fulphate of iron. The firft two become vifible by the
contact of fulphureous liquids or fumes. For the firft,
a folution of common fugar of lead in water anfwers
very well. With this folution write with a clean pen,
and the writing when dry will be totally invifible ; but
I N K
if it be wetted with a folution of hepar fulphuns, or Ink.
of orpiment, diffolved by means of quicklime ; or ex- ——v“
pofed to the ftrong vapours of thefe folutions, the writ¬
ing will appear of a brown colour, more or lefs deep
according to the ftrength of the fulphureous fume. By
the fame means the folution of nitrate of bifmuth will
appear of a deep black.
The fympathetic ink prepared from g;old depends
on the property by which that metal precipitates from
its folvent on the addition of a folution of tin. Write
with a folution, of gold in nitro-muriatic acid, and let
the paper dry gently in the ihadej nothing will appear
for the firft feven or eight hours. Dip a pencil in the
folution of tin, and drawing it lightly over the invifible
charatters, they will immediately appear, of a purple
colour.
Charafters written with a folution of green vitriol,
will likewife be invifible when the paper is dry j but if
wetted wdth an infufion of galls, they will immediately
appear as if written with common ink. If, inftead of
this infufion, a folution of an alkaline pruftiate be ufed,
the writing will appear of a deep blue.
II. To the fecond clafs belong the folutions of all
thofe metals which are apt to attradl oxygen from the
air, fuch as lead, bifmuth, filver, &c. The fympathe¬
tic ink of gold already mentioned belongs alfo to this
clafs ; for if the charafters written with it are long ex¬
pofed to the air, they become by degrees of a deep
violet colour, nearly approaching to black. In like
manner, chara&ers written with a folution of nitrate of
filver are invifible when newly dried, but being expofed
to the fun, appear of a gray colour like (late. To this
clafs alfo belong folutions of fugar of lead, nitrates of
copper and of mercury, acetate of iron, and muriate of tin.
Each of thefe has a particular colour when expofed to
the air j but they corrode the paper.
III. The third clafs of fympathetic inks contains
fuch liquids as have fome kind of glutinous vifcofity,
and at the fame time are long in drying ; by which
means, though the eye cannot difcern the charaflers
written with them upon paper, the powders ftrewed
upon them immediately adhere, and thus make the
writing become vilible. Of this kind are urine, milk,
the juices of fome vegetables, weak folutions of the de-
liquefcent falts, &c.
IV. This clafs, comprehending all tbofe that be¬
come vifible by being expofed to the fire, is very ex-
tenfive, as it contains all thofe colourlefs liquids in
which the matter diffolved is capable of being reduced,
or of reducing the paper, into a fort of charcoal by a
fmall beat. Sulphuric acid diluted with as much water
as will prevent it'from corroding the paper makes a
good ink of this kind. Letters written with this fluid
are invifible when dry, but inftantly on being held near
the fire appear as black as if written with the fineft mk.
Juice of lemons or onions, a folution of fal-ammoniac,
green vitriol, &c. anfwer the fame purpofe.
V. The fifth clafs comprehends only a folution of
muriate of cobalt; for the properties of which, fee
Chemistry, N° 1608, p. 627.
VI. This clafs comprehends fuch inks as become
vifible when charadfters written with them are wetted v
with water. They are made of all fuch fubitances as
depofite a copious fediment when mixed with water,
diffolving only imperfetlly in that, fluid. Of this kind
are
r 264 ]
INN [ 265 ] INN
Ink-ftones are dried alum, fugar of lead, vitriol, &c. We have
!• therefore only to write with a ftrong folution of thefe
falls upon paper, and the chara£!er$ will be inviiible
when dry; but when we apply wrater, the fmall por¬
tion of dried fait cannot again be dilfolved in the wa¬
ter, Hence the mfoluble part becomes vifible on
the paper, and (hows the characters written in white,
gray, brown, or any other colour which the precipitate
affumes,
VII. Characters may be made to appear of a fine
crimfon, purple, or yellow, by writing on paper with
folution of muriate ef tin, and then palling over it a pen-
cil dipt in a decoCtion of cochineal, Brazil-wood, log¬
wood, yellow wood, &e.
Jnk Stones, a hind of fmall round (tones, of a white,
red, gray, yellow, or black colour, containing a quan¬
tity of native martial vitriol, whence they derive the
property of making ink, and from thence their name.
They are almolt entirely foluble in water, and befides
their other ingredients, contain alfo a portion of copper
and zdne,
INLAND, a name for any part of a country at a
diftance from the fea.
Inland Navigation, See Canal and {Inland') Na¬
vigation.
Inland Trade, that kind of trade carried on be¬
tween the different parts of the fame kingdom, whether
over land, or by means of inland navigation,
INLAYING. See Veneering, Mosaic, and Mar-
quetry.
INLEASED, in our old writers, fignifies entangled
or enfnared. It is ufed in the champion’s oath,
INLISTING, in a military fenfe. See Listing.
INMATES, fuch perfons as are admitted for their
money, to live in the fame houfe or cottage with ano¬
ther man, in different rooms, but going in at the fame
door being ufually fuppofed to be poor, and not able
to maintain a whole houfe themfelves. Thefe are in-
quirable in a court-leet,-—No owner or occupier of a
cottage (hall fuffer any inmates therein, or more fami¬
lies than one to inhabit there, on pain of forfeiting jos.
per month to the lord of the leet,
INN, a place appointed for the entertainment and
relief of travellers.
Inns are licenfcd and regulated by juftices of the
,peaee, who oblige the landlord to enter into reeogni.
xances for keeping good order. If a perfon who keeps
a common inn, refufes to receive a traveller into his
boufe as a gueft, or to find him victuals and lodging
on his tendering a reafonable price for them, he is li-
able to an a£Hon of damages, and may be indicted and
fined at the king’s fuit. The rates of all commodities
fold by innkeepers, according to our ancient laws,
may be affeffed : and innkeepers not felling their bay,
oats, beans, &c, and all manner of victuals, at reafon¬
able prices, without taking any thing for litter, may
be fined and imprifoned, &c. by 21 Jac. I. c. 21,
W here an innkeeper harbours thieves, perfons of in¬
famous character, or fuffers any diforders in his houfe,
or fets up a new inn where there is no need of one, to
the hinderance of ancient and well governed ,inns, he
is indictable and fineable : and by ilatute, fuch inn
may be fuppreffed, Action upon the cafe lies againft
any innkeeper, if a theft be committed on his gueft
by a fervant of the inn, or any other perfon not be-
Vol. XL Part I.
longing to the gueft j though it is otherwife where the Inns,
gueft is not a traveller, but one of the fame town or
village, for there the innkeeper is not chargeable ; nor
is the mafter of a private tavern anlwerable for a rob¬
bery committed on his gueft : it is faid, that even though
the travelling gueft does not deliver his goods, &c.
into the innkeeper’s poffeflion, yet if they are ftolen,
he is chargeable. An innkeeper is not anfwerable for
any thing out of his inn, but only for fuch as are
within it \ yet, where he of his own accord puts the
gueft’s horfe to grafs, and the horfe is ftolen, he is
an(werable, he not having the gueft’s orders for putting
fuch horfe to grafs. The innkeeper may juftify the
(topping of the horfe, or other thing of his gueft, for
his reckoning, and may retain the fame till it be paid.
Where a perfon brings his horfe to an inn, and leaves
him in the (table, the innkeeper may detain him till
luch time as the owner pays for his keeping : and if
the horfe eats out as much as he is worth, after a
reafonable appraifement made, he may fell the horfe
and pay himlelf: but when a gueft brings feveral
horfes to an inn, and afterwards takes them ail away
except one, this borfe fo left may not be fold for pay¬
ment of the debt for the others j for every horfe is to
be fold, only to make fatisfaflion for what is due for his
own meat.
Inns. Our colleges of municipal or common law
profeffors and (Indents, are called inns : the old Engliftx
word for houfes of noblemen, bifhops, and others of
extraordinary note, being of the fame (ignification with
the French word hotels.
Inns of Court are fo called, as fome think, becaufe
the ftudents there are to ferve and attend the courts of
judicature j or elfe, becaufe anciently thefe colleges
received none but the fons of noblemen, and better (ort
of gentlemen, who were here to be qualified to ferve the
king in his court; as Fortefcue affirms. And, in his
time, he fays, there were about 2000 ftudents in the
inns of court and chancery, all of whom were filii nobu
Hum, or gentlemen born. But this cuftom has gra¬
dually fallen into difufe; fo that in the reign of f>ueen
Elizabeth, Sir Edward Coke does not reckon above
1000 ftudents, and the number at prefent is very com
iiderably lefs ; for which Judge Blackftone affigns the
following reafons. 1. Becaufe the inns of chan¬
cery, being now almoft totally filled by the inferior
branches of the profeffion, are neither commodious nor
proper for the refort of gentlemen of any rank or fi¬
gure ; fo that there are very rarely any young ftudents
entered at the inns of chancery. 2. Becaufe in the inns
of court all forts of regimen and academical fuperin-
tendance, either with regard to morals or ftudies, are
found impra&icable, and therefore entirely neglected.
Laftly, becaufe perfons of birth and fortune, after ha¬
ving finifiied their ufual courfes at the univerfities, have
feldom leifure or refolution fufficient to enter upon a
new fcherne of ftudy at a new place of inftru&ion j
wherefore few gentlemen now refort to the inns of
court, but fuch for whom the knowledge of practice is
abfolutely neceflary in fuch as are intended for the pro¬
feffion.
^ Our inns of court, juftly famed for the produ&ion
of men of learning in the law, are governed by ma¬
ilers, principals, benchers, ftewards, and other offi¬
cers j and have public halls for exercifes, readings, &c*
L 1 which
INN [ 266 1 INN
winch the Undents are obliged to attend and perform
for a certain number of years, before they can be ad¬
mitted to plead at the bar. Thefe focieties have not,
however, any judicial authority over their members j
but inftead of this they have certain orders anting
themfelves, which have by confent the force of laws.
I'or lighter offences perfons are only excommoned, or
put out of commons *, for greater, they lofe their
chambers, and are expelled the college } and when
once expelled out of one fociety, they are never recei¬
ved by any of the others. The gentlemen in thefe fo¬
cieties may be divided into benchers, outer-barrifters,
inner-barriilers, and ftudents.
The four principal inns of court, are the Inner
Temple and Middle Temple, heretofore the dwelling
of the Knights Templars, purchafed by fome profef-
fors of the common law about 300 years ago ; Lin¬
coln’s Inn and Gray’s Inn, anciently belonging to the
carls of Lincoln and Gray. The other inns are the two
Serjeants Inns.
Inns of Chancery wTere probably fo called, becaufe
anciently inhabited by fuch clerks as chiefly fludied
the forming of writs, which regularly belonged to the
curfitors, who are officers of chancery.
The firft of thefe is Thavies Inn, begun in the reign
of Edward III. and fince purchafed by the fociety of
Lincoln’s Inn. Belide this, we have New Inn, Sy-
mond’s Inn, Clement’s Inn, Clifford’s Inn, anciently
the houfe of the Lord Clifford ; Staple Inn, belonging
to the merchants of the ftaple j Lion’s Inn, anciently a
common inn with the fign of the lion j Furnival’s Inn,
and Bernard’s Inn.
Thefe were heretofore preparatory colleges for
younger ftudents-, and many were entered here, be¬
fore they were admitted into the inns of court. Now
they are moftly taken up by attorneys, folicitors, &c.
They all belong to fome of the inns of court, who
formerly ufed to fend yearly fome of their barrifters to
read to them.
INNATE ideas, thofe fuppofed to be ftamped on
the mind, from the firft moment of its exiftence, and
which it conftantly brings into the world with it: a
do&rine which Mr Locke has taken great pains to re¬
fute.
INNERKEITHING. See Inverkeithing.
INNERLOCHY. See Inverlochy and Fort-
William.
INNIS. See Inch.
INNISCLOCHRAN, or the Stoney Island, an
ifland in Lough Ree, in the river Shannon, between
the counties of Weftmeath and Rofcommon, at which
place a monaftery wTas founded by St Dermond, about
the beginning of the 6th century.
INNISFAIL (derived from Inn Bheal, that is,
“ the ifland of Bheal”), one of the apcient names of
Ireland, fo denominated from Bea/, the principal ob¬
ject of adoration among the ancient inhabitants of the
Britifh ifles. Innisfail has been erroneoufly tranflated
the IJland of Definy, as Bheal was fometimes taken for
Fate or Providence.
INNISFALLEN, an ifland in the lake of Killar-
ney, in the county of Kerry and province of Munfter:
in it are the ruins of a very ancient religious houfe,
founded by St Finian, the patron faint of thefe. parts,
and to him the cathedral of Aghadoe is alfo dedicated.
The remains of this abbey are very extenfive, its fitua-InnisLlleni
tion romantic and retired. Upon the diflblution of re- ’!
ligious houfes, the pcffeflions of this abbey were grant- ,n''‘ a”'
ed to Captain Robert Collam. The ifland contains a-
bout 1 2 acres, is agreeably wooded, and has a number
of fruit-trees. St Finian flouriflied about the middle of
the 6th century ; he was furnamed in Irifh Lobhar, his
father’s name was Conail the fon of Efchod; defcended
from Kian the fon of Alild, king of Munfter. There
was formerly a chronicle kept in this abbey, which is
frequently cited by Sir J. Ware and other antiquaries
under the title of the Annals of Innisfallen. They
contain a fketch of univerfal hiftory, from the creation
of the world to the year 430 or thereabouts, but from
thence the annalift has amply enough profecuted the af¬
fairs of Ireland down to his own times. He lived to the
year 1215. Sir J. Ware had a copy of them, whereof
there is an imperfeft tranfcript among the MSS. of the
library of Trinity-college, Dublin. They rvere conti¬
nued by another hand to the year 1320. Bifhop Ni-
cholfon, in his Irifh hiftorical library, informs us, that
the duke of Chandoshad a complete copy of them down
to 1320 in his poffeflion. Thefe annals tell us, that in
the year 1180, the abbey, which had at that time all
the gold and filver and richeft goods of the whole
country depofited in it, as the place of greateft fecuri-
ty, was plundered by Mildwin fon of Daniel O’Do-
noghoe, as was alfo the church of Ardfert, and many
perfons were flain in the very cemetery by the M’Car-
tys ; but God, as it is faid in this chronicle, puniftied
this impiety by the untimely end of fome of the authors
of it.
INNISHANNON, a town in the county of Cork
and province of Munfter, 134 miles from Dublin ; fi-
tuated on the river Bandon, and fix miles from Kinfale.
The river is navigable to Collier’s quay, about half a
mile below the place. On the weft fide of the town is
a ftrong bridge. This place was formerly walled, and
of fome note, as appears by the foundations of feveral
caftles and large buildings difcovered in it. The town
of Innifliannon, together with its ferry, were granted
to Philip de Barry by Henry V. by letters patent, an¬
no 1412.
INNISHIRKAN, an ifland fituated between Cape
Clear ifland and Baltimore bay, in the county of Cork
and province of Munfter. In this ifland flood the caftle
of Dunelong, poffefled by the O’Drifcolls, which was ,
furrendered after the defeat of the Spaniards to Cap¬
tain Hervey on 23d Feb. 1602. There was afterwards
a regular fortification eredled on part of the ifland,
which wras garrifoned in Queen Anne’s time, but it has
been for feveral years difmantled j about a mile to the
fouth are the remains of an ancient abbey, founded
1460, for Francifcans, by Florence O’Drifcoll. I his
ifland has very good land, and is vaftly preferable to
that of Cape Clear ifland. To the north-weft of Inni-
ftiirkan ifland lies Hare ifland, a large fruitful fpot; and
near it are four fmall iflands called the Schemes: alfo
along the coaft, in the following order from eaft to
weft, are Horfe ifland, containing ico acres; Caftle
ifland, containing 119 acres; Long ifland, containing
316 acres ; and w7eft of all thefe is a fmall fpot called
Goat ifland. All thefe iflands, together with the
adjacent coaft, produce large crops of fine Englifh
barley.
' 1 INNISKILLING
I N O [2(17
Inniikining INNISKILLING, a borough toTA*n of Ireland, in
the county of Fermanagh and province of Ulfter, lying
between three lakes. It is about 24 miles eaft of Bal-
lylhannon, and 79 north-weft of Dublin, this place giv¬
ing title of vifcount to the family of Cole. Its inhabi¬
tants diftinguilhed themfelves in feveral conftderable en¬
gagements in the wars of Ireland at the revolution, out
of which a regiment of dragoons, bearing the title of
the Innifliilleners, was moftly formed. They form the
6th regiment of dragoons in the Britilh army.
INNOCENT’S day, a feftival of the Chriftian
church, obferved on December 28. in memory of the
maflacre of the innocent children by the command of
Herod king of Judaea. See Jesus Chrijl; and Jews,
N° 24 par. ult. The Greek church in their kalendar,
and the Abyflinians of Ethiopia in their offices, com¬
memorate 14,000 infants on this occafion.
INNUENDO (of innuo, f‘ I nod or beckon”), is a
word frequently ufed in writs, declarations, and plead¬
ings, to afcertain a perfon or thing which was named,
but left doubtful, before : as, he {innuendo the plain¬
tiff ) did fo and fo : mention being before made of an¬
other perfon.—In common converfation or writing, an
innuendo denotes an oblique hint or diftant reference, in
contradiftimftion to a dire£l and pofitive charge.
INO, in fabulous hiftory, a daughter of Cadmus and
Harmonia, who nurfed Bacchus. She married Atha-
mas king of JFhebes, after he had divorced Nephele,
by whom he had two children Phryxus and Helle. Ino
became mother of Melicerta and Learchus j and foon
conceived an implacable hatred againft the children of
Nephele, becaufe they were to afcend the throne in
preference to her own. Phryxus and Helle were in¬
formed of Ino’s machinations, and they efcaped to
Colchis on a golden ram. Juno, jealous of Ino’s prof-
perity, refolved to difturb her peace j and more parti¬
cularly becaufe ffie was of the defcendants of her great-
eft enemy, Venus. Tifiphone was fent by order of
Juno to the houfe of Athamas ; and ffie filled the whole
palace with fuch fury, that Athamas taking Ino to be
a lionefs and her children whelps, purfued her and dalli¬
ed her fon Learchus againft a wall. Ino efcaped from
the fury of her huffiand •, and from a high rock ffie
threw’ herfelf into the fea with Melicerta in her arms.
The gods pitied her fate *, and Neptune made her a
fea deity, which was afterwards called Leucothoe.
Melicerta became alfo a fea god, known by the name
of Palemon.
INO A, feftivals in memory of Ino, celebrated yearly
with fports and facrifices at Corinth. An anniverfary
facrifice was alfo offered to Ino at Megara, where Ihe
was firft worffiipped under the name of Leucothoe.—
Another in Laconia, in honour of the fame. It wTas
ufual at the celebration to throw7 cakes of flour into a
pond, which if they funk wrere prefages of profperity,
but if they fwam on the furface of the waters they were
inaufpicious and very unlucky.
INOCARPUS, a genus of plants belonging to the
decandria clafs. See Botany Index.
INOCULATION, or budding, in Gardening, is
commonly praclifed upon all forts of ftone fruit; as nec¬
tarines, peaches, apricots, plums, cherries, as alfo up¬
on oranges and jafmines : and indeed this is preferable
to any fort of grafting for moft forts of fruit. For the
method of performing it, fee Gardening Index.
] INO
Inoculation, in a phyfical fenfe, is ufed for the
tranfplantation of din “u*Pers from one fubje - to an¬
other, particularly for the J^graftment of the ma pox •,
which, though of ancient ufe in tue eaftern countries, is
but a modern praftice among us, at under t e u:
region of art. .
It is w'ell obferved by the baron Dlmfdale, >. acc1'
dent hath furniffied the art of medicine with man) va“
luable hints, and fome of its greateft improvements have
been received from the hands of ignorance and barba-
rifm. This truth is remarkably exemplified in the prac¬
tice of inoculation of tV7 fmallpox : but to the honour
of the Britifli phyficians, they meafured not the value
of this pradtice by the meannefs of its origin, but by its
real importance and utility j they patronifed a barba¬
rous difcovery with no lefs zeal and affedtion than if
it had been their owm. Indeed the whole nation
might be faid to have adopted the pradlice; for the
greateft encouraged it by becoming examples, and the
wifeft were determined by the general event of the me¬
thod.
The time and place in which the art of inoculating
for the fmallpox was firft formed, are equally unknown.
Accident probably gave rife to it. Pylarini fays, that
among the Turks it wTas not attended to except amongft
the meaner fort. Dr Ruffel informs us in the Philofo-
phical Tranfadlions, vol. Iviii. p. 142. that no mention
is made of it by any of the ancient Arabian medical
writers that are known in Europe •, and the phyficians
who are natives in and about Arabia affert, that nothing
is to be found regarding it in any of thofe of a more
modern date. He farther fays, that he engaged fome
of his learned Turkiffi friends to make inquiry; but
they did not difcover any thing on this fubjedft of inocu¬
lation either in the writings of phyficians, hiftorians, or
poets. Until the beginning of the 18th century, all the
accounts we have of inoculating the fmallpox are mere¬
ly traditional. The filence on this fubjeft, obferved
amongft writers in the countries where the pra&ice ob¬
tained, Dr Ruffel fuppofes, with great probability, to
be owing to the phyficians there never countenancing
or engaging in it. It is alfo remarkable, that before
Pylarini’s letter to the Royal Society in 1701, nor yet
for feveral years after, this practice is not noticed by
any of the moft inquifitive travellers. On this Dr Ruf¬
fel very juftly obferves, that cuftoms, the moft common
in diftant countries, are often the leaft apt to attraft the
obfervation of travellers, who, engaged in other pur-
fuits, muft be indebted to accident for the knowledge of
fuch things as the natives feldom talk of, upon the be¬
lief that they are known to all the world.
The firft accounts we have in the learned world con¬
cerning inoculation, are from two Italian phyficians,
viz. Pylarini and Timoni, whofe letters on the fubjeft
may be feen in the Phil. Tranf. abridged, vol. v p. 370,
&c. The firft is dated A. D. 1701 ; the next is dated
A. D. 1713. Whether our inquiries are extended a-
broad or confined to our own country, inoculation hath
been pradtifed under one mode or other time immemo¬
rial ; in Great Britain and its adjacent ifles we have
well authenticated accounts, extending farther backward
than any from the continent. Dr Williams of Haver-
fordweft, who wrote upon inoculation in 1725, proves,
that it had been pradHfed in Wales, though in a form
fomevvhat different, time out of mind. Mr Wright, a
L 1 3 7 furgear*
I N O [ 268 ] I N O
furgeon in the fame place, fays, that buying the fmall-
pox is both a common practice, and of long Handing in
that neighbourhood. He fays, that in Pembrokefhire
there are two large villages near the harbour of Milford,
more famous for this cuitom than any other, viz. St Kh-
mael’s and IViarloes. The old inhabitants of thefe vil¬
lages by, that it hath been a common practice ; and
that one William Allen of St Khmael’s, who in 1722
was 90 years of age, declared to fome perfons of good
fenle and integrity, that this practice was ufed all his
time ; that he well remembered his mother telling him,
that it was a common pradlice ill her time, and that fhe
got the fmallpox that way 5 fo that at leaft we go back
160 years or more.
In the Highlands of Scotland and fome of the adja¬
cent illes, Dr Alexander Monro fenior informs us, that
the cuftom through ages pall hath been, to put their
children to bed with thofe who laboured under a fa¬
vourable fmallpox, .and to tie worfled thi’eads about
their children’s wrills, after having drawn them through
variolous puftules.
According to the refult of Dr Ruffel’s inquiries, the
Arabians aflfert, that the inoculation of the fmallpox
has been the common cuflom of their anceftors, and
that they have no doubt of its being as ancient as the
difeafe itfelf. It is remarkable, that buying the fmall¬
pox is the name univerfally applied in all countries to
the method of procuring the difeafe : it is true that
there are other terms ; but in Wales and Arabia, as
well as many other countries, this is the ufual appella¬
tion. From the famenefs of the name, and the little
diverfity obfervable in the manner of performing the
operation, it is probable that the praftice of inoculation
in thefe countries was originally derived from the fame
fource. From its extenfive fpread, it is probably of
great antiquity too.
In the year 1717, Lady Mary Wortley Montague,
wife of the Englilh ambaffador at Condantinople, had
her fon inoculated there at the age of fix years •, he had
but few puftules, and loon recovered. In April 1721,
inoculation wras fuccefsfully tried on feven condemned
criminals in London, by permitlion of his majelty. In
1722, Lady Mary Wortley Montague had a daughter
of fix years old inoculated in this ifland ; foon after
which, the children of the royal family that had not
had the fmallpox were inoculated with fuccefs j then
followed fome of the nobility, and the pra£tice foon
prevailed. And here we date the commencement of
inoculation under the direction of art.
From the example of the royal family in England,
the pra&ice was adopted in Germany, particularly in
Hanover, and its adjacent countries.
After Mr Maitland had fucceeded with thofe he had
inoculated in and about London, he introduced the
practice into Scotland in the year 1726.
Sweden foon followed the example of the Britilh.
Ruftia lately engaged one of our principal promoters and
improvers of this art. And now there are not many
countries that do not more or Ids praftife it.
Different Modes of Inoculation. The practice of
inoculation having obtained in every part of the world,
it may be grateful, at leaft to curiofity, to have a gene¬
ral account of the different modes that are and have
been adopted in that pra&ice.
Inoculation with the blood of variolous patients hath
been tried without effect ; the variolous matted only
produces the variolous difeale.
The application of the variolous matter takes place
in a fenfible part only ; the a&ivity of the virus is fuch,
that the fmalleft atom, though imperceptible to any of
our fenfes, conveys the difeale as well as the largeft
quantity. Hence the moft obvious method is the prick
of a needle or the point of a lancet dipped in the mat¬
ter of a variolous puftule.
Cotton or thread is ufed, that is previoufly rubbed
with powdered variolous fcabs *, this thread is drawn
with a needle through the cutis, but not left in. This
is the method in fome parts of the Eaft Indies. Ihe
Indians pafs the thread on the outfide of the hand,
between any of the fingers, or between the fore finger
and thumb. The Theffalian women inoculate in the
forehead and chin.
Some abrade the fcarf-lkin, and rub in the powder¬
ed dry fcabs which fall from the puftules of patients
with the fmallpox.
Many of the Greek women make an oblique punc¬
ture with a needle, on the middle of the top of the
forehead, on each cheek, the chin, each metacarpus,
and each metatarfus; then drop in each a little of the
pus juft taken warm from a patient, and brought in a
fervant’s bofom. Others in Greece make feveral little
wounds with a needle in one, two, or more places, in
the Ikin, till fome drops of blood en'^j then the
operator pours a drop of warm pus freih from a pu¬
ftule, and mixes it with the blood as it iffues out ;
then the wound is covered by fome with a bandage,
by others with half a walnut ihell placed with its con¬
cave fide over each orifice.
The Chinefe convey a pellet of variolated cotton,
with the addition of a little muik, into the uoftrils of
the patient *, they collett dry puftules, and keep them
in a porcelain bottle well coiked } and when they ino¬
culate, they mix a grain of mufk with three or four
grains of the dry fcales, and roll them in cotton.
This method may be called inodoration.
About Bengal, in the Eaft: Indies, the perfon who
intends to be inoculated, having found a houfe where
there is a good fort of the fmallpox, goes to the bed of
the fick perfon, if he is old enough •, or if a chikl, to
one of his relations, and fpeaks to him as follows: “ I
am come to buy the fmallpox.” The anfwer is, “ Buy
if you pleafe.” A fum of money is accordingly given,
and one, three, or four puftules, for the number tnuft
always be odd, and not exceeding five, extracted whole,
and full of matter. Thefe are immediately rubbed on
the fkin of the outfide of the hand between the fore¬
finger and the thumb; and this fufiices to produce the
difeafe. The fame cuftom obtains in Algiers, Tunis,
Tripoli, and other countries.
Very fimilar to the euftom among the people about
Bengal, &c. is that in Arabia, where on fome fieffy
part they make feveral pun&ures with a needle im¬
brued in variolous matter, taken from a puftule of a
favourable kind. Here they buy the fmallpox too, as
follows : the child to be inoculated carries a few raifins,
dates, fugar-plums, or fuch like j and fhowing them
to the child from whom the matter is to be taken,
afks how many pocks he wTill give in exchange ? Fhe
bargain being made, they proceed to the operation j
but this buying, though ftill continued, is not thought
neceffary
1
I N O [ 269 ] I N Q,
Inocula- neceflary to the fuccefs of the operation. The Arabs
licm. fay any fle(hy part is proper ; but generally they
v infert the matter between the fore-finger and thumb
on the outfide of the hand.
The Georgians infert the matter on the fore-arm.
The Armenians introduce the matter on the two
thighs. In Wales the practice may be termed infric¬
tion of the fmallpox. There fome of the dry pufiules
are procured by purchafe, and are rubbed hard upon
the naked arm or leg.
The pradlice in fome places is to prick the Ikin be¬
tween fome of the fingers by means of twro fmall needles
joined to one another ; and after having rubbed a
little of the matter on the fpot, a circle is made by
means of feveral pun&ures of the bignefs of a common
puflule, and matter is again rubbed over it. The ope¬
ration is finiihed by drefiing the wound with lint.—An¬
other cuftom is to mix a little of the variolous matter
with fugar, and give it to be drank in any agreeable
liquor.
Incifions have been made in the arms and legs, and
thread, cotton, or lint, previoufly dipped in the vari¬
olous matter, was lodged in them. The practice of
fome is to bathe the feet in wrarm water, and then fe-
cure lint dipped in the variolous matter on the indep,
or other part of the foot, where the Ikin is thin. O-
thers apply a fmall blillering plafter; and when the
fcarf Ikin is elevated and flipped off, the variolous mat¬
ter is applied to the furface of the true fkin, and con¬
fined there by a little lint or plafter. Scratching the
fkin with a pin or needle, and then rubbing the part
with lint, previoufly dipped in variolous matter, is the
cuftom in fome places.
In the Highlands of Scotland they rub fome part
of the fkin with frefh matter, or dip worfted in vario¬
lous matter, and tie it about the children’s wrifts.
They obferve, that if frefh matter is applied a few days
fucceflively, the infection is more certain than by one
application.
Having thus given the hiftory of inoculation for
the fmallpox, which not many years ago w’as jultly re¬
garded as one of the greatell difcoveries which had
been made for the benefit of mankind, and would Hill
be regarded^ as fuch had it not given place to one ftill
more valuable and important, the vaccine inoculation or
cowpox, which now promifes to banifli the fmallpox
from the world. For an account of this, fee Vaccina¬
tion'. It would be quite unneceflary to enter into the
detail of the advantages to be derived from inoculation
for the fmallpox, and the methods of performing or pre¬
paring for it formerly praflifed. But, as a curious part
of the hiftory of this pradlice, wre (hall juft barely men¬
tion fome of the obje£tions which have been urged a-
gainft it.
It has been faid that inoculation for the fmallpox is
unlawful; that it is bringing a diftemper on ourfelves,
and thus ufurping the facred prerogative of God ; that
the decrees of God have fixed the commiftion of every
difeafe, and our precautions cannot ^prevent what he
hath determined j that we fliould not do evil that good
may come ; that the patient may die, and then his laft
moments are diftrefied, and the future reflections of
his friends are grievous •, that fear is a dangerous paflion
in the fmallpox, but inoculation increafes the caufes of
fear, by leflening our faith and truft in God ; that ino¬
culation does not exempt from future infection j that Inordinate
other difeafes are communicated with the matter of the ^ ^ q tron
fmallpox by inoculating it j that perhaps the difeafe ^
may never attack in the natural way •, that it requires
milch thought to know what we ftiould do wuth regard
to inoculation j that it endangers others, and that the
praftice of inoculation comes from the devil.
INORDINATE proportion. See Proportion,
Inordinate.
INOSCULATION, in Anatomy, the fame with
Anastomosis.
INPROMPTU, or Impromptu. See Impromptu.
INQUEST, in Scots Law, the fame with Jury.
INQUISITION, in the church of Rome, a tribunal
in feveral Roman Catholic countries, ereCted by the
popes for the examination and puniftnnent of heretics, j
This court was founded in the 1 2th century by Fa¬
ther Dominic and his followers, who were fent by Pope
Innocent III. with orders to excite the Catholic princes
and people to extirpate heretics, to fearch into their
number and quality, and to tranfmit a faithful account
thereof to Rome. Hence they were called inquijitors ;
and this gave birth to the formidable tribunal of the
inquifition, wdiich was received in all Italy and the
dominions of Spain, except the kingdom of Naples and
the Low Countries.
This diabolical tribunal takes cognizance of herefy,
Judaifm, Mahometanifm, fodomy, and polygamy ;
and the people ftand in fo much fear of it, that parents
deliver up their children, hufbands their waves, and
mafters their fervants, to its othcers, w'ithout daring
in the leaft to murmur. The prifoners are kept for a
long time, till they themfelves turn their owm accu-
fers, and declare the caufe of their imprifonment j for
they are neither told their crime nor confronted with
witneffes. As foon as they are imprifoned, their
friends go into mourning, and fpeak of them as dead,
not daring to folicit their pardon, left they fhould be
brought in as accomplices. When there is no fnadow
of proof againft the pretended criminal, he is dilchar-
ged, after fuffering the moft cruel tortures, a tedious
and dreadful imprifonment, and the lofs of the great-
eft part of his effetfts. The fentence againft the pri¬
foners is pronounced publicly, and with extraordinary
folemnity. In Portugal, they ereift a theatre capable of
holding 3000 perfons ; in which they place a rich al¬
tar, and raife feats on each fide in the form of an
amphitheatre. There the prifoners are placed ; and
over againft them is a high chair, whither they are
called, one by one, to hear their doom, from one of
the iriquifitors.
Thefe unhappy .people know what they are to fuf-
fer by the clothes they wTeat that day. Thofe who
appear in their owm clothes are difcharged upon pay¬
ment of a fine; thofe wTo have a fanto benito, or
ftrait yellow coat without lleeves, charged with St
Andrew’s crofs, have their lives, but forfeit all their
effefts: thofe who have the refemblance of flames
made of red ferge, fewed upon their fanto benito, with¬
out any crofs, are. pardoned, but threatened to be
burnt if ever they relapfe : but thofe who, befides
thefe flames, have on their fanto benito their owm pic¬
ture, furrounded with figures of devils, are condemned
to expire in the flames. The inquifitors, who are ec-
clefiaftics, do not pronounce the fentence of death j .
INS
t 27° 1
INS
Infedl*.
In fen bed but form and read an a£V, in which they fay, that
the criminal being convi£led of fuch a crime, by his
i own confeffion, is with much relu&ance delivered to the
fecular powder to be punilhed according to his demerits :
and this writing they give to the feven judges who at¬
tend at the right fide of the altar, who immediately
pafs fentence. For the conclufion of this horrid feene,
fee Act of Faith.
INSCRIBED, in Geometry. A figure is faid to
be inferibed in another, when all its angles touch the
fide or planes of the other figure.
INSCRIPTION, a title or writing affixed to any
thing, to give fome farther knowledge of it, or to tranf-
mit fome important truth to pofterity.
Antiquaries are very curious in examining ancient
inferiptions found on ftones and other monuments of
antiquity. Sanchoniathon, contemporary, as it is faid,
with Gideon, drew molt of the memoirs whereof his
hillory is compofed from inferiptions which he found
in temples and on columns, both among the Heathens
and the Hebrews.
It appears, indeed, that the ancients engraved upon
pillars the principles of fciences, as well as the hillory
of the world. Thofe mentioned by Herodotus ffiow,
that this was the firlt way of inftru61ing people, and of
tranfmitting hiltories and fciences to pofterity. This
is confirmed by Plato in his Hippias ; wherein he fays,
that Pififtratus engraved on ftone-pillars precepts ufe-
ful for hufbandmen. Pliny affures us, that the firft
public monuments were made of plates of lead;
and that the treaties of confederacy concluded be¬
tween the Romans and the Jews were written upon
plates of brafs j that (fays he) the Jews might have
fomething to put them in mind of the peace and con¬
federacy concluded with the Romans. The Greeks
and Romans were great dealers in inferiptions, and
were extremely fond of being mentioned in them : and
hence it is, that we find fo many in thofe countries of
ancient learning, that large volumes have been com¬
pofed, as the colledlion of Gruter, &c. Since Gruter’s
colleftion, Th. Reinefius has compiled another huge
volume of inferiptions. M. Fabretty publilhed ano¬
ther volume at Rome in 1669, wherein he has correct¬
ed abundance of errors which had efcaped Gruter, Rei¬
nefius, and other antiquaries, &c. and added a great
number of inferiptions omitted by them.—Since all
thefe, Graevius has publiffied a complete collection of
inferiptions, in three vols. folio.
INSCRUTABLE, Unsearchable, in Theology,
is ufually underftood of the fecrets of Providence, and
the judgments of God, which cannot be found out, or
into which human reafon cannot penetrate.
Academy of Inscriptions. See Academy.
INSECTS, insecta, in Natural Hiftory, a fmaller
fort of animals, commonly fuppofed to be exfanguious j
and diftinguiffied by certain incifures, cuttings, or in¬
dentings in their bodies. The word is originally La¬
tin, formed of in, and feco “ I cut the reafon of
wffiich is, that in fome of this tribe, as ants, the body
feems to be cut or divided into two j or becaufe the
bodies of many, as worms, caterpillars, &c. are com¬
pofed of different circles, or rings, which are a fort of
incifurm. See Entomology.
Noxious Insrcts ; Means of defraying them, or pre¬
venting their Increafe. The following remedies we
find colle&ed in the Gentleman’s Magazine for OCto- Infe&s.
ber 1790.—Of thofe fubftances which have been ge-^ v"’—
nerally obferved to be efficacious in driving away or in
deftroying infeCts, mercury, and its various preparations,
may be reckoned one of the moft generally ufeful.
Sulphur is alfo ufeful. Oils of all kinds have been of¬
ten and defervedly recommended. Tobacco is not lefs
remarkable for its utility. Of the application of thefe
in order.
1. Mercury is known to kill or drive away lice from
the human body \ and it may probably be of equal ef¬
ficacy in ridding other animals of their infeCts. For
inftance, ffieep having a fmall quantity of mercurial
ointment rubbed on their fldns, on the fides, between
the fore-legs and the body, it may kill or drive away
the infeCl peculiar to them. Sulphur is recommended to
be added to the mercurial ointment. Thus not only the
infeft peculiar to them, but alfo the fcab, may be cured:
See the TranfaCtions of the Society for the Encourage¬
ment of Arts, London, vol. vii. viii. p. 90. In the
TranfaClions of the fame fociety, vol. v. vi. p. 59. Mr
Ailway direfted that, in the winter, the walls, frames,
&c. of his green and hot-houfes ffiould be well waffied
with the following mixture : Take of corrofive fubli-
mate mercury four ounces, and diffolve it in two gal¬
lons of water. Thefe houfes had been greatly infelted
with red fpiders and ants. After having been waffied
with the above mixture, neither were to be feen next
fummer. This waffi may be ufed on old garden-walls,
and to the roots of fruit-trees infefted with infefts, if
made weaker. It may deftroy the tender leaves of
plants, though not the roots. This waffi will effectual¬
ly deftroy that difagreeable infeCt the bug, and all other
infeCts of a tender cuticle ; and it will not in the leaft
hurt the colour of bed-furniture or hangings. Care
muft be taken, that the waffi be applied into every cre¬
vice or folding of the furniture with a painter’s bruffi.
It will fometimes be neceffary to repeat the waffi, as
fome of the ova of bugs may remain concealed, not-
withftanding the utmoft care.
Some of the Weft India iflands were much infefted
with large ants, which greatly hurt the fugar-canes.
The remedy was, to diffolve corrofive fublimate mer¬
cury in rum, in the proportion of two drams to a pint
of fpirits. This folution was poured on dry powdered
fugar j and when the fugar was dried, it was laid in
the paths of the ants. They ate it, and were deftroy-
ed. Might not this praClice be imitated, .by laying
fugar thus prepared on paper or pieces of thin boards
near the roots of fruit-trees infefted by infeCls, efpe-
cially when the fruit is ripening ? The papers or boards
might be taken in during the night, or when it rained.
The fugar ffiould be coloured with indigo, or other
fubftance, thereby to mark it as a fubftance to be
avoided by curious idlers.
2. We are informed that a perfon in Philadelphia em¬
ployed brimftone in the following manner. Having
cleared all round the roots of trees infefted with cater¬
pillars or other infeCls, he ftrewed fome flour of brim¬
ftone round the roots, and covered it with a thin
fprinkling of fine mould, that it might not be blown
away by the wind, yet fo that the fun might operate
through, and caufe the brimftone to fumigate. Thus
he deftroyed the caterpillars. One pound he found
fufficient for 200 trees. In that hot climate the 'un
may
INS [2
InCecls. may perhaps have that effeft j bat it fearcely will in
—v—“—' this. He alfo employed fulphur in the following man¬
ner to drive infefts from tall trees. He fplit the end
of a pole, and put in the flit fome matches, fet them
on fire, and held them under the parts of the trees
chiefly affe&ed. A pole thus armed, he found, would
anfwer for three or four trees. Brimltone thus mixed
with damp ftraw, and fet on fire, for inftance, in hop-
ground infefted with the fly, might be of ufe to drive
away the fly.
The itch is fuppofed to proceed from a very fmall
infeft which nellies under the Ikin, and proceeds no
farther into the habit; and is therefore attended with
no dangerous confequences. Brimftone made into an
ointment with hogs-lard is a fure remedy.
Sheep are liable to an eruption on the fkin, known
by the name of the fcab. The brimftone, when added
to the mercurial ointment recommended for that difor-
der in the Tranfa&ions of the Society for the Encou¬
ragement of Arts, vol. vii. p. 90. might perhaps render
the application more efficacious and lefs dangerous.
3. The natives of hot countries are taught by expe¬
rience, that an unctuous covering on their bodies pre¬
vents the bites of mufquitoes and all gnats. The white
inhabitants in fuch countries are not fufficiently care¬
ful in preventing the leaft ftagnant water near their
dwellings, in which the mufquitoes are fired 5 even in
the wafte w^ater thrown out they are produced. Dr
Franklin, by a careful attention to this circumftance,
guarded his family in Philadelphia from fuch infefts :
one day feeing a number of mufquitoes in his li¬
brary, he found on inquiry, that one of his fervants
had taken the cover off a tub placed near his window
for receiving rain-water. On fuch an occafion the re¬
medy is eafy, viz. Ihutting the room up for the day,
fo that the mufquitoes cannot come at any water, in
which time they die. Though this caution may feem
trifling to us who live in a mild climate, it is far other-
wife in hot countries.
Oil being known to be moft efficacious in deftroy-
ing infefls, may not the ufe of it be extended to the
deftruflion of worms in the bowels of horfes, where
they may occafion the violent pain they feem fome-
times to fuffer ? If the horfe was for fome time kept
falling, and a large quantity of oil, fuppofe a pint,
was given, if worms are the caufe, the oil may in that
cafe kill them.
Flowers, leaves, and fruit, on plants, are known to
be devoured by caterpillars. Thefe are deftroyed by
oils, which clofe the lateral pores by which they
breathe. For this purpofe it is advifed, that, on the
approach of fpring, a cloth dipped in train oil be laid
on fuch parts of the tree in which there is the leaft
appearance of them.
We are informed in the Memoirs of the Society
of Agriculture at Paris, that oil of turpentine, when
applied to animals which were covered with infe£ls,
deftroyed the infefts without hurting the animal. The
author tried it on feveral trees, mixed with fine earth
fo as to incorporate them well, then adding wTater,
ftill ftirring them carefully till the whole was brought
to fome degree of fluidity. In this mixture he dipped
branches of fruit-trees on which there were infe61s, and
hereby deftroyed not only the eggs but alfo the infers,
without hurting the leaves. This compofition may be
i ] INS
got off by waffling, or the firft heavy {bower. Fiom IrifeielS*
thefe experiments the author thinks, that oil of turpen- ' v"""'
tine may with equal efficacy be employed for killing va¬
rious kinds of lice on domeftic animals.
We are informed, in the Tranfaftions of the Society
for the Encouragement of Arts, vol. v. p. 4 9, that
Mr Winter, among other experiments on turnip-feed,
fteeped the feed 24 hours in a fufficient quantity of
train oil. He then drained the oil from the feed,
wffiich he mixed with a quantity of fine fifted earth,
and immediately fowed it in drills. When the plants
began to appear on the furface, the ground was fown
with foot. He found that feed fteeped in lintfeed oil
anfwered equally well. The turnips the leaft injured
by the fly were thofe that grew from feed fteeped as
above, which grew fo luxuriantly as to produce rough
leaves feveral days prior to the moft flourifhing of any
of his other experiments, and were the better enabled
to withftand the fly’s attack. The leaves of thefe tur¬
nips were of a darker green, and appeared twice as
thick in bulk and luxuriancy than the other turnips,
and were a confiderable deal larger. The feed was drill¬
ed an inch and a half deep, and at a foot diftance in the
rows. Train oil is apt to kill the leaves of plants w’hich
have been injured by infedls, but lintfeed oil has not
that effeift, though equally deftruftive to the infefts.
The train oil feems to aft both as an oil, and by its
difagreeable fmell it prevents infefts approaching it..
In this refpeft it may be fuccefsfully ufed to pre¬
vent field mice or other vermin preying on acorns,
chefnuts, or other feeds fteeped in it before they are
fown.
When thus giving direftions for preventing the fly
on turnips, a late experiment ffiould be mentioned, by
the difclofing of which a perfon gained a confiderable
reward. His fecret was, running a roller over the
ground early in the morning, while the dew remained
on the ground, on the firft appearance of the fly. The
dew entangled the flies fo much, that they could not
make their efcape, and wrere therefore cruihed to death.
As the roller may leave the furface of the earth too
hard, fome very properly advife to fix fome boughs of
elder in a gate or hurdle, to be drawn over the field j
and if the boughs had been before fumigated with the
fmoke of tobacco, or tinfture of afafcetida, the fuc-
cefs w’ould be the furer. The moft certain method
of preventing the hurt done by the fly is to raife the
plants in a nurfery, and at a proper age to tranfplant
them, being carried to the ground in a wheel-barrow
filled with manure foftened wflth water fo as to admit
the plants. This method wall fecure their more fpeedy
growth. In the nurfery the attack of the fly may be
prevented by fprinkling foot or quicklime on the ground.
The utility of tranfplanting turnips is evident by the
praftice of tranfplanting the turnip-rooted cabbage.
They who are difcouraged from this praftice by the ex¬
pence attending it, do not refleft that the hoeing is pre¬
vented, and the plants grow the better, being fet in frelh
earth.
3. Before proceeding to direct the ufe of the laft
means mentioned, viz. tobacco, for deftroying infefts-
in turnips, it may be proper to mention an experiment
made by Mr Green, of her majefty’s flowTer-garden at
Kew. He contrived a pair of bellowrs, fimilar to that
employed in recovering people feemingly drowned. It;
I N S
[ 2
Infers, has a cavity in the nozzle, in which fome tobacco is
pUt, with a live coal over it. 1 he bellows being then
worked, the tobacco is fet on fire, and the fmoke ;s^
directed to any particular fpot. A lady was fond of
having the mofkrofe in her dreffing-room, but was
prevented having it on account of the green infedls
which conftantly adhere to that plant, lo remedy
this inconvenience, Mr Green had a box made large
enough to contain a pot in which a plant of the mofk¬
rofe grew. In one end of the box was a hole, to ad¬
mit the nozzle of the bellows $ the bellows was work¬
ed, and the fmoke was received into the box. When
the tobacco wras confumed, the nozzle was withdrawn,
and a cork being put into the hole, the box thus re¬
mained till morning, wdren the infers were all laid
dead on the earth. Being fwept off, the plant was rn
a flate fit for a drefTmg-room. Many plants thus in-
felled with infers may be too large, or otbenviie fo
placed as not to be put into a box. In this cafe it
occurred to the writer of thefe obfervations, that be¬
ing fprinkled with an infufron of tobacco in water
might in fome degree anfwer the fame purpofe. On
trial he found it anfwer, and he thus freed other plants
of their infedls. He alfo ufed it on trees of eafy ac-
cefs with advantage. Train oil is fo inimical to tender
plants or leaves, that it deftroys them if infers have
in the leaf! hurt them \ whereas the mfufion, inftead
of killing the leaves, promoted a frefh vegetation,
Bruit trees often become the prey of infers, Thofe
again!! a wall, or in efpaliers, being eafily come at,
much of the mifehief may be prevented by cutting off
the leaves fo foon as they are obferved to be curled 5
for then, frefh eggs are laid on them, probably by but¬
terflies, If fprinkled with the infuflon of tobacco, it
will prevent their coming to life. After the fruit is
formed, the infufion muff not be ufed, left the tafte
and fmeli may remain, ’Ihe feiflars are then the pro¬
per remedies, which ladies may employ as amufement,
and may thereby prefent fruit to their friends of their
own preferving. A lye of the afh of plants ipnnkled
on the leaves may have a good effeeft, as alfo on other
pot-herbs, which are often the prey of caterpillars.
As many infefts, befides thofe bred on the leaves or
in the walls, may deftroy the fruit, the iugar with
the ccrrofive fublimate, as already deferibed, may be¬
laid in the way of other infeas, to all which it will prove
8 fpcedy death. Diligent infpeftion into their retreats
is the moft certain means of preventing the lofs fuf-
tained by fnails. Ants are prevented rifing up the trees,
by laying round the roots powdered chalk, or any other
fubftance which by entangling their feet prevents their
crofting it, Care fhould be taken to deftroy their nefts
everywhere near the garden,
Hops are now become an article of fo great come-
quence, that it deferves our particular attention, Early
in its growth, when the vines begin to afeend the poles,
a black fly preys on its leaves, frequently in fuch num¬
bers as, by deftroying the leaves, to interrupt the
vegetation, much of the food of plants being abforbed
by the leaves. The infufion of tobacco deftroys them,
or at kail drives them away fo effectually, that a plant
almott totally (tripped of its leaves has put out frefh
leaves after the ufe of it. If care be not taken, they
will again tall on the frefh leaves. As the flies lodge
on the lower fide of the leaves, they are protected from
72 ] INS
ftorms of rain, and therefore the infufion muff be
driven upwards by a forcing pump. As it is find that
the expence of tobacco is too great, perhaps lime-wn-
ter, or even water by xtfelf, driven ftrongly againft
the leaves, might drive them away. The labour at¬
tending fuch experiments in a large plantation di(cou¬
rages others, without reflecting, that, if fuch means
are ufed early, the flies may more eafily be got rid pf.
Tree ventilation is undoubtedly beneficial to all plants;
and hence perhaps the particular advantages of drilling
corn in rows a little diftant. If alleys fomewhat larger
than common were made in the plantations of nops,
there might be fuftkient fpaces left where the alleys
profs one another to admit of fetting damp ftraw, or
other materials mixed with brimftone, foot, &c» on
fire. Smoke itfeif is faid to prevent the fly s and if fi>,
it will ftilJ acl more powerfully when mixed with fuch
materials. It has been obferved in Sweden, that the
hops grow naturally among heaps of Hones or frag-
.ments of rocks. They therefore advife to coyer the
ground round their roots with ftones, winch will pre¬
vent the infers laying their eggs near the roots in the
ground, where they lay them to be protected during
the winter. The ftones will alfo preferve moifture at
the roots during the fummer, A rope cannot be
drawn acrofs a plantation of hops, as it can acrofs a
field of corn, in cafe of mildew. Here water to wafh
off the clammy juice that entices and feeds miefls
feems to be tbe only remedy, The plantation being
well ventilated, may at leaf! prevent the frequency of
it. The forcing pump will moft effectually wafh oft
this exudation.
Crue/tj/ to Insect*. It does not appear upon what
principle of reafon and juftice it is, that mankind have
founded their right over the lives of every creature that
is placed in a fubordinate rank of being to tbemklves.
Whatever claim they may have in right of food and
felf-defence (to which ought we to add the purpofes
of the naturalift, explained above ?) did they extend
their privilege no farther than thofe articles would rea-
fonably carry them, numberlefs beings might enjoy
their lives in peace, who arc now hurried out of them
by the moft wanton and unneceftary cruelties. It is
furejy difficuit to difeover why it fhould^ be thought
lefs inhuman to crufh to death a harmlefs uftect, whem
Angle offence is that he eats that food which nature has
prepared for his fuftcnance, than it would be were we
to kill any bulky creature for the fame reafon. There
are few tempers fb hardened to the impreflions of hu¬
manity, as not to fluidder at the thought of the latter 5
and yet the former is umverfally pra£li(ed without the
leaft check of compaftion. I his feems to arile from
the grofs error of fuppofing, that every creature is
really in itfeif contemptible, which happens to be
clothed with a body infinitely difproportionate to our
own, not eonfidering that 'great and htt/e are merely
relative tenths* But the inurutablc Shakelpearc would
teach us, that
 —the poor beetle that we tread upon,
In corp’ral M’ranee, feels a pang as great
As when a giant dies-**———
And indeed there is every reafon to believe that the
fenfations of many infers are as exquifite as thole of
creatures of far more enlarged dimenfions, perhaps even
more
In feci*
INS C 273 ] INS
iRfedt more fo. The millepede, for inftance, rolls itfelf
ll round upon the flighted touch, and the fnail draws
Enfolvent. jn jts horns Upon the lead approach of our hand. Are
m>t thefe the dronged indications of their fenfibility ?
and is it any evidence of oursy that rve are not there¬
fore induced to treat them with a more fympathifing
tendernefs ?
Montaigne remarks, that there is a certain claim of
kindnefs and benevolence which every fpecies of crea¬
tures has a right to from us. It is to be regretted that
this general maxim is not more attended to in the affair
of education, and preffed home upon tender minds in
its full extent and latitude. We are far, indeed, from
thinking, that the early delight which children difcover
in tormenting flies, &c. is a mark of any innate cruel¬
ty of temper, becaufe this turn may be accounted for
on other principles ; apd it is entertaining unworthy
notions of the Deity, to fuppofe he forms mankind
with a propenfity to the mod detedable of all difpofi-
tions : but mod certainly, by being unredrained in fports
of this kind, they may acquire by habit what they
never would have learned from nature, and grow up in¬
to a confirmed inattention to every kind ©f fuffering
but their own. Accordingly the fupreme court of ju¬
dicature at Athens thought an indance of this fort not
below its cognizance, and puniflied a boy for putting
out the eyes of a poor bird that had unhappily fallen
into his hands.
It might be of fervice, therefore, it fliould feem, in
order to awaken as early as podible in children an ex-
tenfive fenfe of humanity, to give them a view of fe-
veral forts of infe61s as they'may be magnified by the
aflidance of glaffes, and to ffiow them that the fame
evident marks of wifdom and goodnefs prevail in the
formation of the minuted^infedi, as in that of the mod
enormous leviathan : that they are equally furniflied
with whatever is neceflary, not only to the preferva-
tion, but the happinefs of their beings in that clafs of
exidence which Providence has affigned them : in a
word, that the whole condrudtion of their refpedtive
organs diflindlly proclaims them the objedts of the di¬
vine benevolence, and therefore that they juflly ought
to be fo of ours.
INSERTION, in Anatomy, the clofe conjunction
of the veffels, tendons, fibres, and membranes of the
body with fome other parts.
INSINUATION denotes a cunning and covert
way of creeping into any perfon’s favour.
Insinuation of a Will, among civilians, is the fird
produdtion of it, or the leaving it with the regifler, in
order to its probate. See Will.
INSIPID, TASTELESS, that which has nothing in
it pungent enough to affedl the palate, tongue, &c.
and to occafion that fenfation we call tajling.
INSITION, Insitio, in Botany, denotes the fame
with engrafting •, viz. the adt of inlerting and uniting
a cyon, bud, or the like, in the fubdance of the dock.
INSOLATION, fci Pharmacy, a method of pre-
patlng certain fruits, drugs, &c. by expofing them
to the heat of the fun’s rays •, either to dry, to matu¬
rate, or to ftiarpen them j as is done in vinegar, figs,
&c.—The word comes from the Latin verb info/are,
which i$S ufed by Pliny and Columella, and fignifies to
expofe to the fun.
INSOLVENT, a term applied to fuch perfons as
VpL. XL Part I.
have not wherewithal to pay their jud debts. A per- I'-^peAIoa
fon dying, and not leaving eflate fufficient to difcharge . |l .
thefe, is faid to die infolvent. n ‘ ’•'j11' >
Trial by INSPECTION, or Examination, is
when, for the greater expedition of a caufe, in fome
point or iffue, being either the principal quedion, or
arifing collaterally out of it, but being evidently the
objedt of fenfe, the judges of the court, upon the tef-
timony of their own fenfes, ftiall decide the point in
dilpute. For, where the affirmative or negative of a
quedion is matter of fuch obvious determination, it is
not thought neceflary to fummon a jury to decide it ;
who are properly called in to inform the confidence of
the court of dubious facts j and therefore, when the
fadt, from its nature, mud be evident to the court ei¬
ther from ocular demondration or other irrefragable
proof, there the law departs from its ufual refort, the
verdidt of 12 men, and relies on the judgment of the
court alone. As in cafe of a fuit to reverfe a fine for
non-age of the cognizor, or to fet afidc a datute or re¬
cognizance entered into by an infant ; here, and in
other cafes of the like fort, a writ {hall iffue to the
fheriff, commanding him that he condrain the faid par¬
ty to appear, that it may be afcertained by the view
of his body by the king’s judices, whether he be of
full age or not : Ut per afpeflum corporis fui conjlare po-
terit juficiarus nofris, Ji prcediBus an ft plence cetatis
necne. If, however, the court has, upon infpedlion, any
doubt of the age of the party (as may frequently be the
cafe), it may proceed to take proofs of the part 5 and,
particularly may examine the infant himfelf upon an
oath of voir dire, veritatem dicere'; that is, to make
true anfwers to fuch quedions as the court ffiall de¬
mand of him ; or the court may examine his mother,
his godfather, or the like.
INSPECTOR, a perfon to whom the care and cdn-
dudt of any work is committed.
Inspectors, in the Roman law, were fuch perfons
as examined the quality and value of lands and effedls,
in order to the adjufling or proportioning taxes and
impofitions to every man’s edate.
The Jews alfo have an officer, in their fynagogue,
whom they call infpeBor, pn hha%en. His bufinefs con-
lids principally in infpedting or overlooking the pray¬
ers and leffons, in preparing and {flowing them to the
reader, and in danding by him to fee he reads right :
and, if he makes midakes, he is to corredl him.
INSPIRATION, among divines, &c. implies the
conveying of certain extraordinary and fupernatural
notices or motions into the foul j or it denotes any fu¬
pernatural influence of God upon the mind of a ratio¬
nal creature, whereby he is formed to any degree of
intelleftual improvements, to which he could not, or
would not, in fad have attained in his prefent circum-
dances, in a natural way. Thus the prophets are faid
to have fpoken by divine infpiration.
Some authors reduce the infpiration of the facred
writers to a particular care of Providence, which pre¬
vented any thing they had faid from failing or coming
to nought •, maintaining, that they never were really
infpired either with knowledge or expieffion.
According to M. Simon, infpiration is no more than
a diredion of the Holy Spirit, which never permitted
the facred writers to be miflaken.
It is a common opinion, that the infpiration of the
M m Holy
INS
[ 274 ]
I N S
Infpiration. Holy Spirit regards only the matter, not the ftyle or
Words 5 and this feems to fall in with M. Simon’s doc¬
trine of direction.
Theological writers have enumerated feveral kinds
of infpiration ; fuch as an infpiration of fuperinten-
dency, in which God does fo influence and diredt the
mind of any perfon, as to keep him more fecure from
error in fome various and complex difcourfe, than he
would have been merely by the ufe of his natural fa¬
culties } plenary fuperintendent infpiration, which ex¬
cludes any mixture of error at all from the performance
fo fuperintended $ infpiration of elevation, where the
faculties adt in a regular, and, as it feems, in a com¬
mon manner, yet are railed to an extraordinary degree,
fo that the compofure (hall, upon the whole, have more
of the true fublime or pathetic, than natural genius
could have given 5 and infpiration of fuggeftion, when
the ufe of the faculties is fuperfeded, and God does,
as it were, fpeak diredtly to the mind, making fuch
difcoveries to it as it could not othervvife have obtain¬
ed, and didtating the very words in which iuch difco¬
veries are to be communicated, if they are defigned as
a meflage to others. It is generally allowed that the
New Teftament was written by a fuperintendent infpi •
ration •, for without this the difeourfes and dodlrines
of Chrift could not have been faithfully recorded by
the evangelifts and apoftles ; nor could they have af-
fumed the authority of fpeaking the words of Chrift,
and evinced this authority by the adtual exercife of
miraculous powers: and befides, the facred writings
bear many obvious internal marks of their divine ori¬
ginal, in the excellence of their dodlrines, the fpiritu-
ality and elevation of their defign, the majefty and lim-
plicity of thfcir ftyle, the agreement of their various
parts, and their efficacy on mankind; to which may
be added, that there has been in the Chriftian church,
from its earlieft ages, a conftant tradition, that the fa¬
cred books were written by the extraordinary affift-
ance of the Spirit, which muft at lead amount to fu-
-^erintendent infpiration. But it has been controvert-
.ed whether this infpiration extended to every minute
. eircumftance in their writings, fo as to be in the moft
abfolute fenfe plenary. Jerome, Grotius, Erafmus,
Epifcopius, and many others, maintain that it was
not j whilft others contend, that the emphatical man¬
ner in which our Lord fpeaks of the agency of the
Spirit upon them, and in which they themfelves fpeak
of their own writings, wdll juftify our believing that
their infpiration was plenary, unlefs there be very con¬
vincing evidence brought on the other fide to prove
-that it was not: and if we allow, it is faid, that there
were fome errors in the New Teftament, as it came
from the hands of the apoftles, there may be great
danger of fubverting the main purpofe and defign of
it; fince there will be endlefs room to debate the im¬
portance both of fa6ls and dodlrines.
Among the Heathens, the priefts and priefteffes
were faid to be divinely infpired, when they gave
oracles.—The poets alfo laid claim to it *, and to this
end they always invoked Apollo and the Mufes at the
beginning of any great work.
Inspiration, in Physic, is underftood of that ac¬
tion of the bread, by which the air is admitted
within the lungs j in which fenfe, irvfpiration is-a
branch of refpiration, and (lands oppofed to Exspi-Tnfpiffatinj
ration. !!
This admxffion of the air depends immediately on 1 ^i^ra"
its fpring or elafticity, at the time when the cavity of j
the bread is enlarged by the elevation of the tho¬
rax and abdomen, and particularly by the motion of
the diaphragm downwards : fo that the air does not
enter the lungs, becaufe they are dilated •, but thofe
dilate, becaufe the air enters within them. Nor is
it the dilatation of the bread which draws in the
air, as is commonly thought, though this is a con¬
dition abfolutely neceffary to infpiration ; but an ac¬
tual intrufion of the air into the lungs, bee Respi¬
ration.
INSPISSATING, in Pharmacy, an operation
whereby a liquor is brought to a thicker confidence*
by evaporating the thinner parts.
INSPRUCK, a city of Germany, in the circle of
Auftria, and capital of the county of Tyrol, received
its name from the river Inn, which runs by it. It has
a noble caftle or palace, formerly the refidence of the
archdukes of the houfe of Auftria, with a cathedral
where they are buried. The houfes, though built in
the German talle, are rather handlbmer 5 and the
ftreets, though narrow, are remarkably well paved.
For the defence of this city the inhabitants can place
but little confidence in their fortifications, which are
very trilling. They feem rather to depend on the na¬
tural faftneffes of their country •, which appear indeed
to form a barrier, fo perfeftly inacceffible to any ene¬
my, that even the great Guftavus Adolphus, after hav¬
ing overrun with his vidlorious arms the other parts
of Germany, could never make any impreffion upon
this. It is feated in a pleafant valley, in E. Long,
II. 27. N. Lat. 47. 10.
INSTALLATION, the a£l of giving vifible pof-
feffion of an order, rank, or office, by placing in the
proper feat. See Instalment.
INSTALMENT, a fettling or inflating any per¬
fon in a dignity. The word is derived from the La¬
tin in, and Jiallum, a term ufed for a feat in church, in
the choir, or a feat or bench in a court of juftice, &c.
Though Voffius is of opinion the word is of German
origin.
Instalment is chiefly ufed for the indudlion of a
dean, prebendary, or other ecclefiaftical dignitary, in¬
to the poffeffion of his flail, or proper feat, in the ca¬
thedral church to which he belongs. This is fome-
times alfo called injlallation.
Instalment is likewife ufed for the ceremony,
W’hereby the knights of the garter are placed in their
rank, in the chapel of St George at Windfor.
INSTANT, a part of duration in which we per¬
ceive no fucceffion •, or it is that wrhich takes up the
time only of one idea in our minds.
INSTAURATION, the re-eftabli(hment, or re-
ftauration of a religion, a church, or the like, to its
former ftate. The word is by fome derived from the
old Latin injiaurum, which fignified the “ dock” of
things neceffary for the tilling and managing of
grounds $ as cattle, tools, harnefs, &c. But the
word injiaurum is only of the middle age: injlauratio is
of much greater antiquity, and by fome derived from
injlar, “ like,” 5)5 imnnrtinor a tbina’s heinp broupht
as importing a thing’s being brought
to
fJiftep,
Inftinci.
Definition.
4
Different
opinions re-
fpe<fting
human in-
itindls.
TThe caufe
of that
dUTerence.
INS [275
to its former likenefs or appearance. See Restaura-
TI ON.
INSTEP, in the manege, is that part of a horfe’s
hind leg, which reaches from the ham to the paftern-
j°Int,T
INSTINCT, a certain power or difpofition of mind,
by which, independent of all inftrudlion or experience,
without deliberation, and without having any end in
view, animals are unerringly direfled to do fpontane-
oufly (a) whatever is neceflary for the prefervation of
the individual or the continuation of the kind. Such
in the human fpecies is the inftinft of fucking exerted
immediately after birth •, and fuch in the inferior crea¬
tion is the inftindf by which infefts invai'iably depofit
their eggs in fituations molt favourable for hatching
and affording nourifhment to their future progeny.
Thefe operations are neceffary for the prefervation of
the individual and the continuation of the kind but
neither the infant nor the infeft knows that they are
neceffary : they both aft without having any end in
view, and aft uniformly without inffruftion and with¬
out experience.
The aftions of the inferior animals are generally
direfted by inflinft ; thofe of man by r6afon. This at
lead: is the cafe with refpeft to men in a Hate of civi¬
lization : in the favage date they are probably little
lefs the flaves of indinft than the brutes themfelves.
Concerning human indinfts, indeed, philofophers differ
widely in opinion j fome maintaining that man is en¬
dowed with a greater number of indinfts than any fpe¬
cies of brutes j vvhild others deny that in human na¬
ture there is any power or propenfity at all which can
properly be called indinftive.
This diverfity of opinion may eafily be traced to its
fource. There are not many original thinkers in the
world. The greater part even of thofe who are call¬
ed philofophers, implicitly adopt the opinions of certain
maders whofe authority they deem fuflicient to fupply
the place of argument; and having chofen their re-
fpeftive guides, each maintains with zeal what his
mader taught, or is fuppofed to have taught. When
Locke fo fuccefsfully attacked the doftrine of innate
ideas and innate principles of fpeculative truth, he was
thought by many to have overturned at the fame time
all innate principles whatever j to have diveded the
human mind of every paffion, affeftion, and indinft j
and to have left in it nothing but the powers of fenfa-
tion, memory, and intelleft. Such, we are perfuaded,
was not his intention j nor is there any thing in his
immortal work which, when interpreted w-ith candour,
appears to have fuch a tendency.
] INS
In our opinion, great part of the EJJay on Human Inffmft.
Vnderjlanding has been very generally mifunderdood. y
Much of its merit, however, was foon difeoveredj and
mankind, finding philofophy difenctimbered of the bar¬
barous jargon of the fchools, and built upon a few felf-
evident principles, implicitly embraced every opinion
advanced, or which they fuppofed to be advanced, by
the illudrious author ; efpecially if that opinion was
contrary to any part of the fcholadic fydem ■which
had fo long been employed to perplex the underftand-
ing and to veil abfurdity. Hence arofe many philo¬
fophers of eminence both at home and abroad; who
maintained, as they imagined, upon the principles of
Locke, that in the human mind there are no indinfts,
but that every thing which had been ufually called by
that name is refolvable into affociation and habit. This
doftrine was attacked by Lord Shaftelhury, who in¬
troduced into the theory of mind, as faculties derived
from nature, a fenfe of beauty, a fenfe of honour, and
a fenfe of ridicule ; and thefe he confidered as the
teds of fpeculative truth and moral reftitude. His
lordfhip’s principles were in part adopted by Mr Hut-
chifon of Glafgow, who publidied a fydem of moral
philofophy, founded upon a fenfe or indinft, to which
he gave the name of the moral fenfe ; and the undoubt¬
ed merit of his work procured him many followers.
Men generally run from one extreme to another.
It being now difeovered, or at lead fuppofed, that the
human mind is endowed with indinftive principles of
aftion, a feft of philofophers foon afterwards arofe,
who maintained with much vehemence that it is like-
wife endowed with indinftive principles of belief j and
who built a fydem of metaphyfics, if fuch it may be
called, upon a number of innate, didinft, and inde¬
pendent fenfes. The rife of this feft is wrell known.
Berkeley and Hume had adopted Locke’s doftrine
refpefting the origin of our ideas $ and had thence de¬
duced confequences fuppofed to be dangerous in them¬
felves, but which, it was thought, could not be denied
without refufing the principles from vrhich they rvere
inferred. The foundation of the indinftive fydem be¬
ing thus laid, the fydem itfelf was rapidly carried to a
height far beyond what feems to have been the inten¬
tion of its excellent author; and reafon was well nigh
banifhed from the regions of philofophy. For fuch a
proceeding it is not difficult to adign the caufe. The
indinftive fcheme requires much lefs labour of invedi-
gation than the fydems of Locke and the ancients j
for upon the principles of it, when carried to its ut-
mod extent, every phenomenon in human nature is
thought to be fufficiently accounted for, by fuppofing
Mm2 it
(a) As nothing is of greater importance in the philofophy of mind than accurate'definitions, it may not be
improper to obferve, that through the whole of this article the word fpontaneous is to be taken in the fenfe in
which it is ufed in the following extrafts from Hales's Origin of Mankind: “ Many analogical motions in ani¬
mals, though 1 cannot call them voluntary, yet I fee them fpontaneous: I have reafon to conclude, that thefe
are not limply mechanical." “ The fagacities and indinfts of brutes, the fpontaneoufnefs of many of their motions,
are not explicable, without fuppofing fome aftive determinate power connefted to and inherent in their fpirits,
°f ^ higher extraftion than the bare natural modification of matter.” If this be attended to, our definition
of indinft \vill be found perfeftly confonant to that which has been given by the author of Ancient Metaphy-
jics. “ Indinft (he fays) is a determination given by Almighty Wifdom to the mind of the brute, to aft in
fuch or fuch a way, upon fuch or fuch an occafion,^ without intelligence, without knowledge of good or ill,
,*nd without knowing for what end or purpofe he afts,”
INS [ 276 ] INS
Itiftintf. it the- effeft of a particular inflinft implanted in the
mind for that very purpofe. Hence in fome popular
works of philofophy we have a detail of fo many di-
flinft internal fenfes, that it requires no imall ilrength
of memory to retain their very names : befides the t7io-
ral fcnfe, we have the fenfe of beauty, the fenfe of de¬
formity, the fenfe of honour, the hoarding fenfe, and a
thoufand others which it is needlefs here to mention.
This new fyftem, which converts the philofophy of
mind into mere hittory, or rather into a colle&ion of
la£ls and anecdotes, though it has made a rapid pro-
grefs, is not yet univerfally received. It has been op-
pofed by many fpeculative men, and by none with
greater Ikiil than Dr Prieftley ; who maintains, with
the earliell admirers of Locke, that we have from na¬
ture no innate fenfe of truth, nor any inftin£Hve prin¬
ciple of aft ion ; that even the aftion of fucking in
new-born infants is to be accounted for upon principles
of mechanifm j and that the deiire of the fexes is mere-
4 ly affociation.
Inftmft Whilft men, eminent for candour as well as for
confounded fcience, have thus been difputing the limits between
W*t/1 rf j*°ninftinft and reafon in the human mind, and endeavour-
mechanifm to afcerta”1 aftions which refult from each,
twro waiters of name, treating of that fubjeft, have late¬
ly advanced opinions, which, if admitted as juft, muft
render the difpute henceforth ridiculous, and put an
end for ever to all moral inquiries. Mr Smellie, in a
work which he calls The Philofophy of Natural Hi/lory,
affirms, that between inf initive and rational motives no
diflinftion exifts, but that the reafoning faculty itfelf
is the neceflary refult of inftinft ; and Dr Reid, in his
Ejfays on the ABivc Powers of Alan, by attributing to
infinil the aftion of breathing, feems to confound that
principle with mere mechanifm.
Thefe three That reafon, inftinft, and mechanifm, are all effen-
principles tially different from one another, has hitherto been
univerfally allowed j and it appears not to be a talk of
much difficulty to point out in what refpeft: each of
them differs from the other two. Aftions performed
with a view to accomplilh a certain end are called ra¬
tional aftions, and the end in view is the motive to their
performance. Infinitive aftions have a caufe, viz. the
internal impulfe by which they are fpontaneoufly per¬
formed 5 but they cannot be faid to have a motive, be-
accurately
diftinguifli-
ed from
each other.
caufe they are not done with any view to confequenccs. Inft
Aftions automatic have likewife a caufe; but that caufe
is not internal impulfe, but mere mechanifm, by which
they are performed without any fpontaneity of the
agent. Thus, a man gives charity in order to relieve
a perfon from want 5 he performs a grateful aftion as
a duty incumbent on him •, and he fights for his coun¬
try in order to repel its enemies. Each of thefe ac¬
tions is performed from a motive, and therefore they
are all rational aftions. An infant is impelled to fuck
the breaft, but he knows not that it is neceffary for
his prefervation ; a couple of young favages go toge¬
ther, for the firft time, without any vierv to offspring
or any determinate idea of enjoyment. Thefe aftions
have no motive, and therefore are not rational : but as
they are performed by a fpontaneous exertion of the
agents, they are not to be attributed to mere mecha¬
nifm ; they are therefore infinitive aftions. A man
breathes without any motive, without any fpontane¬
ous exertion of his own, and that as well when he is
afteep as when he is awake. The aftion of breathing
therefore is neither rational nor inftinftive, but merely
automatic or mechanical. All this feems to be very plain.
To talk of the motives of aftions performed by inftinft,
in an argument intended to prove that between reafon
and inftinft there is no difference, is either to beg the
queftion or to pervert language. If th» author of the
Philofophy of Natural Hiftory choofcs to call the im¬
pulfe which prompts the infant to fuck by the name of
motive, he only ufes an Engliftr word improperly ; if
it be his intention to affirm that fuch a motive is not
totally and effentially different from that which prompts
a man to give charity or to fight for his country, he
affirms what all mankind know to be falfe (b).
Having thus afeertained what we mean by inftinft,
we (hall now proceed to inquire, Whether or not there
be any inftinftive principles in man ? But in order to
proceed upon fure grounds, it will be proper to con-
fider, in the firft place, fuch aftions of the inferior
animals as are generally allowed to be inftinftive : for
an attempt has lately been made to prove, that even
thefe aftions are the offspring of reafon influenced by
motives; and that infinit, as w’e have defined it, is a
mere imaginary principle, which has no exiftence either
in man or brute.
It
(b) The author of Ancient Aletaphydcs, whofe learned work contains more good fenfe on this fubjeft than
any other book w'hich we have feen, thus diftinguiftres between reafon and inftinft : “ With refpeft; to the
mere animal, it is evident, that he purfues nothing but what is conducive either to the prefervation of the
animal life or to the continuation of the kind. On the other hand, the objeft wdrich the intelleftual mind
purfues, is the fair and the handfome ; and its happinefs confifts in the contemplation of thefe. And though
it purfue alfo what is ufeful and profitable for the being and well-being of the animal life, yet it is for the fake,
not of the animal life itfelf, but of the r« jcce/ev or beautiful; which therefore is the ultimate objeft; of its purluit
in all things.
“ Another material difference in praftice betwixt the animal and intelleftual mind is, that every aftion of
intelleft proceeds from an opinion formed concerning what is good or ill,, beautiful or the contrary, in the
aftion. When we do fo, we are faid to aft from will, which is always determined by fome opinion formed
of the kind I have mentioned : whereas, when we aft from mere appetite or inclination, without deliberation
or opinion formed, we aft as the brute does always} for he has no will, but is prompted to aftion by natural
impulfe, or ogyv, as the Greeks call it.
“ A third very material difference is, that intelleft, in all its operations, propofes ends, and devifes means
to accomplifti thefe ends j whereas the inftinft of the brute proceeds without confideration either of ends
er means.”-'"
6
Inftances
of indiinH:
in animals.
INS [2
fnftinct. It has been faid that caterpillars, when (liaken off a
tree in every direction, inftantly turn round towards
the trunk and climb up, though they had never for¬
merly been on the furface of the ground. This is a
linking inftance of inltinfl. On the tree, and not
upon the ground, the caterpillar finds its food. If
therefore it did not turn and climb up the trunk it
would inevitably perith; but furely the caterpillar
knows not that fuch an exertion is neceffary to its
prefervation ; and therefore it a£ts not from motives,
but from blind impulfe. The bee and the beaver are
endowed with an inilimff which has the appearance of
forefight. They build magazines, and fill them with
provifions *, but the forefight is not theirs. Neither
bees nor beavers know any thing of futurity. The
folitary wafp digs holes in the fand, in each of which
Ihe depofits an egg. Though Ihe certainly knows not
that an animal is to proceed from that egg, and Hill
lefs, if poflible, that this animal mull be nourilhed with
other animals, fire colledls a few fmall green worms,
which fire rolls up in a circular form, and fixes in the
hole in fuch a manner that they cannot move. When
the wafp-worm is hatched, it is amply llored with the
food which nature has dcflined for its fupport. The
green worms are devoured in fucceffion; and the num¬
ber depofited is exaftly proportioned to the time ne¬
ceffary for the growth and transformation of the w^afp-
worm into a fly ; when it iffues from the hele, and is
capable of procuring its owm nourilhment. This in-
llinfl of the parenMvafp is the more remarkable, that
file feeds not upon flefli herfelf. Birds of the fame
fpecies, unlefs when reltrained by peculiar circumftan-
ces, uniformly build their nefts of the fame materials,
and in the fame form and fituation, though they in¬
habit very different climates *, and the form and fitua¬
tion are alw'ays exa£lly fuited to their nature, and cal¬
culated to aft'ord them Ihelter and protection. When
danger, or any other circumltance peculiar to certain
countries, renders a deviation from the common form
or fituation of nefts neceffary, that deviation is made
in an equal degree, and in the very fame manner, by
all the birds of one fpecies •, and it is never found to
extend beyond the limits of the country where alone
it can ferve any good purpofe. When removed by
necefiity from their eggs, birds return to them with
hafte and anxiety, and Ihift them fo as to heat them
equally ; and it is worthy of obfervation, that their
hafte to return is always in proportion to the cold of
the climate. But do birds reafon, and all of the fame
fpecies reafon, equally well, upon the nature and ex¬
tent of danger, and upon the means by which it can
beft be avoided? Have birds any notion of equality, or
do they know that heat is neceffary for incubation ?
No : in all thefe operations men recognife the inten¬
tions of nature ; but they are hid from theianimals them-
felves, and therefore cannot operate upon them as-motivesi
Of the inftincl of animals w^e {hall give one inftance
more in the elegant and perfpicuous language of Dr.
Reid. “ Every manufacturing art among men (fays
that able writer) was invented by fome man, improved
by others, and brought to perfection by time and ex¬
perience. Men learn to work in it by long praCtice,
which produces a habit. The arts of men vary in every
age and in every nation, and are found only in thofe
men wdio have been taught them. The manufactures
77 1 INS
of animals differ from thofe of men in many {linking ImtlnCL
particulars. No animal of the fpecies can claim the'
invention ; no animal ever introduced any new im¬
provement, or any variation from the former praCtice;
every one of the fpecies has equal {kill from the be¬
ginning, without teaching, without experience, and
without habit j every one has its art by a kind of in-
fpiration. I do not mean that it is infpired with the
principles or rules of the art, but with the ability of
working in it to perfection, without any knowledge of
its principles, rules, or end. The work of every ani¬
mal is indeed like the wmrks of nature, perfeCt in its
kind, and can bear the moft critical examination of the
mechanic or the mathematician; of which a honey¬
comb is a ftriking inftance. ^
“ Bees, it is well known, conftruCt their combs withRemark-
fmall cells on both fides, fit both for holding their ftore able in-
of honey and for rearing their young. There are^an^ggn
only three poflible figures of the cells, which can make
them all equal and fimilar, without any ufelefs inters
ftices. Thefe are the equilateral triangle, ■ the fquare,
and the regular hexagon. Of the three, the hexagon
is the moft proper, both for convenience and ftrength.
Bees, as if they knew this, make their cells regular
hexagons. As the combs have cells on both fides, the
cells may either be exaClly oppofite, having partition
againft partition, or the bottom of a cell may reft;
upon the partitions between the cells on the other fide,
wdiich will ferve as a buttrefs to ftrengthen it. The
laft way is the beft for ftrength ; accordingly the bot¬
tom of each cell refts againft the point where three
partitions meet on the other fide, which gives it all
the ftrength poflible. The bottom of a cell may ei¬
ther be one plane, perpendicular to the fide partitions j .
or it may be compofed of feveral planes, meeting in a
folid angle in the middle point. It is only in one of
thefe tw7o ways that all the cells can be fimilar without
lofing room. And, for the fame intention, the planes,
of which the bottom is compofed, if there be more
than one, muft be three in number, and neither more
nor fewer. It has been demonftrated, that by making
the bottoms of the cells to confift of three planes.
meeting in a point, there is a having of material and
labour no w?ay inconfiderable. The bees, as if ac¬
quainted with thefe principles of folid geometry, follow
them moft accurately j the bottom of each cell being
compofed of three planes, which make obtufe angles ■
with the fide partitions and with one another, and
meet in a point in the middle of the bottom ; the three
angles of this bottom being fupported by three partitions
on the other fide of the comb, and the point of it
by the common interfeclion of thefe three partitions. .
One inflance more of the mathematical {kill difplayed
in the ftruflure of a honey-comb deferves to be men¬
tioned. It is a curious mathematical problem, at what
precife angle the three planes which compofe the bottom
of a cell ought to meet, in order to make the greateft
poflible faving of material and labour. This is one of
thofe problems belonging to the higher parts of ma¬
thematics, which are called problems of maxima and
minima. The celebrated .M'‘Laurin refolved it by a
fluxionary calculation, which is to be found in the
Tranfattions of the Royal Society of London, and de¬
termined precifely the angle required. Upon the
moft exadt menfuration w’hich the fubjedl could admit, .
be e
i
INS [2
Ir.ftiiNfi. he afterwards found, that it is the very angle in which
1 " " the three planes in the bottom of the cell of a honey¬
comb do actually meet.
“ Shall we alk here, Who taught the bees the pro¬
perties of folixls, and to refolve problems of maxima and
minima ? If a honey-comb were a work of human art,
'every man of common fenfe would conclude, without
helitation, that he who invented the conftru&ion mud
have underflood the principles on which it was con-
flrufled. We need not fay that bees know none of
thele things. They work moft geometrically without
any knowledge of geometry •, fomewhat like a child,
who by turning the handle of an organ makes good
mufic without any knowledge of mulic. The art is not
in the child, but in him who made the organ. In like
manner, when a bee makes its combs fo geometrically,
the geometry is not in the bee, but in that great Geo¬
metrician who made the bee, and made all things in
g number, weight, and meafure.”
Which can- We have given a full detail of the ftrufture of a
notbe con-boney-comb, becaufe it is an effeft of inftin6t which
founded cannot be confounded with the operations of reafon.
Operations author of The Natural Hijlory of Animals, juftly
reafon. offended with that theory which treats of inJlinBive mo¬
tives, which reprefents the human mind as a bundle of
78 ] INS
inftinfts, and of wdrich the obje£t feems to be to de- Inftirrtfl,
grade mankind to the level of brutes, has very laudably y—*
e^Crted his endeavours to deteft its vveaknefs, and to
expofe it to contempt. But in avoiding one extreme,
he feems to have run into the other*, and vvhilit he
maintains the rights of his own fpecies, he almoft raifes
the brutes to the rank of men. “ It is better (he lays)
to fhare our rights with others than to be entirely de¬
prived of them.” This is certainly true *, and no good
man will hefitate to prefer his theory to that of his an-
tagonift ; but we fee no neceflity for adopting either ;
the phenomena may be accounted for without degrading
reafon to the level of inflinft, or elevating inltinft to
the dignity of reafon. ^
We lhall readily allow to Locke (c), that fume ofOrtfome
the inferior animals feem to have perceptions of parti- oceafijns
cular truths, and within very narrow limits the faaulty
of reafon : but we fee no ground to fuppofe that their (*w,. ^ut
natural operations are performed with a view to con-they per-
fequences 5 and therefore cannot perfuade ourfclves, ^ rrn the‘r
with this hiftorian of theirs, that thefe operations are the nKtur.al °'
refult of a train of reafoning in the mind of the animal. Imths'rbT ^
He acknowledges indeed, that their reafoning and
thinking powers are remarkably deficient when com¬
pared with thofe of men , that they cannot take fo full
(c) “ For if they have any ideas at all, and are not mere machines, as fome would have them, we cannot
deny them to have fome reafon. It feems as evident to me, that fome of them do, in certain inflances,
reafon, as that they have fenfe *, but it is only in particular ideas, juft as they received them from the fenfes.
They are the beft of them tied up within thofe narrow bounds, and have not, as I think, the faculty to enlarge
them by any kind of abftra&ion.” Efay on Human Vnderjlanding, Book ii. chap. xi.
This is in part a juft obfervation, and ferves to account for many phenomena which later writers have de¬
rived from inftin£l. The author of The Philofopby of Natural Hiftory had “ a cat that frequented a clofet,
the door of which wras faftened by a common iron latch. A window was fituated near the door. When the
door was flmt, the cat gave herfelf no uneafinefs. As foon as {he tired of her confinement, fhe mounted on
the foie of the window, and wdth her paw dexteroufly lifted the latch and came out.” This praftice, which
w7e are told continued for years, muft have been the confequence of what Locke calls reafoning in particular
ideas. It could not be the effeff of inftinft *, for inftindl is adapted only to a ftate of nature, in which cats
have neither latches to lift nor doors to open j and as it is not faid that the animal attempted to lift the
latches of other doors, we are not authorifed to infer that this particular aftion w7as the confequence of rea¬
foning in ideas enlarged by abfira&Ion : the cat had repeatedly feen one door opened by an exertion wdfich
flie wras capable of imitating. Yet that animals have no power of enlarging their ideas, is a pofition, of
the truth of wdiich, though it is advanced by Locke, we are by no means confident. It is well known that
crow's feed upon feveral kinds of {hell-fifh when within their reach $ and that they contrive to break the fhell
by raifing the fifh to a great height, and letting it drop upon a ftone or a rock. This may perhaps be confidered as
pure inftimft dire&ing the animal to the proper means of acquiring its food. But what is to be thought o£
the following fa£f, which was communicated to us by a gentleman whofe veracity is unqueftioned, and who,
being totally unacquainted with the theories of philofophers, has of courfe no favourite hypotheiis to fupport ?
In the fpring of the year 1791, a pair of crows made their neft in a tree, of which there are feveral planted
round his garden j and in his morning-walks he had often been amufed by witnefting furious combats between
them and a cat. One morning the battle raged more fiercely than ufual, till at laft the cat gave way and took
{belter under a hedge, as if to wait a more favourable opportunity of retreating to the houfe. The crows
continued for a fhort time to make a threatening noife *, but perceiving that on the ground they could do
nothing more than threaten, one of them lifted a ftone from the middle of the garden and perched with it on
a tree planted in the hedge, where fhe fat watching the motions of the enemy or her young. As the cat crept
along under the hedge, the crow accompanied her by flying from branch to branch and from tree to tree;
and when at laft pufs ventured to quit her hiding-place, the crow, leaving the tree, and hovering over her in
the air, let the ftone drop from on high on her back. That the crow on this occafion reafoned, is felf-evident ;
and it feems to be little lefs evident, that the ideas employed in her reafoning were enlarged beyond thofe
which fhe had received from her fenfes. By her fenfes, fhe may have perceived, that the fhell of a fifh is
broken by a fall j but ’could her fenfes inform her, that a cat would be wounded or driven off the field by the
fall of a ftone ? No : from the effefl of the one fall preferved in her memory, fhe muft have inferrred the other
by her power of reafoning.
2
I N vS
[ 279 ]
I N S
Infliiid. a review of the paft, nor look forward with fo penetra-
tjng an eye to t}ie future 5 that they do not accumu¬
late obfervation upon obfervation, or add the expe¬
rience of one generation to that of another : that their
manners do not vary nor their cuftoms fluctuate like
ours ; and that their arts always remain the fame,
without degeneracy and without improvement. “ The
crow (he obferves) always builds its nefl in the fame
way j every hen treats her young with the fame mea-
fure of affection j even the dog, the horfe, and the fu¬
gacious elephant, feem to a£t rather mechanically
than with defign. From fuch hafty obfervations as
thefe, it has been inferred (he fays), that the brutes
are directed in their aftions by lome myfterious in¬
fluence, wrhich impels them to employ their powers un¬
intentionally in performing adtions beneficial to them-
felves, and fuitable to their nature and circumdances.”
And are thefe obfervations indeed hafty ? and is this
inference ill founded ? To us the matter appears quite
otherwife. If the arts of brutes and other animals
have always remained the fame without degeneracy,
and without improvement •, and if they be at the fame
time the refult of reafoning, they muff either be fo
perfedt that they cannot be improved, or fo imperfedl
that they cannot degenerate. That the ftruciure of
a honey-comb is imperftdf, no man has ever imagined.
We have feen, that, as far as we are capable of dif-
cerning the end which it is intended to ferve, it is the
molt perfedt ftrudfure poffible : and therefore, if it be
the refult of the reafoning of the bee, the author muft
retradf his affertion relpedting the extent of the rea¬
foning and thinking powers of inferior animals ; and
inftead of faying that they are remarkably deficient
when compared with thofe of men, affirm that they
are infinitely more perfedt. No human art has yet ar¬
rived at fuch perfedtion as that it might not be im¬
proved ) no architedl has ever built a town, or con-
ffrudted a magazine, which he could mathematically
demonftrate to be of the very bell poffible form for the
end intended, and fo absolutely perfedt as to be inca¬
pable of improvement.
But the fame author proceeds to affirm, that “ the
laws of analogical reafoning do not juttify the idea
that the brutes adt, on any occafion, absolutely with-
' out defign.” Nay, he fays, it feems more probable,
“ that the inferior animals, even in thofe inltances in
which we cannot dijlingmjh the motives which adtuate
them, or the views with which they proceed, yet adt
with defign, and extend their views, if not a great
way, yet at leaft a certain length forward ; than that
they can be upon any occafion, fuch as in rearing of
their young, building nefts, &c. actuated merely by
feeling, or overruled by feme myfterious influence,
under which they are nothing but infenfible inltru-
ments.” This laft phrafe is ambiguous. If by in¬
fenfible inftruments it be meant that the brutes are
confidered by the advocates for inltindt as mere ma¬
chines without the Faculties of fenfation and fponta-
neity, the author is combating a phantom of his own
id *
The laft-
mentioned
pofition
controvert
ed.
creation ; for we believe an opinion fo abfurd is not InftinA.
now maintained by any man, (fee Brute.) But if ^ 1
by infenfible inflruments be meant fuch inifruments as
adt fpontaneoufly without being confcious of the end
to which their adtions lead, he appears not only to
be egregioufly miltaken in his conjedfure refpedting
the defign of brutes, but alfo to have advanced an hy-
pothefis contradidlory and inconfiftent. u
If it be true, that the inferior animals adt with de- Maintain,.
fign, even in thofe inftances in which we cannot di-e<*» an^
ftinguiffi their motives, their views may indeed ex¬
tend but a little way when compared with infinity :
but certainly they extend farther than ours ; for there
is no ufeful work of man conftrudled with fuch fkiil,
but that, after it is finifiied, another man of equal
education will be able to diftinguiih the general de¬
fign of the artift. But if the inferior animals, on all
occafions, act with defign, we fhould be glad to know
the defign of the bees in forming the cells of their combs
in the manner which we have fa largely deferibed. Do
thefe little animals indeed know that a oomb, confiding
on both fides of hexagonal cells, with the bottom of
each compofed of feveral planes meeting in a certain fo-
lid angle, and fo formed as that the bottom of a cell
on the one fide (hall reft upon the partitions between
the cells on the other lide, is in all reipedts the moft
proper both for holding their ft ores of honey and for*
rearing their young ? And do they liken He know, that
its excellence arifes from the precife figure and polition
of the cells, by which there is a very conliderable faving
of labour and materials, whilft the comb at the fame
time has the greateft poffible ftrength, and the greateft:
poffible capacioufnefs ? If they know all this, and act
with a view to thefe ends, it mult indeed be confefl'ed
that bees are rational creatures, and that their thinking
and reafoning powers far furpafs thofe of men ; for
they have from the earlieft ages made difeoveries in the
higher mathematics, which there is reafon to believe
were altogether unknown to the human race till the be¬
ginning of the prefent century, and which at this mo¬
ment are beyond the comprehenlion of nine-tenths of
mankind in the moft enlightened nation on earth. If
this be a conclafion too abfurd to be admitted, there
is no other alternative but either to fuppofe that by this
artificial ftrudfure of their cells the bees have fome other
end in view, which we cannot diftinguiffi •, or to ac¬
knowledge that they are overruled by fome myfte¬
rious influence, under which they are nothing but
fpontaneous agents, unconfcious of the end to which
their operations tend. Which of thefe conclufions is
the molt rational, we will not offer fuch an infult to
the underftanding of our readers, as to fuppofe the
meaneft of them capable of entertaining a doubt. That
a honey-comb is conftrufted with defign, we muft rea¬
dily admit j but the defign is not in the bees, but in
the Creator of the bees, who direfts their operations to
their own good, by what the author with great pro¬
priety terms a myfterious influence (d). ta.
But he thinks it an unanXwerable argument in fup- an objec-
portd°n t0 h
(d) Though this way of afling is undoubtedly myfterious, “ yet it fliould not appear extraordinary even
to a man who is not a philofopher, as we fee examples of it daily in our own fpecies: For a man under the di-
re&ion of another of fuperior underftanding, will ufe means to accomplilh an end, without having any idea of
either-^;
INS [ 280 ] INS
Inftintt. port of his theory, that in the performance of thofe
v'—actions, in which animals are faid to be guided by un¬
erring inftindl, different individuals dii'play different
modes of conduct *, and in his opinion, to talk of in-
flindlive principles which admit of improvement, and
accommodate themfelves to circumftances, is merely to
introduce new terms into the language ot philofophy j
for he affirms, that no fuch improvement or accommo¬
dation to circumffances can ever take place without
a comparifon of ideas and a deduftion of inferences.
It is probable that the author here alludes to thofe
animals tvhich, in their moft important operations, are
known to a£l differently in different countries. Thus
the offrich in Senegal, where the heat is exceflive, ne¬
glects her eggs during the day, but fits upon them in
the night. At the Cape of Good Hope, how'ever,
where the degree of heat is lefs, the offrich, like other
birds, fits upon her eggs both day and night. In
countries infeffed with monkeys, many birds, which in
other climates build in bullies and clefts of trees, fuf-
pend their neffs upon {lender twigs, and thus elude the
-13 rapacity of their enemies.
wbviated. It may be thought, that a determination of the mind
of the brute to aft fo varioufly upon different occafions,
can hardly be conceived without judgment or intelli¬
gence. But before our author had fo confidently af¬
firmed that fuch accommodation to circumftances can
never take place without a comparifon of ideas and a
deduftion of inferences, he would have done well to
confider how nature afts in other organized bodies, fuch
as the vegetable. We fee that a vegetable, reared in
the corner of a dark cellar, will bend itfelf towards the
light wftiich comes in at the window ; and if it be
made to grow in a flow^er-pot, with its head down¬
wards, it will turn itfelf into the natural pofition of a
plant. Can it be fuppofed, that the plant, in either
cafe, does what it does from any judgment or opinion
that it is beft, and not from a neceffary determination
of its nature ? But, further, to take the cafe of bodies
unorganized, how7 (hall we account for the phenomena
which chemiftry exhibits to us ? When one body
unites with another, and then, upon a third being pre-
fented to it, quits the firft, and unites itfelf with it,
lhall we fuppofe that this preference proceeds from any
predileftion or opinion that it is better to cleave to the
one than to the other, from any comparifon of ideas
or deduftion of inferences ? Or lhall we not rather fay,
that it proceeds from an original law of nature impref-
fed upon it by that Being who mediately or immedi¬
ately direfls every motion of every the minuteft atom
in the univerfe ? And if fo, why may not inftinft be an
original determiitation of the mind of the animal, of
which it is part of the nature or effence to accommo¬
date itfelf to certain circumftances, on which depends
the prefervation of the individual, or the continuation
of the kind ? Indeed it cannot be otherwife, if we have
defined inftinft properly •, for no man ever fuppofed,
that when animals work inltinftively, they aft for no
purpofe. It is only affirmed that the purpofe is not
known to them. It is known, however, to the Author
of inftinft ; who knows likewife that the fame purpofe IntHircl.
mull in different climates be promoted by different v /
means, and who accordingly determines the operations
of animals of the fame fpecies to be different under
different circumftances. I4
But though we cannot agree with this author whenlnltinA in-
he affirms that no accommodation to circumftances can 'a,,“b!e °f
ever take place without a comparifon of ideas, we rea-
dily admit that no faculty which is capable of improve¬
ment by obfervation and experience can in propriety
of fpeech be termed inftinft. Inftinft being a pofitive
determination given to the minds of animals by the
Author of nature for certain purpofes, mull neceflarily
be perfeft when viewed in conneftson with thofe pur¬
pofes : and therefore to talk, as Mr Smellie does, of
the improvement of inftinft, is to perplex the under-
ftanding by a perverfion of language. There is not,
however, a doubt, but that reafon may copy the works
of inftinft, and fo far alter or improve them as to ren¬
der them fubfervient to other purpofes than thofe for
which they were originally and inftinftively performed.
It was thus in all probability that man at firft learned
many of the moft ufeful arts of life.
“ Thy arts of building from the bee receive j
“ Learn of the mole to plough, the worm to weave •,
“ Learn of the little nautilus to lail,
“ Spread the thin oar, and catch the driving gale.”
But the arts thus adopted by men are no longer the
works of inftinft, but the operations of reafon influ¬
enced by motives. This is fo obvioufly and undeniably
true, that it has compelled the author laft mentioned to
confefs, in that very feftion which treats of inftinfts
improveable by experience, that “ what men or brutes
learn by experience, though this experience be founded
on inftinft, cannot with propriety be called inftinftive
knowledge, but knowledge derived from experience and
obfervation. Inftinft (he fays) fhould be limited to
fuch aftions as every individual of a fpecies exerts with¬
out the aid either of experience or imitation.” This
is a very juft diftinftion between inftinft and experi¬
ence •, but how to reconcile it with the fundamental
principle of the author’s theory we know not. It would
certainly be a very arduous talk $ but it is a talk from
which we are happily relieved, as his theory and ours
have little refemblance. 15
Having thus proved, we hope to the fatisfaftion ofThe que-
our readers, that there is fuch a principle as inftinft
the inferior animals, and that it is effentially different ^nyeoc_
from human reafon •, let us return to our own fpecies, cafions up-1
and inquire whether there be any occafions upon which on which
man afts inftinftively, and what thofe occafions are.
This is a queftion of fome difficulty, to which a com-‘]y p
plete and fatisfaftory anfwer will perhaps never be gi-nVd.
ven, and to which we have not the vanity to think
that fuch an anfwer will be given by us. The prin¬
ciple of ajjociation (to be explained afterwards under
the article Metaphysics) operates fo powerfully in
man, and at fo early a period of life, that in many
cafes it feems to be impoffible to diftinguilh the effefts
either; and indeed, in
governed in that way.”
my opinion, by'far the greater part of mankind are deftined by
Ancient Metaphyjics, vol. iii. p. 352.
3
God and nature to be
INS [ 281 ] INS
Inftitxfh of habit from the operations of nature. Yet there
* 1 v ' are a few cafes immediately connedted with the prefer-
vation of the individual and the propagation of the
kind, in which by a little attention thefe things may
be dikinguiflied. We have already given an inftance
in the fucking of a child, which we believe to be an
operation performed by inftindf. Dr Prieftley, how¬
ever, thinks differently : “ The a&ion of fucking
(fays he), I am confident, from my own obfervations,
is not natural, but acquired.” What obfervations they
were which led him to this conclufion he has not told
us, and we cannot imagine ; but every obfervation
which we ourfelves have made, compels us to believe
that an attempt to fuck is natural to children. It has
been obferved by the author of the Philolophy of Na¬
tural Hiftory, that the inftinct of fucking is not excited
by any fmell peculiar to the mother, to milk, or to
any other fubftance 5 for that infants fuck indifcrimi-
nately every thing brought into contact with their
mouths. He therefore infers, that the defire of fuck¬
ing is innate, and coeval with the appetite for air. The
obfervation is certainly juft: but a difciple of Dr
Prieftley’s may objedt to the inference 5 for “ in fucking
and fwallowing our food, and in many fuch inftances,
it is exceedingly probable (fays the dodlor), that the
actions of the mufcles are originally automatic, having
been fo placed by our Maker, that at firft they are fti-
mulated and contraft mechanically whenever their ac¬
tion is requifite.” This is certainly the cafe with re-
fpedt to the motion of the mufcles in the adtion of
breathing $ and if that adtion be of the fame kind and
proceed from the very fame caufe with the adiion of
fucking, and if a child never fhow a defire to fuck but
when fomething is brought into contadt with its mouth,
Dr Prieftley’s account of this operation appears to us
much more fatisfadfory than that of the authors who
jj- attribute it to inftindl.
Inftance«iof But the adtions of breathing and fucking feem to
human ac- differ effentially in feveral particulars. They are in-
doubtedly performed by means of air j but in the form-
inftindtive. er> a child for many months exerts no fpontaneous
effort, whilft a fpontaneous effort feetns to be abfolute-
ly neceffary for the performance of the latter. Of this
indeed we could not be certain, were it true that infants
never exhibit fymptoms of a wiff} to fuck but when
fomething is adtually in contadt with their mouths j
for the mere aEl of fucking then might well be fup-
pofed to be automatic and the effedt of irritation : But
this is not the cafe. A healthy and vigorous infant,
within ten minutes of its birth, gives the plaineft and
moft unequivocal evidence of a defire to fuck, before
any thing be brought into adfual contadl with its
mouth. It ft retches out its neck, and turns its head
from fide to fide apparently in queft of fomething: and
that the objedt of its purfuit is fomething which it may
fuck, every man may fatisfy himfelf by a very convincing
experiment. When an infant is thus ftretching out
its neck and moving its head, if any thing be made to
touch any part of its face, the little creature will in-
ftantly turn to the objedl, and endeavour by quick
alternate motions from fide to fide to feize it with its
mouth, in the very fame manner in which it always
feizes the breaft of its nurfe, till taught by experience
to diftinguilh objedh by the fenfe of fight, when thefe
alternate motions, being Ito longer ufeful, are no longer
Vgl. XI. Part I.
employed. Ir this be not an inftance of pure iuftindt, fhfl
we know not what it is. It cannot be the refult of '
aflociation or mechanifm ; for when the ftretching of
the neck takes place, nothing is in contadl with the
child’s mouth, and no affociation which includes the
adt of fucking can have been formed. Aflbciations of
ideas are the confequences of iimultaneous impreilions
frequently repeated; but when the child firft declares,
as plainly as it could do wTere it poffefl’ed of language,
its with to luck, it has not received a fingle impreflion
with which that wilh can poflibly be affociated.
Were Dr Prieftley to weigh thefe fadts, of the truth
of which we are certain, we doubt not that his well-
known candour would make him retradf the affertion,
that all the adtions which Dr Reid and others refer to
inftindl, are either automatic or acquired. The greater
part of thofe adiions, as w^ell as of the apparently in-
ftindtive principles of belief, wre have no doubt are
acquired : but we are perluaded that a child fucks its
nurfe as a bee builds its cell, by inftindt j for upon no
other hypothefis can we account for the fpontaneous
efforts exerted in both thefe operations: and we think
it no difgrace to our fpecies, that in fome few cafes we
Ihould adt from the fame principle with the inferior
creation, as nothing feems more true than that,
 Reafon raife o’er inftindt as we can ;
In this ’tis God that works, in that ’tis man.
We have faid, that, in the favage flate, the fexes go
together for the firft time by inftindt, without any
view to offspring, and perhaps with no determinate idea
of enjoyment. This opinion, we believe, has been
generally maintained ; but it is controverted by Dr
Hartley. “ Here (fays he) we are to obferve, firft,
that wThen a general pleafurable date is introduced,
either by diredt impreflions or by affociated inftuences,
the organs of generation mult fympathize with this
general ftate, for the fame reafons as the other parts
do. They mult therefore be affedted with vibrations
in their nerves, which rife above indifference, into the
limits of pleafure, from youth, health, grateful ali¬
ment, the pleafures of imagination, ambition, and fyra-
pathy, or any other caufe which diffufes grateful vi¬
brations over the whole fyftem.—Secondly, as thefe
organs are endued with a greater degree of fenlibility
than the other parts, from their make, and the peculiar
ftrudlure and difpofition of their nerves, whatever thefe
be, we may exped that they Ihould be more affedted by
thofe general pleafurable ftates of the nervous fyftem
than the other parts.—Thirdly, the diftenfion of the
cells of the vefculce feminales and of the fnufes of the
uterus, which take place about the time of puberty,
muft make thefe organs more particularly irritable
then.” His fourth obfervation refpeds a ftate widely
different from that of nature, and therefore is nothing
to the purpofe : but his fifth is, that “ the particular
fhame which regards the organs of generation, may,
when conlidered as an affociated circumftance, like
other pains, be fo far diminiihed as to fall within the
limits of pleafure, and add confiderably to the fum
total.”
To this excellent and able writer we may allow the
truth of thefe obfervations (though fome of them
might certainly be controverted) ; «md yet deny his
conclufion, that “ they are fufticient to account for the
N n general
Infticft.
INS [28
general defires which are obfervable in young perfons,
and that thofe defires are of a faftitious nature.” For
fuppofing every thing which.he fnefitions to take place
by mere mechanifm and affociation j that the organs
of generation are irritated, and certain cells and finufes
diftended ; the only inference w'hich can be fairly drawn
from fuch premifes is, that at the age of puberty young
men and women muft from thefe caufes experience cer¬
tain feelings and wants which they knew not before $
but furely mechanifm and affociation cannot teach them
the ufe of the organs of generation, or point out the
only means by which their new feelings can be grati¬
fied : and therefore, as we fee thefe means invariably
purfued by all animals rational and irrational, without
experience and without inftruffion, wtc mud refer the
mutual define of the fexes to a higher principle than
mere mechanifm and affociation 3 and that principle
ean be nothing but inftinft.
Befides thefe, we think the attion of eating may
be attributed to inffinfi. It is certainly performed by
a fpontaneous exertion of the proper organs ; and that
exertion is firft made at a time of life when we have no
conception of the end which it ferves to accomplifh,
and therefore cannot be influenced by motives. It
mull: indeed be confeffed, that the firft aft of chewing
is performed by a child, not for the purpofe of mafti-
cating food, but to quicken the operation of nature
in the cutting of teeth : and perhaps it may be faid,
that the pleafing fenfation of tafte, which is then firft
experienced, and afterwards remembered, prompts the
child to continue at intervals the exertion of chewnng
after all his teeth are cut 3 fo that though the aft of
eating is not performed with a view to the maftication
of food or the nourilhment of the body, it may yet
be performed, not from any inftinftive impulfe, but
merely from an early and deep-rooted affcciation. But
in anfwer to this it is fufficient to afk, Who taught the
infant that the aft of chewing wmuld quicken the ope¬
ration of nature in the cutting of teeth ? Not reafon,
furely, nor experience 3 for an infant knows nothing
of teeth or the manner in which they grow : and if it
be granted, that for this purpofe it was originally im¬
pelled by fome internal and myfterious influence to
perform the aftion of chewing, we are not inclined to
deny that the operation may be continued for other
purpofes by means of affociation.
In human works, though 'laboured on wdth pain,
A thoufand movements fcarce one purpofe gain 3
In God’s, one Angle can its end produce,
Yet ferves to fecond too fome other ufe.
This is found philfifophy confirmed by obfervation and
daily experience : but though in the works of God, one
principle produces many confequences, and though
perhaps there is not a principle which falls under our
cognizance more fruitful than that of affociaticn,
yet if it be not fufficient to account for the JirJl aB of
chewing, we cannot refer to it alone as to the fource
of that operation. Should it be faid, that the gums
of an infant are at the period of cutting teeth fo irritable,
that the moment any thing is applied to them the jaw's
perform a motion merely automatic, which we miftake
for the fpontaneous efteft of inftinft; ftill we would
alk, What prompts the child to apply every thing to its
mouth ? Does the irritation of the gums contraft the
2 ] INS
mufcles of the arm ? By a bigot for mechanifm this Inftinft.
might be faid, were it true that the arm of an infant,—\r—J
like a piece of clock-work, is always fo regularly moved
as to bring its hand directly into contaft with its gums:
but this is far from being the cafe ; an infant makes
many unfuccefsful efforts to reach its mouth, and does
not 3ccomplilh its purpofe till after repeated trials.
Perhaps it may be alleged (for when men adopt a fa¬
vourite hypothefis they will allege any thing in its fup-
port), that infants are taught to carry things to then-
mouths by the pleafing fenfation received from the ap¬
plication of their nurl'es breafts, and continue the prac¬
tice from habit and affociation. But it is certain that
they do not begin this praftice till teeth are forming
in their gums 3 and then they ufe fuch things as they
themfelves carry to their mouths very differently from
the breafts of their nurfe: they conftantly chew and bite
their rattles, though they very feldom bite their nurfes.
As this praftice cannot be begun from a principle of
affociation, fo it appears to us that it cannot be con¬
tinued upon fuch a principle. Were the fenfation ex¬
perienced by an infant when chewing a bard fubftance
a pleafing fenfation, the remembrance of the pleafure
might as a motive prompt it to repeat the operation :
but it is obvious, that by preffing a gum, through
which a tooth is making its way, againft any thing
hard, the infant muft experience a painful fenfation;
and therefore the influence which impels it to continue
this operation, muft: be fomething more powerful than
pleafure or pain. ^
Thefe three aftions, then, by which infants fuck, by There may
which they chew their food, and by which mankind be other
are propagated, have undeniably their origin in *n‘
ftinft. There may be many other human aftions
which derive their origin from the fame fource 3 butimpoffitie
in a ftate of civil fociety it is very difficult, if not to diitin-
impoflible, to diftinguifl* them from the effefts of early
« 1 • the enccts
hablt\ , • , r * • r 1. 1 of habit.
Such, however, is the prelent impatience or that la¬
bour without which effefts cannot be traced to their
caufes, that every phenomenon in human nature, which
to former philofophers wTould have occafioned difficul¬
ty, is now thought to be fufficiently occounted for by
referring it to fome inftinft as its particular caufe 3 and
he who can provide himfelf with a fufficient number
of thefe inftinfts, for the reality of which he offers no
proof, feats ‘himfelf in the philofopher’s chair, and
dreams that he is diftating a fyftem of fcience, w-hillt
he is only retailing a colleftion of anecdotes. A phi-Aftions er-
lofopher of this fchool has lately carried the doftrine roneouily
of inftinftive principles fo far, as to attribute the ^u" ^[nftinft^
periority of man over the other animals, chiefly to the
great number of inftinfts with which his mind is endow7-
ed 3 and among thefe he reckons (not, we believe, as
charafteriftic of our fpecies in contradiftinftion to other
animals, but as part of the inftinftive bundle in the large-
nefs of which our fuperiority confiits) “ the voiding of
urine and excrement, J'nee^wgy retrcBicn of the mufcles
upon the application of any painful ftimulus, the moving
of the eyelids and other parts of the body.” Thefe (he
fays) are effefts of original inftinfts, and effential to the
exiftence of young animals. With this writer, inftirrffc
is fometimes reprefented as looking into futurity, and
afting upon motives which have hitherto been confider-
ed as the province of reafon and the charafteriftic of
man :
INS [ 283 ] INS
Jnftinft. man : here the fame inftinft is confounded with ir-
ritation and mechanifm •, and if this mode of philofo-
phifing continue in faihion, wre {hall not be furprifed
to find men, beads, birds, and vegetables, confidered-by
fome other writer as nothing more than different fpecies
of the fame genus of beings, that are all actuated by the
great and univerfal principle ofindindh If fneezing and
the retraftion of the mufcles upon the application of any
painful dimulus be aclions of indinft, there cannot be a
doabt, upon the received principles of philofophy, but
that the contra&ion of the leaves of the fendtive plant
upon the application of any dimulus proceeds likewife
from infiinft: nay, a piece of leather mud be endowed
with indindl ; for it too retra&s upon the application of
the painful dimulus of fire. All thefe are evidently
fimilar effedls produced by the fame or fimilar caufes $
for in the operations of fneezing and retracing the
mufcles upon any painful application, there is not the
lead fpontaneous exertion on our part, no co-operation
of mind more than in the contraftion of the leather
and the plant. "With refpefk to the voiding of urine
and excrement, it is obvious, that at fird thefe opera¬
tions are performed without any effort of fpontaneity j
and that a voluntary power over the mufcles which
are fubfervient to them is very gradually acquired.
Urine and excrement irritate the bladder and guts,
which are fupplied wdth branches of the fame nerves
that lupply the abdominal mufcles. But it is well
known that the irritation of one b|anch of a nerve
brings on a contra£Hon of the mufcles which are fup-
ylied by the other branches. Urine and excrement
therefore are evidently expelled by the mechanical
contra&ion of the organs of excretion ; and to attri¬
bute thefe evacuations to inflinfl, is equally abfurd as to
fay, that water or any other foft fubdance pent up in a
veffel, and preffed equally on all fides, makes its efcape
by inflinB through the eafied paffage. It is difficult
to guefs what the author means by the indindfive
motion of the eyelids and other parts of the body.
There is a motion of the eyelids which is volun¬
tary, and another which is involuntary. The former
proceeds from fome motive, to exclude too great a
glare of light, or to guard the eye againd a forefeen
mifchief, and is therefore the refult of reafon as didin-
guiffied from indinft : the latter is obvioudy the effedf
of affociation, which took place in early infancy and
produced a habit. Infants for feveral days after birth
do not wink with their eyes upon the approach of one’s
hand or any other fubdance j but after having experi¬
enced pain from too much light or any other thing
which hurts the eye, and that pain having at fird
produced an automatic motion of the eyelids, the
motion comes in time to be fo clofely affociated with
its caufe, that the very appearance of the latter pro¬
duces the former. In all this there is no indindl, nor
any thing which refembles indindl ; in the one cafe,
the motion of the eyelids is in the drifted fenfe vo¬
luntary and rational •, and in the other, it is either au¬
tomatic or the •ffeft of habit.
“ The love of light (fays the fame writer) is exhi¬
bited by infants at a very early period. I have re¬
marked evident fymptoms of this attachment on the
third day after birth. When children are farther
advanced, marks of the various paffions generally
appear. The paffion of fear is difcoverable at the
age of two months. It is called forth by approach¬
ing the hand to the child’s eye, and by any hidden
motion or unufual noife.’* It has likewife been faid,
that “ an infant may be put into a fright by an angry
countenance, and foothed again by fmiles and blan-
didnnents and “ that all theffc are cafes of pure in-
dinft.” In reply to which, we fcruple not to af-
fert with Dr Priedley, that an infant (unlefs by an
infant be meant a child who has a good deal of expe¬
rience, and of courfe has made many obfervations on
the conneftions of things) “ is abfolutely incapable of
terror. I am podtive (fays he), 'that no child ever
diowed the lead fymptom of fear or apprehenfion
till he had aftually received hurts and had felt pain j
and that children have no fear of any particular per-
fon or thing, but in ccnfequence of fome conneftion
between that perfon or thing and the pain they have
felt. If any indinft of this kind were more necef-
fary than another, it would be the dread of Jire. But
every body mud have obferved, that infants ffiow n@
dgn of any fuch thing j for they will as readily put
their finger to the flame of a candle as to any thing
elfe, till they have been burned. But after fome painful
experience of this kind, their dread of fire, though un¬
deniably the effeft of affociation, becomes as quick and
as effeftual in its operations as if it were an original
inftinftive principle.” We moreover do ndt hefitate t«
fay, with the fame great philofophdr, that if it were
poffible always to beat and terrify a child with a
placid countenance, fo as never to affuirte that ap¬
pearance but in thofe circumdances, and always to
foothe him with what we cell an angry countenance,
this conneftion of ideas would be reverfed, and wre
fliould fee the child frightened with a fmile and de¬
lighted with a frown. In faft, there is no more
reafon to believe that a child is naturally afraid of
a frown, than that he is afraid of being in the darh ;
and of this children certainly difcover no fign, till
they have either found fomething difagreeable to them
in the dark, or have been told that there is fomething
dreadful in it.
The truth of thefe obfervations is fo obvious, that we
doubt not but they will carry conviftion to the mind of
every reader. For though it ffiould be granted, that
fo early as on the third day after birth children exhibit
fymptoms of uneafinefs upon the fudden exclufion of
light, it would by no means follow that the love of light
is in them inftinftive. Light operates upon the eye by
contaft, and communicates to the infant a fenfation of
touch. If that fenfation be pleafant, the child muft ne-
ceffarily feel fome degree of uneafinefs upon its removal,
juft as a full grown man muft feel uneafy upon being
deprived of any pofitive pleafure. But is fenfation, or
pleafure, or the removal of pleafure, pare inftinft ? No,
furely.
Thus difficult is it to fay in many cafes what aftions
have their origin in inftinft, and what are merely the
effefts of early affociation. But we think it may be
fafely affirmed, that no aft ion, whether of man or brute,
which is deliberately performed wnth a view to confe-
quences, can with any propriety be faid to proceed from
inftinft ; for fuch aftions are the effeft of reafon influ¬
enced by motives. Deliberation and inftinft are obvi-
oufly incompatible. To fay with the author of the Phi¬
lofophy of Natural Hiltory, “ that, when we are .ftimu-
N n 2 lated
I nil
N S
t 2S4 ]
INS
In ft'
19
Source of
this error.
Jated by a particular inflindl, inftcad of inftantly obey¬
ing the impulfe, another inftindt arifes in oppofition,
creates helitation, and often totally extinguifhes the ori¬
ginal motroe to addion,11 is either to affirm what is ap¬
parently not true, or it is a grofs perverhon of language.
Motives oppofed to each other may create hefitation,
and a powerful motive may counterbalance a feeble in-
llinft ; but of two or more inftindls operating at the
fame time, and oppofing each other, we have no con¬
ception. Inflindl, if we choofe to fpeak a language
that is intelligible, means a certain impulfe under the
diredlion of Supreme Wifdom ; and it is very little pro¬
bable that fuch wifdom ffiould give oppofite impulfes at
the fame inftant. In the natural works of animals, which
are confefledly under the influence of mflindt, we per¬
ceive no fymptoms of deliberation ; but every one, when
not interrupted by external violence, proceeds without
hefltation in the direft road, to an end of which the
animal itfelf knows nothing. The fame would be the
cafe wdth man rvere he under the guidance of inftinfl :
and it is vain to fay that the inftinft of fear is daily
counterafted by ambition and refentment, till it be pro¬
ved that fear, ambition, and refentment, are really in-
flinfls. Of this, however, the author feems to have no
doubt. Indeed his work is fo liberally ftored with thefe
principles, fo ufeful to every man who wilhes to acquire
the name of a philofopher without the labour of invefli-
gation, that not only fear, ambition, and refentment,
but even fuperflition, devotion, refpeEl for eminent cha-
radflers, avarice, hope, envy, benevolence, and fympathy,
are all, in his opinion, infinBs Ample or modified.
The origin of fear we have already feen when exami¬
ning the inftindts faid to exhibit themfelves in early in¬
fancy : let us try if we cannot trace fome other indivi¬
duals of this numerous family to the fame fource of ear¬
ly aflbeiations.
The cafe then feems to be as followTs. We firft per¬
ceive or fuppofe fome real good, i. e. fome fitnefs to
promote our happinefs, in thofe things which we love
or defire. Hence we annex to thofe things the idea of
pleafure; with which they come, in time, to be fo
clofely aflbeiated in our minds, that they cannot ever
after prefent themfelves without bringing that idea along
with them. This affociation likewife often remains even
after that which firft gave rife to it is quite forgotten, or
perhaps does not exift. An inftance or twTo will make
this very clear. No man can be born a lover of mo¬
ney ; for in a ftate of nature money exifts not: no man
therefore can be born with our author’s inftinft of ava¬
rice, dire£led in the manner which the moft common
acceptation of that word denotes. Yet how many men
are there in the world, who have as ftrong a defire for
money as if that defire w7ere innate and inftinftive j who
account fo much money fo much happinefs j and wrho
make the mere pofleflion of gold and filver, wdthout any
thought or defign of ufing them, the ultimate end of all
their aftions ? This is not becaufe the love of money is
born with them, for that is impoflible j but becaufe
they firft; perceive a great many advantages from the
poffeffion of money, whence they conceive a pleafure in
having it. Hence they defire it, endeavour to obtain
it, and feel an aflual pleafure in obtaining and poflefling
it. Then, by dropping the intermediate fteps between
money and happinefs, tney join money and happinefs
immediately together, and content themdelves with the
fantaflic pleafure of having it ; making that which was I'idiruS-
atfirll purfued only as means, be to them an ultimate v 1
end, in which confifts their happinefs or mifery. The
fame might be oblerved concerning the thirrt after
knowledge, fame, ambition, and moft of the various
purfuits of life. Thefe are at firit entered upon with a
view to fome farther end, but at length become habi¬
tual exercifes ; with which the idea of pleafure is fo
clofely affociated, that we continue the purfuit after
the reafon from which it was at firit begun has entirely
vanilhed from our minds. Hence alfo we may ac¬
count for another of our author’s modified inflin&s, the
almoft diabolical feeling of envy. Mr Locke obferves,
that there are fome men entirely unacquainted with this
paflion. His obfervation we believe to be a juft one ;
for moft men that are ufed to refledtion, remember the
time when they were firft under its influence j and
though they did not, it is a thing very little likely that
the beneficent Author of nature ftiould have implanted
in the human mind even the feeds of an inftindl, which,
in the emphatic language of the Rambler, “ is mere
unmixed and genuine evil.” Envy is that pain which
arifes in the mind upon obferving the fuccefs or prof-
perity of others •, not however of all others indefinitely,
but only of thofe with whom, upon fome account or
other, the envious perfon has once had a rivallhip.
But of fuch a feeling the origin is obvious *, for when
two or more perfons are competitors for the fame
thing, the fucceli of the one neceffarily tends to the
detriment of the other : hence the fuccefs of the one
rival is in the mind of the other clofely aflbeiated with
pain or mifery ; and this affociation remaining after
the rivalftfip which occafioned it has ceafed, the perfon
in whofe mind envy is thus generated, always feels pain
at the fuccefs of his rival even in affairs which have no
relation to the original competition. Thus it is, that
we are apt to envy thofe perfons who refufe to be
guided by our judgments, or perfuaded b.y our argu¬
ments : For this is nothing elfe than a rivallhip about
the fuperiority of judgment $ and we take a fecret pride,
both to let the world fee, and in imagining ourfelves,
that in perfpicuity and ftrength of judgment we have no
fuperior.
Though the principle of affociation will be more
fully explained in another place, there is one obfer¬
vation which muft not be omitted here j it is, that we
do not always, nor perhaps for the moft part, make
thefe affociations ourfelves, but learn them from others
in very early life. We annex happinefs or mifery to
certain things or a£lions, becaufe we fee it done by our
parents or companions j and acquire principles of ac¬
tion by imitating thofe whom we efteem, or by being
told, by thofe in whom we have been taught to place
confidence, that fuch conduft will promote our happi¬
nefs, and that the reverfe will involve us in mifery.
Hence the fon too often inherits both the vices and the
virtues of his father as well as his eftate *, hence national
virtues and vices, difpofitions and opinions *, and hence
too it is, that habits formed before the period of diftinft
remembrance are fo generally miftaken for natural in-
Hindis. _ 20
From the whole then of this invefligation, we think
ourfelves warranted to conclude, that there is an effen- jnftinc-.
tial difference between mechanifm and inftindt, and be-tive, and
tween both and r.afon; that mankind perform adtionsautomatic
7 byadhons.
INS [28
Inftitutes. by each of thefe principles, and that ihofe aftions
’ v ought to be carefully dillinguifhed, and though the hu¬
man mind is unqueftionably endowed with a few in-
ftinds neceffary to the prefervation of the individual
and the propagation of the race, that by far the greater
part of thofe a£Hons which are commonly faid to pro-
21 ceed from inftinft are merely the effedls of early habits.
The danger-^re are Df opinion, that the prefent falhionable
of refer- mo(]e 0f referrinp; almofl every phenomenon in human
phenome- nature to a particular inltmct as its ultimate caule, is
non in hu- hurtful to fcience, as tending to check all further in-
man nature qUJry • and dangerous in morals, as making people im-
t0, !>.rtl plicitly follow, as diciates of nature and. nature's
ftincf as its God, the abfurd, fuperjlitious, or impious cufloms of their
ultimate refpeftive countries.
•aufe. INSTITUTES, in literary hidory, a book contain¬
ing the elements of the Roman law.
The inflitutes are divided into four books; and con¬
tain an abridgment of the whole body of the civil law,
being defigned for the ufe of ftudents. See Law
Index.
Institute, in Scots Law. When by difpolition
or deed of entail a number of perfons are called to
the fucceflion of an eftate one after another, the per-
fon firft named is called the injiitute, the others fubjii-
tutes.
National Institute of France, was founded by a de¬
cree of the new conftitution, and opened on the 7th
of December 1795. The abolition of royalty natu¬
rally fuggefted to the new rulers of France, that it
would likewife be proper to abolifh every thing which
had the remoteft connexion with it. Condorcet there¬
fore propofed that the feven old academies, fuch as thofe
of fciences, of infcriptions, &c. which had the term
royal prefixed to the whole of them, Ihould give way
to the eftablilhment of one new academy of arts and
fciences, under the title of the National Injlitute.
The academy, or inftitute, is to conlift of 288
members, the half of whom are to have their refidence
in Paris, and the reft in the different departments, with
24 foreign members.
This academy is divided into three clafl.es; thefe are
divided each into three feftions, and each of thefe
again is to confift of 12 members.
The JirJl clafs confifts of 10 feftions, which are to
prefide over mathematics, mechanical arts, aftronomy,
experimental philofophy, chemiftry, natural hiftory, bo¬
tany, anatomy and animal hiftory, medicine and for¬
gery, animal economy, and the veterinary fcience.
The fecond clafs has morality and politics for its de¬
partment, and confifts of fix feflions, viz. analyfis of
fenfations and ideas, morals, legiflature, political eco-
» nomy, hiftory, and geography.
The third clafs prefides over literature and the fine
; arts, confiding of eight fedlions, viz. univerfal grammar,
ancient languages, poetry, antiquities, painting, fculp-
ture, architedlure, and mufic.—Several volumes of me¬
moirs have been publiftied by each of the claffes.
The hall in which the whole claffes hold their meet¬
ings four times a year, forms part of the weft wing of
the old Louvre, which was eredled about the year
1528. It meafures 144 feet by 40, and is capable of
accommodating upwards of 1000 perfons.
The fchools of national inftruftion may be confidered
as forming a part of the fame inftitution. Thefe are,
Infular.
5 1 I N S
i.’The primary fchools, one of which is eftabliflied in Ihftiumon-
every diftridl, where children are taught the arts of
reading and writing, the elements of French grammar, „
of arithmetic and geometry, &c. 2. The central
fchools, fituated in the capital of every department, and
one is allowed for every 300,000 inhabitants. 3. The
fchools of health, which are three in number, where
medicine and furgery are ftudied. 4. Two fchools for
oriental languages. 5. The polytechnic fchool in Paris
for the direction of public works, an eftablilhment
which is generally admired. 6. The national inftitute,
of which we have already given fome account.
The executive department of all thefe is veiled in a
fupreme council at Paris. For the commodious execu¬
tion of fo many complicated branches, there is an ex-
tenfive office called Le Secretariat, which is divided in¬
to three departments, for the regulation of the different
kinds of inftrudlion, for weights and meafures, and for
theatres, national feafts, the eredlion of monuments,
&c.
By means of a permanent committee of inftru£lion,
under the authority of government, many improvements
of a literary and Icientific nature have been made, fuch
as the National Bibliography, or complete catalogrve of
books of all defcriptions 5 the annihilation of all dia-
lefls, which were incredibly numerous in France; the
eftabliffiment of the Confervatoire des Arts et Metiers ;
of the board of longitude, the general fchool of the
oriental languages, the national mufeum of antiquities,
the new-modelling of the grand national library, the
augmentation of the mufeum of natural hiftory, the
ecole des mines, and the fociety of natural hiftory in
Paris.
INSTITUTION, in general, fignifies the eftablilh-
ing or founding fomething.—In the canon and com¬
mon law, it fignifies the invefting a clerk with the fpi-
ritualities of 'a re£lory, &c. which is done by the biffiop,
who ufes the following formula : “ I inftitute you rec¬
tor of fuch a church with the cure of fouls, and receive
your care and mine.”
Institutions, in literary matters, denote a fyftem
of the elements or rules of any art or fcience.
Thus phyfical or medicinal inftitutions are fuch as
teach the neceffary praecognita to the practice of medi¬
cine, or the cure of difeafes.
INSTRUMENT, in general, whatever is fubfer-
vient to a caufe in producing any effedl.
Mathematical, P'hilofophical, &c. Instruments. See
Astronomy, Electricity, Geometry, Levelling,
Mechanics, Optics, Pneumatics, &c. &c.
Instrument, is alfo ufed in law, to fignify fome
public abl, or authentic deed, by means whereof any
truth is made apparent, or any right or title eftabliftied,
in a court of juftice.
Notorial Instrument, in Scots Law, any fail certi¬
fied in writing, under the hand of a notary-public.
INSUBRIUM ager, in Ancient Geography, a dif-
tri6l of the Tranfpadanaj fituated between the Ticinus
fo the weft, the Addua to the eaft, the Padus to the
fouth, and Orobii to the north. The people called /«-
fubres by Livy, Infubri by Ptolemy, and Ifombres by
Strabo. Now the duchy of Milan.
INSULAR, any thing belonging to an ifland -
Infular fituations are produ&ive of many happy confe-
quences to the inhabitants, both with refpedt to the cli-.
mate,-
INS [ 286 ] INS
Inflated, mate, fecurky, a'nd convenience for commerce •, for a
Infurance. par^cular account of which, fee Island and Coast.
INSULATED, in Architecture, an appellation gi¬
ven to fuch columns as ftand alone, or free from any
contiguous wall, like an ifland in the fea j whence the
name.
Insulated, in ele&rical experiments. When any
body is prevented from communicating with the earth
by the interpofition of an eleftric body, it is faid to be
infulated. See Electricity Index.
INSURANCE, in Law and Commerce, a contraft,
whereby one party engages to pay the Ioffes which the
other may fuftain, for a llipulated premium or confide-
ration. The molt common forts are, Infurance againlt
the dangers of the feas, infurance againft fire, infurance
of debts, and infurance of lives.
According to Beckmann, the oldeft laws and regu¬
lations refpedting infurance, are the following.
On the 28 th of January 1523, five perfons who had
received an appointment for that purpofe, drew up
fome articles at Florence, which continue to be em¬
ployed on the exchange at Leghorn. Thefe interefting
regulations, and the prefcribed form of policies, which
are deemed the oldeft, were inferted by Magens, in his
treatife on infurance, publilhed at Hamburgh in Italian
and German, in the year 1753.
A (hort regulation of the 25th May 1537, by the
emperor Charles V. refpefting bills of exchange and in¬
furance, is Hill preferred, in which even the fulfilling
of an agreement is ftriftly commanded.
In the year 1556, Philip II. of Spain gave the Spa-
nilh merchants certain regulations refpedling infurance,
which Magens has inferted in the fore-mentioned work.
They contain fome forms of policies on {hips going to
the Indies.
The chamber of infurance was eftabliftied at Am-
fterdam in 1598, an account of the firft regulations of
which office was publilhed by Pontanus, in his hiftory
«f that city.
Regulations refpe&ing infurance were formed by the
city of Middleburg in Zealand, in the year 1600 and
it appears that the firft regulations refpedting infurances
in England, were made in the following year. We
find from them, that infurers, prior to this period, had
fecured the confidence of the public fo completely, by
the honefty and reflitude of their conduft, that few oc-
• ffl/l. »f cafions for difpute had arifen *.
Jnvent. I. Insvjiance againjl Lofs at Sea, is a moft beneficial
▼ol. i. 382. inftitution, for promoting the fecurity of trade, and pre¬
venting the ruin of individuals •, and is now conduced
by a regular fyftem of rules, eftabliflred by the interpo¬
fition of the legiflature, the decifion of the courts of
juftice, and the pradlice of merchants.
It is carried on to the beft advantage by public com¬
panies, or by a confiderable number of private perfons,
each of whom only engages for a fmall fum, on the fame
veffel. There are two public companies eftabliffied by
authority of parliament, viz. the London and Royal
Exchange Infurance Companies. For procuring fub-
fcription by private perfons, brokers are generally em¬
ployed, who extend the policy or contraft of infurance,
and affift at fettling Ioffes. They are entitled to an al¬
lowance for their trouble, generally 5 per cent, on pre¬
miums, and 2 per cent, on Ioffes.
The parties who engage to pay the damage are call- Infurance.
ed the infurers or underwriters: the parties for whofe ——y——^
fecurity they engage are called the injured; and the
premium is underftood to be paid when the infurance is
made.
On this fubjeft, we ftiall confider, What is neceffary
to render an infurance valid :—When the rhk commen¬
ces, and when it terminates:—What conftitutes a total
or a partial lofs :—What proof of lofs is neceffary
and. How the lofs is adjufted.
Firjl, In order to render an infurance valid, the in-
fured mult have property really at ftake j the voyage
muft take place under the circumftances agreed on j
the dangers infured againft muft not be contrary to law,
and a candid account muft be given of circumftances
which enhance the danger.
1. The condition of poffeffing property was required
by 19 Geo. II. c. 37. to prevent Ihips from being frau¬
dulently deftroyed when infured above their value ; and
to difeourage a pradticq which had become common,
of converting policies to the purpofe of mere wagers.
In tranfadlions of this kind, as the infured had no pro¬
perty, and could claim no indemnification for partial
damage ; fo the infurers, having loft their wager by
the ihip’s being loft, could claim no abatement, though
part was faved : accordingly, the policies contained
claufes of intereft or no intereft, free from average, and
without benefit of falvage. All fuch policies are de¬
clared invalid.
This reftridlion does not extend to privateers, nor
to ffiips trading to the Spanilh or Portuguefe planta¬
tions.
Infurances are commonly made as intereft {hall ap¬
pear j and it is incumbent on the infured to prove the
value of his property. The value of the goods may
be proved by the invoices j and the coquet muft be
produced, if required, to inftrudl that the goods were
actually {hipped. It is admitted to value the {hip at
prime coft and charges, deducting the freights that
have been drawn fince purchafed, if the proprietors
choofe to ftand to that rule j but they are not reftri&ed
to it. Sometimes the value of the {hip or goods is ex-
preffed in the policy ; and this value muft be admitted,
although it be higher than the true one : but it is in¬
cumbent on the infured to prove that he had property
at ftake ; and, if the property be trifling in comparifon
of the fum infured, the infurance vvill be fet afide, as an
evafion of the ftatute.
Expe&ed profits, and bounty on the whale fiffiery,
if fpecified in the policy, may be infured.
When the value is lefs than the fum infured, the
owners may claim a return of premium for the excefs.
If there be fcveral policies on the fame fubjeft, of
different dates, the earlieft one is valid, and the others
muft; be vacated. If they be of the fame date, they
muft be vacated in equal proportions.
When a policy is vacated, in whole or in part, the
underwriters have a right to retain 4 per cent, for their
trouble.
In the cafe of a cargo intended for A, but after¬
wards font to B, both expe&ed it, and infured, and B
claimed for the value on its being loft. The under¬
writers anfwered, that it was a double infurance, and
they ought only to pay their proportion. Judgment
was
3
INS [ 287 J INS
T^furarce. was given, finding them liable for the whole, and re-
/—-■ ferving to them any demand competent againft the un¬
derwriters who infured for A.
Fraudulently to call: away or deftroy a Ihip infured
above its value, is felony.
2. If the ihip does not proceed on the voyage, or if,
being warranted to depart with convoy, it departs
without convoy, the infurance muft be vacated.
If the extent of a trading voyage be uncertain, the
longeft one in contemplation is defcribed in the policy,
and it is agreed that part of the premium ihall be re¬
turned, if the voyage be ihortened. In like manner, in
time of war, when infurance is made without condition
of convoy, it is agreed that part of the premium be re¬
turned in cafe it fail with convoy.
When a (hip is warranted to depart with convoy, it is
underftood from the ufual place of convoy (e. g. the
Dowms), and it is infured till it arrive there.
The common proof of failing with convoy is the pro-
dudlion of failing orders ; but, if a (hip be prevented by
the weather from receiving the failing orders, other
proof may be admitted.
A (hip was infured from the Thames to Halifax,
warranted to fail from Portfmouth with convoy. The
convoy had failed before the (hip arrived there, and the
underwriters declined to infure it, without convoy, for
the reft of the voyage. They were found liable to re¬
turn part of the premium, retaining only in proportion
to the accuftomed rate from London to Portfmouth.
TLhis decifion feems to eftablifti the following principle,
that, when the voyage performed is only part of that
defcribed in the policy, and wrhen the rifk can be pro¬
portioned, the underwriters are bound to return part
of the premium, though there be no agreement for that
purpofe.
But, if a (hip, infured only againft the hazards of the
fea, be taken by the enemy, the infured have no right
to claim a return of premium, though the capture hap¬
pen foon, under pretence that little fea-hazard was in¬
curred.
If a (hip deviates from the voyage defcribed in the
policy, without neceflity, it fets afide the infurance.
An intention to deviate is not fufhcient to fet it afide j
there muft be an aflual deviation ; and, even in that
cafe, the infurers are liable for damages fuftained before
deviation.
It is no deviation to go out of the way to the accuf¬
tomed place of convoy, nor to the neareft place where
neceffary repairs may be had. Deviation, for the pur¬
pofe of fmuggling, if without the knowledge of the
owners, does not fet afide the infurance, nor when the
mafter is forced by the crew to return.
In infurance to the Eaft Indies, and home, the in¬
furers are underftood to take the ri(k of detention in the
country, and of country voyages.
3. Infurance of prohibited goads, againft the ri(k of
feizure by the government, is Unlawful, and invalid.
Ihe inlurers, infured, brokers, and all acceftbries, are
liable to the fine of 500I.
4. If the infured have any information of more than
common danger, they muft reveal every fuch circum-
ftance to the infurers, otherwife the policy is fet afide.
This rule is eftablilhed for the prefervation of good
faith ; and there are feveral ftrong decifions in fupport
of it. If a (hip be fpoke to leaky at fea, or if there be Infuranee.
a report of its being loft, thefe circumftances muft be ^ '-f
communicated to the infurers. Even the concealment
of a falfe report of lofs vitiates the infurance ; and, if
the (hip be afterwards loft, though in a different man¬
ner, the infured will recover nothing. In a voyage
from Carolina to London, another (hip had failed ten
days after that which was infured, and arrived feven
days before the infurance was made $ and the conceal¬
ment of this circumftance, though the faft was not pro¬
ved to the fatisfaftien of the jury, was confidered as fuf-
ficient to fet it afide. Alfo, during the continuance of
the American war, a (hip being infured from Portugal,
by the month, without condefcending oft the voyage,
failed for North America, and was taken by a provin¬
cial privateer. The infurers refufed to pay, becaufe the
hazardous deftination was concealed ; and it was only
upon proof of the infured being equally ignorant of it
that they were found liable.
But the infured are not obliged to take notice of
general perils, which the infurers are underftood to
have in contemplation ; dangerous navigation, Weft
Indian hurricanes, enterprifes of the enemy, and the
like.
Infurance is not fet afide by a miftake in the name
of the (hip or mafter, or the like.
Infurance may be made on an uncertain (hip j on any
(hip that the goods may be loaded on j on any (hip that
A (hall fail in from Virginia. In this laft cafe, the po¬
licy is not transferred to a drip which A goes on board
during the v»yage.
Secondly, If a (hip be infured at and from a port,
the infurance commences immediately if the (hip be
there, or at its arrival there. If it be damaged when
preparing for a voyage, the infurers are liable j but
not if the voyage be laid afide for feveral years, with
confent of the owners. Infurance from a port com¬
mences when the (hip breaks ground j and, if it fet
fail, and be driven back and loft in the port, the in¬
furers are liable.
Infurance on goods generally continues till they be
landed j but, if they be fold after the (hip’s arrival, and
freight contracted to another port, the infurance is con¬
cluded. Goods fent on board another (hip or lighter
are not at the rifk of the infurer j but goods fent alhore
in the long boat are.
Infurance on freight commences when the goods are
put on board.
Goods from the Eaft Indies, infured to Gibraltar, aad
to be reftiipped from thence to Britain, were put on
board a ftore-fliip at Gibraltar, to wait an opportunity
of refhipping, and were loft : The cuftom of putting
goods aboard a ftore-lhip being proved, the infurers
were found'liable. .
Lofs of fails afhore, when the (hip is repairing, is
comprehended within the infurance. What is neceffa-
rily underftood, is infured, as well as what is expreffed j
the eflential means, and intermediate fteps, as well as
the end. Ships performing quarantine are at the rilk of
the infurer.
Thirdly, The infurers are liable for a total lofs when
the fubjeCl perifties through any of the perils infured
againft.. barratry, though it properly fignifies running
away with the (hip, extends to any kind of fraud in
the
I N .S [ 2B8 ] INS
the'tnafter or mariners. Infurance againft detention of
princes does not extend to ihips that are feized for tranf-
greffing the laws of foreign countries.
The infurers are alfo liable for a total lofs, when
damage is fuftained, and the remaining property aban¬
doned or veiled in the infurers.
If a ihip be ftranded, or taken, and kept by the ene¬
my, or detained by any foreign power, or feized for
the fervice of the government, the proprietors have a
right to abandon.
But, if a ihip be taken by the enemy, and be re¬
taken, or makes its efcape, before action againft the
infurers 5 have the infured a right to abandon, or muft
they only claim for the damages fuftained as an ave¬
rage lofs ? There are oppofite deciiions, according as
the circumftances of the cafe were ftrong. When the
ihip was long detained, the goods periihable, the voy¬
age entirely loft, or fo difturbed, that the purfuit of it
was not worth the freight, or when the damage ex¬
ceeds half the value of the thing, they have been found
•entitled to abandon ; Gofs againft Withers, 2 Bur¬
row, 683.). But, if the voyage be completed with
little trouble or delay, they are not entitled 5 (Hamil¬
ton againft Mendez, 2 Burrow, 1198.).
The infured cannot claim, as for a total lofs, on
an offer to abandon, when the lofs is, in its nature,
only partial j for, if this were permitted, they might
devolve the lofs ocCaftoned by bad markets on the in¬
furers.
And, in all cafes, the infured have their option to
abandon, or not. They may retain their property if
thev pleafe, and claim for an average lofs; and they
muft make their option before they claim. „
If the goods be fo much damaged, that their value
is lefs than the freight, the infurers are accountable as
for a total lofs.
The infurers are liable for general average, when
the property is charged with contribution ; and lor
particular average, when the property is damaged, or
part of it deftroyed.
If the damage be fuftained through the fault of the
fnip, the owners of the goods may have recourfe, ei¬
ther againft the matter or infurers } and, if the infurers
be charged, they Hand in the place of the owners, and
have recourfe againft the mafter.
In order to prevent the infurers from being troubled
with frivolous demands for average, it is generally fti-
pulated, that none (hall be charged under 5 per cent,
or fome other determined rate 5 and corn, flax, fruit,
fifh, and like perifhable goods, are warranted free from
average, unlefs general, or the (hip be ftranded.
In order to encourage every effort to fave the (hip,
the infurers are liable for charges laid out with that de-
fign, although the fubjea penfli. Thus, they may be
charged with more than the fum infured.
In cafe of goods being damaged, the proportion of
the fum infured, for which the underwriters are liable,
is regulated by the proportion of the prices which the
found and damaged goods fetch at the port of defti-
nation. The prime coft of the goods is not confidered,
nor the neceflity of immediate fale, in confequence of
damage. Although the damaged goods fell above
prime coft, the infurers are liable.
Fourthly, If a (hip be loft, and the crew faved, the
lofs is proved by the evidence of the crew.
If damage be fuftained, the extent is proved by an rnfurance.
examination of the fubjeft damaged, at the (hip’s ar- v—
rival; and the caufe by the evidence of the crew’.
If the (hip be ftranded, evidence muft be taken at
the place where ftranded.
Documents of lofs muft be laid before the under¬
writers, wdth all convenient fpeed j and, if thefe be
fufficiently clear, the lofs (hould be immediately fettled.
The underwriters generally grant their notes at a month
or fix weeks date for their proportions.
If a (hip be not heard of for a certain time, it is pre¬
fumed loft ; and the underwriters are liable to pay the
fums infured, the property being abandoned to them in
the event of the (hip’s return. Six months are allowed
for a voyage to any part of Europe, a year to America,
and twro years to the Eaft Indies.
By the ordinance of Hamburgh, if a (hip be three
months beyond the ufual time of performing a voy¬
age, the underwriters may be defired to pay 92 per
cent, on an abandon. If they decline it, they are al-
low-ed 14 months more, and then they muft pay the full
value.
A (hip infured againft the hazards of the fea, but not
againft the enemy, if never heard of, is prefumed loft
at fea.
Fifthly, In order that the manner of fettling Ioffes
may be underftood, w7e muft explain what is meant by
covering property. We mentioned already, that infu-
rances for greater fums than the infured had really at
(lake, were contrary to law : but fome latitude is al¬
lowed in that refpeft *, for if the owner were to infure
no more than the exadl value of his property, he would
lofe the premium of infurance, and the abatement, if
any was agreed on.
For example, if he has goods on board to the value
of 1 ool. and infures the fame at 5 per cent, to abate
2 per cent, in cafe of lofs $ then, if a total lofs hap¬
pen, he recovers 98I. from the infurers, of which yl.
being applied to re- place the premium, the nett fum
faved is only 93I. *, but, if the value on board be only
93I. and the fum infured 100I. he would be fully in¬
demnified for the lofs j and his property, in that cafe,
is faid to be covered.
To find how much (hould be infured to cover any
fum, fubtraft the amount of the premium and abate¬
ment (if any) from 100I. As the remainder is to 100I.
fo is the value to the fum which covers it.
In cafe of a total lofs, if the fum infured be not
greater than that w7hich covers the property, the in¬
furers muft pay it all. If greater, they pay what
covers the property, and return the premium on the
overplus.
Partial Ioffes are regulated by this principle, that
whereas the owner is not fully indemnified, in cafe of a
total lofs, unlefs he covers his property, therefore he
(hould only be indemnified for a partial lofs in the fame
proportion ; and, if it be not fully infured, he is confi¬
dered as infurer himfelf, for the part not covered, and
rauft bear a fuitable proportion of the lofs. Therefore
the value of the property is proved, and the fum requi¬
red to cover it computed. If that fum be all infured,
the underwriters pay the whole damage •, if only part
be infured, they pay their (hare, which is computed by
the following rule : As the fam which covers the pro¬
perty is to the fum infured, fo is the whole damage to
mm
INS [ 2
Infurance* the part for which the infurers are liable.—For example,
if the value of the property be 360I. the fum infured
300I. the premium 8 per cent, and abatement 2 per
cent. ; then the fum which fliould be infured to cover
the property is 400I. •, and, if damage be fuftained to
the extent of 200I. the owners will recover 150I.
If a voyage is infured out and home, the premium
outward muft be conlidered as part of the value on the
homeward property, and the fum neceffary to cover it
computed accordingly. For example, to infure tool,
out and home, at 5 per cent, each voyage, abatement
2 per cent, we compute thus :
93 : 100 : : L. 100 : L. 107 : 10
outward, premium on L. 107 : 10
per cent. L. 5 : 7 : 6 : 93 : 100 : :
L. 113 : 6s. to be infured home j
which is L. 5 : 13 : 65 and, if the (hip be loll; on the
homeward voyage,
: 6, to be infured
6 outwards, at 5
: L. 105 : 7 : 6 :
the premium on
From the fum infured home
Subtract the difcount, 2 per cent.
L. 113
2
Sum for which the infurers are liable L. 111
Infurance out h,. 5 76
Infurance home 5 J3 3
Covered property
L. 100 
II. Insurance againjl Fire. There are feveral offices
in Britain for this purpofe, of which the Sun fire-office is
the moft coniiderable. Infurances are divided into com¬
mon, hazardous, and doubly hazardous, according to
the nature of the fubjeCt infured. When the fum in¬
fured is high, there is a higher premium per cent, de¬
manded •, and money, papers, jewels, pictures, and
gunpowder, are not comprehended. If a fubjeft be
wrong defcribed, in order that it may be infured at a
lower premium, the policy is void. The benefit of a
policy is transferred, by indorfement, to the repre-
fentatives of the perfon in whofe favour it was made ;
and it may be transferred to other houfes when the
infured-changes his habitation. If infurance be made
on the fame fubject in different offices, it mud be fpe-
cified, by indorfement, on the policy j and, in cafe
of lois, the offices pay proportionally. The infurers
pay all expences in attempting to extinguiffi fire, or
fave goods, though not fuccefsful. If the value of a
fu’ijecl be infured in part, and damage be fuftained,
the infurers pay the whole, if it does not exceed the fum
infured.
III. Insurance of Debts. See Bottomry.
IV. In virtue of Insurance for Lives, when the per¬
fon lies, a fum of money becomes payable to the per¬
fon on whofe behalf the policy of infurance was granted.
One ol the principal infurance-offices of this kind, is
that ol the Amicable Society for a oerpetual infurance,
kept in Serjeant’s-inn, Fleet-ftreet, London.
lins fociety at Serjeant’s-inn requires an annual
payment of 5I. from every member during life, pay¬
able quarterly. I he whole annual income hence ari-
ling is equally divided among the nominees, or heirs,
of inch memoers as die every year •, and this renders
the dividends among the nominees, in different years,
more or lefs, according to the number of members
who have happened to die in thole years. ‘ But this
Vol. XL Part I.
89 ] INS
fociety engages that the dividends fhall not be lefs than Infurance*
150I. to each claimant, though they may be more.— ' '"v‘
None are admitted whofe ages are greater than 45,
or lefs than 12 j nor is there any difference of contri¬
bution allowed on account of difference of age.—This
fociety has fubfifted ever fince 1706, and its credit
and ufefulnefs are well eftabliihed. Its plan, however,
is liable to feveral objections. Firft, it is evident,
that regulating the dividends among the nominees, by
the number of members who die every year, is not equi¬
table 5 becaufe it makes the benefit which a member is
to receive to depend, not on the value of his contribu¬
tion, but on a contingency 5 that is, the number of
members that fhall happen to die the fame year with
him. Secondly, its requiring the lame payments from
all perfons under 45, is alfo not equitable j for the pay¬
ment of a perlon admitted at 1 2 ought not to be more
than half the payment of a perfon admitted at 45.
Thirdly, its plan is fo narrow, as to confine its ufeful¬
nefs too much. It can be of no fervice to any perfon
whofe age exceeds 45. It is likewife by no means pro¬
perly adapted to the circumftances of perfons who want
to make aifurances on their lives for only one year, or a
fhort term of years. For example : the true value of
the affurance of 150I. for five years, on the life of a
perfon whofe age is 39, may be found, by the firft rule,
t© be nearly three guineas per annum, fuppofing inte-
reft at 3 per cent, and the probabilities of the duration of
human life, as they are given in Dr Halley’s Table of
Obfervations. But fuch an affurance could not be made
in this fociety without an annual payment of jl. Nei¬
ther is the plan of this fociety at all adapted to the cir¬
cumftances of perfons who want to make affurances on
particular furvivorffiips. For example : a perfon pof-
fefled of an eftate or falary, which muft be loft with his
life, has a perfon dependent upon him, for whom he
defires to fecure a fum of money payable at his death.
But he defires this only as a fecurity againft the danger
of his dying firft, and leaving a wife, or a parent, with¬
out fupport. In thefe circumftances he enters himfelf
into this fociety ; and, by an annual payment of 5I. en¬
titles his nominee at his death to 150I. In a few years,
perhaps, his nominee happens to die 5 and having then
loft the advantages he had in view, he determines to
forfeit his former payments, and to withdraw from the
fociety. The right method, in this cafe, would have
been to have taken from fuch a perfon the true value of
the fum affured, “ on the fuppofition of non-payment,
provided he thould furvive.” In this way he'would
have chofen to contract with the fociety : and had he
done this, he would have paid for the affurance (fuppo¬
fing intereft at 3 percent, his age 30, the age of his no¬
minee 30, and the values of ^ lives as given by M. de
Moivre) 3I. 8s. in annual payments, to begin immedi¬
ately, and to be continued during the joint duration of
his own life, and the life of his nominee.
The Equitable Society for Aflurances on Lives and
Survivorfhips, which meets at Blackfriars Bridge, is
one of the moft important of the kind. It was efta-
blifhed in the year 1762, in confequence of propo'als
made, and leclures recommending the defign, which
had been read by Mr Dodlbn, author of the Mathe-
matica: Repofitory. It allures any turns or reverfionary
annuities, on any life or lives, for any number of years,
as well as for the whole continuance of the lives; and
O o in
INS [ 29o ] IN T
Inurafice. |n any manner that may be be ft adapted to the views of
*'*" v t'ne perfons affnred. For inftance, any perfons who de¬
pend on incomes which muft be loft when they die, or
who are only tenants for life in eftates, may, it they
want to borrow money, be enabled to give fufficient
fecurity, by afl'uring fuch fums as they want to bor¬
row, and affigning the policy. In the fame way
clergymen, and others who hold places of profit, hav¬
ing families whofe fubliftence depends on the conti-
ninhice of their lives ; fuch as enjoy annuities for the
lives of others ; any perfon entitled to an eftate, legacy,
&c. after another rerfon, provided he furvives 5 hui-
bands may provide annuities for their wives, if they
leave them widows j parents may, by alluring the lives
of their children, when infants, till they attain a given
age, fecure for them, fhould they live till that age, fums
neceffary for appreuticelhips, &C.; perfons apprehenfive
of being left without fupport in old age, may here purchafe
annuities, if willing to wrait for the commencement of
the payment of thefe till they are 55 or 60 years of age.
In fine, there are no kinds of affurances on lives and
furvworfhips, which this fociety does not make, follow¬
ing the rules^ given by the beft mathematical writers
on life annuities, particularly Mr Simfon’s. In or¬
der to gain fuch a profit as may render it a perma¬
nent benefit to the public, and enable it to bear the ex-
pences of management, it takes the advantage of mak¬
ing its calculations at fo low an intereft as 3 per cent,
and from tables of the probabilities and values of lives
in London, where, as in all great towns, the rate of
human mortality is much greater than it is in common
among mankind.
This fociety, finding in the month of .Tune 1777,
that their affairs were in a flourilhing condition, came
to a refolution to reduce their annual premiums one-
tenth ; and they adopted newr tables in the year 1782,
founded on the probabilities of life at Northampton, in-
ftead of thofe which were framed from the London bills
of mortality. It was afterwards thought proper to
make an addition, for greater fecurity, of 15 per cent,
to the true value of the affurances, as calculated from
the table of mortality at Northampton. To make a
fuitable recompenfe to the affured for the payments they
had formerly made, which had been greater than the
new rates required, an addition of il. 10s, was made to
their claims for every premium they had paid. The re-
fult of this meafure was, that in 1785 the bulinefs of
the fociety was nearly doubled, the fums affured a-
mounting to 720,000!. In confequence of a minute in-
veftigation, the fociety took off the 15 per cent, charged
on premiums in 1782, and added il. per cent, more to
the affurer’s claims, for every payment made before tbe
ift of January 1786. Bufinefs ftill increafing, they
made another addition of il. per cent, in 1791 •, and in
tbe fubfequent year a farther addition of 2I. per cent, by
which tbe claims of fuch as affured in 1 770 came to be
more than doubled, and thofe of a prior date were ftill
higher. By fuch integrity and confequent increafe of bu-
finefs, the fums affured amounted, on the 3 1 ft of Decem¬
ber 1792, to the aftonifiiing fum of three millions fter-
ling ; and exactly three years after, they amounted to
about one million more.
I he rates of affurance, as reduced to their real va¬
lues in 1786, according to which all bufinefs is now
tranfacted, are the following.
Infu ranee
Sum affured tool. 11
Intendant.
are,
The Royal Exchange Affurance, which was em¬
powered to affure lives by virtue of its fecond charter,
bearing date tbe 29th of April 1721 ; the Weftminfter
Society was eftabliflied in 1792, for alluring lives and
annuities ; and the Pelican Life Office was inftituted in
1797, w'hich makes a new fpecies of affurance, by way
of endowment for daughters, when they have attained
the age of 21 years.
Rc-Insurance is a fecond contradl, made by any in-
furer, to transfer tbe rifk he has engaged for to another.
It is in general forbidden by 19 Geo. II. c. 37. but is
permitted to the reprefentatives of an infurer in cafe of
his death, or his affignees in cafe of bis bankruptcy •,
and it muff be mentioned in the policy that it is a re¬
in furance.
INT AGLIOS, precious ftones on which are engraved
the heads of great men, inferiptions, and the like ; fuch
as wTe frequently fee fet in rings, feals, &c.
INTEGER, in Arithmetic, a whole number, in con-
tradiftindlion to a fradlion.
INTEGRAL, or Integrant, in Philofophy, ap¬
pellations given to parts of bodies which are of a limilar
nature with the whole : thus filings of iron have the
fame nature and properties as bars of iron.
Bodies may be reduced into their integrant parts by
triture or grinding, limation or filing, folution, amal¬
gamation, &c. See Grinding.
Integral Calculus, in tbe new analyfis, is tbe re-
verfe of the different'-*’ calculus, and is tbe finding of
the integral from a given differential •, being fimilar to
tbe inverfe method of fluxions. See Fluxions.
INTEGUMENTS, in Anatomy, denote the com¬
mon coverings which inveft the body j as the cuticula,
cutis, &c. See Anatomy.
Integument is alfo extended to the particular
membranes which inveft certain parts of the body j as
the coats or tunics of the eye.
INTELLECT, a term ufed among philofophers, to
fignify that faculty of the foul ufually called the under-
/landing. Sec Logic and Metaphysics.
INTENDANT, one who has the condudl, infpec-
tion, and management of any thing. See Superin-
TENDANT.
This is a title frequent among the French : they
have inlendants of the marine} who are officers in the fea-
ports,
I N T [ 291 ] I N T
Intendment ports, wliofe bufiiiefs it is to take care the ordinances
j t and regulations relating to Tea affairs be obferved : in-
fion" " tendants of the finances, who have the direction of the
i v—— revenues : intendants of provinces, who are appointed by
the king to take care of the adminiftration of juftice,
policy, and finances in the province : alfo intendants of
buildings, of houfes, &c.
INTENDMENT, in Lave, is the intention, defign,
or true meaning, of a perfon or thing which frequent¬
ly fupplies what is not fully exprefled ; but though the
intent of parties in deeds and contracfs is much regard¬
ed by the law, yet it cannot take place againft the rules
of law.
Intendment of Crimes; this, in cafe of treafon
where the intention is proved by circumftances, is pu-
nifhable in the fame manner as if it was put in execu¬
tion. So, if a perfon enter a houfe in the night-time,
with an intent to commit burglary, it is felony j alfo,
an affault, with an intent to commit a robbery on the
highway is made felony, and punifhed with tranfporta-
tion, 7 Geo. II. c. 21.
INTENT, in the civil law, fignifies to begin, or
commence, an aft ion or procefs.
INTENTION, in Medicine, that judgment or me¬
thod of cure which a phyfician forms to himfelf from a
due examination of fymptoms.
Intention, in Pkyjics, the increafe of the power or
energy of any quality ; as heat, cold, &c. by which it
Hands oppofed to remiffion, which fignifies its decreafe
or diminution.
Intention, in Metaphyfics, denotes an exertion of
the intellectual faculties with more than ordinary vigour;
when the mind with earneitnefs fixes its view on any
idea, confiders it on all fides, and will not be called off
by any felicitation.
IN TER AMN A, in Ancient Geography, fo called
from its fituation between rivers, or in an ifiand in the
river Nar 5 a town of the Cifapennine Umbria. Inte-
ramnates the people j furnamed Nartes by Pliny, to
difiinguiih them from the people of other Interamnae.
Now Terni: a town in the pope’s territory in Umbria.
E. Long. 13. 38 N. Lat. 42. 40.
INTERAMNA, a town and colony of the Volfci in
Latium, on the confines of Samnium, at the conllu-
ence of the rivers Liris and Melpis •, and for dillinc-
tion fake called Lirinas. The town is now in ruins.
INTERAMNA, or Interamnia Prcetutianorum (Ptole¬
my); a town in the territory of the Praetutiani, a part of
the Picenum. Now Teramo, in the Abruzzo of Naples.
E. Long. 15. N. Lat. 42. 40.
INTERCALARY, an appellation given to the
odd day inferted in leap-year; which was fo called
from calo, calare, “ to proclaim,” it being proclaim¬
ed by the priefts with a loud voice.
INTERCAT1A, in Ancient Geography, a town of
the Vaccaei in the Hither Spain. Here Scipio Atmilia-
nus flew a champion of the barbarians in fingle com¬
bat ; and was the firfi; who mounted the wall in taking
the town. It was fituated to the fouth-eaft of Affuria;
now faid to be in ruins. % 1
INTERCESSION (intercefjio), was ufed in ancient
Rome, for the aft of a tribune of the people, or other
magiflrate, by which he inhibited the afts of other
magiltrates ; or even, in cafe of the tribunes, the de¬
crees of the fenate. Veto was the folemn word ufed
by the tribunes when they inhibited any decree of the It.tercefTor
fenate or law propofed to the people. The general ^ t I' ^
law of thefe interceffions was, that any magiftrate . ‘ .<
might inhibit the afts of his equal or inferior ; but the
tribunes had the foie prerogative of controlling the
afts of every other magiftrate, yet could not be con¬
trolled themfelves by any.
INTERCESSOR (from inter and cedo s‘ I go be¬
tween”), a perfon who prays, expoftulates, or inter¬
cedes, in behalf of another. In the Roman law, jnter-
ceffor was the name of an officer, whom the governors
of provinces appointed principally to raife taxes and
other duties.
Intercessor, is alfo a term heretofore applied to
fuch bithops as, during the vacancy of a fee, admini-
ftered the bifhoprick, till a fucceffor to the deceafed
bifhop had been elefted. The third council of Car¬
thage calls thefe interventors.
I NT ERC O L UM NI AT 1 ON, in Architecture, de¬
notes the fpace between two columns, which is always
to be proportioned to the height and bulk of the co¬
lumns.
INTERCOSTAL, in Anatomy, an appellation gi¬
ven to fuch mufclcs, nerves, arteries, and veins, as lie
between the ribs.
INTERDICT, an ecclefiaftical cenfure, by which
the church of Rome forbids the performance of divine
fervice in a kingdom, province, town, Stc.^ This cen¬
fure has been frequently executed in France, Italy, and
Germany; and in the year 1170, Pope Alexander III.
put all England under an interdift, forbidding the cler¬
gy to perform any part of divine fervice, except bapti-
fing of infants, taking confeffions, and giving abfolution
to dying penitents. But this cenfure being liable to the
ill confequences of promoting libertinifm and a negleft
of religion, the fucceeding popes have very feldom made
ufe of it.
There was alfo an interdift of perfons, who were
deprived of the benefit of attending on divine fervice.
Particular perfons were alfo anciently interdicted of fire
and water, which fignified a banifhment for fome par¬
ticular offence ; by their cenfure no perfon was allow¬
ed to receive them, or allow them fire or water ; and
being thus wholly deprived of the trvo neceffary ele¬
ments of life, they were doubtlefs under a kind of civil
death.
INTEREST, is the premium or money paid for
the loan or ufe of other money.
Many good and learned men have in former times
very much perplexed themfelves and other people by
railing doubts about the legality of intereil in foro con-
ficientiee. It may not be amifs here to inquire upon
what grounds this matter does really Hand.
The enemies to interelt in general make no diflinc-
tion between that and ufury, holding any increaie of
money to be indefenfibly ufurious. And this they
ground as well on the prohibition of it by the law of
Moles among the Jews, as alfo upon what is laid dowm
by Arillotle, That money is naturally barren; and to
make it breed money is prepofterous, and a perverfion
of the end of its inftitution, which was only to ferve
the purpofes of exchange, and not of increafe. Hence
the fchool-divines have branded the praftice of taking
intereft, as being contrary to the divine law’ both na¬
tural and revealed ; and the canon law has proferibed
O o 2 the
I N T [ 202 ] I N T
the taking any the lead increafe for the loan of money
as a mortal lin.
But, in anfwer to this, it may be obferved, that the
Mofaical precept was clearly a political, and not a mo¬
ral, precept. It only prohibited the Jews from ta¬
king ufury from their brethren the Jews ; but in ex-
prefs words permitted them to take it of a ftranger ; .
which proves that the taking of moderate ufury, or a
reward for the ufe, for fo the word fignifies, is not ma¬
lum in fe, fince it was allowed where any but an If-
raelite was concerned. And as to Ariftotle’s reafon,
deduced from the natural barrennefs of money, the
fame may with equal force be alleged of houfes, which
never breed houfes •, and twenty other things, which
nobody doubts it is lawful to make profit of, by letting
them to hire. And though money was originally ufed
only for the purpofes of exchange, yet the laws of any
date may be well judified in permitting it to be turn¬
ed to the purpofes of profit, if the convenience of fo-
ciety (the great end for which money was invented)
ihall require it. And that the allowance of moderate
intered tends greatly to the benefit of the public, efpe-
cially in a trading country, will appear from that ge¬
nerally acknowledged principle, that commerce cannot
fubfid wfithout mutual and extenfive credit. Unlefs
money therefore can be borrowed, trade cannot be
carried on : and if no premium were allowed for the
hire of money, fewT perfons would care to lend it •, or
at lead the eafe of borrowing at a drort warning (which
is the life of commerce) would be entirely at an end.
Thus, in the dark ages of monkifh fuperdition and ci¬
vil tyranny, when intered was laid under a total in-
terdift, commerce was alfo at its lowed ebb, and fell
entirely into the hands of the Jews and Lombards :
but when men’s minds began to be more enlarged, when
true religion and real liberty revived, commerce grew
again into credit 5 and again introduced with itfelf its
infeparable companion, the doflrine of loans upon in¬
tered.
And, really, confidered abdrafledly from this its
ufe, fince all other conveniences of life may be either
bought or hired, but money can only be hired, there
feems no greater impropriety in taking a recompenfe
or price for the hire of this, than of any other conve¬
nience. If one borrow tool, to employ in a benefi¬
cial trade, it is but equitable that the lender diould
have a proportion of the gains. To demand an exor¬
bitant price is equally contrary to confcience, for the
loan of a horfe, or the loan of a fum of money: but a
reafonable equivalent for the temporary inconvenience
which the owner may feel by the want of it, and for
the hazard of his lofing it entirely, is not more immoral
in one cafe than it is in the other. And indeed the
abfolute prohibition of lending upon any, even moderate
intertd, introduces the very inconvenience which it
feems meant to remedy. The necedity of individuals
will make borrowing unavoidable. Without fome pro¬
fit by law, there wfill be but few Jenders : and thofe
principally bad men, wdio will break through the law,
and take a profit j and then will endeavour to indem¬
nify themfelves from the danger of the penalty, by
making that profit exorbitant. Thus, while all de¬
grees of profit were difcountenanced, we find more
complaints of ufury, and more flagrant inftances of
sppreffion, than in modern times when money may be
eafily had at a low intereft. A capital dlftinflion mufl: Intereft.
therefore be made between a moderate and exorbitant
profit 5 to the former of which we ufually give the
name of inter eft, to the latter the truly odious appella¬
tion of ufuru : the former is necefihry in every civil
Hate •, if it were but to exclude the latter, which ought
never to be tolerated in any well regulated fociety.—.
For, as the whole of this matter is well lummed up by
Grotius, “ if the compenfation allowed by law does
not exceed the proportion of the hazard run, or the
xvant felt, by the loan, its allowance is neither repug¬
nant to the revealed nor to the natural law' : but if it
exceeds thofe bounds, it is then oppreflive ufury ; and
though the municipal laws may give it impunity, they
never can make it juft.”
We fee, that the exorbitance or moderation of in-
tereft, for the money lent, depends upon two circum-
ftances •, the inconvenience of parting with it for the
prefent, and the hazard of lofing it entirely. The in¬
convenience to individual lenders can never be eftima-
ted by laws j the rate therefore of general intereil mutt
depend upon the ufual or general inconvenience. This
refults entirely from the quantity of fpecie or current
money in the kingdom : tor, the more fpecie there is
circulating in any nation, the greater fuperfluity there
wall be, beyond what is neceffary to carry on the bu-
fmefs of exchange and the common concerns of life.
In every nation, or public community, there is a certain
quantity of money thus neceflary ; which a perfon w'ell
tkilled in political arithmetic might perhaps calculate
as exaftly as a private banker can the demand for run¬
ning calh in his owm thop: all above this needfary
quantity may be fpared, or lent, without much incon¬
venience to the refpedive leaders j and the greater this
national fuperfluity is, the more numerous will be the
lenders, and the lowrer ought the rate of the national
intereft to be 5 but where there is not enough, or bare¬
ly enough, circulating cafti to anfwer the ordinary
ufes of the public, intereft will he proportionably high;
for lenders will be but few, as few can fubmit to the
inconvenience of lending.
So alfo the hazard of an entire lofs has its weight in
the regulation of intereft : hence, the better the fecu-
rity, the low'er will the intereft be 5 the rate of intereft
being generally in a compound ratio, formed out of
the inconvenience and the hazard. And as, if there
were no inconvenience, there fhould be no interert but
what is equivalent to the hazard 5 fo, if there w'ere no
hazard, there ought to be no intereft, fave only w'hat
arifes from the mere inconvenience of lending. Thus,
if the quantity of fpecie in a nation be fuch, that the
general inconvenience of lending for a year is compu¬
ted to amount to three per cent, a man that has money
by him will perhaps lend it upon good perfonal fecu-
rity at five per cent, allowing two for the hazard run j
he will lend it upon landed fecurity, or mortgage, at
four per cent, the hazard being proportionably lefs ^
but he will lend it to the ftate, on the maintenance of
which all his property depends, at three per cent, the
hazard being none at all.
But fometimes the hazard may be greater than the
rate of intereft allowed by law will compenfate. And.
this gives rife to the praftice, 1. Of bottomry, or re-
fpondentia. 2. Of policies of iniurance. See Bot¬
tomry, and INSURANCE.
I N T [ 293 ] I N T
Intereft Upon the two principles of inconvenience and ha¬
il . zard, compared together, different nations have at dif-
Intenm. ferent tjmes eftablidied different rates of intereft. The
Romans at one time allowed centiflhnce, one per cent,
monthly, or twelve per cent, per annum, to be taken
for common loans : but Juftinian reduced it to trientes,
or one-third of the as or centiflimce, that is four per
cent. •, but allowed higher intereft to be taken of mer¬
chants, becaufe there the hazard was greater. So too
Grotius informs us, that in Holland the rate of intereft
was then eight per cent, in common loans, but twelve
to merchants. Our law eftablithes one ftandard for all
alike, where the pledge or fecurity itfelf is not put in
jeopardy 5 left, under the general pretence of vague
and indeterminate hazards, a door Should be opened to
fraud and ufury ; leaving fpeciftc hazards to be provi¬
ded againft by ipecific, infurances, or by loans upon
refpondentia or bottomry. But as to the rate of legal
intereft, it has varied and decreafed for 200 years paft,
according as the quantity of fpecie in the kingdom has
increafed by acceflions of trade, the introdudlion of
paper-credit, and other circumftances. The ftatute
37 Hen. VIII. c. 9. confined intereft to ten per cent,
and fo did the ftatute 13 Eliz. c. 8. But as, through
the encouragements given in her reign to commerce,
the nation grew more wealthy j fo, under her facceffor,
the ftatute 21 Jac. I. c. 17. reduced it to eight per
cent. ; as did the ftatute 12 Car. II. c. 13. to fix ; and
laftly, by the ftatute 12 Ann. ftat. 2. c. 16. it was
brought down to five per cent, yearly, which is now
the extremity of legal intereft that can be taken. But
yet, if a contrail which carries intereft be made in a
foreign country, our courts will direil the payment of
intereft according to the law of that country in which
the contrail was made. Thus Irifti, American, Turk-
ilh, and Indian intereft, have been allowed in our courts
to the amount of even 1 2 per cent. For the modera¬
tion or exorbitance of intereft depends upon local cir¬
cumftances ; and the refufal to enforce fuch contrails
would put a flop to all foreign trade. And, by ftat.
14 Geo. III. c. 79. all mortgages and other fecuri-
ties upon eftates or other property in Ireland or the
plantations, bearing intereft not exceeding fix per cent,
ftiall be legal ; though executed in the kingdom of
Great Britain : unlefs the money lent fhall be known
at the time to exceed the value of the thing in pledge ;
in which cafe alfo, to prevent ufurious contrails at
home under colour of fuch foreign fecurities, the bor¬
rower {hall forfeit treble the fum fo borrowed.
For the method of computing intereft, fee Arith¬
metic, (cil. iv. p. 64c, and Algebra, feil. xx.
p- 658.^
INTERJECTION, in Grammar, an indeclinable
part of fpeech, ftgnitying fome paftion or emotion of
the mind. See GRAMMAR.
INTERIM, a name given to a formulary, or kind
of confeftion of the articles of faith, obtruded upon
the Proteilants after Luther’s death by the emperor
Charles V. when he had defeated their forces ; fo called
becaufe it was only to take place in the interim (mean
time) till a general council ftiould have decided all
points in difpute between the Proteftants and Roma-
nifts. It retained moft of the doitrmes and ceremonies
of the Romanifts, excepting that of marriage, which
was allowed to the clergy, and communion to the laity Interlo-
under both kinds. Moft of the Proteftants rejedled it. cutor
There were two other interims ; one of Leipfic, the internient,
other of Franconia. '—.—v —.■'
INTERLOCUTOR, in Scots Law, is the decifion
or judgment of a court before the final decree is palled
INTERLOCUTORY decree, in Englifh Law. In
a fuit in equity, if any matter of fadl be ftrongly con¬
troverted, the fadl is ufually diredled to be tried at
the bar of the court of king’s bench, or at the aftizes,
upon a feigned iffue. If a queftion of mere law arifes
in the courfe of a caufe, it is the practice of the court
of chancery to refer it to the opinion of the judges
of the court of king’s bench, upon a cafe ftated for that
purpofe. In fuch cafes, interlocutory decrees or or¬
ders are made.
Interlocutort ’judgments are fuch as are given in
the middle of a caufe, upon fome plea, proceeding on
default, which is only intermediate, and does not fi¬
nally determine or complete the fuit. But the inter¬
locutory judgments moft ufually fpoken of, are thofe
incomplete judgments, whereby 4he right of the plain¬
tiff is eftabliihed, but the quantum of damages fuftain-
ed by him is not afeertained, which is the province of
a jury. In fuch a cafe a writ of inquiry ilfues to the
fherilf, who fummons a jury, inquires of the damages,
and returns to the court the inquifition fo taken, where¬
upon the plaintiff’s attorney taxes colts, and ligns final
judgment.
Interlocutory Order, that which decides not the
caufe, but only fettles fome intervening matter relating
to the caufe. As where an order is made in chancery,
for the plaintiff to have an injunction, to quit poffef-
fion till the hearing of the caufe ; this order, not be¬
ing final, is called interlocutory.
INTERLOPERS, are properly thofe who, with¬
out due authority, hinder the trade of a company or
corporation lawfully eftabliftied, by dealing in the fame
way.
INTERLUDE, an entertainment exhibited on the
theatre between the afts of a play, to amufe the fpec-
tators while the adlors take breath and Ihift their drefs,
or to give time for changing the feenes and decora¬
tions.
In the ancient tragedy, the chorus fung thq inter¬
ludes, to ftiow the intervals between the acts.
Interludes, among us, ufually confift of fongs, dances,
feats of activity, concerts of mufic, &c.
Ariftotle and Horace give it for a rule, that the in¬
terludes ftiould confift of fongs built on the principal
parts of the drama : but fince the chorus has been
laid down, dancers, buffoons, &c. ordinarily furniftr
the interludes.
INTERMENT, the a6t of interring, i. e. burying
or laying a deceafed perfon in the ground.
Ariftotle afferted, that it was more juft to aftift the
dead than the living. Plato, in his Republic, does
not forget, amongft other parts of juftice, that which
-concerns the dead. Cicero eftablifties three kinds of
juftice ; the firft refpects the gods, the fecond the
manes or dead, and the third men. Thefe* princi¬
ples feem to be drawn from nature •, and they appear
at leaft to be necelfary for the fuppott of fpciety, fince
at
TNT
Interment
r 294 i
I N T
f Diogenes
Daertius de
Vita et Mo-
ribus Philo-
fopborurK,
&b. viii.
at all times civilized nations have taken care to bury
their dead, and to pay their lad refpedts to them. See
Euiu.vl.
We find in hiftory ft /era! traces of the refpeft which
the Indians, the Egyptians, and the Syrians entertain¬
ed for the dead. The Syrians embalmed their bodies
\vith myrrh, aloes, honey, fait, wax, bitumen, and re-
linous gums ; they dried them alfo with the fmoke of
the fir and the pine tree. The Egyptians preferved
theirs with the refin of the cedar, with aromatic fpices,
and with fait. Thefe people often kept fuch mum¬
mies, or at lead their effigies, in their houfes •, and at
grand entertainments they were Introduced, that by re¬
citing the great adlions of their ancedors they might
be better excited to virtue. See Funeral Rites.
The Greeks, at fird, had probably not the fame ve¬
neration for the dead as the Egyptians. Empedocles,
therefore, in the eighty-fourth Olympiad, redored to
life Ponthia, a woman of Agrigentum, who was about
to be interred f. But this people, in proportion as they
grew civilized, becoming more enlightened, perceived
the neceffity of edablidring laws for the protection of
the dead.
At Athens the law required that no perfon fhould
be interred before the third day •, and in the greater
part of the cities of Greece a funeral did not take
place till the fixth or feventh. When a man appeared
to have breathed his lad, his body was generally wafhed
by his neared relations, with warm water mixed with
wine. They afterwards anointed it with oil •, and co¬
vered it with a drefs commonly made of fine linen,
according to the cudom of the Egyptians. This drefs
was white at Meffina, Athens, and in the greater part
of the cities of Greece, where the dead body w7as
crowned with flowers. At Sparta it wras of a purple
-colour, and the body was furrounded with olive leaves.
The body was afterwards laid upon a couch in the en¬
try of the honfe, where it remained till the time of
the funeral. At the magnificent obfequies with which
Alexander honoured Hephedion, the body7 was not
burned until the tenth day.
The Romans, in the infancy of their empire, paid
as little attention to their dead as the Greeks had done.
Acilius Aviola having fallen into a lethargic fit, rvas
luppofed to be dead •, he was therefore carried, to the
funeral pile •, the fire was lighted up ; and though he
cried out he was dill alive, he perifhed for want of
fpeedy affidance. The praetor Lamia met with the
fame fate. Tubero, who had been praetor, was fa-
ved from the funeral pile. Afclepiades a phyfician,
who lived in the time of Pompey the Great, about
one hundred and twenty years before the Chridian
era, returning from his country-boufe, obferved near
the walls of Rome a grand convoy and a crowd of
people, who were in mourning affiding at a funeral,
and diowing every exterior fign of the deeped grief.
Having alked what was the occafion of this concourfe,
no one made any reply. He therefore approached the
pretended dead body ; and imagining that he perceived
figns of life in it, he ordered the bydanders to take
away the flambeaux, to extinguilh the fire, and to pull
down the funeral pile. A kind of murmur on this a-
role throughout the whole company. Some faid that
they ought to believe the phyfician, while others turn¬
ed both him and his profeffion into ridicule. The rela¬
tions, however, yielded at length to ,the* remondranceslntenu
of Afclepiades •, they confented to defer the obfequies
for a little 5 and the confequence was, the relforation of
the pretended dead perfon to life. It appears that
thefe examples, and feveral others of the like nature,
induced the Romans to delay funerals longer, and to
enaft laws to prevent precipitate interments.
At Rome, after allowing a fufficient time for mourn¬
ing, the neareft relation generally clofed the eyes of
the deceafed $ and the body was bathed with warm
water, either to render it fitter for being anointed with
oil, or to reanimate the principle of life, which might
remain fufpended without manifefting itfelf. Proofs
were afterwards made, to difeover whether the perfon
was really dead, which were often repeated during the
time that the body remained expofed *, for there were
perfons appointed to vifit the dead, and to prove their
fituation. On the fecond day, after the body had been
wafhed a fecond time, it was anointed with oil and
balm. Luxury increafed to fuch a pitch in the choice
of foreign perfumes for this purpofe, that under the
confulthip of Licinius Cralfus and Julius Caefar, the
fenate forbade any perfumes to be ufed except fuch
as were the produfjion of Italy. On the third day
the body was clothed according to its dignity and con¬
dition. The robe called the praetexta was put upon
magiftrates, and a purple robe upon confuls *, for con¬
querors, who had merited triumphal honours, this
robe was of gold tiffue. For other Romans it was
white, and black for the lower claffes of the people.
Thefe dreffes were often prepared at a diflance, by
the mothers and wives of perfons ftill in life. On
the fourth day the body tvas placed on a couch, and
expofed in the veflibule of the houfe, with the vifage
turned towards the entrance, and the feet near the
door 1 in this fituation it remained till the end of the
week. Near the couch wTere lighted wax-tapers, a
fmall box in which perfumes were burnt, and a veffel
fu«l of water for purification, wdth wffiich thofe who
approached the body befprinkled themfelves An old
man, belonging to thofe who furnilhed every thing
neceffary for funerals, fat near the deceafed, with fome
domeftics clothed in black. On the eighth day the
funeral rites wrere performed ; but to prevent the body
from corrupting before that time, fait, w’ax, the refi-
nous gum of the cedar, myrrh, honey, balm, gyp-
fum. lime, afphaltes or bitumen of Judea, and feve¬
ral other fubflances, were employed. The body was
carried to the pile with the face uncovered, unlefs
wounds or the nature of the difeafe had rendered it
loathfome and difgufting. In fuch a cale a malk was
ufed, made of a kind of plafter •, which has given rife
to the expreffion of funera larva to, ufed in fome of
the ancient authors. This was the lafl method of
concealment which Nero made ule of, after having
caufed Germanicus to be poifoned : for the effeff of
the poifon had become very fenfible by livid fpots and
the blacknefs of the body ; but a fhower of rain hap¬
pening to fall, it wafhed the plafter entirely away, and
thus the horrid crime of fratricide w7as difeovered.
The Turks have, at all times, been accuftomed to
wafh the bodies of their dead before interment •, and
as their ablutions are complete, and no part of the
body efcapes the attention of thofe who affilt at fuch
melancholy ceremonies, they can eafily perceive whether
one
I N T [ 295 ] IN T
Interment.one be really dead or alive, by examining, among
v other methods of proof, whether the fphin&er ani has
loft Its power of conkra&ion. If this mufcle remains
frill contrafled, they warm the body, and endeavour to
recal it to life ; otherwife, after having wafhed it with
water and foap, they wipe it with linen cloths, wa(h
it again with roie-water and aromatic fubftances, co¬
ver it with a rich drefs, put upon its head a cap orna¬
mented ivith flowers, and extend it upon a carpet
placed in the veftibule or hall at the entrance of the
houfe.
In the primitive church the dead were washed and
then anointed j the body was wrapped up in linen,
or clothed in a drefs of more or leis value according
to circumftances, and it was not interred until after
being expofed and kept fome days in the houfe. The
cuftom of clothing the dead is preferved in France only
for princes and eccleflaflics.
In other countries, more or lefs care is taken to
prevent hidden interments. At Geneva, there are
people appointed to infpeft all dead bodies. Their
duty confifts in examining whether the perfon be really
dead, and whether one died naturally or by violence.
In the north, as wmll as at Genoa, it is ufual not to
bury the dead till three days have expired. In Holland,
people carry their precautions much farther, and delay
the funerals longer. And in England bodies generally
remain unburied three or four days.
Premature Interment. Notwithftanding the cuftoms
above recited ; ftill, in many places, and on many oc-
cafions in all places, too much precipitation attends
this laft office ; or if not precipitation, a negleft of
due precautions in regard to the body. In general,
indeed, the moft improper treatment that can be ima¬
gined is adopted, and many a perfon made to defcend
into the grave before he has fighed his laft breath. The
hiftories related by Hildanus, by Camerarius, by Horfli-
us, by Macrobius in his Somnium Scipionis, by Plato
in his Republic, by Valerius Maximus, and by a great
many modern authors, leave us no doubt refpecting the
dangers or mifconduf! of fucb precipitation. It muft
appear aftoniftiing that the attention of mankind has
been after all fo little roufed by an idea the moft ter¬
rible that can be conceived on this fide of eternity. If
nature recoils from the idea of death, with what hor¬
ror muft ffie ftart at the thought of death anticipated,
precipitated by inattention—a return of life in darknefs,
diftraflion, and defpair—then death repeated under
agonies unfpeakable ! To revive nailed up in a coffin !
The brain can fcarce fuftain the reflexion in our cooleft
fafeft moments.
According to prefent ufage, as foon as the fem-
blance of death appears, the chamber of the fick is
deferted by friends, relatives, and phyficians ; and the
apparently dead, though frequently living, body, is
committed to the management of an ignorant and un¬
feeling nurfe, whofe care extends no farther than lay¬
ing the limbs firaight, and fecuring her accuftomed
perquifitcs. The bed-clothes are immediately removed,
and the body is expofed to the air. This, when cold,
muft extinguiffi any fpark of life that may remain, and
which, by a different treatment, might have been
kindled into flame ; or it may only continue to reprefs
it, and the unhappy perfon afterwards revive amidft
the horrors of the tomb.
The difference between the end of a weak life and
the commencement of death, is fo fmall, and the un¬
certainty of the figns of the latter is fo well eftablifhed
both by ancient and modern authors who have turned
their attention to that important objedt, that we can
fcarcely fuppofe undertakers capable of diftinguiffi-
ing an apparent from a real death. Animals .which
deep during winter ffiow no figns of life; in this
cafe, circulation is only fufpended : but were it an¬
nihilated, the vital fpirit does not fo eafily lofe its
aftion as the other fluids of the body j and the prin¬
ciple of life, which long furvives the appearance of
death, may re-animate a body in wdiich the action of
all the organs feems to be at an end. But how diffi¬
cult is it to determine whether this principle may not
be revived ? It has been found impoffible to recal to
life fome animals fuftbcated by mephitic vapours, though
they appeared lefs affedted than others who have re¬
vived. Coldnefs, heavinefs of the body, a leaden livid
colour, with a ycllownefs in the vifage, are all very un-N
certain figns : Mr Zimmerman obferved them all upon
the body of a criminal, who fainted through the dread
of that puniffiment which he had merited. He was
ffiaken, dragged about, and turned in the fame man¬
ner as dead bodies arfe, without the leaft figns of relift-
ance ; and yet at the end of 24 hours he was recalled
to life by means of volatile alkali.
A diredlor of the coach-office at Dijon, named
Cohnet, was fuppofed to be dead, and the neivs of this
event was fpread through the whole city. One of
his friends, who was defirous of feeing him at the mo¬
ment when he was about to be buried, having looked
at him for a confiderable time, thought he perceived
fome remains of fenfibility in the muicles of the face.
He therefore made an attempt to bring him to life by
fpirituous liquors, in which he fucceeded ) and this di¬
rector enjoyed afterwards for a long time that life which
he owed to his friend. This remarkable circumftance
was much like thofe of Empedocles and Afclepiades.
Thefe inflances would perhaps be more frequent, were
men of Ikill and abilities called in cafes of hidden death,
in which people of ordinary knowledge are often de¬
ceived by falfe appearances.
A man may fall into a fyncope, and may remain in
that condition three or even eight days. People in this
fituation have been known to come to life when depo-
fited among the dead. A body belonging to the hof-
pital at CaiTel appeared to have breathed his laft : he
was carried into the hall where the dead were expofed,
and was wrapped up in a piece of canvas. Some time
after, recovering from his lethargy, he recolleCted the
place in which he had been depofited, and crawling
towards the door knocked againft it with his foot.
This noife was luckily heard by the centinel, who foon
perceiving the motion of the canvas called for afliftance.
The youth was immediately conveyed to a warm bed,
and foon perfeCHy recovered. Had bis body been con¬
fined by clofe bandages or ligatures, he would not
have been able, in all probability, to make himfelf be
heard : bis unavailing efforts would have made him
again fall into a fyncope, and he would have been thus
buried alive.
We muft not be aftoniftied that the fervants of an
hofpital fliould take a fyncope for a real death, fince.
even the moft enlightened people have fallen into errors
I N T
Interment.of the fame kind. Dr John Schmid relates,, that a
“ V—young girl, feven years of age, after being affli&ed for
fome weeks with a violent cough, was all of a ludden
freed from this troublefome malady, and appeared to be
in perfect health. But fome days after, while playing
with her companions, this child fell down in an in-
ilant as if Itruck by lightning. A death-like pale-
nefs was diffufed over her face and arms} Ihe had no
apparent pulfe, her temples were funk, and the Ihowed
no ligns of fenfation when fhaken or pinched. A phy-
fician, who was called, and who believed her to be
dead, in compliance with the repeated and prefling re-
queft of her parents, attempted, though without any
hopes, to recal her to life ; and at length, after feveral
vain efforts, he made the foies of her feet be fmartly
rubbed with a brufli dipped in ftrong pickle. At the
end of three quarters of an hour ihe was obferved to
ligh : (he was then made to’ fwallow fome fpirituous
liquor ; and fhe was foon after reftored to life, much
to the joy of her difconfolate parents.— A certain man
having undertaken a journey, in order to fee his bro¬
ther, on his arrival at his houie found him dead. I his
news affefted him fo much, that it brought on a moft
dreadful (yncope, and he himfelf was fuppofed to be in
the like fituation. After the ufual means had been
employed to recal him to life, it was agreed that his
body fliould be differed, to difeover the caufe of lo
fudden a death ; but the fuppofed dead perfon over¬
hearing this propofal, opened his eyes, flatted up, and
immediately betook himlelf to his heels.—Cardinal
Efpinola, prime minifter to Philip II. was not fo for¬
tunate } for we read in the Memoirs of Amelot de la
Houffai, that he put his hand to the knife with which
he was opened in order to be embalmed. In ftiort,
almoft every one knows that \efalius, the father of
anatomy, having been fent for to open a woman iub-
jedt to hyfterics, wher was fuppofed to be dead, he
perceived, on making the firft incilion, by her mo¬
tion and cries, that Ihe was ftill alive } that this cir-
-cumftance rendered him fo odious, that he was obliged
to fly } and that he was fo much affedled by it, that he
died foon after.—On this occafion, we cannot forbear
to add an event 'more recent, but no lefs melancholy.
The abbe Prevoft, fo well known by his writings and
the Angularities of his life, was feized with a fit of tlm
apoplexy, in the foreft of Chantilly, on the 23d of
Odlober ITs body was cairied to the nearefl
village, and the officers of juftice were proceeding to
open it, when a cry which he fent forth affrightened
all the afliftants, and convinced the furgeon that the
abbe was not dead } but it wths too late to lave him,
as he had already received the mortal wound.
7 onJ Even in old age, when life feems to have been gra-
cZo'n. dually drawing to a clofe, the appearances of death are
vol. iv. often fallacious. A lady in Cornwall, more than 80
P- 456- years of age, who had been a confidetable time decli¬
ning, took to her bed, and in a few days feemingly ex¬
pired in the morning. As flie had often defired not to
be buried till fhe had been two days dead, her requeft
was to have been regularly complied with by her rela¬
tions. All that faw her looked upon her as dead, and
the report was current through the whole place } nay,
a gentleman of the town aftually wrote to his friend in
the ifland of Scilly that Ihe was deceafed. But one
©f thofe who were paying the laft kind office of huma-
3
I N T
nity to her remains, perceived fome warmth about the Interment,
middle of the back } and acquainting her friends with-it, v
they applied a mirror to her mouth-, but, after re¬
peated trials, could not obferve it in the leaft itain-
ed } her under jaw was like wife fallen, as the common
phrafe is } and, in ffiort, fhe had every appearance of
a dead perfon. All this time fire had not been dripped
or drefled } but the windows were opened, as is ufual in
the chambers of the deceafed. In the evening the heat
feemed to increafe, and at length ihe was perceived to
breathe.
In ffiort, not only the ordinary figns are very un¬
certain, but we may fay the fame oi the ftiffnefs of the
limbs, which may be convulfivej of the dilation of the
pupil of the eye, which may proceed from the fame
caufe} of putrefa&ion, which may equally attack fome
parts of a living body } and of feveral others. Haller,
convinced of the uncertainty of all thefe figns, pro-
pofes a new one, which he confiders as infallible. “ If
the perion (fays he) Ire ftill in life, the mouth will im¬
mediately thut of itfelf, becaufe the contraftion of the
mufcles of the jaw will awaken their irritability.” The
jaw, however, may be deprived of its irritability
though a man may not be dead. Life is preferved a
long time in the paffage of the inteftines. The fign
pointed out by Dr Fothergill appears to deferve more
attention : “ If the air blown into the mouth (fays this
phyfician) paffes freely through all the alimentary
channel, it affords a ftrong prefumption that the irri¬
tability of the internal fphinfters is deftroyed, and
confequently that life is at an end.” Thefe figns, which
deferve to be confirmed by new experiments, are doubt-
lefs not known to undertakers.
The difficulty of diftinguifliing a perfon apparently
dead from one who is really fo, has, in all countries
where bodies have been interred too precipitately,
rendered it neceffary for the law to affift humanity.
Of fever a 1 regulations made on this fubje6I, we fliall
quote only a few of the moft recent ; fuch as thofe
of Arras in 1772} of Mantua in 1774} of the grand
duke of Tufcany in 1775 } of the fenechauffee of
Sivrai, in Poitou, in 1777} and of the parliament
of Metz in the fame year. To give an idea of the
reft, it will be fufficient'to relate only that of Tufcany.
By this edict, the grand duke forbids the precipitate
interment of perfons who die fuddenly. He orders the
magiftrates of health to be informed, that phyficians
and furgeons may examine the body } that they may
ufe every endeavour to recal it to life, if poffible, or to
difeover the caufe of its death } and that they ffiall
make a report of their procedure to a certain tribunal.
On this occafion, the magiftrate of health orders the
dead not to be covered until the moment they are about
to be buried, except fo far as decency requires ; obferv-
ing always that the body be not clofely confined, and
that nothing may comprefs the jugular veins and the
carotid arteries. He forbids people to be interred ac¬
cording to the ancient method } and requires that the
arms and the hands fliould be left extended, and that
they ffiould not be folded or placed crofs-wife upon the
breaft. Lie forbids, above all, to prefs the jaws one
again ft the other } or to fill the mouth and noftrils with
cotton, or other fluffing. Laftly, he recommends not
to cover the vifage with any kind Oj. cloth unt.l the
body is depofited in its coffin. .
We
t 296 1
I N T [ 297 ] I N T
Interment We fhall conclude this article by fubjoining, from
Dr Hawes’s Addrefs to the Public on this fubjecl, a few
Interpola- tjie cafes ;n which this fallacious appearance of death
. t>1)n' is moft likely to happen, together with the refpedtive
modes of treatment which he recommends.
In apopleftic and fainting fits, and in thofe arifing
from any violent agitation of mind, and alfo when
opium or fpirituous liquors have been taken in too
great a quantity, there is reafon to believe that the
appearance of death has been frequently miftaken for
the reality. In thefe cafes, the means recommended
by the Humane Society for the Recovery of Drowned
Perfons fhould be perievered in for feveral hours ; and
bleeding, which in fimilar circumftances has fometimes
proved pernicious, (hould be ufed with great caution.
(See the article Drowning). In the two latter in-
itances it will be highly expedient, with a view of coun-
terading the foporific effeds of opium and fpirits, to
convey into the ftomach, by a proper tube, a folution
of tartar emetic, and by various other means to excite
vomiting.
From the number of children carried off by con-
vullions, and the certainty arifing from undoubted
fads, that fome who have in appearance died from that
caufe have been recovered ; there is the greateft rea¬
fon for concluding, that many, in confequence of this
difeafe, have been prematurely numbered among the
dead 5 and that the fond parent, by negleding the
means of recalling life, has often been the guiltlefs exe¬
cutioner of her own offspring. To prevent the com-
miflion of fuch dreadful miilakes, no child, whofe life
has been apparently extinguifhed by convulfions, ihould
be configned to the grave till the means of recovery
above recommended in apoplexies, &c. have been tried 5
and, if poflible, under the direction of fome fkilful prac¬
titioner of medicine, who may vary them as circum-
ftances {ball require.
When fevers arife in ’weak habits, or when the cure
of them has been principally attempted by means of
depletion, the confequent debility is often very great,
and the patient fometimes finks into a ftate which
bears fo clofe an affinity to that of death, that there is
reafon to fufped it has too often deceived the bylland-
ers, and induced them to fend for the undertaker when
they ihould have had recourfe to the fuccours of medi¬
cine. In fuch cafes, volatiles, cau de luce for example,
ihould be applied to the nofe, rubbed on the temples,
and fprinkled often about the bed ; hot flannels, moift-
ened with a ftrong folution of camphorated fpirit, may
likewife be applied over the bread, and renewed every
quarter of an hour ; and as foon as the patient is able
to fwallow, a teafpoonful of the dronged cordial ifiould
be given every five minutes.
The fame methods may alfo be ufed with propriety
in the fmallpox when the pudules fink, and death ap¬
parently enfues; and likewife in any other acute dif-
eafes, when the vital fundlions are fufpended from a fi¬
milar cafe.
INTERMITTENT, or Intermitting, Fever;
fuch fevers as go oft" and foon return again, in oppofi-
tion to thofe which are continual. See Medicine
Index.
INTERPOLATION, among critics, denotes a
fpurious paffage inlerted into the writings of fome an¬
cient author.
Vol. XI. Part I.
Interpolation, in the modern algebra, is ufed for Interpola-
finding an intermediate term of a feries, its place in the tl°n
feries being given. This method was fird invented by [nterr0ga_
Mr Briggs, and applied by him to the calculation of tion-
logarithms, &c. See Algebra. ; v  *
INTERPOSITION, the fituation of a body be¬
tween two others, fo as to hide them, or prevent their
aftion.
The eclipfe of the fun is occafioned by an interpofi-
tion of the moon between the fun and us ; and that of
the moon by the interpofition of the earth between the
fun and moon. See Eclipse.
INTERPRETER, a perfon who explains the
thoughts, words, or writings, of fome other, which
before were unintelligible.—The word inter/ores, ac¬
cording to Ifidore, is compofed of the prepofition in¬
ter, and partes, as fignifying a perfon in the middle
betwixt two parties, to make them mutually under¬
hand each others thoughts : others derive it from in¬
ter, and pries, i. t.fdejujfor ; q. d. a perfon who ferves
as fecurity between two others who do not underhand
one another.
There have been great debates about interpreting
Scripture. The Romanids contend, that it belongs ab-
folutely to the church : adding, that wdiere die is fi-
lent, reafon may be confulted ; but where ftie fpeaks,
reafon is to be difregarded. The Protedants generally
allow reafon the fovereign judge, or interpreter 5 though
fome among them have a drong regard to fynods, and
others to the authority of the primitive fathers. Lad-
ly, others have recourfe to the Spirit within every
perfon to interpret for them ; which is what Bochart
calls ra mtutixlos.
INTERREGNUM, the time during which the
thfone is vacant in eledtive kingdoms 5 for in fuch as
are hereditary, like ours, there is no fuch thing as an
interregnum.
INTERREX, the magiftrate who governs during
an interregnum.
This magidrate was edablifhed in old Rome, and
was almod as ancient as the city itfelf: after the death
of Romulus there was an interregnum of a year, du¬
ring which the fenators were each interrex in their
turn, five days a-piece.
After the edabliftiment of confuls and a common¬
wealth, though there were no kings, yet the name and
fundtion of interrex was dill preferved : for, when the
magidrates were abfent, or there was any irregularity
in their eledtion, or they had abdicated, fo that the
comitia could not be held j, provided they were un¬
willing to create a didlator, they made an interrex,
whofe office and authority was to lad five days j after
which they made another. To the interrex was de¬
legated all the regal and confular authority, and he
performed all their fundfions. He affembled the fe-
nate, held comitia or courts, and took care that the
eledlion of magidrates was according to rules. Indeed
at fird it was not the cudom of the interrex to hold
comitia, at lead we have no indance of it in the Ro¬
man hiitory. The patricians alone had the right of
electing an interrex 5 but this office fell with the repu¬
blic, when the emperors made themfelves maders of
every thing.
INTERROGATION, Erotesis, a figure of rhe¬
toric, in which the paffion of the fpeaker introduces a
P p thing
I f4 'T
[ 298 ]
I N T
Tntcrro'a
ticm
II
Interval.
tiling by way of queftion, to make its truth more con-
fpicuous.
The interrogation is a kind of apoftrophe which the
fpeaker makes to himfelf1, and it muft be owned, that
this figure is fuited to exprefs moil paffions and emo¬
tions of the mind ; it ferves alfo to prefs and bear
down an adverfary, and generally adds an unconfimon
brilknefs, action, force, and variety, to difcourfe.
Interrogation, in Grammar, is a point which
ferves to diftinguiih fuch parts of a diicourfe, where the
author fpeaks as if he were alking queltions. Its form
is this (?).
INTERROGATORIES, in Law, are particular
queftions demanded of witneffes brought in to be exa¬
mined in a caufe, efpecially in the court of chancery.
And thefe interrogatories muft be exhibited by the par¬
ties in fuit on each fide ; which are either direft for the
party that produces them, or counter, on behalf of the
adverfe party •, and generally both plaintiff and defend-
dant may exhibit direft, and counter or crofs interro¬
gatories. They are to be pertinent, and only to the
points neceffary and either drawn or perufed by coun-
fel, and to be figned by them.
INTERSCENDENT, in Algebra, is applied to
quantities, when the exponents of their powers are ra¬
dical quantities. Thus, x*Jx,x^/a, &c. are interfcend-
ent quantities.
INTERSECTION, in Mathematics, the cutting
of one line, or plane, by another; or the point or line
wherein two lines, or two planes, cut each other.
The mutual interfe&ion of two planes is a right line.
The centre of a circle is in the interfeftion of two dia¬
meters. The central point of a regular or irregular fi¬
gure of four Tides, is the point of interfedlion of the two
diagonals.
The equinoxes happen when the fun is in the inter-
fedfions of the equator and ecliptic.
INTERSPIN ALES. See Anatomy, Table of the
Mufcles.
INTERVAL, the diftance or fpace between two
extremes, either in time or place. The word comes
from the Latin intervallum, which, according to Ifi-
dore, fignifies the fpace inter foffam & murum, “ be¬
tween the ditch and the wallothers note, that the
ftakes or piles, driven into the ground in the ancient
Roman bulwarks, were called valla ; and the interftices
or vacancy between them, intervalla.
Interval, in Mufic. The diftance between. any
given found and another, ftridtly fpeaking, is neither
meafured by any common ftandard of extenfion nor
duration ; but either by immediate fenfation, or by
computing the difference between the numbers of vi¬
brations produced by two or more fonorous bodies,
in the aft of founding, during the fame given time.
As the vibrations are flower and fewer during the fame
inftant, for example, the found is proportionally lower
or graver ; on the contrary, as during the fame period
the vibrations increafe in number and velocity, the
founds are proportionably higher or more acute. An
interval in mufic, therefore, is properly the difference
between the number of vibrations produced by one fo¬
norous body of a certain magnitude and texture, and of
thofe produced by another of a different magnitude and
t-exture in the fame time.
Intervals are divided into confonant and diffonant.
A confonant interval is that whofe extremes, or whofe
higheft and lowed: founds, when fimultaneoufly heard,
coalefce in the ear, and produce an agreeable ienfation
called by Lord Kames a tertium quid. A diffonant in¬
terval, on the contrary, is that whofe extremes, fimul¬
taneoufly heard, far from coalefcing in the ear, and
producing one agreeable fenfation, are each of them
plainly diftinguifhed from the other, produce a grating
effeft upon the fenfe, and repel each other with an ir-
reconcileable hoftility. In proportion as the vibra¬
tions of different fonorous bodies, or of the fame lonor-
ous body in different modes, more or lefs frequently
coincide during the fame given time, the chords are
more or lefs confonant. When thefe vibrations never
coincide at all in the fame given time, the difeord is
confummate, and confequently the interval abfolutely
diffonant. But, for a full account of thefe, fee Mu¬
sic.
INTESTATE, in Law, a perfon that dies without
making a will.
INTEST IN A, in the Linncean Syjlem, one of tire
orders of worms. See Helminthology Index.
INTESTINES, Intestina, in Anatomy, the guts
or bowels; thofe hollow, membranous, cylindrical
parts, extended from the right orifice of the ftomach
to the anus •, by which the chyle is conveyed to the
lafteals, and the excrements are voided. See Ana¬
tomy, N° 93.
INTONATION, in the action of founding
the notes in the fcale with the voice, or any other gi¬
ven order of mufical tones. Intonation may be either
true or falfe, either too high or too low, either too
{harp or too flat •, and then this wmrd intonation, attend¬
ed with an epithet, muft be underitood concerning the
manner of performing the notes.
In executing an air, to form the founds, and pre-
ferve the intervals as they are marked with juftnefs
and accuracy, is no inconfiderable difficulty, and
fcarcely prafticable, but by the afliftance of one com¬
mon idea, to which, as to their ultimate teft, thefe
founds and intervals muft be referred : thefe common
ideas are thofe of the key, and the mode in which the
performer is engaged j and from the word tone, which
is fometimes ufed in a fenfe almoft identical with that
of the key, the word intonation may perhaps be deri¬
ved. It may alfo be deduced from the word diatonic,
as in that fcale it is moft frequently converfant; a fcale
which appears moft convenient and moft natural to the
voice. We feel more difficulty in our intonation of
fuch intervals as are greater or lefler than thofe of the
diatonic order j becaufe, in the firft cafe, the glottis
and vocal organs are modified by gradations too large j
or too complex, in the fecond.
INTRENCHMENT, in the military art, any
work that fortifies a poft againft an enemy who at¬
tacks. It is generally taken for a ditch or trench with
a parapet. Intrenchments are fometimes made of faf-
cines with earth thrown over them, of gabions, hogf-
heads, or bags filled with earth, to cover the men
from the enemy’s fire.
INTRIGUE, an affemblage of events or circum-
ftances, occurring in an affair, and perplexing the per-
fons concerned in it. In this fenfe, it is ufed to fignify
the nodus or plot of a play or romance \ or that point
wherein the principal charafters are moff embarraffed
through
Inteflate
J!
Intrigue.
I N T [ 299 ] IN V
Intrigue through the aititice and oppofition of certain perfons, or
the unfortunate falling out of certain accidents and cir-
evidVcT cumdances.
1 — h In tragedy, comedy, or an epic poem, there are
always two defigns. The firft and principal is that of
the hero of the piece : the fecond contains the defigns
of all thofe wdio oppofe him. Thefe oppofite caufes
produce oppofite eifedls, to wit, the efforts of the hero
for the execution of his defign, and the efforts of thofe
who thwart it. As thofe caufes and defigns are the be¬
ginning of the aftion, fo thefe efforts are the middle,
and there form a knot or difficulty which we call the
intrigue, that makes the greateft part of the poem. It
lafts as long as the mind of the reader or hearer is fuf-
pended about the event of thofe oppofite efforts : the
•folution or catafirophe commences when the knot be¬
gins to unravel, and the difficulties and doubts begin to
clear up.
The intrigue of the Iliad is twofold. The firft com¬
prehends three days fighting in Achilles’s abfence, and
confifts on the one fide in the refiftance of Agamemnon
and the Greeks, and on the other in the inexorable
temper of Achilles. The death of Patroclus unravels
this intrigue, and makes the beginning of a fecond.
Achilles refolves to be revenged, but Heidor oppofes
his defign ; and this forms the fecond intrigue, which is
the laft day’s battle.
In the Atneid there are alfo two intrigues. The firft:
is taken up in the voyage and landing of ./Eneas in
Italy •, the fecond is his eftabliihment there : the op-
pofition he met with from Juno in both thefe under¬
takings forms the intrigue.
As to the choice of the intrigue, and the manner
of unravelling it, it is certain they ought both to
fpring naturally from the ground and fubjeft of the
poem. Boffu gives us three manners of forming the
intrigue of a poem : the firft is that already mentioned j
the fecond is taken from the fable and defign of the
poet; in the third the intrigue is fo laid, as that the
folution follows from it of courfe.
INTRINSIC, a term applied to the real and ge¬
nuine values and properties, &c. of any thing, in op-
pofition to their extrinftc or apparent values.
INTRODUCTION, in general, fignifies any thing
which tends to make another in fome meafure known
before we have leifure to examine it thoroughly 5 and
hence it is ufed on a great variety of occafions. Thus
we fpeak of the introduction of one perfon to another 5
the introduction to a book, &c.—It is alfo ufed to
fignify the aCtual motion of any body out of one place
into another, when that motion has been occafioned
by fome other body.
Introduction, in Oratory. See Oratory, N° 26.
INTUITION, among logicians, the aCt wdiereby
the mind perceives the agreement or difagreement of
two ideas, immediately by themfelves, without the
intervention of any other; in which cafe the mind per¬
ceives the truth as the eye does the light, only by be¬
ing direCled towards it. See Logic, N° 25, 27.
INTUITIVE EVIDENCE, is that which refults from
Intuition. Dr Campbell diftinguilhes different forts
of intuitive evidence ; one refulting purely from intel-
leCtion, or that faculty which others have called intui¬
tion ; another kind arifing from confcioufnefs; and a
third fort from that new named faculty Common Sense,
which this ingenious writer, as well as feveral others, Invalid
contends to be a diftinCt original fource of knowledge; II
whilft others refer its fuppofed oftice to the intuitive ^in - ntm).
power of the underftanding.
INVALID, a perfon wounded, maimed, ©r difabled
for action by age.
At Chelfea and Greenwich are magnificent Hospi¬
tals, or rather colleges, built for the reception and
accommodation of invalids, or foldiers and feamen worn
cut in the fervice.
We have alfo twenty independent companies of in¬
valids, difperfed in the feveral forts and garrifons.
At Paris is a college of the fame kind, called les
Invalides, which is accounted one of the fineft build ’
ings in that city.
INVECTED, in Heraldry, denotes a thing fluted
or furrowed. See Heraldry.
INVECTIVE, in Rhetoric, differs from reproof, as
the latter proceeds from a friend, and is intended for
the good of the pei fon reproved ; whereas the in-
veftive is the work of an enemy, and entirely defigned
to vex and give uneafinefs to the perfon againft whom
it is dire&ed.
INVENTION, denotes the aft of finding any thing
new, or even the thing thus found. Thus v/e fay, the
invention of gunpowder, ofprinting, &c. The alcove is
a modern invention owing to the Moors.
The Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, are of a
Greek invention ; the Tufcan and Compofite of Latin
invention. Janfon ab Almeloveen has written an O-
nomafticon of inventions; wherein are Ihown, in an al¬
phabetical order, the names of the inveRtors, and the
time, place, &c. where they are made. Pancirollus
has a treatife of old inventions that are loft, and new
ones that have been made; Polydore Virgil has alfo
publilhed eight books of the inventors of things, De
Inventoribus Rerum.
Invention is alfo ufed for the finding of a thing
hidden. The Romifh church celebrates a feaft on the
4th of May, under the title of Invention of the Holy
Crofs.
Invention is alfo ufed for fubtility of mind, or fome-
what peculiar to a man’s genius, which leads him to a
difcovery of things new ; in which fenfe we fay, a man
of invention.
Invention, in Painting, is the choice which the
painter makes of the objefts that are to enter the com-
pofition of his piece. See Painting.
Invention, in Poetry, is applied to whatever the
po-:t adds to the hiftory of the fubjeft he has chofen j
as well as to the new turn he gives it. See Poetry.
Invention, in Rhetoric, fignifies the finding out
and choofing of certain arguments which the orator is
to ufe for the proving or illuftrating his point, moving
the paflions or conciliating the minds of his hearers.
Invention, according to Cicero, is the principal part
of oratory: he wrote four books Dc Inventioite, where¬
of we have but two remaining. See Oratory.
INVEN TORY, in Law, a catalogue or fchedule
orderly made, of all the deceafed perlbn’s goods and
chattels at the time of his death, with their value ap-
praifed by indifferent-perfons, which every executor or
adminiftrator is obliged to exhibit to the ordinary at
fuch time as he (hall appoint.
By 2 ( Hen. VIIL c. v. executors and adminirtrators
P p 2 are
I N V [ 300 1 I N V
Inverary are to deliver in upon oath to the ordinary, indented
!l inventories, one part of which is to remain with the
kentui” ordinary, and the other part with the executor or ad-
—- - jr’ miniftrator ; this is required for the benefit of the cre¬
ditors and legatees, that the executor or adminiitrator
may not conceal any part of the perfonal eflate from
them. The llatute ordains, that the inventory {hall be
exhibited within three months after the perfon’s de-
ceafe j yet it may be done afterwards; for the ordinary
may difpenfe -with the time, and even with its being
ever exhibited, as in cafes where the creditors are paid,
and the will is executed.
INVERARY, the county town of Argylelhire, in
Scotland, pleai’antly fituated on a fmall bay formed by
the jundfion of the river Ary with Loch-fine, where
the latter is a mile in width and 60 fathoms in depth.
Here is a caftle, the principal feat of the dukes of Ar-
gyle, chief of the Campbells. It is a modern building
of a quadrangular form, with a round tower at each
corner ; and in the middle rifes aAquare one glazed on
every fide to give light to the ftaircafe and galleries,
which has from without rather a heavy appearance.
This callle is built of a coarfe lapis o/laris brought from
the other fide of Loch-fine ; and is of the fame kind
with that found in Norway, of which the king of
Denmark’s palace is built. The founder of the caftle,
the late Duke Archibald, alio formed the delign of an
entire new town, upon a commodious elegant plan, be¬
coming the dignity of the capital of Argylefhire, a
country moil; admirably fituated for fifheries and navi¬
gation. The town hath been rebuilt agreeable to the
original defign ; and the inhabitants are well lodged in
houfes of ftone, lime, and {late. They are fully em¬
ployed in arts and manufactures, and plentifully fup-
plied in the produce of fea and land.— Ihe planting
around Inverary is extenfive beyond conception, and
admirably variegated ; every crevice, glen, and moun¬
tain, difplaying taile and good fenfe.
The value of the immenfe wood at this place, for
the various purpofes of bark, charcoal, forges, paling,
furniture, hcufe and Ihip building, is thus eftimated
by Mr Knox : “ Some of the beech are from 9 to 12
feet in circumference, and the pines from 6 to 9 ; but
thefe being comparatively few, wre {hall ftate the me¬
dium girth of 2,000,000 trees planted within thefe laft
hundred years, at 3 feet, and the medium value at 4s.
which produces 400,000!. ; and this, for the moll
part, upon grounds unfit for the plough, being chietiy
oompofed of hills and rock.” One of thefe hills rifes
immediately from the houfe a great height, in the form
of a pyramid, and is clothed to the fummit w'ith a
thick wood of vigorous ornamental trees. On this
fummit or point Archibald duke of Argyle built a
Gothic tow’er, or obfervatory, where he fometimes
amufed himfelf. The afeent by the road feems to
be half a mile, and the perpendicular height about 800
feet.
INVERBERVIE, or Bervie, a town of Scotland,
in Kincardinefhire or the Mearns, and a royal borough,
I 3 miles north-eaft from Montrofe. It lies between
two fmall hills, which terminate in high clifis towards
the fea; i^ is but a fmall place, the inhabitants of which
are chiefly employed in making thread.
INVERKEITHING, a town of Scotland, in the
county of Fife, fituated on the northern Ihore of the
frith of Forth, in W. Long. 3. 13. N. Lat. 56. 5. Inverlochy,
It w^as much favoured by William, who granted its divernefs.^
firfl; charter. He extended its liberties confiderably,
and in the time of David I. it became a royal reli-
dence. The Moubrays had large poffeflions here,
which were forfeited in the reign of Robert II. The
Francifcans had a convent in this tortfn ; and, accoifl¬
ing to Sir Robert Sibbald, the Dominicans had ano¬
ther. 1 his town has a confiderable trade in coal and
other articles.
INVERLOCHY, an ancient caftle in the neigh¬
bourhood of Fort-William in Invernefslhire. It is
adorned with large round towers; and, by the mode of
building, feems to have been the work of the Englith
in the time of Edward I. who laid large fines on the
Scotch barons for the purpofe of eredling new caftles.
The largeft of thefe towers is called Cumin's. But
long prior to thefe ruins, Inverlochy, according to
Boece, had been a place of great note, a molt opulent
city, remarkable for the vaft refort of French and Spa¬
niards, probably on account of trade. It was alfo a
feat of the kings of Scotland, for here Achaius in the
year 790 figned (as is reported) the league offenfive
and defenfive between himfelf and Charlemagne. In
after-times it was utterly deftroyed by the Danes, and
never again reftored.
In the neighbourhood of this place were fought two
fierce battles, one between Donald Balloch brother to
Alexander lord of the ifles, who with a great power
invaded Lochaber in the year J427 : he was met by
the earls of Mar and Caithnefs ; the laft was {lain, and
their forces totally defeated. Balloch returned to the
ifles with vaft booty. Here alfo the Campbells under
the marquis of Argyle, were in February 1645, ^e"
feated by Montrofe. Fifteen hundred fell in the adlion
and in the purfuit, with the lofs only of three to the
royal ifts.
INVERNESS, capital of a county of the fame
name in Scotland, is a parliament-town, finely feated
on the river Nefs, over which there is a ftone bridge of
feven arches, in W. Long. 4. N. Lat. 57. 36. It is m
large, well built, and very populous, being the moft
northerly town of any note in Britain. As there are
always regular troops in its neighbourhood, there is a
great air of politenefs, a plentiful market, and more
money and bufinefs ftirring than could have been expect¬
ed in fuch a remote part of the ifland. The country in
the neighbourhood is remarkably well cultivated; and its
produce clearly fhows that the foil and climate are not
defpicable. The falmon-fiftiery in the Nefs is very
confiderable, and is let to London fiflimongers. Some
branches both of the woollen, linen, and hemp manu¬
facture, are alfo carried on here ; and, in confequence
of the excellent military roads, there is a great propor¬
tion of inland trade. But befides all this, Invernefs is
a port with 20 creeks dependent upon it, part on the
Murray frith to the ealt, and part on the north of the
town, reaching even the fouth border of the county of
Caithnefs. Invernefs has feveral good fchools; and an
academy was erefted fome years ago on j an extenfive
and liberal plan. The inhabitants fpeak the Erfe and
Englirh language promifeuoufly. On an eminence neat
the town are the remains of a caftle, where, according
to fome hiftorians, the famous Macbeth murdered
Duncan his royal gueft.
lNr£RNE$$-Shiret
I N V [ 301 ] I N V
Invemefs- lxrERNEss-S/iire, a county of Scotland, bounded on
fr|re- tlie north by Rofsfhire j on the eaft by the (hires of
v" Nairne, Murray, and Aberdeen •, on the fouth, by
thofe of Perth and Argyle; and on the weft, by the
Atlantic ocean. Its extent from north to fouth is
above 50 miles; from eaft: to weft about 80.—The
northern part of this county is very mountainous and
barren. In the diftrift of Glenelg are (een the ruins
of feveral ancient circular buildings, fimilar to thofe in
the Weftern Kies, Sutherland, and Rofs-fhires ; con¬
cerning the ufes of which antiquarians are not agreed.
In their outward appearance, they are round and ta¬
pering like glafs-houfes. In the heart of the -wall,
which is perpendicular within, there are horizontal
galleries going quite round and connefted by flairs.
Thefe afcend toward the top, which is open. They
are all built of ftone, without lime or mortar of any
kind. They have no opening outward, except the
doors and the top ; but there are feveral in the infide,
as windows to the galleries. From Bernera barracks,
in this diftricl, proceeds the military road to Inver-
nefs.
This county is nearly divided by water, fo that by
means of the Caledonian canal uniting Loch Nefs,
Loch Oich, Loch Lochy, and Lochiel or Loch Eil,
a communication wall be opened between the eaftern
and weftern feas. This great undertaking is now
(1807) g0”1? forward. In this trad!, Fort George,
Fort Auguftus, and Fort William, form what is call¬
ed the Chain of Forts acrofs the illand. By means
of Fort George on the eaft, all entrance up the frith
towards Invernefs is prevented •, Fort Auguftus curbs
the inhabitants midway 5 and Fort William is a check
to any attempts in the weft. Detachments are made
from all thefe garrifons to Invernefs, Bernera barracks
oppofite to the ille of Skye, and Caftle Duart in the
ifte of Mull.
The river Nefs, upon wdiich the capital of the (hire is
fituated, is the outlet of the great lake called Loch Nefs.
This beautiful lake is 12 miles in length, and for the
moft part one in breadth. It is (kreened on the north-
weft by the lofty mountains of Urquhart and Meal-
fourvony, and bordered with coppices of birch and
oak. The adjacent hills are adorned with many ex-
tenlive forefts of pine j which afford (belter to the
cattle, and are the retreat of flags and deer. There is
much cultivation and improvements on the banks of
Loch Nefs; and the pafture-grounds in the neighbour¬
ing valleys are excellent.—From the foutfc, the river
Fyers defcends towards this lake. Over this river
there is built a ftupendous bridge, on two oppofite
rocks; the top of the arch is above too feet from the
level of the water. A little below the bridge is the
celebrated Fall of Fyers, where a great body of water
darts through a narrow gap between two rocks, then
falls over a vaft precipice into the bottom of the chafm,
where the foam rifes and fills the air like a great cloud
of fmoke.
Loch Oich is a narrow lake, ftretching about four
miles from eaft to weft. It is adorned with fome fmall
wooded ifiands, and is furrounded with ancient trees.
Near this is the family feat of Glengary, furrounded
by natural woods of full growm fir, which extend nine
cr ten miles along the banks of the river Gary. The
waters of Loch Oich (low through Loch Nefs into the rnvemefs-
eaftern fea.—Loch Lochy tranfmits its waters in an op- ^r5' .
pofite direction, this being the higheft part of the vaft
fiat tra£l that here (Ketches from fea to fea. This ex-
tenfive lake is above ten miles in length, and from -one
to two in breadth From the weft, the wraters of Loch
Arkek defcend into this lake. Out of it runs the river
Lochy, which about a mile below its blue from the
lake receives the Spean, a confiderable river, over which
there is a magnificent bridge, built by General Wade,
about two miles above the place where it falls into the
Lochy. Thefe united ftreams traverfing the plains of
Lochaber, after a courfe of five or fix miles, fall into
Loch Eil.
A few miles to the fouth-eaft of Loch Lochy is
Glenroy or King’s Vale. The north-eaft end of this
valley opens on Loch Spey. A fmall river paffes
along the bottom of the vale, accompanied by a mo¬
dern road. On the declivity of the mountains, about
a mile from the river, on either hand, are feen feveral.
parallel roads of great antiquity. On the north-weft
fide, five of thefe roads run parallel and clofe by each
other. On the oppofite fide are three other roads
exactly fimilar. Thefe roads are 30 feet broad, all
per(e£lly horizontal, and extend eight or nine miles in
length. Their deftination or ufe has baffled the con¬
jectures of antiquaries.—Not far from Fort Augu-
ftus foars the pointed fummit of Bennevis, which
is efteemed the higheft: mountain in Britain, rifing
more than 4300 feet above the level of the fea.—In the
diftritds of Moydart, Arafaick, Merer, and Knbydart,
there are numerous bays and creeks, a.long the coaft,
many of which might be excellent filhing ftations.
The fouthern part of this county is very mountain^
ous, and is fuppofed to be the moft elevated ground in
Scotland. From its numerous lakes many ftreams de¬
fcend toward both feas. In the extenfive dillriCI call¬
ed Badenoch lies Loch Spey, the fource of the great
riter Spey, which proceeding eaftward with an in-
creafing ftream, enters the (hire of Murray at Rothie-
murchus, after having expanded into a fine lake. Not
far from this is feen the lofty top of Cairngorm ; a
mountain celebrated for its beautiful rock-cryftals of
various tints. Thefe are much efteemed by lapidaries;
and fome of them, having the luftre of fine gems, bring
a very high price. Limeftone, iron-ore, and fome tra¬
ces of different minerals, are found in the county ^ but
no mines have yet been worked with much iuccefs.
Its rivers and lakes afford abundance of falmon and
trout. The extenfive plains which furround the lakes
are in general fertile ; and the high grounds feed many
(lieep and black cattle, the rearing and felling of which,
forms the chief trade of the inhabitants.—By the pre-
fent fpirited exertions of the gentlemen in this populous
county, the commerce and the induftry of the inhabi¬
tants have of late been greatly increafed ; and to faci¬
litate the communication with other parts, application
has been made to parliament for leave to levy a tax
on the proprietors of land for improving the roads and
ere&ing bridges in this extenfive (hire. The common¬
alty in the high parts of the county and on the weftern
(Imre fpeak Gaelic ; but the people of fafhion in Inver¬
nefs and its vicinity ufe the Englifh language, and pro¬
nounce it with remarkable propriety.
The
Sr.Ternefs-
fliire
II
Inverfion.
> v, ..
* Statijl.
liifl* vol. xx.
I N V f 302
The following is a view of the population of the dif¬
ferent parilhes in the county at two different periods. *
Parijhes.
I Abernethy
Alvie
Arderfier
Bolefkine
5 Conveth or Kiltarlity
Cromdale
Croy
Daviot
Durris
10 G’enelg
Invernefs
Kilmanivaig
Kilmalie
Kilmorack
15 Kinguflie
Kirkhill
Laggan
Moy
Petty
20 Urquhart
Population
*'5S-
1670
1021
428
Ipbl
1964
3o63
1901
2176
1520
1816
9730
2995
3°93
2830
1900
1360
1460
*693
1643
1943
Population in
179c—1-98.
1769
IO I I
1 298
1741
2495
3000
1552
*697
I365
2746
10,527
2400
4031
23 > 8
!983
1570
151 2
1813
1518
2355
Continental part 46,167 48,701
25
IJlands.
Bracadale
Diurinifh
Kilmuir
Sky ^ Portree
Sleat
Snizort
Strath
Barry
South Uift
30 North Uift
31 Harris
1907
2568
1572
1385
1250
1627
943
11,252
1150
2209
1909
1969
2250
3000
2065
1980
1788
1808
1579
14,470
1604
3450
3218
2536
Total iflands 18,489 251278
Total 65,656
73.979
64,656
Increafe
9323
Invocation.
INVERSE, is applied to a manner of working the
rule of three. See Arithmetic, n° 13.
INVERSION, the aft whereby any thing is invert¬
ed or turned backwards. Problems in geometry and
arithmetic are often proved by inverfion 5 that is, by a
contrary rule or operation.
Inversion, in Grammar, is where the words of a
phrafe are ranged in a manner not fo natural as they
might be. For an inllance: “ Of all vices, the moft
abominable, and that which leaf! becomes a man, is
impurity.” Here is an inverfion; the natural order
being this : Impurity is the moft abominable of all
vices, and that which lead becomes a man.—An inver¬
fion is not always difagreeable, but fometimes has a
good effeft.
] I N V
INVERTED, in Mujic, is derived from the Latin Inverted
prepofition in, and vertere, “ to turn any thing a con-,
trary way.”
It fignifies a change in the order of the notes which
form a chord, or in the parts which compofe harmony :
which happens by fubftituting in the bafs, thofe founds
which ought to have been in the upper part: an opera¬
tion not only rendered prafticable, but greatly facilita^
ted by the refemblance which one note has to another
in different oftaves; whence wo derive the power of
of exchanging one oftave for another with fo much pro¬
priety and fuccefs, or by fubltituting in the extremes
thofe which ought to have occupied the middle ftation ;
and vice verfa. See Music.
INVESTIGATION, properly denotes the fearch-
ing or finding out any thing by the trafts or prints of
the feet; whence mathematicians, fchoolmen, and gram¬
marians, come to ufe the term in their refpeftive re-
fearches.
INVESTING a Place, is when a general, having
an intention to befiege it, detaches a body of horie to
poflefs all the avenues; blocking up the garrifon, and
preventing relief from getting into the place, till the
army and artillery are got up to form the fiege.
INVESTITURE, in Law, a giving livery of feifin
or poffeffion. There was anciently a great variety of
ceremonies ufed upon invellitures; as at firft they were
made by a certain form of words, and afterwards by
fuch things as had the greateft refemblance to the thing
to be transferred : thus, where lands were intended to
pafs, a turf, &c. wTas delivered by the granter to the
grantee. In the church, it was cuflomary for princes
to make invefliture of ecclefiaftical benefices, by deli¬
vering to the perfon they had chofen a paftoral ftaff and
a ring.
INVISIBLE lady, an amufing experiment in A-
coujlics, which was exhibited in this country, firft by a
Frenchman, and afterwards by others ; in w'hich, from
the conftruftion of the apparatus, a lady who converfed,
fung and played on mufical inftruments, feemed to be
enclofed in a hollow metallic globe, of about a foot in
diameter. See Science, Amufements of.
INULA, elecampane ; a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the fyngenefia clafs; and in the natural method
ranking under the 49th order, Compofitce. See Botany
Index.
INUNDATiE, the name of the 15th order in
Linnaeus’s fragments of a natural method ; confining
of plants which grow in the wrater. See Botany,
p. 309.
INUNDATION, a fudden overflowing of the dry
land by the waters of the ocean, rivers, lakes, fprings,
or rains.
INVOCATION, in Theology, the aft of adoring
God, and efpecially of addreffing him in prayer for his
affiftance and proteftion. See the articles Adoration
and Prayer.
The difference between the invocation of God and of
the faints, as praftifed by the Papifts, is thus explained
in the catechifm of the council of Trent. “ We beg
of God (fays the catechifm), to give us good things,
and to deliver us from evil ; but we pray to the laints,
to intercede with God and obtain thofe things which
we (land in need of. Hence we ufe different forms in
praying to God and to the faints : to the former we lay,
hear
1
■I o A f 303 ] J O A
hear us, have mercy on vs ; to the latter we only fay,
pray for us.'1'1 The council of Trent exprefsly teaches,
that the faints who reign with Jefus Chriit offer up their
prayers to God for men ; and condemn thofe who main¬
tain the contrary doctrine. The Proteftants reject and
cenfure this praftice as contrary to Scripture, deny the
truth of the fa£t, and think it highly unreafonable to
fuppofe that a limited finite being ihould be in a manner
omniprefent, and at one and the fame time hear and at¬
tend to the prayers that are offered to him in England,
China, and Peru ; and from thence infer, that if the
faints cannot hear their requefts, it is inconfiftent
with common fenfe to addrefs any kind of prayer to
them.
Invocation, in Poetry, an addrefs at the beginning
of a poem, wherein the poet calls for the affiflance of
foine divinity, particularly of his mufe, or the deity of
poetry.
INVOICE, an account in writing of the particulars
of merchandife, with their value, cuftoms, charges, &c.
tranfmitted by one merchant to another in a diftant
country.
INVOLUCRUM, among botanifts, expreffes that
fort of cup which furrounds a number of flowers toge¬
ther, every one of which has befide this general cup its
own particular perianthium. The involucrum confifts
of a multitude of little leaves difpofed in a radiated man¬
ner. See Calyx.
INVOLUTION, in Algebra, the raifing any quan¬
tity from its root to any height or power afligned.—See
Algebra.
IO, in fabulous hiflory, daughter of Inachus, or ac¬
cording to others of Jafus or Pirene, was prieftefs of Ju¬
no at Argos. Jupiter became enamoured of her ; but
Juno, jealous of his intrigues, difeovered the objefl of
his affedlion, and furprifed him in the company of lo.
Jupiter changed his miftrefs into a beautiful heifer ; and
the goddefs, wTo wTell knew the fraud, obtained from
her hufband the animal whofe beauty (lie had conde-
feended to commend. Juno commanded the hundred-
eyed Argus to watch the heifer ; but Jupiter, anxious
for the fituat'on of lo, fent Mercury to deftroy Argus,
and to reflore her to liberty. lo, freed from the vigi¬
lance of Argus, was now' perfecuted by Juno, who fent
one of the Furies to torment her. She w’andered over
the greateff part of the earth, and croffed over the fea,
till at laid flic flopped on the banks of the Nile, ftill ex-
pofed to the unceafing torments of the Fury. Here fhe
entreated Jupiter to reflore her to her natural form •,
and when the god had changed her from a heifer into a
woman, lire brought forth Epaphus. Afterwards flie
married Telegonus king of Egypt, or Ofiris accord¬
ing to others *, and (he treated her fubje£ls with fuch
mildneis and humanity, that after death flie received
divine honours, and was w’orfliipped under the name of
Ifis. According to Herodotus, lo w'as carried aw7ay
by Phoenician merchants, who wiflied to make repri-
fals for Europa who had been ffolen from them by the
Greeks.
JOAB, general of the army of King David, defeat¬
ed the Syrians and the other enemies of David, and
took the fort of Zion from the Jebufites, who, thinking
it impregnable, committed it to the care of the lame
and blind, whom they placed on the walls. He fig-
nalized himfelf in all David’s wars, but was guilty of
bafely murdering Abner and A niafa. He procuredJcachimitts
a reconciliation between Abfalom and David 5 and af-
terw'ards flew Abfalom, contrary to the exprefs ordersdQan ^ ^rc/
of the king. He at length joined Adonijah’s party \
and was put to death by the order of Solomon, 1014
B. C.
JOACHIMITES, in Church-Hi/lory, the difciples
of Joachim a Ciftertian monk, who was an abbot of
Flora in Calabria, and a great pretender to infpira-
tion.
The Joachimites were particularly fond of certain
ternaries : The Father, they faid, operated from the
beginning till the coming of the Son 5 the Son, from
that time to theirs, which was the yPar 1260 ■, and
from that time the Floly Spirit was to operate in his
turn. They alfo divided every thing relating to men,
to dodlrine, and the manner of living, into three claf-
fes, according to the three perfons in the Trinity:
The firit ternary was that of men ; of whom the firft
clafs w7as that of married men, which had lafted du¬
ring the whole period of the Father •, the fecond was
clerks, which had lafted during the time of the Son ;
and the laft wTas that of the monks, in which there w7as
to be an uncommon effufion of grace by the Holy Spi¬
rit : The fecond ternary was that of doftrine, viz. the
Old Teflament, the New, and the everlafting Gofpel p
the firft they aferibed to the Father, the fecond to the
Son, and Me third to the Holy Spirit: A third ternary
confifted in the manner of living, viz. under the Father,
men lived according to the fldh ; under the Son, they
lived according to the fieih and the fpirit ; and under
the Holy Ghoft, they were to live according to the fpi¬
rit only.
JOAN, Pope, called by Platina John VIII. is faid
to have held the holy fee between Leo IV. who died in
855, and Benedift III. who died in 858. Marianus
Scotus lays, flie fat two years five months and four days.
Numberlefs have been the controverfies, fables, and
conjectures, relating to this pope. It is faid that a
German girl, pretending to be a man, went to Athens,
w;here fhe made great progrefs in the fciences ; and af¬
terward came to Rome in the fame habit. As (lie had
a quick genius, and fpoke with a good grace in the pub¬
lic dilputations and lectures, her great learning w'as ad¬
mired, and every one loved her extremely •, fo that af¬
ter the death of Leo, flie was chofen pope, and per¬
formed all offices as fuch. Whilft Ihe was in poffeffion
of this high dignity, ihe was got with child 5 and as flie
W'as going in a folemn proceffion to the Lateran church,
ftie was delivered of that child, between the Colifeum
and St Clement’s church, in a moft public ftreet, be¬
fore a crowd of people, and died on the fpot, in 857..
By way of embellifliing this ftory, may be added the
precaution reported to have been afterward taken to a-
void fuch another accident. After the ele&ion of a
pope, he was placed on a chair with an open feat, call¬
ed the groping chair, when a deacon came moft devout¬
ly behind and fatisfied himfelf of the pontiff’s fex by
feeling. This precaution, however, has been long
deemed unneceffary, becaufe the cardinals, it is alleged,
take care to become fathers before they arrive at the
pontificate. - *
Joan d'Arc, or the Maid of Orleans, whofe heroic
behaviour in reanimating the expiring valour of the
French nation, though by the moft fuperftitious means,.
(pretending-
.TOE C 3=4 ] JOG
Joanna (pretending to be infpired), deferved a better fate. She
I' was burnt by the EnglHh as a forcerefs in 1421, aged
1 24. See France, N° ioi.
JOANNA, St, or HiNZUAN, one of the Comora
iflands in the Indian ocean. E. Long. 44. 15. S. Lat.
12. 30. See Hinzuan.
JOB, or Book of Job, a canonical book of the Old
Teftament, containing a narrative of a leries of nhf-
fortunes which happened to a man whofe name was
Job, as a trial of his virtue and patience ; together
with the conferences he had with his cruel friends on
the fubjeft of his misfortunes, and the manner in which
he was reftored to eafe and happinefs. This book is
filled with thofe noble, bold, and figurative expreflions,
which conftitnte the very foul of poetry.
Many of the Jewilh rabbins pretend that this rela¬
tion is altogether a fiftion •, others think it a fimple
narrative of a matter of faft jutt as it happened : while
a third fort of critics acknowledge, that the ground¬
work of the ftory is true, but that it is written in a poe¬
tical drain, and decorated with peculiar circumilan-
ces, to render the narration more profitable and enter¬
taining.
The time is not fet down in which Job lived. Some
have thought that he was much ancienter than Mofes,
becaufe the law is never cited by Job or his friends, and
becaufe it is related that Job himfelf offered facrifices.
Some imagine that this book was written by himfelf j
others fay, that Job wrote it originally in Syriac or A-
rabic, and that Mofes tranflated it into Hebrew: but
the rabbins generally pronounce Mofes to be the au¬
thor of it } and many Chriftian writers are of the fame
opinion.
JOBBER, a perfon who undertakes jobs, or fmall
pieces of work.
In fome ftatutes, jobber is ufed for a perfon who
buys and fells for others. See Broker.
' JOBBING, the bufinefs of a jobber.
Stock-Jobb ing, denotes the pra&ice of trafficking in
the public funds, or of buying and felling ffock with a
view to its rife or fall. The term is commonly applied
to the illegal pra&ice of buying and fellmg flock for
time, or of accounting for the differences in the rife or
fall of any particular ffock for a ftipulated time, whe¬
ther the buyer or feller be poffeffed of any fuch real ftock
or not. See Stock-Broker.
JOCiASTA, in fabulous hiftory, a daughter of Me-
nceceus, who married Laius king of Thebes,' by whom
Ihe had (Edipus. She afterwards married her fon OEdi¬
pus, without knowing who he was, and had by him
Eteocles, Polynices, &c. When fhe difcovered that
fhe had married her own fon and been guilty of inceft,
fhe hanged herfelf in defpair. She is called Epicafa by
fome mythologiffs.
JOCKEY, in the management of horfes $ the perfon
wdio trims up, and rides about horfes for fale..
JOEL, or the Prophecy of Joel, a canonical book
of the Old Teffament. Joel was the fbn of Pethuel,
and the fecond of the twelve leffer prophets. The ftyle
of this prophet is figurative, ftrong, and expreffive. He
upbraids the Ifraelites for their idolatry, and foretcls the
calamities they fhould fuffer as the puniffrnent of that
fin : but he endeavours to fupport them with the com¬
fort that their miferies fhould have an end upon their
reformation and repentance. Some writers, inferring
the order of time in which the minor prophets lived
from the order in' which they are placed in the Hebrew
copies, conclude that Joel propheiied before Amos, who
was contemporary with Uzziah, king of Judah. Arch-
bifhop Uiher makes this inference from Joel’s foretelling
that drought, chap. iv. 7, 8, 9. If we coniider the main
defign of Joel’s prophecy, we lhall be apt to conclude,
that it was uttered after the captivity of the ten tribes •,
for he diredls his difcourfe only to Judah, and fpeaks
diffindlly of the facrifices and oblations that were daily
made in the temple.
JOGHIS, a fed! of heathen religious in the Eaff In¬
dies, who never marry, nor hold any thing in private
property •, but live on alms, and pradfife ffrange feveri-
Joglm,
J ogu.es.
ties on themfelves.
They are fubjedt to a general, who fends them from
one country to another to preach. They are, properly,
a kind of penitent pilgrims *, and are fuppofed to be a
branch of the ancient Gymnofophiffs.
They frequent, principally, fuch places as are con-
fecrated by the devotion of the people, and pretend to
live feveral days together without eating or drinking.
After having gone through a courfe of difoipline for a
certain time, they look on themfelves as impeccable,
and privileged to do any thing 5 upon which they give
a loofe to their paffions, and run into all manner of de¬
bauchery.
JOGUES, or Yoogs, certain ages, eras, or periods,
of extraordinary length, in the chronology of the Hin¬
doos. They are four in number j of which the follow¬
ing is an account, extradted from Halhed’s Preface to t
the Code of Gentoo Lawrs, p. xxxvi.
1. The Suttee Jogue (or age of purity) is faid to have
lafted three million two hundred thoufand years j and
they hold that the life of man was extended in that age
to one hundred thoufand years, and that his ftature was
2i cubits.
2. The Tirtah Jogue (in which one-third of mankind
was corrupted) they fuppofe to have conliffed of twro
million four hundred thoufand years, and men lived to
the age of ten thoufand years.
3^ The Dwapaar Jogue (in which half of the human
race became depraved) endured one million fix hundred
thoufand years, and the life of man was then reduced to
a thdufand years.
4. The Collee Jogue (in which all mankind are cor¬
rupted, or rather leffened, for that is the true meaning
of Collee) is the prefent era, which they fuppofe ordained
to fubfift four hundred thoufand years, of which near
five thoufand are already paft ; and the life of man in
that period is limited to one hundred years.
Concerning the Indian chronology, we have already
had occafion to be pretty copious ; fee Hindoos, N° 19,
22. We ftiall here, however, fubjoin Dr Robertfon’s
obfervations on the above periods, from the Notes to
his Hiforical Dfquifition concerning India.
“ If (fays he *) we fuppofe the computation of time * p. 360.
in the Indian chronology to be made by folar or even
by lunar years, nothing can be more extravagant in it-
felf, or more repugnant to our mode of calculating the
duration of the world, founded on facred and infallible
authority. From one circumftance, however, which
merits attention, we may conclude, that the informa-
2
j o H [ 305 ] J O H
John, tion which we have hitherto received concerning the
1 v chronology of the Hindoos is very incorreft. We have,
as far as I know, only five original accounts of the dif¬
ferent Jogues or eras of the Hindoos. The firlf is given
by M. Rogers who received it from the Brahmins on
the Coromandel coaft. According to it, the Suttee
Jogue is a period of one million feven hundred and
twenty-eight thoufand years ; the Tiitah Jogue is one
million two hundred and ninety-fix thoufand years; the
Dwapaar Jogue is eight hundred and fixty-four thoufand.
ihe duration of the Collee Jogue he does not fpecify ;
{ Porte Ouverte, p. 179.). The next is that of M. Ber¬
nier, w7ho received it from the Brahmins of Benares.
According to him, the duration of the Suttee Jogue
was two million five hundred thoufand years; that of
the 1 irtah Jogue, one million two hundred thoufand
years ; that of the Hwapaar Jogue is eight hundred and
fixty-four thoufand years. Concerning the period of
the Collee Jogue, he likewife is nlent; {Voyages, tom.
ii. p. 163.). The third is that of Colonel I)ow; ac¬
cording to which the Suttee Jogue is a period of four¬
teen million of years, the Tirtah Jogue one million
eighty thoufand, the IDwapaar Jogue feventy-tvvo thou¬
fand, and the Collee Jogue thirty-fix thoufand years ;
(Hiji. of Hindoji. vol. i. p. 2.J. The fourth account is
that of M. le Gentil, who received it from the Brah¬
mins of the Coromandel coaft ; and as his information
was acquired in the fame part of India, and derived
from the fame fource with that of M. Roger, it agrees
with his in every particular; {Mem. de l'Academ. des
Sciences pour 1772, tom. ii. part i. p. 176.). The fifth
is the account of Mr Halhed, which has been already
given. From this difcrepancy, not only of the total
numbers, but of many of the articles in the different ac¬
counts, it is maniffcft that our information concerning
Indian chronology is hitherto as uncertain as the whole
fyfum of it is wild and fabulous. To me it appears
highly probable, that when we underftand more tho¬
roughly the principles upon which the factitious eras or
jogues of the Hindoos have been formed, that we may
be more able to reconcile their chronology to the true
mode of computing time, founded on the authority of
the Old Tell ament; and may likewife find reafon to
conclude, that the account given by their afironomers
of the fituation of the heavenly bodies at the beginning
of the Collee Jogue, is not efiablifhed by aClual obfer-
vation, but the refult of a retrofpeClive calculation.”
JOHN, St, the Baptist, the forerunner of Jefus
Chrifi, was the fon of Zacharias and Elizabeth. He
retired into a defert, where he lived on locUfls and
wild honey ; and about the year 29 began to preach
repentance, and to declare the comi ig of the Mefliah.
He baptized his difciples, and the following vear
Chrift himfelf was baptized by him in the river Jor
dan. Some time after, having reproved Herod An-
tipas, who had a criminal correfpondence with Hero-
dias his brother Philip’s wife, he ’ as call into prifon,
where he was beheaded. His head was brought to
Herodias ; who, according to St Jerome, pierced his
tongue with the bodkin ihe ufed to fallen up her hair,
to revenge herfelf after his death for the freedom of his
reproofs.
JoHN, St, the apoflle, or the evangelift, was the
brother of St James the Great, und the fon of Zehedec.
He quitted the bufinefs of fiihing to follow Jelus, and
Vol. XI. Part I.
was his beloved difciole. Pie w’as witnefs to the a&ions John,
and miracles of his Mailer ; was prefent at his transfi-
guration on Mount Tabor ; and was with him in the
garden of Olives. He wras the only apoftle who follow¬
ed him to the crofs ; and to him Jefus left the care of
his mother. He was alfo the firft apoflle who knew
him again after his refurreClion. He preached the
faith in Alia ; and principally refided at Ephefus, where
he maintained the mother of our I^ord. Hs is faid to"
have founded the churches of Smyrna, Pergamus, Thya-
tira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea. He is alfo
faid to have preached the gofpel amongil the Parthians,
and to have addreffed his firft epiflle to that people. It
is related, that, when at Rome, the emperor Domitiau
caufed him to be thrown into a caldron of boiling oil,
when he came out unhurt; on which he was banilhed
to the ifle of Patmos, where he wrote his Apocalypfe.
After the death of Domitian, he returned to Ephefus,
where he compofed his Gofpel, about the year 96 ; and
died there, in the reign of Trajan, about the year 100,
aged 94.
Gofpel of St John, a canonical book of the Newr Te-
ftament, containing a recital of the life, actions, doc¬
trine, and death, of our Saviour Jefus Chrift, written
by St John the apoflle and evangelift.
St John wrote his Gofpel at Ephefus, after his return
from the ifle of Patinos, at the defire of the Chriitians
of Alia. St Jerome fays, he would not undertake it,
but on condition that they fhould appoint a public fail
to implore the afliftance of God ; and that, the faft be¬
ing ended, St John, filled with the Holy Ghoft, broke
out into thefe words : “ In the beginning was the
Word,” &c. The ancients aflign two reafons for this
undertaking: the firft is, becaufe, in the other three
Gofpels, there was wanting the hiftory of the begin¬
ning of Jefus Chrift’s preaching, till the imprifonment
of John the Baptift, which therefore he applied himfelf
particularly to relate. The fecond reafon was, in or¬
der to remove the errors of the Cerinthians, Ebionites,
and other fedls. But Mr Lampe and Dr Lardner have
urged feveral reafbns to fhow that St John did not
write againft Cerinthus or any other heretics in his Gof¬
pel.
Revelation of St John. See Apocalypse.
John of Salifbury, bifhop of Chartres in France,
was born at Salifbury in Wiltfhire, in the beginning of
the 12th century. Where he imbibed the rudiments of
his education, is unknown : but we learn, that in the
year 1136, being then a youth, he was fent to Paris,
where he ftudied under feveral eminent profefibrs, and
acquired confiderable fame for his application and pro¬
ficiency in rhetoric, poetry, divinity, and particularly
in the learned languages. Thence he travelled to Ita¬
ly .\ and, during his refidence at Rome, was in high
favour with Pope Eugenio III. and his fucceflbr A-
drian IV. After his return to England, he became
the intimate friend and companion of the famous Tho¬
mas Becket, archbifhop of Canterbury, whom he at¬
tended in his exile, and is faid to have been prefent
when that haughty prelate was murdered in his cathe¬
dral. What preferment he had in the church during
this time, does not appear ; but in 1176 he was promo¬
ted by King Henry II. to the bifhopric of Chartres in
France, where he died in 1182. This John of Salif¬
bury was really a phenomenon. Fie was one of the firft
Q ft . reftorers
j ° h r 35
rtftoiers of die Greek and Latin languages i*i Europe j
a claffical fcholar, a philofopher, a learned divine, and
an elegant Latin poet. He wrote leveral books ; the
principal of which are, his Life of St Thomas of Can¬
terbury, a colledlion of letters, and Polycraticon.
Pope John XXII. a native of Cabors, before called
‘’Janies d'Eafe, rvas well {killed in the civil and canon
law •, and was eledled pope after the death of Clement V.
on the 7th of Apguft 1316. He publdhed the confu¬
tations called Clementines, which were made by his
predeceffor •, and drew up the other conftitutions called
Extravagances. Lewis of Bavaria being elected empe¬
ror, John XXII. oppofed him in favour of his competi¬
tor j which made much noife, and was attended with
fatal confequences.. That prince, in I329» caufed the
antipope Peter de Corbiero, a cordelier, to be defied,
who took the name of Nicholas V. and was fupported
by Michael de Cefenne, general of his order ; but that
antipope was the following year taken and carried to
Avignon, where he begged pardon of the pope with a
rope about his neck, and died in prifon two or three
years after. Under this pope arofe the famous quePdon
among the cordeliers, called the bread of the cordeliers ;
which was, Whether thofe monks had the property of
the things given them, at the time they were making
ufe of them ? for example, W hether the bread belong¬
ed to them when they w’ere eating it, or to the pope,
or to the Roman church ? This frivolous queftion gave
great employment to the pope j as well as thofe wThich
turned upon the colour, form, and fluff, of their habits,
whether they ought to bewdrite, gray, or black \ whe¬
ther the cowl ought to be pointed or round, large or
fmall; whether their robes ought to be full, fhort, or
long 5 of cloth, or of ferge, &c. The difputes on all
tjiefe minute trifles were carried fo far between the mi¬
nor brothers, that fome of them were burned upon the
occafion. He died at Avignon in 1334, aged 90.
John, king of England. See England, N° 135,
147.
John of Eordoun. See Fordoun.
John of Gaunt, duke of Lancafter, a renowned ge¬
neral, father of Henry IV. king of England, died in
1438.
John of Leyden, otherwife called Buccold. See Ana¬
baptists.
John Sobiejhi of Poland, one of the greateft warriors
in the 17th century, was, in 1665, made grand-marflial
of the crown-, and, in 1667, grand-general of the
kingdom. His vi£lories obtained over the Tartars and
the Turks procured him the crown, to which he was
elefted in 1674. He was an encourager of arts and
i'ciences, and the protestor of learned men. He died in
1696, aged 72.
St John's Day, the naifte of two Chriftian feftivals ;
one obferved on June 24th, kept in commemoration of
the wonderful circumftances attending the birth of John
the Baptift and the other on December 27. in honour
of St John the evan^elift.
St John's iVort. See Hypericum, Botany Index.
J. HN’s, St, an ifland of the Eaft Indies, and one of
the Philippines, eaft of Mindanao, from w'hich it is
feparated by a narrow ftrait. E. Long. 125. 25. N.
Lat. 7. o.
John’s, St, an iftand of North America, in the hay
6 ] J O H
of St Lawrence, having New Scotland on the fouth fohnfon.
and weft, and Cape Breton on the eaft. The Britifh —v“"
got poffeftion of it when Louifbourg was furrendered to
them, on July 26. 1758.
JOHNSON, Ben, one of the moft confiderable
dramatic poets of the laft age, whether we confider
the number or the merit of his productions. He was
born at Weftminfter in 1574, and was educated at the
public fchool there under the great Camden. He
was defeended from a Seottilh family 5 and his father,
who loft his eftate under Queen Mary, dying before
our poet was born, and his mother marrying a brick¬
layer for her fecond hufband, Ben w-as taken from
fchool to work at his father-in-law’s trade. Not be¬
ing captivated with this employment, he went into
the Low Countries, and diftinguiihed himfelf in a mili¬
tary capacity. On his return to England, he entered
himfelf at St John’s college, Cambridge j and having
killed a perfon in a duel, was condemned, and narrow¬
ly efcaped execution. After this he turned a£lor and
Shakefpeare is faid to have firft introduced him to the
world, by recommending a play of his to the ftage,
after it had been rejeCled. His Alchymift gained him
fuch reputation, that in 1619 he was, at the death of
Mr Daniel, made poet-laureat to King James I. and
mailer of arts at Oxford. As we do not find John-
fon’s oeconomical virtues anywhere recorded, it is the
lefs to be wondered at, that after this we find him pe¬
titioning King Charles, on his acceffion, to enlarge his
father’s allowance of 100 merks into pounds; and
quickly after we learn that he was very poor and fick,
lodging in an obfeure alley j on which occafion it was,
that Charles, being prevailed on in his favour, fent him
ten guineas; which Ben receiving faid, “ His majefty
has fent me ten guineas, becaufe I am poor, and live
in an alley ; go and tell him, that his foul lives in an
alley.” He died in Auguft 1637, aged 63 years, and
was buried in Weftminfter-Abbey.—The moft com¬
plete edition of his works was printed in 1756, in
7 vols 8vo.
Johnson, Dr Samuel, who has been ftyled the
brighteft ornament of the 1 8th century, was born in
the city of Litchfield in Staffordftiire, on the 18th of
September N. S. 1709. His father Michael was a
bookfeller ; and muft have had fome reputation in the
city, as he more than once bore the office of chief
magiftrate. By what cafiaiftical reafoning he reconciled
his confcience to the oaths required to be taken by all
who occupy fuch ftations, cannot now be known ; but
it is certain that he w-as zealoufty attached to the exiled
family, and inftilled the fame principles into the youth¬
ful mind of his fon. So much was he in earneft in this
■work, and at fo early a period did he commence it, that
when Dr Sacheverel, in his memorable tour through
England, came to Litchfield, Mr Johnfon carried his
fon, not then quite three years old, to the cathedral,
and placed him on his ihoulders, that he might fee as
well as hear the far-famed preacher.
But political prejudices were not the only bad things
which young Sam inherited from his father : he de¬
rived from the fame fource a morbid melancholy, which^
though it neither depreffed his imagination, nor cloud¬
ed his perfpicuity, filled him with dreadful
fions of infanity, and rendered him wretched through
J o H [ 3°7 ] J O H
Johnfon. life. From Ins nurfe he contrafted the fcrofula or
—11 ■ king’s evi', which made its appearance at a very early
period disfigured a face naturally well-formed, and de¬
prived him of the light of one of his eyes.
When arrived at a proper age for grammatical in-
ftrudtion, he was placed in the free fchool of Litchfield,
of which one Mr Hunter was then mailer ; a man
whom his illullrious pupil thought “ very fevere, and
wrong-headedly fevere,” becaufe he woilld beat a boy
for not anfwering quellions which he could not expeft
to be alked. He was, however, a fkilful teacher j and
Johnfon, when he Hood in the very front of learning,
was fenfible how much he owed to him ; for upon be¬
ing alked how he had acquired fo accurate a knowledge
■of the Latin tongue, he replied, “ My mailer beat
me very well j without that, Sir, I lliould have done
nothing.”
At the age of 15 Johnfon was removed from Litch¬
field to the fchool of Stourbridge in Worcefterlhire,
at which he remained little more than a year, and then
returned home, where he llaid two years without any
fettled plan of life or any regular courfe of flady. He
read, however, a great deal in a defultory manner, as
chance threw books in his way, and as inclination di-
redled him through them j fo that when in his 19th
year he was entered a commoner of Pembroke college,
Oxford, his mind was llored with a variety of fuch
knowledge as is not often acquired in univerfities, wThere
boys feldom read any books but what are put into their
hasds by their tutors. He had given very early proofs
of his poetical genius both in his fchool exercifes and
in other occafional compofitions : but what is perhaps
more remarkable, as it Ihows that he mull have
thought much on a fubjefl on which other boys of
that age feldom think at all, he had before he was 14
entertained doubts of the truth of revelation. From
the melancholy of his temper thefe would naturally
prey upon his fpirits, and give him great unealinefs :
but they were happily removed by a proper courfe of
reading j for “ his iludies being honeft, ended in con-
vidlion. He found that religion is true 5 and what
he had learned, he ever afterwards endeavoured to
teach.”
Concerning his refidence in the univerfity and the
means by which he was there fupported, his two prin¬
cipal biographers contradifl each other; fo that thefe
are points of which we cannot write with certainty.
According to Sir John Hawkins, the time of his con¬
tinuance at Oxford is divifible into two periods : Mr
jBofwell reprefents it as only one period, with the ufual
interval of a long vacation. Sir John fays, that he
was fupported at collpge by Mr Andrew7 Corbet in
quality of afliilant in the Iludies of his fon : Mr Bof-
well allures us, that though he was promifed pecuniary
aid by Mr Corbet, that promife was not in any de¬
gree fulfilled. We Ihould be inclined to adopt the
knight’s account of this tranfaflion, were it not pal¬
pably inconfillent with itfelf. He fays, that the turn
young men were entered in Pembroke on the fame
day ; that Corbet continued in the college two years;
and yet that Johnfon was driven home in little more
than one year, becaufe by the removal of Corbet he
was deprived of his penfion. A llory, of which one
part contradifts the other, cannot wholly be true. Sir
John adds, that “ meeting with another fource, the Johnfon.
bounty, as it is fuppofed, of fome one or more of the v—""
members of the cathedral of Lichfield, he returned to
college, and made up the whole of his refidence in the
univerfity about three years.” Mr Bofwell has told us
nothing but that Johnfon, though his father was un¬
able to fupport him, continued three years in college,
and was then driven from it by extreme poverty.
Thefe gentlemen differ like wife in their accounts of
Johnfon’s tutors. Sir John Hawkins fays that he had
two, Mr Jordan and Dr Adams. Mr Bofwell affirms
that Dr Adams could not be his tutor, becaufe Jordan
did not quit the college till 173 I j the year in the au¬
tumn of which Johnfon himfelf was compelled to leave
Oxford, Yet the fame author reprefents Dr Adams as
faying, “ I was Johnfon’s nominal tutor, but he tvas
above my mark a fpeech of which it is not eafy to
difcover the meaning, if it was not Johnfon’s duty to
attend Adams’s leflures- In moll colleges we believe
there are two tutors in different departments of educa¬
tion j and therefore it is not improbable that Jordan
and Adams may have been tutors to Johnfdn at the
fame time, the one in languages, the other in fcience.
Jordan was a man of fuch mean abilities, that though
his pupil loved him for the goodnefs of his heart, he
would often rilk the payment of a fmall fine, rather than
attend his le£tures ;• nor was he lludious to conceal the
reafon of his ablence. Upon occafion of one fuch im-
pofition, he faid, “ Sir, you have fconced me twopence
for non-attendance at a leflure not worth a penny.”
For fome tranfgreffion or abfence his tutor impofed up¬
on him as a Chriltmas exercife the talk of t ran dating
into Latin verfe Pope’s MeJJiah; which being fhown to
the author of the original, was read and returned with
this encomium, “ The writer of this poem will leave it
a queflion for poflerity, whether his or mine be the ori-
ginal.” The particular courfe of his reading while in
college, and during the vacation which he paffed at
home, cannot be traced. That at this period he read
much, we have his own evidence in what he afterwards
told the king *, but his mode of ftudy was never regu¬
lar, and at all times he thought more than he read.
He informed Mr Bofwell, that what he read folidli/ at
Oxford was Greek, and that the dudy of which he was
mod fond was metaphyfics.
It was in the year 173 i that Johnfon left the univer¬
fity without a degree •, and as his father, who died in
the month of December of that year, had fuffered great
misfortunes in trade, he was driven out a commoner of
nature, and excluded from the regular modes of profit
and profperity. Having therefore no. only a profeffion
but the means of fubfiftence to feek, he accepted, in
the month of March 1732, an invitation to the office
of under-mafter of a free fchool at Market Bofworth in
Leicefterdiire : but not knowing, as he faid, whether it
was more difagreeable for him to teach or for the boys
to learn the grammar-rules, and being likewife difguft-
ed at the treatment which he received from the patron
of the fchool, he relinquiffied in a few months a fitua-
tion which he ever afterwards recolledled with horror.
Being thus again without any fixed employment, and
with very little money in his pocket, he trandated Lo-
bo’s voyage to_ Abyffinia, for the trifling fum, it is faid,
of five guineas, which he teceived from a bookfeller in
Q, fi 2 Birmingham.
J O H [ 308 ] JO H
John Ton. Birmmgham. This was the firil attempt which it is
’ v certain he made to procure pecuniary affiitance by
means of his pen *, and it mud have held forth very
little encouragement to his commencing author by pro-
feffion.
In 1735, being then in his 26th year, he married
Mrs Porter, the widow of a mercer in Birmingham 5
whofe age was almoit double his •, whofe external form,
according to Garrick and others, had never been cap¬
tivating •, and whofe fortune amounted to hardly 800I.
That Pne had a fuperiority of<under(landing and talents
is extremely probable, both becaufe (lie certainly in-
fpired him with a more than ordinary paflion, and be¬
caufe fne was herfelf fo delighted with the charms of
his converfation as to overlook his external difadvanta-
ges, which were many and great. He now fet up a
private academy •, for which purpofe he hired a large
houfe well fituated Kear his native city : but his name
having then nothing of that celebrity which afterwards
commanded the attention and refpedl of mankind, this
undertaking did not fucceed. The only pupils who are
known to have been placed under his care, were the
celebrated David Garrick, his brother George Gar¬
rick, and a young gentleman of fortune whofe name
was Offely. He kept his academy only a year and a
half 5 and it w7as during that time that he conftrufled
the plan and w'rote a great part of his tragedy of
Irene.
The refpedlable chara&er of his parents and his
own merit had fecured him a kind reception in the belt
families at Litchfield ; and he was particularly diftin-
guilhed by Mr Walmfley regitler of the ecclefiaflical
court, a man of great worth and of very extenlive and
various erudition. That gentleman, upon hearing part
of Irene read, thought fo highly of Johnfon’s abilities
as a dramatic writer, that he advifed him by all means
to finifh the tragedy and produce it on the ftage. To
men of genius the flage holds forth temptations almoft
refiftlefs. The profits arifing from a tragedy, including
the reprefentation and printing of it, and the connec¬
tions which it fometimes enables the author to form,
were in Johnfon’s imagination ineftimable. Flattered,
it may be fuppofed, wTith thefe hopes, he fet out feme
time in the year 1737 with his pupil David Garrick
for London, leaving Mrs Johnfon to take care of the
houfe and the wreck of her fortune. The twm adven¬
turers carried with them from Mr Walmfley an earned
recommendation to the reverend Mr Colfon, then mader
of an academy, and afterwards Lucafian profeffbr of
mathematics in the univerfity of Cambridge •, but from
that gentleman it does not appear that Johnfon found
either protection or encouragement.
How he fpent his time upon his fird going to Lon¬
don is not particularly known. His tragedy was refu-
fed by the managers of that day j and for fome years
the Gentleman’s Magazine feems to have been his prin¬
cipal refource for employment and fupport. To enu¬
merate his various communications to that far-famed
mifcellany, would extend this article beyond the limits
which w’e can afford. Suffice it to fay, that his con¬
nexion with Cave the proprietor became very clofe ;
that he w’to'.e prefaces, effays, review's of books, and
poems; and that he was occafionally employed in cor-
reXing the papers written by other correfpondents.
When the complaints of the nation againfl the admini- Jalm
dration of Sir Robert Walpole became loud, and a mo- »
tion was made, February 13. 1740-1, to remove him
from bis majedy’s counfek iorever, Johnfon w'as pitch¬
ed upon by Cave to write wdiat w7as in the Magazine
intitled Debates in the Senate of Lilllput, but wTas under-
dood to be the fpeeches of the mod eminent members
in both houfes of parliament. Thefe orations, which
induced Voltaire to compare Britilh with ancient elo¬
quence, were hadily fketched by Johnlon while he w;as
not yet 32 years old, while he was little acquainted
with life, while he was druggling, not for didinXion
but for exiitence. Perhaps in none of his writings has
he given a more confpicuous proof of a mind prompt
and vigorous almod beyond conception : for they were
compofed from fcanty notes taken by illiterate perions
employed to attend in both houfes 5 and fometimes he
had nothing communicated to him but the names of
the feveral ipeakers, and the part which they took in
the debate.
His feparate publications which at this time attraXed
the greated notice were, “ London, a Poem in imita-
tion of Juvenal’s third Satire-,” “ Marmor Norfolcienfe,
or an Effay on an ancient prophetical Infeription in
Monkilh Rhyme, lately difeovered near Lynne in Nor¬
folk j” and “ A complete Vindication of the Licenfers
of the Stage from the malicious and fcandalous afper-
lions of Mr Brook author of Gudavus Vafa.” The
poem, w-hich wTas publidied in 1738 by Doddey, is uni-
verfally known and admired as the mod fpirited indance
in the Englidi language of ancient fentiments adapted to
modern topics. Pope, who then filled the poetical
throne without a rival, being informed that the author’s
name w-as 'Johnfon, and that he was an obfeure perfon,
replied, “ be will foon be deterred'' The other two
pamphlets, which were publiihed in 1739, are filled
with keen fatire on the government : and though Sir
John Hawkins has thought fit to declare that they dif-
play neither learning nor wit, Pope was of a different
opinion 5 for in a note of his preferved by Mr Bofwell,
he fays, that “ the whole of the Norfolk prophecy is
very humorous.”
Mrs Johnfon, who went to London foon after her
hufband, now lived fometimes in one place and fome¬
times in another, fometimes in the city and fometimes
at Greenwich : but Johnfon himfelf was oftener to be
found at St John’s Gate, where the Gentleman’s Ma¬
gazine was publidied, than in his own lodgings. It was
there that he became acquainted with Savage, with
whom he was induced, probably by the fimilarity of
their circumdances, to contraX a very clofe friend-
drip •, and Inch were their extreme necedities, that they
have often wandered whole nights in the dreet for
want of money to procure them a lodging. In one
of thefe noXurnal rambles, when their didrefs was al¬
mod incredible, fo far were they from being depreffed
by their frtuation, that in high fpirits and brimful of
patriotifm, they traverfed St James’s Square for fe¬
veral hours, inveighed againd the minider; and, as
Johnfon faid in ridicule of himfelf, his companion, and
all fuch patriots, “ refolved that they would dand by
their country !” In 1744, be publiihed the life of his
unfortunate companion -, a work which, had he never
written anything elfe, wduld have placed him very
high
J O H [
Johnfbn. high in the rank of authors (a). His narrative is re-
v ' markably fmooth and well dilpofed, his obfervations
are jult, and his refle&ions difclofe the inmoft receiTes
of the human heart.
In i 749, when Drury-lane theatre was opened un¬
der the management of Garrick, Johnfon wrote a pro¬
logue for the occafion j which for juft dramatic cnti-
cifm on the whole range of the Engiifh ftage, as w'ell
as for poetical excellence, is confefledly unrivalled.
But this year is, in his life, diftinguhhed as the epoch
when his arduous and important work, the Diction¬
ary of the Englifti Language, was announced to the
world by the publication of its plan or profpe£tus,
addrefled to the earl of Chefterfield. From that noble¬
man Johnfon was certainly led to expect patronage
and encouragement •, and it feems to be equally cer¬
tain that his lordfhip expected, when the book ihould
be publiftied, to be honoured with the dedication.
The expectations of both were difappointed. Lord
Chefterfield, after feeing the lexicographer once or
twice, fullered him to be repulfed from his door : but
afterwards thinking to conciliate him when the work
was upon .the eve of publication, he wrote twm papers
in “ The World,” warmly recommending it to the pub¬
lic. This artifice was feen through ", and Johnfon, in
very polite language, rejefled his lordftiip’s advances,
letting him know, that he was unwilling the public
Ihould confider him as owing to a patron that which
Providence had enabled him to do for himfelf. This
great and laborious work its author expedled to com¬
plete in three years : but he was certainly employed
upon it feven ; for wTe know that it wras begun in 1747,
and the lait fheet was lent to the prefs in the end of
the year 17 When we conlider the nature of the
undertaking, it is indeed aftonilhing that it was finifti-
ed fo foon, fince it was written, as he fays, “ with
little aftiftance of the learned, and without any patron¬
age of the great ■, not in the foft obfcurities, of retire¬
ment, or under the fhelter of academic bowers, but
amidft inconvenience and diftraclion, in ficknefs and in
forrow.” The forrow, to which he here alludes, is
probably that w'hic’n he felt for the lofs of his wife,
who died on the 17th of March O. S. 1752, the
lofs of whom he continued to lament as long as he
lived.
The Didlionary did not occupy his whole time :
for while he was pushing it forward, he fitted his tra¬
gedy for the ftage j wrote the lives of feveral eminent
men for the Gentleman’s Magazine ; published an Imi¬
tation of the Ioth Satire of Juvenal, entitled “ The
Vanity of human Wishes and began and finilhed
“ The Rambler.” This laft work is fo well-known,
that it is hardly neceflary to fay that it was a periodi¬
cal paper, published twice a-week, from the 20th of
March 1750 to the 14th of March 1752 inclusive :
but to give our readers fome notion of the vigour and
promptitude of the author’s mind, it may not be im¬
proper to obferve, that notwithftanding the feverity
of his other labours, all the affiitance which he re-
309 ] JO IT
ceived does not amount to five papers ; and that many ^ T°h
of the moft mafterly of thofe unequalled effays were
written on the fpur of the occafion, and never Seen en¬
tire by the author till they returned to him from the
prefs.
Soon after the Rambler was concluded, Dr Hawkef-
worth projected “ The Adventurer” upon a fimilar
plan ; and by the afliftance of friends he was enabled
to carry it on with almoft equal merit. For a Short
time, indeed, it was the moft popular work of the two j
and the papers with the Signature T, which are con-
feifedly the moft fplendid in the whole colledlion, are
now known to have been communicated by Johnfon,
who received for each the fum of two guineas. 'I his
was double the price for which he fold fermons to Such
clergymen as either would not or could not compofe
their own difcourfes ; and of fermon-writing he feems
to have made a kind of trade.
Though he had exhaufted, during the time that he
was employed on the Didtionary, more than the fum
for which the bookfellers had bargained for the copy *,
yet by means of the Rambler, Adventurer, fermons, and
other produdlions of his pen, he now found himfelf
in greater affluence than he had ever been before ; and
as the powers of his mind, diiiended by long and fevere
exercife, required relaxation to reftore them to their
proper tone, he appears to have done little or nothing
from the doling of the Adventurer till the year 1756,
when he fubmitted to the office of reviewer in the Lite¬
rary Magazine. Of his reviews by far the moft valuable
is that of Soame Jennyns’s “ Free Inquiry into the Na¬
ture and Origin of Evil.” Never were wit and meta¬
physical acutenefs more clofely united than in that criti-
cifm, which expofes the weaknefs and holds up to con¬
tempt the reafonings of thofe vain mortals, who prefump-
tuoully attempt to grafp the fcale of exiftence, and to'
form plans of conduct for the Creator of the univerfe.
But the furnishing of magazines, reviews, and even news¬
papers wdth literary intelligence, and authors of books
with dedications and prefaces, was confidered as an
employment unworthy of Johnfon. It was therefore
propofed by the bookfellers that he Should give a new
edition of the dramas of Shakefpeare y a work which
he had projected many years before, and of which he
had published a fpecimen which was commended by
Warburton. When one of his friends expreffed a hope
that this employment would furniSh him with amufe-
ment and add to his fame, he replied, “ I look upon it
as I did upon the Di£tionary •, it is all work j and my
inducement to it is not love or defire of fame, but the
want of money, which is the only motive to writing
that I know of.” He iffued propofals, horvever, of
considerable length •, in which he Showed that he knew
perfeiftly what a variety of refearch fuch an undertaking
required : but his indolence prevented him from pur-
fuing it with diligence, and it was not published till
many years afterwards.
On the 1 ^th of April 1758 he began a new periodi¬
cal paper entitled “ The Idler,” which came out every
Saturday
(a) From the merit of this -work Mr Bofwell has endeavoured to detr'acf, by insinuating, that the perfon called:
Richard Savage was an impoftor, and not the fon of the earl of Rivers and the countefs of Macclesfield. See ourr
account of Savage*.
Tohnfon.
J OH [31
Saturday in- a wetekly newfpaper, called “ the Univer-
fal Chronicle, or Weekly Gazette,” publiihed by New¬
berry. Of thefe effays, which were continued till the
5th of April 1760, many were written as haftily as an
ordinary letter} and one in particular compofed at
Oxford was begun only half an hour before the de¬
parture of the poll which carried it to London.
About this time he had the offer of a living, of which
he might have rendered himfelf capable by entering
into orders. It was a redfory in a pleafant country, of
Inch yearly value as would have been an object to one
in much better circumltances j but fenfible, as it is
fuppofed, of the afperity of his temper, he declined it,
faying, “ I have not the requifites for the office, and I
cannot in my confcience (hear the flock which I am un¬
able to feed.”
In the month of January 1759 m°thcr died at
the great age of 90 •, an event which deeply aftedted him,
and gave birth to the 41ft Idler, in which he laments,
that “ the life which made his own life pleafant was at
an end, and that the gate of death wras fhut upon his
profpedfs.” Soon afterwards he wrote his “ Rafl'elas
Prince of Abyffinia j that with the profits he might
defray the expence of his mother’s funeral, and pay
home debts which flie had left. He told a friend, that
he received for the copy look and 25I. more when it
came to a fecond edition j that he wrote it in the
evenings, of one week, fent it to the prefs in por¬
tions as it was written, and had never fince read it
over. »
Hitherto, notwithftanding his various publications,
he was poor, and obliged to provide by his labour for
the wants of the day that was paffing over him ; but
having been early in 1762 reprefented to the king as
a very learned and good man without any certain pro-
vifion, his majefty was pleafed to grant him a penfion,
which Lord Bute, then firfl; minifter, allured him “ was
not given for any thing which he was to do, but for
what he had already done.''"1 A fixed annuity of three
hundred pounds, if it diminiffied his diftrefs, increafed
his indolence •, for as he conftantly avowed that be had
no other motive for writing than to gain money, as he
had now what was abundantly fnfficient for all his pur-
pofes, as he delighted in converfation, and was vifited
and admired by the witty, the elegant, and the learn¬
ed, very little of his time was paft in folitary ftudy.
Solitude was indeed his averfion ; and that he might
>avoid it as much as poflible, Sir Jolhua Reynolds and
he, in 1 764, inftituted a club, which exifled long with¬
out a name, but was afterwards known by the title of
the Literary Club. It confifted of fome of the moft en¬
lightened men of the age, w’ho met at the Turk’s Head
in Gerard-flreet, Soho, one evening in every week at
/even, and till a late hour enjoyed “ the feall of reafon
and the flow of foul.”
In 1765, w'hen Johnfon was more than ufually op-
prelfed with conftitutional melancholy, he was fortu¬
nately introduced into the family of Mr Thrale, one
of the moft eminent brewers in England, and member
of parliament for the borough of Southwark : and it
is but juftice to acknowledge, that to the affiftance
wThich Mr and Mrs Thrale gave him, to the fhelter
which their houfe afforded him for 16 or 17 years,
and to the pains which they took to foothe or reprefs
Jlis uneafy fancies, the public is probably indebted for
3
o ] J O II
fome of the molt mafferly as well as moft popular Johnfon.
works which he ever produced. At length, in the—v—-
October of this year, he gave to the world his edition
of Shakefpeare, which is chiefly valuable for the pre¬
face, where the excellencies and defedls of that im¬
mortal bard are difplayed with fuch judgement, as muft
pleafe every man whole tafte is not regulated by the
ftandard of falhion or national prejudice. In "1767
he was honoured by a private converfation with the
king in the library at the queen’s houfe : and two
years afterwards, upon the eftablilhment of the royal
academy of painting, fculpture, &c. he was nominated
profeffor of ancient literature ; an office merely hono¬
rary, and conferred on him, as is fuppofed, at the re¬
commendation of his friend the prelident.
In the variety of lubjedls on which he had hitherto
exercifed his pen, he had forborne, fince the admir.i-
ftration of Sir Robert Walpole, to meddle with the
difputes of contending faclions ; but having feen with
indignation the methods which, in the bulinefs of Mr
Wilkes, were taken to work upon the populace, he
publiflied in 1770 a pamphlet, entitled “The Falfe
Alarm in which he afferts, and labours to prove by
a variety of arguments founded on precedents, that the
expullion of a member of the houfe of commons is
equivalent to exclufion, and that no fuch calamity as
the lubverflon of the conftitution was to be feared from
an a£I warranted by ufage, which is the law of par¬
liament. Whatever may be thought of the principles
maintained in this publication, it unqueftionably con¬
tains much wit and much argument, expreffed in the
author’s befl ftyle of compofition ; and yet it is known
to have been written between eight o’clock on Wed-
nefday night and twelve o’clock on the Thurfday
night, when it was read to Mr Thrale upon his co¬
ming from the houfe of commons. In 1771 he pub-
lilhed another political pamphlet, entitled, “ Thoughts
on the late tranfaftions refpefling Falkland’s iflands
in which he attacked 'Junius: and he ever afterwards
delighted himfelf with the thought of having deilroyed
that able writer, wffiom he certainly furpafled in ner¬
vous language and pointed ridicule.
In 1773 he vifited with Mr Bofwell fome of the
moft confiderable of the Hebrides or Weftern Iflands
of Scotland, and publiffied an account of his journey
in a volume which abounds in extenfive philofophical
views of fociety, ingenious fentiments, and lively de-
feription, but which offended many perfons by the
violent attack which it made on the authenticity of
the poems attributed to Offian. For the degree of
offence that was taken, the book can hardly be thought
to contain a fufficient reafon : if the antiquity of thefe
poems be yet doubted, it is owing more to the con-
dmft of their editor than to the violence of Johnfon,
In 1774, the parliament being diffolved, he addreffed
to the eledfors of Great Britain a pamphlet, entitled
“ The Patriotof which the defign was to guar^l
them from impofition, and teach them to diftinguiffi
true from falfe patriotifm. In 1775 he publifhed
“ Taxation no tyranny 5 in anfwer to the refolutions
and addrefs of the American Congrefs.” In thi$
performance his admirer Mr Bofwell cannot, he fays,
perceive that ability of argument or that felicity of ex-
preffion for which on other occafions Johnfon was fo
eminent. This is a Angular criticifm. To the affumed
principle
3 O H ' [ 3r
Jolmfon. principle upon vvhicli the reafoning of the pamphlet
1 refts many have objefted, and perhaps their objec¬
tions are well founded j but if it be admitted that
“ the fupreme power of every community has the
right of requiring from all its fufcjecfs fuch contribu¬
tions as are neceffary to the public fafety or public
profperity,” it will be found a very difficult talk to
break the chain of arguments by which it is proved
that the Britilh parliament had a right to tax the Ame¬
ricans. As to the exprejfion of the pamphlet, the
reader, who adopts the maxim recorded in the “ Jour¬
nal of a tour to the Hebrides,” that a controvertift
“ ought not to ftrike foft in battle,” mull acknow¬
ledge that it is uncommonly happy, and that the whole
performance is one of the moll brilliant as -well as moll
correct pieces of compofition that ever fell from the
pen of its author. Thefe effays drew upon him nu¬
merous attacks, all of which he heartily defpifed •, for
though it has been fuppofed that “ A letter addreffed
to Dr Samuel Johnfon occafioned by his political pub¬
lications,” gave him great uneafinefs, the contrary is
manifeft, from his having, after the appearance of that
letter, colle£led them into a volume with the title of
Political Trails by the author of the Rambler.” In
lyb? Trinity College Dublin had created him LL.D.
by diploma, and he now' received the fame honour
from the univerlity of Oxford *, an honour with
which, though he did not boall of it, he was highly
gratified. In 1777 he was induced, by a cafe of a
very extraordinary nature, to exercife that humanity
which in him wras obedient to every call. Dr William
Dodd, a clergyman, under fentence of death for the
crime of forgery, found means to interell Johnfon in
his behalf, and procured from him two of the moll
energetic compofitions of the kind ever feeh } the one
a petition from himfelf to the king, the other a like
addrefs from his wife to the queen. Thefe petitions
failed of fuccefs.
The principal bookfellers in London having deter¬
mined to publiffi a body of Engliffi poetry, Johnfon
wras prevailed upon to write the lives of the poets, and
give a chara&er of the works of each. This talk he
undertook with alacrity, and executed it in fuch a
manner as mull convince every competent reader, that
as a biographer and a critic, no nation can produce
his equal. The work was publiffied in ten fmall vo¬
lumes, of which the firlt four came abroad 1778, and
the others in 1781. While the world in general wras
filled with admiration of the llupendous powers of that
man, wdio at the age of feventy-two, and labouring
under a complication of difeafes, could produce a wmrk
which difplays fo much genius and fo much learning,
there were narrow circles in which prejudice and refent-
ment were foltered, and whence attacks of different
forts iffued againll him. ffifhefe gave him not the fmall-
ell dillurbance. When told of the feeble, though ffirill,
outcry that had been raifed, he faid—“ Sir, I confidered
myfelf as entrulled with a certain portion of truth. I
have given my opinio**- fincerely : let them ikow where
they think me wrong.”
He had hardly begun to reap the laurels gained by
this performance, when death deprived him of Mr
Thrale, in whofe houfe he had enjoyed the mod com¬
fortable hours of his life } but it abated not in John-
fon that care for the interefts of thofe tv hem his friend
1 ] j o H
had left behind him, which he thought himfelf bound Johnfon.
to cheriffi, both in duty as one of the executors of his ' 1"v ' r
will, and from the nobler principle of gratitude. On
this account, his vifits to Streatham, Mr Thrale’s vil¬
la, were for fome time after his death regularly made
on Monday and protradled till Saturday, as they had
been during his life 5 but they foon became lefs and
lefs frequent, and he ftudioully avoided the mention of
the place or the family. Mrs Thrale, now Piozzi, fays
indeed, that “ it grew extremely perplexing and diffi¬
cult to live in the houfe with him when the mailer of
it was no more j becaufe his difiikes grew capricious,
and he could fcarce bear to have any body come to the
houfe whom it wras abfolutely neceffary for her to fee.”
The perfon whom ffie thought it mod neceffary for her
to fee may perhaps be gUeffed at without any fuperior
(hare of fagacity j and if thefe were the vifits which
Johnfon could bear, we are fo far from thinking his"
diflikes capricious, though they may have been per¬
plexing, that if he had a£ted otherwife, we ffiould
have blamed him for want of gratitude to the friend
ivhofe “ face for fifteen years had never been turned ,
upon him but with refpe£t or benignity.”
About the middle of June 1783 his conftitution'
fullained a feverer {hock than it had ever before felt,
by a ftroke of the palfy ; fo hidden and fo violent, that
it awakened him out of a found deep, and rendered
him for a ffiort time fpeechlefsw As ufual, his recourfe
under this affii£tion was to piety, which in him wras
conftant, fincere, and fervent. He tried to repeat the
Lord’s prayer firft in Engliffi, then in Latin, and af¬
terwards in Greek 5 but fueceeded only in the lail at¬
tempt immediately after which he was again deprived'
of the power of articulation. From this alarming at¬
tack he recovered with wonderful quicknefs, but it
left-behind it fome prefages of an hydropic affeftion ; .
and he was foon afterwards feized with a fpafmodic
afthma of fuch violence that he was confined to the
houfe in great pain, while his dropfy increafed, nct-
withllanding all the efforts of the moil eminent phyfi-
cians in London and Edinburgh. He had, however,
fuch an-interval of eafe as enabled him in the fummer
1784 to vifit his friends at Oxford, Litchfield, and
Affibourne in Derbyfhire. The Romiffi religion be¬
ing introduced one day as the topic of converfation
when he was in the houfe of Dr Adams, Johnfon -
faid, “ If you join the Papifts externally, they will not
interrogate you ftriflly as to your belief in their tenets.
No reafoning Papift believes every article of their faith.
There is one fide on which a good man might be per-
fuaded to embrace it; A good man of a timorous
difpofition, „ in great doubt of his acceptance with
God, and pretty credulous, might be glad of a church
where there are fo many helps to go to heaven. I
would be a Papiil if I could. I have fear enough ;
but an obftinate rationality prevents me. I (hall ne¬
ver be a Papift unlefs on the near approach of death,
of which I have very great terror.”
His conflant dread of death was indeed fo great, that
it aftoniftied all who had aceefs to know the piety of his
mind and the virtues of his life. Attempts have been
made to account for it in various ways ; but doubtlefs
that is the true account which is given in the 0//a Po-
drida, by an elegant and pious writer, who now adorns
a high flation in the church of England. “ That he
ffiould
J O H r 312 ] . J O H
ruoulJ r.ot be confcious of tbe abilities with which
Providence had bleffed him was impofiible. Pie felt
his own powers : he felt what he was capable of ha¬
ving performed and he faw how little, comparatively
fpeaking, he had pertormed. Hence his apprehenfion
on the near profpeft of the account to be made, viewed
through the medium of conditutional and morbid me¬
lancholy, which often excluded fi-om his fight the
bright beams of divine mercy.” This, however, was
the caie only while death was approaching from forme
diftance. From the time that he was certain it was near,
all his fears were calmed •, and he died on the 13th of
December 1784, full of refignation, flrengthened by
faith, and joyful in hope.
For a juft charadfer of this great man our limits af¬
ford not room : we muft therefore content ourfelves
with laying before our readers a very fhort fketch. His
flature rvas tall, his limbs were large, his Urength was
more than common, and his adlivity in early life had
been greater than fuch a form gave reafon to expedl:
but he was fubjedl to an infirmity of the convulfive
kind, refembling the diflemper called St Vitus’s dance;
and he had the feeds of fo many difeafes fown in his
conflitution, that a Ihort time before his death he de¬
clared that he hardly remembered to have paffed one
day wholly free from pain. He polfelfed very extraordi¬
nary powers of underftanding 5 which were much cul¬
tivated by reading, and ftill more by meditation and
refiedtion. His memory was remarkably retentive,
his imagination uncommonly vigorous, and his judge¬
ment keen and penetrating. He read with great ra¬
pidity, retained with wonderful exadtnefs what he fo
eafilly colledled, and poffefled the power of reducing
to order and fyllem the fcattered hints on any fubjedl
which he had gathered from different books. It would
not perhaps be fafe to claim for him the higheft place,
among his contemporaries, in any Jingle department
of literature \ but, to ufe one of his own expreflions,
he brought more mind to every fubjedl, and had a
greater variety of knowledge ready for all occafions,
than any other man that could be eafily named.—
Though prone to fuperftition, he was in all other re-
'fpedts fo remarkably incredulous, that Hogarth faid
while .Tohnfon firmly believed the Bible, he feemed de¬
termined to believe nothing but the Bible. Of the
importance of religion he had a ftrong fenfe, and his
zeal for its interefts were always awake, fo that pro-
fanenefs of every kind was abalhed in his prefence.—
The lame energy which was difplayed in his literary
produdlions, was exhibited alfo in his converfation,
which was various, ftriking, and inllrudlive : like the
fage in Raffelas, he fpoke, and attention watched his
lips 5 he reafoned, and convidlion clofed his periods :
when he pleafed, he could be the greateft fophift that
ever contended in the lifts of declamation •, and per¬
haps no man ever equalled him in nervous and pointed
repartees. His veracity, from the moft trivial to the
moft folemn occafions, w^as ftrift even to feverity : he
fcorned to embellifh a ftory with fiflitious circum-
ftances •, for what is not a reprefentation of reality, he
ufed to fay, is not worthy of our attention. As his
purfe and his houfe were ever open to the indigent, fo
was his heart tender to thofe who wanted relief, and
his foul was firfceptible of gratitude and every kind
impreflion. He had a roughnefs in his manner which
fubdued the faucy and terrified the meek : but it was only Johtiftdn.
in his manner; for no man was more loved than John- v——
fon was by thofe who knew him 5 and his works will
be read with veneration for their author as long as the
language in which they are written (hall be under-
ftood.
JOHNSTON, Dr Arthur, was born at Cafkieben,
near Aberdeen, the feat of his anceftors, and pro¬
bably was-educated at Aberdeen, as he was afterwards
advanced to the higheft dignity in that univerfity.
The lludy he chiefly applied himfelf to was that of
phyfic •, and to improve himfelf in that fcience, he tra¬
velled into foreign parts. He was twice at Rome j
but the chief place of his refidence was Padua, in
which univerfity the degree of M. D. was conferred
on him in 1610, as appears by a MS. copy of verfes
in the advocate’s library in Edinburgh. After lea¬
ving Padua, he travelled through the reft of Italy,
and over Germany, Denmark, England, Holland, and
other countries \ and at length fettled in France-, where
he met with great applaufe as a Latin poet. He lived
there 20 years, and by two wives had 13 children.
After 24 years abfence, he returned into Scotland in
1632. It appears by the council books at Edinburgh,
that the doftor had a fuit at law before that court
about that time. In the year following, it is very well
known that Charles I. went into Scotland, and made
Bifhop Laud, then with him, a member of that coun¬
cil : and by this accident, it is probable, that acquain¬
tance began between the dodlor and that prelate, which
produced his “ Pfalmorum Davidis Paraphrafum Poe-
tica for we find that, in the fame year, the dodlor
printed a fpecimen of his Pfalms at London, and dedi¬
cated them to his lordthip.
He proceeded to perfefl the whole, which took him
up four years •, and the firft edition complete was
publifhed at Aberdeen in 1637, and at London the
fame year. In 1641, Dr Johnfton being at Oxford,
on a vifit to one of his daughters who was married
to a divine of the church of England in that place,
was feized wdth a violent diarrhoea, of w-hich he died
in a few days, in the 54th year of his age, not with¬
out having feen the beginning of thofe troubles that
proved to fatal to his patron. He was buried in the
place v\»here he died •, which gave occafion to the fol¬
lowing lines of his learned friend Wedderburn in his
Sufpiria on the doftor’s death :
Scotia nice [la, dole, tanti viduata fepulchro
Vatis : is Angligenis contigit altus honos
In what year Dr Johnfton was made phyfician to
the king does not appear : it is moft likely that the
archbifhop procured him that honour at his coming in¬
to England in 1633, at which time he tranflated So¬
lomon’s Song into Latin elegiac verfe, and dedicated
it to his majefty. His Pfalms were reprinted at
Middleburgh, 1642 j London, 16575 Cambridge,.. ..;
Amfterdam 17065 Edinburgh, by William Lauder,
1739 5 and lalt on the plan of the Delphin claflics,
at London, 1741, 8vo, at the expence of Auditor BetN
fon, who dedicated them to his late majefty, and pre¬
fixed to this edition memoirs of Dr Johnfton, with
the teftimonies of various learned perfons. A labour¬
ed comparifon between the turn tranllations of Bucha¬
nan and Johnfton was printed the fame year in Englilh,
in
Joigny
ti
loiaia.
I O L [ 3
in 8vo, entitled, A Prefatory Difcourfe to Dr John-
llou’s Pfalms, &.c. and A Concluiion to it. His tranf-
lations of the Te Dr um, Creed, Decalogue, &c. were
fubjoined to the Pi'aims. His ether poetical works are
his Epigrams j his Parerga : and his Mufce Anglic#,
or commendatory Verfes upon perfons of rank in church
and Hate at that time.
JOIGNY, a .town of France, in Champagne, and
in the diocefe of Sens, with a very handfome caftle.
It conihfs of three parilhes, and is pleafantly fitua-
ted on the river Yonne, in E. Long. 3. 25. N. Lat.
47- 56- . . r .
JOINERY, the art of working in wood, or of fitting
various pieces of timber together. It is called by the
French menuiferie, “ finall work,” to diftinguifh it from
carpentry, which is employed about large and lefs curi¬
ous works.
JOINT, in general, denotes the jundlure of two
or more things. The joints of the human body are call¬
ed by anatomifts articulations. See ANATOMY, N° 2.
The fupplenefs to which the joints may be brought
by long pra&ice from the time of infancy, is very fur-
prifing. Every common pofture-matter fiiows us a
great deal of this; but one of the moft wonderful in-
11 ances w'e ever had of it, w7as in a perfon of the name
of Clark, and famous for it in London, where he wTas
commonly known by the name of Clark the pojlure-
majler. This man had found the w'ay, by long prac¬
tice, to dillort many of the bones, of which nobody
before had every thought it polfible to alter the pofi-
tion. He had fuch an abfolute command of his
mufcles and joints, that he could almott disjoint his
whole body : fo that he once impofed on the famous
Mullens by his diftortions, in fuch a manner, that he
refufed to undertake his cure : but, to the amaze¬
ment of the phyfician, no fooner had he given over
his patient, than he faw7 him reftore himfelf to the fi¬
gure and condition of a proper man, with no diftortion
about him.
JOINTURE, in Lavo, generally fignifies a fettle-
ment of lands and tenements, made on a woman in con-
fideration of marriage.
JOINVILLE, an ancient and confiderable towm of
France, in Champagne, with the title of a principality,
and a large magnificent caftle. It is fituated on the ri¬
ver Marne, in E. Long. 5. 10. N. Lat. 48. 20.
JOISTS, or Joysts, in ArchileElure, thofe pieces
of timber framed into the girders and hammers, on
which the boards of the fiocr are laid.
JOKES. See Jesting.
lOLAI A, a feltival at Thebes, the fame as that call¬
ed Heracltia. . It was inftituted in honour of Hercules
and his friend lolas, who alliited him in conquering the
hydra. It continued during feveral days, on the firft
of which were offered folemn facrifices. The next day
horfe-races and athletic txercifes were exhibited. The
follouing day was fet apart for wmeftling; the viftors
tvere crowned with garlands of myrtle generally ufed
at funeral folemnities. They were fometimes rewarded
with tripods of brafs. The place where the exercifes
were exhibited was called lolaion ; where there were to
be feen the monument of Amphitryon and the cenotaph
of lolas, who was buried in Sardinia. Thefe monu¬
ments were tlrewed with garlands and flowers on the
day of the feftival.
Vol. XL Part I.
13 ] ION
Iolas or Iolaus, in Fabulous HiJlonj, a fon of Iphiclus
king of Thelfaly, who aflilted Hercules in conquering the
hydra, and burnt with a hot iron the place where the
heads had been cut off, to prevent the grow th of others.
He was reftored to his youth and vigour by Hebe, at
the requefl: of his friend Hercules. Some time after¬
wards lolas aflifled the Heraclidae again!! Euryftheus,
aud killed the tyrant with his owm hand. Accord¬
ing to Plutarch, lolas had a monument in Boeotia and
Phocis, wrhere lovers ufed to go and bind themfelves
by the moft folemn oaths of fidelity, confidering the
place as facred to love and friendlhip. According to
Diodorus and Paufanias, lolas died and was buried in
Sardinia, where he had gone to make a fettlemejit at
the head of the fons of Hercules by the 50 daughters
of Thefpius.
JOLLOXOCHITL, an Indian ivord, fignifying
flower of the heart, is the name of a plant which bears
a large beautiful flower, growrag in Mexico, where
it is much elteemed for its beauty and odour j which lat¬
ter is fo powerful, that a Angle flower is fufficient to fill
a whole houfe with the moil pleafing fragrance.
ION, in Fabulous Hflory, a fon of Xuthus and Creula
daughter of Erechtheus, w7ho married Helice, the daugh¬
ter of Selinus king of iEgiale. He fucceeded to the
throne of his father-in-law j and built a city, which he
called Helice on account of his wife. His fubjecls from
him received the name of lonians, and the country that
of Ionia. See Ionia.
Ion, a tragic poet of Chios, who flourifhed about
the 82d Olympiad. His tragedies were reprefented at
Athens, where they met with univerfal applaufe. He
is mentioned and greatly recommended by Ariflophanes
and Atlienteus, &c.
IONA, Jona, or Icoj.mk.ill, one of the Hebrides j
a final!, but celebrated ifland, “ once the/ttw/Vztfry of the
Caledonian regions (asDr Johnfon expreffes it), wdience
favage clans and roving barbarians derived the benefits
of knowledge and the bleflings of religion.” The
name Iona is derived from a Hebrew word fignifying
a dove, in allufion to its patron Columba, w7ho landed
here in 565. See Columba.—It is faid to have been a
feat of the druids before his arrival, when its name in
Irifli was Inis Druniflj, or the “ Druid Ifland.” The
druids being expelled or converted, he founded here a
cell of canons regular, who till 7 i 6 differed from the
church of Rome, in the obfervance of Eafler and in
the tonfure. After his death, the ifland retained his
name, and was called TTcolutnb cill or “ Columb’s cell,”
now Icolmkill. 'The Danes dillodged the monks in the
9th century, and Cluniacs were the next order that
fettled here.
This ifland, which belongs to the parifh of Rofs in
Mull, is three miles long, and one broad : the eaft fide
is moilly flat : the middle rifes into fmall hills; and
the well fide is very rude and rocky : the whole form¬
ing a lingular mixture of rock and feitility.—There is
in the ifland only one town, or rather village, coa-
fifling of about 60 mean houfes. The population in
1798 amounted to about 330. Near the town is
the bay of Martyrs flam by the Danes. An oblong in-
clofure, bounded by a ftone dyke, and called Clachnan
Druinach, in which bones have been found, is fuppofed
to have been a bttrial-place of the Druids or rather
the common cemetery of the towns-people. Beyond
R r the
iSlaj
Iona..
1 0 N [3
Ccna. the town are the ruins of the nunnery of Auftin cano-
neifes, dedicated to St Oran, and faid to be founded
by Columba : the church was 58 feet by 20, and the
• eail roof is entire. On the floor, covered deep with
cow-dung, is the tomb of the laft priorefs, with her
rigure praying to the Virgin Mary, and this infcrip-
tion on tiie ledge : Hie jacet domina Anna Donaldi
Ferleti filia, quondam priorejja de Jona, qiue obiit an'o
m° d° xim° ejus animam Altijjimo commendamus ; and
another inferibed, Hie jacet Mariota Jilia Jo/ian : Lauch-
lain domini de  A broad paved way leads hence to
the cathedral j and on this way is a large handfome crofs
called Mac/ean£',s, the only one that remains of 360,
which wTere demolifhed here at the Reformation. Rei-
lig Ouran, or the Burying-place of Oran, is the large
inclofure where the kings of Scotland, Ireland, and
of the ifles, and their defeendants, were buried in
three feveral chapels. The dean of the ifles, vrho tra¬
velled over them 1549, and wbofe account has been
copied by Buchanan, and publilhed at Edinburgh
1784, fays, that in his time on one of thefe chapels
(or “ tombes of flain formit like little chapels with ane
braid gray marble or quhin ftain on the gavil of ilk
ane oi the tombes,” containing, as the chronicle fays,
the remains of 48 Scotch monarchs, from Fergus II.
to Macbeth, 1 6 of whom were pretended to be of the
race of Alpin) was inferibed. Tumulus regum Scotue.
The next wTas infciibed, Tumulus regum Hibernice, and
contained four Irifir monarchs : and the third, inferibed
Tumulus regum Norwegue, contained eight Norwegian
princes, or viceroys of the Hebrides while they were
fubjedl to the crown of Norway. Boetius fays, that
Fergus founded this abbey for the burial-place of
his fucceflbrs, and caufed an office to be compofed for
the funeral ceremony. All that Mr Pennant could
difeover here -were only certain flight remains, built
in a ridged form and arched within, but the inferip-
tions loft. Thefe were called jornaire nan righ, or
“ the ridge of the kings.” Among thefe Hones are
to be feen only thefe two inferiptions in the Gaelic or
Erfe language and ancient Iriflr charafters : Cros
Domhail fadojich, i. e. “ the crofs of Donald Long-
thanks”, and that of Vrclivine o Guin; and another
inferibed Hie jacent pnores de Hi/, Johannes, Huge-
nius, Patricias, in decretis olim bacularius, qui obiit
an. Dom. mille.s,ri0 quingentejimo. About 300 inferip¬
tions w'ere collected here by Mr Sacheverel in 1688
and given to the earl of Argyle, but aftemards lofl:
in the troubles of the family. The place is in a man¬
ner filled with grave-ftones, but fo overgrown wdth
weeds, that few or none are at prefent to be feen, far
lels any inferiptions read. Here alfo Hands the chapel
of St Oran, the firft building begun by Columba, which
the evil fpirits would not fuffer to Hand till fome hu¬
man vidlim was buried alive *, for wffiich fervice Oran
offered himfelf, and his. red grave-ftone is near the
door. In this chapel axe tombs of feveral chiefs, &c.
A little north-weft of the door is the pedeftal of a
crofs : on it are certain ftones that feem to have been
the fupports of a tomb. Numbers who vifit this illand
think it incumbent on them to turn each of thefe
thrice round, according to the courfe of the fun.
They are called Clacha-brath ; for it is thought that the
brath, or end of the world, will not arrive till the pe-
deSal on which they Hand is worn through. Origi-
4 ] ION
nally (fays Mr Sacheverel) here were three noble globes Iona,
of white marble, placed on three Hone bafons, and thefe '"“■"v-"'
were turned round y but the fynod ordered them and
60 croffes to be thrown into the fea. The prefent
ftones ai-e probably fubilituted in place of thefe globes.
The precindl of thefe tombs was held facred, and en¬
joyed the privileges of a girth or fandluary. Thefe
places of retreat were by the ancient Scotch law*, not
to flicker indiferiminately every offender, as was the
cafe in more bigotted times in Catholic countries; for
here all atrocious criminals wei-e excluded •, and only
the unfortunate delinquent, or the penitent finner,
was fhielded from the inftant ftroke of rigorous ju-
ftice. A little to the north of this inclofure Hands
the cathedral, built in form of a crofs, 115 feet long
by 23, the tranfept 70 feet : the pillars of the choir
have their capitals charged with fcidpture and other
hiftories •, and near the altar are the tombs of two ab¬
bots and a knight. A fragment remains of the altar-
Hcne of white marble veined with gray. This
church is aferibed to Maldwin in the 7th centry ; but
the prefent ftruefure is far too magnificent for that age.
Moft of the w’alls are built of red granite from the
Nun’s ifland in the found. Two parallel walls of a co¬
vered way about 12 feet high and 10 wide, reach from
the fouth-eaft corner to the fea. In the church-yard is
a fine crofs of a Angle piece of red granite, 14 feet high,
2 2 inches broad, and 10 inches thick. Near the fouth-
eaft end is Mary’s chapel. The monaftery is behind
the chapely of which only a piece of the cloifters re¬
mains, and fome facred black ftones in a corner, on
which contra&s and alliances w-ere made and oaths
fworn. Eaft of it was the abbot’s gardens and of¬
fices. North of this was the palace of the bilhop of the
ifles after the feparation of Man from them. This fee
was endowed with 13 illands; feveral of which were
frequently taken away by the chieftains. The title
oiSoder, which fome explained Soter, Zd]rg, “ the name
of Chrift, or Soder, an imaginary town,” is really de-
rivied from the diftindtion of the diocefe into the north¬
ern iflands or Nordereys (i. e. all to the north of Ad-
namurchan point), and the Southern or Sudereys j
which laft being the moft important, the ille of Man
retained both titles.
Other ruins of monaftic buildings and offices may be
traced, as well as fome druidical fepulchral remains.
Several abbeys were derived from this, which with the
ifland was governed by an abbot-preihyter, who had
rule even over biihops. The place where Columba
landed is a pebbly beach, where a heap of earth re-
prefents the form of his (hip. Near it is a hill with a
circle of ftones called Cnoc-nar aimgeal, or “ the hill ot
angels,” writh whom the laint held conference •, and on
Michaelmas day the inhabitants courfed their horfes
round it, a remain of the cuftom of bringing them there
to be bleffed. In former times, this ifland was the
place where the archives of Scotland and many valuable
old manuferipts w^ere kept. Of thefe moft are fuppo-
fed to have been deftroyed at the Reformation ; but
many, it is faid, xsvere carried to the Scotch college at
Douay in France, and it is hoped fome of them may
ftill be recovered. In the ifland of Iona a fchoolmafter
is eflablifhed $ but there is no temple for worftxip, no
inftrudlor in religion, excepting the fchoolmafter, unlefs
it is vifited by the parilh minifter from another ifland.
JONAH,
JON [ .
Jonah JONAH, or Prophecy of Jonah, a canonical book
IV of the Old Tellament ; in which it is related, that Jo-
Jones’ nah (about 771 B. C.) was ordered to go and prophecy
the deftruction of the Ninevites, on account of their
wickednefs. But the prophet, inilead of obeying the
divine command, embarked for Tar (In lb} when, a tem¬
ped arifing, the mariners threw him into the fea : he
was (wallowed by a great fidi j and after being three
days and nights in his belly, was cad upon the land.
Hereupon being fenfible of his pad danger and furpri-
fing deliverance, he Betook himfelf to the journey and
embaffy to which he was appointed ; and arriving at
Nineveh the, metropolis of Aflyria, he, according to
his commiffion, boldly laid open their fins and mifcar-
riages, and proclaimed their fudden overthrow7: upon
which the whole city, by prayer and fading, and a
fpeedy repentance, happily averted the divine "ven¬
geance, and efcaped the threatened ruin. Jonah upon
this, fearing to pafs for a falfe prophet, retired to a hill
at fome didanee from the city *, where God, by a mira¬
cle, condefcended to drow him the unreafonablenefs of
his difcontent.
JONATHAN, the fon of Saul, celebrated in facred
hidory for his valour, and his friendOiip for David a-
gaind the intered of his owm^ houfe. Slain in battle
1055 B. C.
Jonathan Maccaheeus, brother of Judas, a renowned
general of the Jews. He forced Bacchides the Syrian
general, who made wTar with the Jews, to accept a
peace ; conquered Demetrius Soter, and aftenvards A-
pollonius, that prince’s general ; but, being enfnared
by Tryphon, was put to death 144 B. C.
JONES, Inigo, a celebrated Englidi architeft, was
the fon of a cloth-worker of London, and was born fn
1572. He was at fird put apprentice to a joiner •, but
early diltinguidied himfelf by his inclination to drawing
or defigriing, and was particu'arly taken notice of for
his {kill in landfcape-painting. This afterwards recom¬
mended him to the favour of William earl of Pembroke,
who fent him abroad with a handfome allowance in or¬
der to perfedd himfelf in that branch. He w7as no foon-
er at Rome, than he found himfelf in his proper fphere:
he felt that nature had not formed him to decorate ca¬
binets, but to defign palaces. He dropt the pencil and
conceived Whitehall. In the date of Venice he fan7
the works of Palladio, and learned how beautiful tade
may be exerted on a lefs theatre than the capital of an em¬
pire. How his abilities didinguifhed themfelves in a fpot
where they certainly had no opportunity to aft, we are
not told, though it would not be the lead curious part
of his hidory ; certain it is, that, on the drength of his
reputation at- Venice, Chridian IV. invited him to
Denmark, and appointed him his architeft •, but on
what buildings he was employed in that country, we
are yet to learn. James I. found him at Copenhagen,
and Queen Anne took him in the quality of her ar¬
chiteft to Scotland. He ferved Prince Henry in the
fame capacity, and the place of furveyor-general of the
works was granted to him in reverfion. On the death
of that prince, with whom at lead all his lamented
qualities did not die, Jones travelled once more into
Italy, and, aflided by ripenefs of judgment, perfefted
his tade. To the interval between thefe voyages Mr
Walpole is inclined to affign thofe buildings of Inigo,
15 ] JON
which are lefs pure, and border too much upon the ba-
dard dyle, which one may call King James's Gothic.
Inigo’s defigns of that period are not Gothic, but have
a littlenefs of parts, and a weight of ornaments, with
which the revival of the Grecian tade was encumbered,
and which he drook oft* in his grander defigns. The
furveyor’s place fell, and he returned to England ; and,
as if architefture was not all he had learned at Rome,
with an air of Roman difinteredednefs he gave up the
profits of his office, which he found extremely in
debt ; and prevailed upon the comptroller and pay-
mader to imitate-his example, till the whole arrears
were cleared.
In 1620, he was employed in a manner very unwor¬
thy of his genius : King James fet him upon difeover-
ing, that is, gueffing, who were the founders of Stone ¬
henge. His ideas were all Romanifed ; confequently,
his partiality to his favourite people, which ought rather
to have prevented him from charging them with that
mafs of barbarous clumfinefs, made him conclude it a
Roman temple.
In the fame year Jones was appointed one of the
commidioners for the repair of St Paul’s; but which
was not commenced till the year 1633, when Laud,
then bidrop of London, laid the fird done, and Inigo
the fourth. In the redoration of that cathedral, he
made two capital faults. He fird renewed the fides
with very bad Gothic \ and then added a Roman por¬
tico, magnificent and beautiful indeed, but which had
no affinity with the ancient parts that remained, and
made his own Gothic appear ten times heavier. He
committed the fame error at Wincheder, thruding a
fereen in the Roman or Grecian tade into the middle
of that cathedral. Jones indeed was by no means fuc-
cefsful when he attempted Gothic. The chapel of Lin-
coln’s-Inn has none of the charafteridics of that archi¬
tefture. The cloyder beneath feems opprefled by the
weight of the building above.
The authors of the life of Jones place the erefting of
the Banqueting-houfe in the reign of King Charles; but
it appears, from the accounts of Nicholas Stone, that'
it was begun in 1619, and finidied in two years—a
fmall part of the pile defigned for the palace of our
kings ; but fo complete in itfelf, that it (lands a model
of the mod pure and beautiful talle. Several plates of
the intended palace at Whitehall have been given ; but
Mr Walpole thinks, from no finiffied defign. The
four great ffieets are evidently made up from gene¬
ral hints ; nor could fuch a fource of invention and
tade as the mind of Inigo ever produce fo much fame-
nefs. The whole fabric, however, was fo glorious an
idea, that one forgets for a moment (fays Mr Wal¬
pole), in the regret for its not being executed, the con¬
firmation of our liberties, obtained by a melancholy
feene that pafled before the windows of that very Ban¬
queting-houfe.
In 1623 he was employed at Somerfet-houfe, where
a chapel was to be fitted up for the Infanta, the in¬
tended bride of the prince. The chapel is dill in be¬
ing. The front to the river, part only of what was
defigned, and the water-gate, were erefted afterwards
on the defigns of Inigo, as was the gate at York-
dairs.
On the acceffion of Charles, Jones was continued in
R r 2 hi s
JON [31
his pofts under both king and queen. His fee as fur-
veyor was 8s. 4d. a day, with an allowance of 46I. a-
year for houle-rent, befides a clerk, and incidental ex-
pences. What greater rewards he had, are not upon
record.
During the profperous hate of the king’s affairs, the
pleafures of the court were carried oil with much tafte
and magnificence. Poetry, painting, mufic, and archi-
ledlure, were all called in to make them rational amufe-
ments. Mr Walpole is of opinion, that the celebrated
feftivah of Louis XIV. were copied from the (hows
exhibited at Whitehall, in his time the moff polite court
in Europe. Ben Johnfon was the laureat; Inigo Jones
the inventor of the decorations 5 Laniere and Fera-
bofco compofed the fymphonies •, the king, the queen,
and the young nobility, danced in the interludes. We
have accounts of many of tbofe entertainments, called
tnafques ; they had been introduced by Anne of Den¬
mark. Lord Burlington had a folio of the defigns for
thefe folemnities, by Inigo’s own hand, confifting of
habits, malks, fcenes, &c. The harmony of thefe
inalks was a little interrupted by a war that broke out
between the compofers, Inigo and Ben, in which, who¬
ever was the aggreffor, the turbulent temper of Johnfon
took care to be moff: in the wrong.
The works of Inigo Jones are not fcarce \ Sur¬
geon’s hall is one of his beft works. One of the moft
admired is the arcade of Covent-garden, and the
church : “ Two ftruffures (fays Mr Walpole), of
which I want taffe to fee the beauties. In the arcade
there is nothing remarkable j the pilafters are as ar¬
rant and homely ftripes as any plafterer would make.
The barn-roof over the portico of the church ffrikes
my eyes with as little idea of dignity and beauty, as
it could do if it covered nothing but a barn. It muff
be owned, that the defedl is not in the architedl, but
in the order.—Who ever faw a beautiful Tufcan build¬
ing ? Would the Romans have chofen that order for
a temple ?” The expence of building that church was
45°o1.
Ambrefhury in Wiltffrire was defigned by Jones, but
executed by his fcholar Webb. Jones was one of
the firft that obferved the fame diminution of pilafters
as in pillars. Lindfay-houfe in Lincoln’s-Inn Fields,
which he built, owes its chief grace to this Angula¬
rity. In 1618, a fpecial commiffion wTas iflued to the
lord-chancellor, the earls of Worcefter, Pembroke,
Arundel, and others, to plant and reduce to uniformi¬
ty, Lincoln’s-Inn Fields, as it fliall be drawn by way
of map, or ground-plot, by Inigo Jones, furveyor-
general of the works. That fquare is laid out wffth a
regard to fo trifling a Angularity, as to be of the exaft
dimenfions of one of the pyramids : this would have
been admired in thofe ages when the keep at Ken-
nelworth Caftle was eredled in the form of an horfe-
fetter, and the Efcurial in the Ihape of St Laurence’s
gridiron.
Colelhill in Berkftiire, the feat of Sir Matthew
Pleydell, built in 1650, and Cobham-hall in Kent,
were Jones’s. He was employed to rebuild Caftle Afti-
by, and finiftied one front: but the civil war interrup¬
ted his progrefs there and at Stoke-park in Northamp-
tonfhire. Shaftfbury-houfe, now the London Lying-
iq hofpital, on the caff fide of Alderfgate-ftreet, is a
6 ] J O N
beautiful front. The Grange, the feat of the lord Jones,
chancellor Henley in Hampihire, is entirely of this vr“"“
mafler. It is not a large houfe, but by far one of the
beft proofs of his tafte. The hall, which opens to a
fmall veftibule with a cupola, and the flaircafe ad¬
joining, are beautiful models of the pureft and moft
claffic antiquity. The gate of Beaufort-garden at
Chelfea, defigned by Jones, was purchafed by Lord
Burlington, and tranfported to Chifwick. He drew a
plan for a palace at Newmarket •, but not that wretched
hovel that ftands there at prefent. One of the moft
beautiful of his works is the queen’s houfe at Green¬
wich. The firft idea of the hofpital is find to have been
taken from his papers by his fcholar Webb. Heriot’s
hofpital in Edinburgh, and the improvements made in
his time on Glammis caftle in Forfarfhire in Scotland,
are fpecimens of the defigns of Inigo Jones.
Inigo tailed early the misfortunes of his mafter. He
was not only a favourite, but a Roman Catholic : in
1646 he paid 545b for his delinquency and fequeftra-
tion. Whether it was before or after this fine, it is un¬
certain, that he and Stone the mafon buried their joint
ftock in Scotland yard 5 but an order being publilhed to
encourage the informers of fuch concealments, and four
perfons being privy to the fpot where the money rvas
hid, it was taken up, and reburied in Lambeth-marlh,
Grief, misfortunes, and age,- put an end to his life at
Somerfet-houfe, July 21. 1651. Several of his defigns
have been publifhed by Mr Kent, Mr Colin Campbell,
and Mr Ifaac Ware. He left in MS. fome curious notes
on Palladio’s architefture, which are inferted in an edi¬
tion of Palladio publilhed in 1714.
Jones, Sir William, the fon of William Jones Efq.
an eminent mathematician, cotemporary with the great
Newton, was born in London on the 28th of Septem¬
ber 1746, and received the rudiments of his education
at Harrow fchool, under the tuition of Dr Robert Sum¬
ner, w’bom he has celebrated in a eulogium which wi1J
probably be coeval with time. From Harrow fchool
he went to Univerfity college, Oxford, where the rapi¬
dity of his literary acquifitions excited the admiration of
all.
He travelled through France at the age of 23,
taking up his refidence for fome time at Nice, where
man, and the various forms of government, became the
favourite objects of his inveftigation. A wilh to relieve?
his mother from the burden of his education, made him
long for a fellowftiip in his college, but having no im¬
mediate profpeft of obtaining it, he in 1765 became
tutor to young Lord Althorpe, afterwards Earl Spen¬
cer, in which fituation he was introduced to the beft of
company, and had alfo leifure to profecute the acquifi-
tion of knowledge, and the farther cultivation of his in¬
tellectual powers, which were objefts ever dear to
him.
He obtained next year, the fellowfhip he expeCted,.
and was thus raifed to a ftate which he could not help
viewing as independent. Being at Spa with his pupil
in the year 1767, he employed much of his time in
making himfelf acquainted with the German language j
and in the following year he was requefted by the duke
of Grafton’s under-fecretary, to undertake a tranflation
of a Perfian MS. of the life of Nadir Shaw, into the
French language, of which the king of Denmark was
anxious
JON [ 317 ] JON
anxious to have a verfion. This, his firft publication,
appeared in 1770, with the addition of a treatife on
oriental poetry, which was very much admired, on ac¬
count of the elegance of the French ftyle and the ac¬
curacy of the tranflation. For this excellent publica¬
tion it appears that he received nothing more than a di¬
ploma from his Danilh majefty, conftituting him a
member of the Royal Society of Copenhagen, with
a warm recommendation to the notice of his own fove-
reign.
That he might be enabled to gratify his commenda¬
ble ambition, he now began to think feriouily of fome
profeffion through life •, and, as he had conceived an
early predile£Hon for the law, he made that the object
of his choice ; and in the month of September 1770,
he entered at the Temple. Yet the ftudies of his pro¬
feffion did not prevent him from making thofe literary
advances, in wririch he fo much delighted, and oriental
literature ftill continued a favourite objedt. When the
life of Zoroafter by Anquetil du Perron made its ap¬
pearance, in the preliminary difcomfe to which the uni-
verfity of Oxford had been attacked, our author de¬
fended it in a pamphlet written wnth feverity and with
elegance. In 1772, he publifhed a fmall volume of
poems, being tranllations from the Affatic poets, re¬
markable for the grace and brilliancy of their ftyle ;
and in 1774 appeared his work “ De Pocfi AJiatica”
the beauty and parity of the Latin in which it is com-
pofed, exciting the admiration of men of literature both
at home and abroad. He w’as called to the bar in the
beginning of 1774, but declined to aft in that capaci¬
ty without a previous knowledge of the aftual bufinefs
of the profeflion. He was appointed a commiflioner of
bankrupts in 1776, about which period he addreffed a
letter to Lord Althorpe, in which he beautifully ex-
prefles his ardent wifh to have conftitutional liberty efta-
bliihed by conftitutional means.
His tranflation of the fpeeches of Ifaeus, on account
of his elegant ftyle, his profound critical and hiftorical
knowledge, commanded the admiration of every com¬
petent judge. Soon after this his praftice at the bar
increafed with rapidity j but he had little reafon to
flatter himfelf with the profpeft of advancement in
profeflional rank and dignity, becaufe he was known
to be convinced of the injnftice of the Britifli caufe
refpefting the American wTar, wdiich he -was at no
pains to conceal4 and therefore an oppofer of the mea-
fures of thofe who had the direftion of public affairs,
had little preferment to look for. In 1780 he became
a candidate to fucceed to Sir Roger Newdigate as. re-
prefentative in parliament for the univerfity of Oxford,
in which he wras refpeftably fupported ; but his politi¬
cal fentiments were ill fulted to fecure him a majority,
which made him decline the conteft prior to the elec¬
tion. He foon after publitheJ • a pamphlet entitled.
“An Inquiry into the legal mode of fupprefling riots,
with a conftitutional plan of future defence,” recom-.
mending the propriety of making every citizen a foldier
in cafes of imminent danger. He next publiftied a
tranflation of feven ancient poems of the higheft repu¬
tation in Arabia, which, with an ode on the marriage
of Lord Althorpe, procured for him the higheft repu¬
tation. His effay on the laws of bailments was alfo
much adgaired, as was his fpeech at the London tavern
in defence of a parliamentary reform in 1782. At Joner.
Paris, he drew up a dialogue between a farmer and a w
country gentleman on the principles of government,
publiftied in Wales by the dean of St Afaph, for
which a bill of indiftment was preferred againft that
clergyman. In a letter to Lord Kenyon, Mr Jones
avowed himfelf to be the author, and afterted the prin¬
ciples it contained to be perfeftly agreeable to the
Britifli conftitution j but it appears that he afterwards
relaxed confiderably in his political ardour.
After the refignation of Lord North, and appoint¬
ment of Lord Shelburne, Mr Jones was nominated one
of the judges in the Britifti territories of India, an ap¬
pointment which he had long wiflied for, as it would .
afford him an opportunity of profecuting his favourite
refearches into oriental literature. He was chofen a
judge in March 1783, and on the 20th of that month
the honour of knighthood was conferred upon him.
He arrived at Calcutta in September, and entered upon
his office in December, opening the feflions with a
very elegant charge to the grand jury. Here he plan¬
ned the inftitution of a fociety fimilar to the Royal So¬
ciety of London, many valuable labours and refearches
of which are already in the hands of the public. He
collefted materials for a complete digeft of the Hindoo
and Mahometan laws, which interefting work he did
not live to bring to a conclufion. The publication of
the “ Afiatic Refearches” occupied much of his atten -
tion. In 1789 he tranflated an ancient Indian drama
called “ Sacontala,” which has been conlidered as an
interefting curiofity. In 1794 he gave the world his
“ Ordinances of Menu,” a famous Indian legiflator,.
containing a fyftem of duties both civil and religious.
The climate of India proving unfavourable to the -
health of Lady Jones, obliged her to return to Eng¬
land, whither Sir William foon defigned to follow
her. On the 2Cth of April 1794, he was feized at
Calcutta with an inflammation of the liver, which fet
the powers of medicine at defiance, and on the 27th of
the fame month put a period to his exiftence without
pain or ftruggle.
It may be. fairly afferted that few men have died
more refpefted. or regretted, as few have paffed a more
ufeful and irreproachable life. The uncommon extent
of his erudition has been difplayed in all his waitings,
and fcarcely any fubjeft of human refearch efcaped his.
notice. He has fcarcely ever been equalled as a lin-
guift, for he is faid to have been more or lefs acquaint- -
ed with about 28 different languages. Tafte and ele¬
gance marked all his exertions, and he might have ri-
fen as a poet to the very firft rank. Great as his
knowfledge w7as, his virtue and religion were not infe¬
rior. In whatever light we think proper to view7 him
as (landing in relation, to fociety, he was undoubtedly
a pattern worthy of imitation.
As a permanent monument to his memory, his affec¬
tionate lady pnbliftied his w’hole finifhed works in fix
quarto volumes, in the year 1799 j and a marble monu¬
ment to his memory by the lame endearing friend, is
placed in the antiehamber of Univerfity college,
Oxford. The Eaft India Company alfo voted a mo--
nument to his memory in St Paul’s cathedral, and a
ftatue of him to be fent out to Bengal. Memoirs of
his life were publifhed by Lord Teignmouth, and a
fociety.'
.T OP [31
fociety of gentlemen in Bengal who had been educated
at Oxford, fubfcribed a fura for a prize differtation on
his charader and merits, by lludents in that univer-
fity.
IONIA, a country of Afia Minor, bounded on the
north by /Eolia, on the well by the Aegean and Ica-
rian Teas, on the fouth by Caria, and on the eaft by
Lydia and part of Caria. It was founded by colonies
from Greece and particularly Attica, by the lonians
or fubjeds of Ion. Ionia was divided into 1 2 fmall
Hates, which formed a celebrated confederacy often men¬
tioned by the ancients. Thefe 1 2 Hates were Priene,
Miletus, Colophon, Clazomenge, Ephefus, Lebedcs,
Tops, Phocoea, Erythrae, Smyrna, and the capitals of
Samos and Chios. The inhabitants of Ionia built a
temple which they called Pan Ionium from the cou-
courfe of people that flocked there from every part of
Ionia. After they had enjoyed for fome time their
freedom and independence, they were made tributary
to the power of Lydia by Croefus. The Athenians
afiifted them to (hake off the flavery of the Aliatic
monarchs \ but they foon forgot their duty and rela¬
tion to their mother-country, and joined Xerxes wThen
he invaded Greece. They w'ere delivered from the
Perfian yoke by Alexander, and reftored to their ori¬
ginal independence. They were reduced by the Ro¬
mans under the diflator Sylla. Ionia has been al¬
ways celebrated for the falubrity of the climate, the
fruitfulnefs of the foil, and the genius of its inhabi¬
tants.
IONIC order. See Architecture, N° 45.
Ionic DialeB, in Grammar, a manner of fpeaking
peculiar to the people of Ionia.
Ionic Sell was the firfl: of the ancient fefts of phi-
lofophers j the others were the Italic and Elcatic.
The founder of this feft was Thales, wdio, being a
native of Miletus in Ionia, occafioned his followers to
alfume the appellation of lorric : Thales was fucceeded
by Anaximander, and he by Anaximenes, both of Mi¬
letus 5 Anaxagoras Clazomenius fucceeded them, and
removed his fchool from Afia to Athens, where Socra¬
tes was his fcholar. It was the diftinguifhing tenet
of this feft, that water was the principle of all natural
things.
IONIUM mare, a part of the Mediterranean fea,
at the bottom of the Adriatic. It lies between Sicily
and Greece. That part of the Aigean fea which lies
on the coafts of Ionia in Afia, is called the Sea of Io¬
nia, and not the Ionian fea. According to fome au¬
thors, the Ionian fea receives its name from lo, wdro
fwam acrofs there after (he had been metamorphofed
into a heifer.
JONK, or Jonque, in naval affairs, is a kind of
fmall (hip, very common in the Eaft Indies. Thefe
veflels are about the bignefs of our fly-boats; and
differ in the form of their building, according to the
different methods of naval architeflure ufed by the na¬
tions to which they belong. Their fails are frequently
made of mats, and their anchors are made of wood.
JOPPA, a fea-port town in Paleftine, lying fouth
of Casfarea ; and anciently the only port to Jerufalem,
whence all the materials fent from Tyre towards the
Building of Solomon’s temple were brought hither
and landed, (2 Chr. ii. 16). It is faid to have been
built by Japhet, and from him to have taken its name
2
8 ] JOS,
Japho, afterwards moulded into Joppa; and the very Jor
heathen geographers fpeak of it as built before the flood. 'i
It is now called Jafa, fomewhat nearer to its firft ap- J ‘nia'
pellation, and is but in a poor and mean condition.
JOR, the Hebrew for a river, which, joined with
Han, concurs to form the term Jordan. See Han.
JORDANO, Lucca, an eminent Italian painter,
was born at Naples in 1632. He became very early
a difciple of Jofeph Ribera ; but going afterwards to
Rome, he attached himfelf to the manner of Pietro da
Cortona, whom he aflifted in his great works. Some
of his piflures being feen by Charles II. king of
Spain, he engaged him in painting the Efcurial ; in
which talk he acquitted himfelf as a great painter.
The king (bowed him a pidlure of Baffani, exprefling
his concern that he had not a companion : Lucca
painted one fo exaflly in Baffani’s manner, that it was
taken for a performance of that mafter 5 and for this
fervice he was knighted, and gratified with feveral ho¬
nourable and valuable employments. The great works
he executed in Spain gave him dill greater reputa¬
tion when he returned to Naples j fo that though he
was a very quick workman, he could not fupply the
eager demands of the citizens. No one, not even
Tintoret, ever painted fo much as Jordano ; and his
generofity carried him fo far as to prefcnt altar-pieces
to churches that were not able to purchafe them. His
labours tvere rewarded with great riches •, which he
left to his family, when he died, in 1 705.
JOSEPH, the fon of Jacob ; memorable for his
chaility, and the honours conferred on him at the
court of Egypt, &c. Pie died in 1635 B. C. aged
110.
JOSEPHUS, the celebrated hiftorian of the Jews,
was of noble birth, by his father Mattathias defcendt d
from the high-priefts, and by his mother of the blood-
royal of the Maccabees ; he was born A. D. 37, under
Caligula, and lived under Homitian. At 16 years of
age he betook himfelf to the fe<ft of the Elfenes, and
then to the Pharifees ; and having been fuccefsful in a
journey to Rome, upon his return to Judtea he was
made captain-general of the Galilseans. Being taken
prifoner by Vefpafian, he foretold his coming to the
empire, and his own deliverance by his means. He
accompanied Titus at the fiege of Jerufalem, and wrote
his “ Wars of the Jews,” wThich Titus ordered to be
put in the public library. He aftemards lived at
Rome, wThere he enjoyed the privileges of a Roman
citizen, and where the emperors loaded him with fa¬
vours, and granted him large penfions. Befides the
above work, he wrote, 1. Twenty books of Jewifli an¬
tiquities,, which he finiihed under Domitian. 2. Two
books againft Apian. 3. An elegant diicourfe on the
martyrdom of the Maccabees. 4. His own life. Thefe
works are excellently written in Greek.
JOSHUA, the renowned general of the Jews, who
conducted them through the wildernefs, &c. died in
1424 B. C. aged no.
Joshua, a canonical book of the Old Teflament,
containing a hilfory of the wars and tranfaftions of
the perfon whole name it bears. This book may be
divided into three parts: the firft of which is a hiftory
of the conqueft of the land of Canaan ; the fecond,
which begins at the 1 2th chaptei*, is a defcription of
that country, and the divifion of it among the tribes;
' and
J o U [3
h and the third, comprifed in the two lait chapters, con-
I tains the renewal of the covenant he cauied the Ifrael-
ites to make, and the death of their vi&orious leader
and governor. The whole comprehends a term of i 7,
or, according to others, of 2 7 years.
JOSIAH, king -of Judah, the deflroyer of idola¬
try, and the reftorer of the true worihip, an excellent
rnagiftrate, and a valiant general, was llain in battle,
609 B. C.
J OTA FATA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Lower Galilee, dillant 40 ftadia from Gabara ; a very
ftrong place, fituated on a rock, walled round, and en-
co.npalTed on all hands with mountains, fo as not to be
feen but by thofe who came very near. It was with
groat difikulty taken by Vefpalian, being defended
by Jofephus, who commanded in it; when taken, it
was ordered to be rafed.
JOVIAN, the Roman emperor, elected by the
army, alter the death of Julian the apoftate, in 363.
He at firft refufed, faying he would not command
idolatrous foldiers ; but, upon an afi'urance that they
would embrace Chriftianity, he accepted the throne,
and immediately (hut all the Pagan temples, and for¬
bade their facririces. But he did not long enjoy the
dignity to which his merit had railed him ; being fuf-
focated in his bed by the fumes of a fire that had
been made to dry the chamber, in 364, the 33d of
his age, and the eighth month of his- reign. See CoN-
^TAWTINOPLE, N° 67.
JOVIUS, Paul, in Italian Giovio, a celebrated
hiftorian, was born at Como in Italy, in the year 1483.
As his father died in his infancy, he was educated by
his eldeft brother Benedict Jovius, under whom he be¬
came well fkilled in clalfical learning ; and then went
to Rome, for the fake of enjoying the benefit of the
Vatican library. Pie there wrote his firft piece, De
pifcibus Romanis, which he dedicated to Cardinal Lewis
of Bou rbon. Pie received a penfion of 500 crowns
for many years from Francis I. king of France, whofe
favour he fecured by his ftatteries. But, in the fol¬
lowing reign, having difgufted the conftable Montmo¬
rency, his name wras ftruck out of the lift of penlioners.
Jovius did not fuffer his fpirits to fink under his mif-
fortune : he had obtained a high reputation in the
learned world by his writings •, and having always
Ihowed great refpedl to the houfe of Medicis, on whofe
praifes he had expatiated in his works, he applied to
Clement VII. and obtained the biftioprick of Nocera.
PL’s principal piece is his hiftory, which is that of his
own time throughout the world, beginning with *494,
and extending to the year 1544. This was the chief
bufinefs of his life. For he formed the plan of it in
the year 1515; and continued upon it till his death,
which happened at Florence in 1552. It is printed in
three volumes folio. He is allowed to have been a man
of wit as well as learning : he was mafter of a bright
and poliftied ftyle, and has many curious obfervations :
but being a venal writer, his hiftories are not much
credited.
JOURNAL, a day-book, regifter, or account of
what paffes daily. See DlARt.
Journal, in merchants accounts, is a book into
which every particular article is polled out of the wafte-
book, and made debtor. This is to be very clearly
worded, and fairly engrofied. See BooK-Keeping.
19 ] T P H
Journal, in Navigation, a fort of diary, or daily rc- Jr
giller of the (hip’s courfe, winds, and weather ; together
with a general account of whatever is material to be re-
marked in the period of a fea-voyage.
In all fea-journals, the day, or what is called the
24 hours, terminate at noon, becaufe the errors of
the dead-reckoning are at that period generally cor-
re£led by a folar obfervatiom The daily compact
ufually contains the (late of the weather ; the varia¬
tion, increafe, or diminution of the wind 5 and the
fuitable drifting, reducing, or enlarging the quantity
of lail extended j as alfo the moft material incidents of
the voyage, and the condition of the (hip and her crew;
together with the difeovery of other Ihips or fleets,
land, ftroals, breakers, foundings, &c.
Journal, is alfo a name common for weekly elTays,
newfpapers, &c. as the Gray’s Inn Journal, the Weft-
minfter Journal, &c.
Journal, is alfo sfed for the titles of feverai books
which come out at Hated times, and give abftradls,.
accounts, &c. of the new7 books that are publilhed, and
the new improvements daily made in arts and fciences j
as the ’journal c/e Spavans, journal cle Phyjique, &c.
JOURNEY, a traft ot ground palled over in tra¬
velling by land j properly as much as may be palfed
over in one day.
Management of a Horfe on a jouiNir. See Horse.
JOURNEYMAN, properly one who works by the
day only ; but the word is now ufed for any one who
works under a mafter, either by the day, the year, or
the piece.
JOY, in Ethics, is that paffion which is produced
by love, regarding its objeft as prefent, either imme¬
diately or in proipedl, in reality or imagination. This
paflion has been found to increafe the perspiration
and urine of human bodies.
JOYNERY. See Joinery.
IPECACUANHA, the root of a plant which is
well known by its ufe as an emetic. See Materia
Medica Index.
IPHICRATES, general of the Athenians, had that
command conferred upon him at 20 years of age,
and became famous for the exadlnefs of his military
difeipline. He made war on the Thracians ; reftored
Seuthes, who was an ally of the'Athenians 5 attack¬
ed the Lacedemonians ; and, on many other occa-
fions, gave fignal proofs of his condudt and courage.
Many ingenious repartees have been mentioned of this
general : a man of good family with no other merit
than his nobility, reproaching him one day for the
meannefs of his birth, he replied, “ I (hall be the
firft of my race, and thou the laft of thine.” He died
380 B. C.
IPKIGENIA, a daughter of Agamemnon and Cly-
temneftra. When the Greeks going to the Trojan war
were detained by contrary winds at Aulis, they were
irifprmed bjf one of the foothfayers, that to appeafe
the gods they mull facrifice Iphigenia Agamemnon’s
daughter to Diana. The father, who had provoked
the goddefs by killing her favourite ftag, heard this
with the greateft horror and indignation ; and rather
than to Ihed the blood of his daughter, he commanded
one of his heralds, as chief of the Grecian forces, to or¬
der all the aflembly to depart each to his refpeclive
home. Ulyffes and the other generals interfered, and
Agamemnon
IPS [ 320 ] IRE
Ipomea, Agamemnon confented to immolate his daughter for
Ipfwich. the common caufe of Greece. As.Iphigenia was ten-
derly loved by her mother, the Greeks lent for her on
pretence of giving her in marriage to Achilles. C!y-
temneflra gladly permitted her departure, and Iphige-
nia came to Aulis. Here die favv the bloody prepara¬
tions for the facrifice. She implored the forgivenefs
and proteftiob of her father j but tears and entreaties
were unavailing. Calchas took the knife in his hand j
and as he was going to ftrike the fatal blow, Iphigenia
fuddenly difappeared, and a goat of uncommon fize and
beauty was found in her place for the facrifice. This
fupernatural change animated the Greeks, the wind
.fuddenly became favourable, and the combined fleet fet
fail from Aulis.
IPOMEA, QUAMOCLIT, or SCARLET CONVOLVU¬
LUS J a genus of plants, belonging to the pentandria
clafs, and in the natural method ranking under the 29th
■order, Campanacece. See Botany Index.
IPSWICH, the capital of the county of Suffolk, in
England, feated in E. Long. 1. 6. N. Lat. 52. 12.
The name comes from the Saxon Cypefwick, that is,
a town fituated upon the Gyppen, now called Orwell.
It had once 21 churches, but now has only 12. It was
plundered by the Danes in 991, and afterwards be-
fieged by King Stephen. It had charters and a mint
in the reign of King John, but its laft charter was from
Charles II. The remains of a wall and fix or feven re¬
ligious houfes are ftill to be feen. T hough it is not
in fo flourilhing a ftate as formerly when the harbour
was more commodious, yet it is fiill a large well built
town. Befides the churches already mentioned, it
has feveral meeting-houfes, two chapels, a towm-hall,
-council-chamber, a large market place with a crofs in
the middle of it, a {hire-hall for the county feffions,
a library, feveral hofpitals, a free-fchool, a hanaiome
{tone-bridge over the river, {lately fhambles in the
market-place built by Cardinal Wolfey, who w’as a na¬
tive of the town and a butcher’s fon, and who alfo
began to build a college here on the ruins of a fmall
college of black canons, w;hich ftill bears his name,
though it was never finifhed. Here are alio feveral
alms-houfes, three charity-fchools, and a convenient key
and culfomhouie. By virtue of Charles II.’s char¬
ter, the towm is governed by two bailiffs, a recorder,
1 2 portmen, of whom the bailiffs are two, a town-
clerk, two coroners, and 24 common-council. The
bailiffs and 4 of the portmen are juftices of the peace.
The tow-n enjoys a great many privileges, as pafling
fines and recoveries, trying criminals, and even crown
and capital caufes among themfelves, fettling the al-
fize of bread, wine, and beer. No freeman is obliged
to ferve on juries out of the town, or bear any office
for the king, except that of the {heriff, or to pay tolls
or duties in any other part of the kingdom. Ihey
have an admiralty jurisdiction beyond Harwich on the
Effex coafl, and on both fides the Suffolk coaft, by
which thev are entitled to all goods caft on (bore.
The bailiffs even hold an admiralty-court beyond
Landguard-fort. By a trial in King Edward I II.’s
time, it appears that the town had a right to the cu-
ftom-duties for all goods coming into Harwich-haven.
They claim a right alfo to all waifes and ftrays, &c.
The manufactures of the town are chiefly woollen and
$nen cloth. It has ftill a confiderable foreign trade.
3
The tide rifes pretty high, and brings great {hips Irafcible,
wdthin a fmall diftance of the town. They export a Ireland. ^
great deal of corn to London, and fometirties to Hoi- v ~
land. Formerly, they had a great trade in ihip-
building ; but that having declined, they now fend
great quantities of timber to the king’s yard at Cha¬
tham. It has feveral great fairs for cattle, cheefe, and
butter j and is admirably fituated for the trade to
Greenland, becaufe the fame wind that carries them
out of the river will carry them to Greenland. It is
worth remarking, that it is one of the heft places in
England for perfons in narrow circumftances, houfe-
rent being eafy, provilions cheap and plentiful, the
paffage by land or water to London, &c. conve¬
nient, and the company of the place good. It gives
title of vifcount, as wrell as T-hetford, to the duke of
Grafton j and fends two members to parliament.
IRASCIBLE, in the old philofophy, a term ap¬
plied to an appetite or a part of the foul, where anger
and the other paflions, which animate us againft things
difficult or odious, were fuppofed to refide.
Of the eleven kinds of pailions attributed to the
foul, philofophers afcribe five to the irafcible appetite j
viz. w'rath, bpldnefs, fear, hope, and defpair ; the other
fix are charged on the concupifcible appetite, viz. plea-
filre, pain, defire, averfion, love, and haired.
Plato divided the foul into three parts; the reafon-
able, irafcible, and concupifcible parts. The two laft,
according to that philofopher, are the corporeal and
mortal parts of the foul, which give rife to our paf-
fions.
Plato fixes the feat of the irafcible appetite in the
heart •, and of the concupifcible in the liver; as the twm
fources of blood and fpirits, which alone affedft the
mind.
IRELAND, one of the Britannic iflands, fituated
between the 5th and 10th degrees of weft longitude,
and between the 51ft and 56^ of north latitude, ex¬
tending in length about 300 miles, and about 130 in
breadth.
The ancient hiftory of this ifland is involved in fo
much obfcurity, that it has been the object of con¬
tention among the antiquarians for upwards of a cen¬
tury and an half. The Iriffi hiftorians pretend to very
great antiquity. According to them, the ifland was ^ ✓
firft inhabited about 322 years after the flood. At 0rjgin of
that time Partholanus the fon of Scara landed in Mun- the Irifh
fteron the 14th of May with 1000 foldiers, and fome according
women, from Greece. This voyage he had underta-
ken on account of his having killed his father and nio-rjjans>
ther in his native country. The lame hiftorians in¬
form us, that a great number of lakes broke out in
Ireland during the reign of Partholanus, which had
no exiftence when he came into the ifland, with many
other particulars not worth mentioning ; but the moft
furprifing circumftance is, that about $00 years after
the arrival of this Grecian colony, all of them periffi-
ed by a plague, not a Angle perfon remaining to tell
the fate of the reft ; in which cafe, it is wonderful how
the cataftrophe fhould have been known.
After the extinciion of this firft colony, Ireland re
mained a peife& wildernefs for 30 years; when ano¬
ther colony arrived from the eaft, under the direflion
of one Nemedius. He fet fail from the Euxine fea
with 30 tranfports, each manned with 4© heroes j and
IRE [3
Ireland, at lalt arrived cu the coafts of Ireland, alter a very te-
' ciious and llrange navigation. During his reign alfo
many lakes were formed in the country, which had no
exiilence before j the moll material circumftance, how¬
ever, was an imfuccefsful war in which he was engaged
with lome African pirates, who in the end enflaved his
people. The viflors proved fuch infupportable ty¬
rants, that the Irilh found themfelves under a neceffity
of quitting the illand altogether. They embarked on
board a licet of 1130 fliips, under the command of
three grandfons of Nemedius, viz. Simon Breac, To
Chath, and Briatan Maol. The firll returned to Greece,
the fecond failed to the northern parts of Europe, and
the third landed in the north of Scotland, and from
him the illand of Britain is laid to have taken its name,
and the Wellh their origin.
About 216 years after the death of Nemedius, the
defeendants of Simon Breac returned from Greece into
Ireland. They were condubled by five princes of great
reputation, who divided the ifland into five kingdoms,
nearly equal in fize. Thefe kingdoms were called
Murjfer, Leinjter, Connaught, Meath, and U/jJer; and
the fubje&s of thefe kings are called by the Irith hif-
torians Firbo/gs.
The Firbolgs were in procefs of time expelled or
totally fubdued, after the lofs of 100,000 men in one
battle, by the Tuath de Dannans, a nation of necro¬
mancers, who came from Attica, Boeotia, and Achaia,
into Denmark, from Denmark to Scotland, and
from Scotland to Ireland. Thefe necromancers were
fo completely Ikiiled in their art, that they could even
reffore the dead to life, and bring again into the field
thofe warriors who had been flain the day before.
They had alfo lome curiolities which poffefied a won¬
derful virtue. Thefe were a fword, a fpear, a caul¬
dron, and a marble chair; on which laft were crowned
fill! the kings of Ireland, and afterwards thofe of
Scotland. But neither the powerful virtues of thefe
Danilh curiolities, nor the more powerful fpells of the
magic art, were able to preferve the Tuath de Damians
from being fubdued by the Gadelians when they in¬
vaded Ireland.
'The Gadelians were defeended from one Gathelus,
from whom they derived their name. He was a man
of great confequence in Egypt, and intimately ac¬
quainted with Mofes the Jewifh legillator. His mo¬
ther was Scota, the daughter of Pharaoh, by Niul the
fon of a Scythian monarch cotemporary with Nimrod.
The Gadelians, called alfo Scots, from Scota above-
mentioned, conquered Ireland about 1300 B. C. under
Heber and Heremon, twro fons of Milefius king of
Spain, from whom were defeended all the kings of
Ireland down to the Englifh conqueft, and who are
therefore llyled by the Irilh hillorians, princes of the
Mi/ejian race.
From this period the Irilh hiftorians trace a gradual
refinement of their countrymen from a Hate cf the
groffelt barbarity, until a monarch, named Ollam Fod-
la, eltablilhed a regular form of government, erected
a grand feminary of learning, and infiituted the Fest
or triennial convention of provincial kings, prielis, and
poets, at Feamor or Tarah in Meath, for the ellablilh-
ment of laws and regulation of government. But
whatever were the inllitutions of this monarch, it is
acknowledged that they proved infufficient to with-
Vol. XI. Part I.
i ] IRE
Hand the wildnefs and diforder of the times. To Kim-
bath, one of his fucceffors, the annalifts give the ho¬
nour of reviving them, befides that of regulating Ul-
iler, his family-province, and adorning it with a llate-
ly palace at Eamannia near Armagh. His immediate
fucceffbr, called Hugony, is ftill more celebrated for
advancing the w'ork of reformation. It feems, that,
from the enrliell origin of the Irilh nation, the illand had
been divided into the five provincial kingdoms above-
mentioned, and four of thefe had been fubjeft to the
fifth, who was nominal monarch of the whole iiland.
Thefe four, however, proved luch obftinate dillurbers'
of the peace, that Hugony, to break their powder,
parcelled out the country into 25 dynallies, binding
them by oath to accept no other monarch but one of
bis owm family. This precaution proved inelfeftual.
Hugony himfelf died a violent death, and all his fuc¬
ceffors for a feries of ages were affiffinated, fcarcely
with one exception.
About 100 B. C. the pentarchal government was
reflored, and is faid to have been fucceeded by a con-
fiderable revolution in politics. The Irifh bards had
for many ages difpenfed the laws, and the w7hole na¬
tion fubraitted to their decifions ; but as their laws
were exceedingly obfeure, and could be interpreted on¬
ly by themfelves, they took occafion from thence to
opprefs the people, until at laft they were in danger of
being totally exterminated by a general infurre£lion£
In this emergency they fled to Convocar-Mac-Neffa,
the reigning monarch, who promifed them his protec-*
tion in cafe they reformed ; but at the fame time, in
order to quiet the juft complaints of his people, he em¬
ployed the moft eminent among them to compile an
intelligible, equitable, and diftinft, body of law's,
which were received with the greateft joy, and digni¬
fied with the name of cehjlial deeijions. Thefe deci¬
fions feem to have produced but very little reformation
among the people in general. We are now prefented
with a new feries of barbarities, murders, factions,
and anarchy; and in this difordered lituation of af¬
fairs it was, according to the Irifti hiftorians, that the
chieftain mentioned by Tacitus addreffed himfelf to
Agricola, .and encouraged him to make a defeent on
Ireland. This fcheme happened not to fuit the view's
of the Roman general at that time, and therefore was
not adopted ; and fo confident are thefe hiftorians of
the ftrength of their country even in its then diftrafled
ftate, that they treat the notion of its being fubdued
by a Roman legion and fome auxiliaries (the force
propofed to Agricola) as utterly extravagant ; ac¬
quainting us at the fame time, that the Irifti were fo
far from dreading a Roman invafion, that they failed
to the affiftance of the Pi£ts, and having made a fuc-
cefsful incurfion into South Britain, returned home
with a confiderable booty.
In the fame ftate of barbarity and confufion the
kingdom of Ireland continued till the introduftion of
Chriftianity by St Patrick, about the middle of the
fifth century. This miftionary, according to the adver-
faries of the Irifti antiquity, firft introduced letters into
Ireland, and thus laid the foundations of a future civi¬
lization. On the other hand, the advocates for that
antiquity maintain, that the Irifti had the knowledge
of letters, and had made confiderable progrefs in the arts,
before the time of St Patrick : though they allow,
S f that
Early hi-
ftory c ‘
aker.
IRE [ 32
Ireland, that he introduced the Roman chara&er, in which
his copies of the Scripture and liturgies were written.
1 o enter into the difpute would be contrary to our
plan. It is fufficient to obferve, that, excepting by
fome of the Irilh themfelves, the hiftory already given
is generally reckoned entirely fabulous, and thought
to have been invented after the introduftion of ChrilH-
anity. An origin of the Iriih nation has been found
out much nearer than Alia, Greece, or Egypt j
namely, the idand of Britain, from whence it is now
thought that Ireland was firlt peopled. A difpute hath
arifen concerning the place from whence the firft emi¬
grants from Britain fet fail for Ireland. The honour
of being the mother-country of the Iriih hath been
difputed between the North and South Britons. Mr
Macpherfon has argued ftrenuouily for the former,
and Mr Whitaker for the latter. For an account of
their difpute, however, we muff refer to the works of
thefe gentlemen. Mr Whitaker claims the viftory,
and challenges to himfelf the honour of being the firil
who clearly and truly demonftrated the origin of the
Iriih.
The name of Ireland, according to Mr Whitaker,
is obvioufly derived from the word ‘Jar or Kir, which
Ireland by in the Celtic language fxgnifies “ wreil.” This wmrd
Mi Whit- was fometimes pronounced Iver, and Hiver; whence the
names of Iris, lerna, Juverna, Iverna, Hibernia, and
Irelandi by all of wThich it hath at fome time or other
been knowm.
About 350 B. C. according to the fame author,
the Belgse crofled the channel, invaded Britain, and
feized the whole extended line of the fouthern coaft,
from Kent to Devonihire. Numbers of the former in¬
habitants, who had gradually retired before the enemy,
were obliged at laft to take dripping on the weftern
coaft of England, and paffed over into the uninhabited
iile of Ireland. Thefe were afterwards joined by an¬
other body of Britons driven out by the Belgae under
Divitiacus, about 100 B. C. For two centuries and a
half afterwards, thefe colonies were continually rein¬
forced with frelh fw’arms from Britain 5 as the populouf-
nefs of this ifland, and the vicinity of that, invited them
to fettle in the one, or the bloody and fucceflive wars
in Britain during this period naturally induced them to
relinquifh the other : and the whole circuit of Ireland
appears to have been completely peopled about 150
years after Chrift : and as the inhabitants had all fled
Equally from the dominion of the Belgae, or for fome
other caufe left their native country, they wrere diftin-
girithed among the Britons by one general and very ap-
pofite name, viz. that of Scuites or Scots, “ the wan¬
derers, or refugees.”
Mr Whitaker alfo informs us, “ that in the times
iuiatio ^ cf of the R.omans Ireland was inhabited by 18 tribes 5 by
the tribes one upon the northern and three on the fouthern (hore,
feven upon the weftern, fix on the eaftern, and one in
the centre.
“ Along the eaftern coaft, and the Vergivian or inter¬
nal ocean, w-ere ranged the Damnii, the Voluntii, and
the Eblani, the Caucii, the Menapii, and the Coriondii.
The firft inhabited a part of the two counties of An¬
trim and Down, extending from Fair head, the moft
north-eafterly extremity of the ifland, to Ifamnum
Promontorium, or the point of Ardglafs haven, in the
county of Down j and, having the Logia or Lagan,
1
I R E
Names and
by which
it was in¬
habited.
which falls into Carrickfergus bay, within their pof- Ireland,
feflions, and Dunum or Down-patrick for their capital. ■'v—-—
The Voluntii poflefled the coaft from the point of that
haven to the river Buvinda or Boyne, the remainder
of Down, the breadth of Armagh, and all Louth j
having the Vinderus or Carlingford river in their do¬
minions, and the town of Laberus near the river Deva
(Atherdee in the county of Louth) for their metro¬
polis. And the Eblani reached from the Boyne to the
Laebius, Laev-ui, or Liffy ; refiding in Eaft Meath,
and in the large portion of Dublin county which is to
the north of this river j and acknowriedging Mediola¬
num, Eblana, or Dublin, for their principal town. The
Caucii fpread from the Liffy to the Letrim, the Oboca
of the ancients; had the reft of Dublin county, and
fuch parts of Wicklow7 as lie in the north of the lat¬
ter j and owned Dunum or Rath-Downe for their chief
city. The Menapii occupied the coaft betwixt the
Letrim and Cancarne-point, all the reft of Wicklow,
and all Wexford to the point 5 their chief town, Me-
napia, being placed upon and to the eaft of Modona,
Slanus, or Slane. And the Coriondii inhabited at the
back of the Caucii and Menapii, to the weft of the
Slane and Liffy, and in all Kildare and all Catherlogh j
being limited by the Boyne and Barrow on the weft,
the Eblani on the north, and the Brigantes on the
louth.
“ Upon the fouthern fliore and along the verge of the
Cantabrian ocean, lay the Brigantes, the Vodim, and
the Ibernii. The firft owmed the reft of Wexford and
all Waterford : extending to the Blackwater, Aven-
More, or Dabrona, on the fouth-weft ; having the great
mouth of the Barrow7 with their territories, and Bri-
gantia, Waterford, or fome town near it, for their firft
city ; and giving name of Brigas to the Suir or Swire,
their limitary ftream on the north, and the appellation
of Bergie to their own part of the county of Wexford.
The Vodiae poffeffed the (hire of Corke from the Black-
water to the Ban, the river of Kinfale, and the Do-
bona or Dubana of the ancients • and affixed the name
of Vodium Promontorium to the point of Balycotton
ifland. And the Ibernii inhabited the remainder of
Corke, and all that part of Kerry which lies to the
fouth-eaft of Dingle found ; having Rufina or Ibaune
for their capital, the Promontorium Auftrinum or Mif-
fen-Head about the middle of their dominions, and the
river Ibernus or Dingle found for their northern bar¬
rier 5 and leaving their names to the three divifions of
Ibaune, Beare, and Iveragh.
“ Upon the weftern fliore of the ifland, and along the
Great Britannic or Atlantic ocean, were the Lucanii
or Lucenii, the Velaborii, and the Cangani, the Au-
terii, the Nagnatae, the Hardinii, and Venicnii. The
Lucenii inhabited the peninfula of land that lies along
the river Ibernus or Dingle found, and perhaps fome
adjoining parts of Kerry. The Velaborii ranged along
the fmall remainder of the latter, and over the whole
of Limerick to the Senus or Shannon j having the Du-
rius or Caflieen flowring through their dominions, and
Regia, Limerick or fome town near it, for their me¬
tropolis. And the latter was probably that city near
Limerick, the fite of which is ftill famous, and retains
the appellation of Cat hair, or the fortrefs j and where
the remains of ftreets, and other marks of a town, may
yet be traced. The Cangani lived in the county of
Clare ;
flfelai.d.
IRE [ 323 ] IRE
Clare : Macolicum near the Shannon, perhaps Feakle
or Mellc, being their principal town ; a headland in
the bay of Galway, near Glaniny, being denominated
Benifamnum Promontorium ; and the adjoining ifles of
Arran called Infulce Cangatne. The Auterii were fet¬
tled in the county of Galway 5 winding along the deep
recefs of the Sinus Aufoba or bay of Gafway $ ftretch-
ing towards the north as far as the Libnius, or the river
that bounds the lliire in that part; and pofieflrug the
fmall portion of Mayo which lies to the fouth of it.
And thefe were fubjedl to Auterium, anciently Aterith,
and now Athenree 5 and have left their name to the
divilion of Athenree. The Nagnatae occupied the reft
of the large county of Mayo, all Sligo and all Rof-
common, all Letrim as far as Logh Allin on the fouth-
eaft, and all Fermanagh, to Balylhannon and Logh
Erne ; being bounded by the Rhebius or river of Ba¬
lylhannon, and the lake Rhebius or Logh Erne ; ha¬
ving a deep bay, called Magnus Sinus, that curves along
Mayo, Sligo* and Letrim counties j and acknowledg¬
ing Nagnat, Necmaht, or Alnecmaht, the town of the
Nagnata;, for their capital. And the Hardinii and
Venicnii were confederated together under the title of
the Venicman Nations, extended from B^Jylhannon to
the North-Cape, and poflefled all Donnegalle, except
the two whole divilions of Raphoe and Enis-Owen, and
the eaftern part of Killmacrenen. The Venicnii lay
along the immediate margin of the ftrore, giving name
to the Promontorium Venicnium or Cape Horn, and
to the Infula Venicnia or North Arran illand. And
their metropolis Rheba was feated upon the lake
Rhebius, and in the country of the Hardinii on the
fouth-eaft.
“ Upon the northern fhore and along the margin of
the Deucaledonian ocean, were only the Robogdii ; in¬
habiting the reft of Donnegalle, all Derry, and all
Antrim to the Fair-Head, and the Damnii ; and gi¬
ving their owm name to the former and the divifion of
Raphoe. And they had the rivers Vidua or Ship-
harbour, Arigta or Logh Swilly, Darabouna or Logh
Foile, and Banna, or Ban, in their territories ; and ac¬
knowledged Robogdium, Robogh, or Raphoe, for their
chief city.
“ The central regions of the ifland, all Tyrone, the
remainder of Fermanagh and Letrim, all Monaghan,
and the reft of Ardmagh j all Cavan, all Longford,
and all Weft-Meath ; all the King’s and Queen’s coun¬
ty, all Kilkenny, and all Tipperary ; were planted by
the Scoti. The Shannon, Logh Allin, and Logh
Erne, were their great boundaries on the weft j the
Barrow, Boyne, and Logh Neagh, on the eaft ; the
Swire and Blackwater on the fouth ; and a chain of
mountains on the north. And the two greateft of
their towns were Rheba, a city feated, like the Rhe¬
ba of the Venicnians, upon the lake and river Rhebius,
but on a different part of them, and fomewhere in the
north of Cavan •, and Ibernia, a town placed a little to
the eaft of the Shannon, and fomewhere in the county
of Tipperary.”
But whether we are to receive as truth the accounts
given by Mr Whitaker, thofe of the Iriftr annalifts,
or any other, it is certain, that, till little more than a
century ago, Ireland was a fcene of confufion and
daughter. The Irilh hiiiorians acknowledge this, as
we have already feen. Very few of their monarchs
efcaped a violent death. The hiftories of their kings ItcIanJ.
indeed amount to no more than this, viz. that they '
began to reign in fuch a year, reigned a certain num¬
ber of years, and were ilain in battle by the valiant
prince who (ucceeded to the throne. The introduc¬
tion of Chriftianity feems to have mended the matter
very little, or rather not at all. The fame wars be¬
tween the chiefs continued ; and the fame murders and
treacheries took place among the inhabitants, till they 4
were invaded by the Danes or Normans, about ti e Invadon of
end of the eighth century. At this time, we are told,1*16 Uaiies*
that the monarchical power was weak, by reafon of the
fa6tious and afluming difpofition of the inferior dyna-
fties; but that the evils of the political conftitution
had confiderably fublided by the refpeft paid to reli¬
gion and learning. The firft invaftons of the Danes
wrere made in fmall parties for the fake of plunder,
and were repelled by the chieftain whofe dominions
were invaded. Other parties appeared in different parts
of the ifland, and terrified the inhabitants by the havock
they committed. Thefe wTere in like manner put to
flight, but never failed to return in a fhort time *, and in
this manner wras Ireland harafled for the fpace of 20
years, before the inhabitants thought of putting an
end to their inteftine contefts, and uniting againft the
common enemy. The northern pirates, either by
force or treaty, gradually obtained feme fmall fettle-
ments on the ifland ; till at length Turges, or Turge-
fius, a warlike Norwegian, landed with a powerful ar¬
mament in the year 815. He divided his fleet and ar¬
my, in order to ftrike terror in different quarters. His
followers plundered, burned, and maffacred, without
mercy, and perfecuted the clergy in a dreadful manner
on account of their religion. The Danes already fet¬
tled in Ireland, flocked to the ftandard of Turgefius,
who thus wras enabled to feat himfelf in Armagh, from
which he expelled the clergy, and feized their lands.
The Irifti, in the mean time, were infatuated by their
private quarrels *, till at laft, after fome ill-condudfed
and unfuccefsful efforts, they funk into a ftate of abjeft
fubmiflion, and Turgefius was proclaimed monarch of
the whole ifland in 845.
The new king proved fuch a tyrant, that he fosn
became intolerable. A confpiracy was formed againft
him ; and he was feized by Melachline prince of Meath,
in a time of apparent peace. An univerfal infurrec-
tion enfued ; the Danes were maffacred or difperfed •,
their leader condemned to death for his cruelties, and
drowmed in a lake. The foreigners, however, were
not exterminated, but the remains of them were al¬
lowed to continue on the ifland as fubjefls or tributa¬
ries to fome particular chieftains. A new colony foon
arrived, but under pretence of peaceable intentions,
and a defign of enriching the country by commerce.
The Irifli, through an infatuated policy, fuffered them
to become mafters of Dublin, Limerick, Waterford,
and other maritime places, which they enlarged and
fortified with fuch works as had till then been un¬
known in Ireland. The Danes did not fail to make
ufe of every opportunity of enlarging their territories,
and new w^ars quickly enfued. The Irilh were fome-
times victorious, and fometimes not j but were never
able to drive out their enemies, fo that they continued
to be a very diftinguilhed and powerful fept, or tribe,.N
in Ireland. The wars with the Danes were no fooner
S f 2 at
an invafion
«f Ireland.
IRE [ 524
Ireland, at an end, than the natives, as ufual, turned their arms
againft each other. The country was haraffed by the
competitions of the chiefs 5 laws and religion loit their
influence, and the moft horrid licentioufnefs and im¬
morality prevailed. Thus the whole illand feemed
ready to become a prey to the firft invader, when an
attempt was made upon it by Magnus king of Nor¬
way. This attempt mifcarried through his own ra(h-
nefs 5 for, having landed without oppofition, he ad¬
vanced into the country without the lead apprehen-
iion. The coniequence of this was, that he was lur-
rounded and cut to pieces with all his followers. His
death, however, proved of little benefit to Ireland;
the fame diforders which had gradually reduced the
kingdom to a date of extreme weaknefs, dill conti¬
nued to operate, and to facilitate the fuccefs of the
Engliih invafion, which happened in the reign of
, Henry II.
Henry II. The fird motives which induced this monarch to
of England think of an expedition againtl Ireland are not well
meditates known. It was fuppofed that he had been provoked
by feme afliflance which the Irifh princes had given
to the French ; but, whatever might be in this, it is
certain that the defign was conceived boon after he
afcended the throne ; and his flatterers boon furniflied
him with bufficient reabons for conbidering the Iriih as
his bubjefhs. It was affirmed that they had original¬
ly poffefled themfelves of their country by permiffion
of Gurguntius a Britifh king; and that, as deicen-
dants of the Britons, they were the natural and right¬
ful bubjedls of the Engliih monarch. It was albo lug-
geded, that the renowned King Arthur, Egfred the
Northumbrian prince, and Edgar one of the Saxon
kings of England, had all led their armies into Ireland,
and there made valuable acquifitions, which their buc-
reffor was in honour bound to recover and maintain.
All thebe fuggedions, however, or whatever elbe had
occurred to himfelf, beemed yet infufficient to Henry *,
and therefore he took the moil eft'edtual method to in-
fure his reputation, namely, by an application to the
pope. To him he reprebented, that the inhabitants
of Ireland were funk into the mod wretched date of
corruption, both w ith regard to morals and religion ;
that Henry, zealous for the honour and enlargement
of God’s kingdom, had conceived the pious defign of
eroding it in this unhappy country 5 was ready to de¬
vote himbelf and all his powers to this meritorious fer-
vice 5 implored the benediction of the pontiff 5 and re-
queded his permiffion and authority to enter Ireland
to reduce the difobedient and corrupt, to eradicate
all fin and wickednefs, to indruft the ignorant, and
fpread the blefied influence of the gobpel in all its pu¬
rity and perfection ; promifing at the fame time to pay
a yearly tribute to St Peter from the land thus to be
reduced to his obedience, and to the holy fee. Adrian,
the reigning pope, rejoiced at this application wflrich
tended be much to the advancement of his own power.
A bull was therefore immediately formed, conformable
to the mod fanguine wiflies of Henry, w hich was bent
fovereignty j.0 ]inglan(j wflthout delay, together with a ring, the
by tbe token of his invediture as rightful fovereign of Ireland.
But whatever inclination the king of England or the
pope might at this time (A. D. 1156) have for the
fubjeCHon. of Ireland, the fituation of the Englifh affairs
obliged him to defer it for borne time.
Is inverted
with the
jpope.
] I Pt E
The date of Ireland, as we have already obferved, Iielan^.
W’as at this time extremely favourable for an invafion. -v——
The monarch enjoyed little more than a titular dignity, ^^7 ^
being haraffed by a faCtion, and oppobed by powerful jrej in(j at
rivals. A number of chieftains who affumed the title that tiare.
and rights of royalty, paid a precarious tribute to
their fuperior, and united, if they were dibpobed to
unite, wdth him, rather as his allies than his bubjeCts.
In Ulfler, the family of the northern Hi-Nia/y as it
was called, exercifed a hereditary jurifdiCHon over
the counties now called Tyrone, Derry, and Donncqal.
They albo claimed a right of lupremacy over the lords
of Fermanagh, Antrim, and Argial, wfliich included
borne
the counties of Armagh, Monaghan, Lowth,
adjacent diffriCIs •, wffiile Dunleve, prince o’ Uladh
(now Down), difputed the fuperiorky of this family,
and aftefted an independent ftate. In Munfter reign¬
ed the debcendants of Brien, a famous bovereign of
former times, impatient to recover the honours of
their family } but at laft, being confinea by powerful
rivals to the territory of North Munller, they were
obliged to leave the family of Mac Arthy bovereigns
of Debmond, the bouthern divilion. In Connaught, the
princes known by the name of O'Connor were ac-
knowledged bovereigns of the eaftern territory. Tier-
nan O’Ruarc, an aCtive and reftlefs military chief, had
the bupremacy in Breffney, containing the modern
county of Leitrim, and borne adjacent diltridts. Meath,
or the bouthern Hi-Nial, was bubjeft to the family of
Clan-Colman, Murchard O’Malachlyn, and his buc-
cefl'ors. Leinfter, divided into leveral principalities,
was bubjebt to Dermod, a fierce, haughty, and op-
preffive tyrant. His father had governed with great
cruelty. Seventeen of his vaffal lords had been either
put to death, or had their eyes put out, by his order
in one year ; and Dermod feemed to inherit too great
a portion of the fame temper. His ftature and bodily
ftrength made him admired by the inferior orders of
his fubjedts; and thebe he was careful to protedl and
favour. His donations and endowments of religious
houbes recommended him to the clergy ; but his tri¬
butary chieftans. felt the weight of his pride and tyran¬
ny, and to them his government was extremely odious.
The chief competitors for the rank of monarch of
Ireland, in the mean time, were, the heirs of the two
houbes of O’Connor, and the northern Hi-Nial. Tor-
log h O’Connor wras in poffeffion ; but he Was not ge¬
nerally recognifed, and wras oppofed by his rival
O’Lochlan : notwithftanding which, he maintained his
dignity with magnificence and vigour, till a decifive
vidtory gained by him over O’Brien raibed O’Lochlan’s
jealoufy bo much, that he obliged him in a convention
of the ftates to allow him the fovereignty of the north¬
ern divifion. In conbequence of this partition, it was
refolved to transfer the territory of O’Ruarc to a perfon
more inclined to the intereffs of the two fovereigns.
An expedition was accordingly undertaken ; O’Ruarc
was furpribed, defeated, and driven from his dominions.
Dermod, who had conceived an unlawful paffion for
Dervorghal, the wife of O’Ruarc, took the opportu¬
nity of her hulband’s diftreffes to carry her off in
triumph. O’Ruarc conceived the moft implacable refent-
ment againft Dermod \ and therefore applying himbelf
to Torlogh, promifed an inviolable attachment to his
intereft \ and prevailed on him not only to reinftate
him
I R E
•Ireland, him in his pofTeffions, but to revenge the iniult offered
— * ' by Dermod, and to reftore his wife. By means of
fuch a powerful ally, O’Ruarc found frequent oppor¬
tunities of haraffing his antagonift till the death of
Torlogh, which happened in 1156, upon which
O’Lochlan fucceeded to the fovereignty. Dermod
was the fir ft to acknowledge the authority of this new
fovereign, by whofe means he honed to be able to re¬
venge hirnfelf on O’Ruarc. He icon found, however,
that he had a<!fted too precipitately. His patron, ha¬
ving treacherouily feized and put out the eyes of Dun-
leave prince of Down, the neighbouring chieftains took
arms, in order to fecure themfelves from his barbarity.
O’Lochlan was defeated and killed 5 upon which the
monarchy devolved on Roderic the fon of the late Tor¬
logh O’Connor.
The new prince had acquired the reputation of va-
— lour, and was determined to eftabliih this reputation
by fome remarkable exploit in the beginning of his
reign. Having therefore engaged in his fervice the
Oilmen, or defeendants of the Danes, he marched a-
gainft Dennod as the chief partizan of his fallen rival.
The king of Leiniter was feized with the utmoft con-
fternation •, and in defpair fet fire to his own town of
Ferns, left the enemy ihould have the fatisfaclion of
fpoiling it. Roderic itill advanced, attended by O’Ru-
g arc, Dermod’s implacable enemy, and foon overran
Dermod the whole province. All the inferior lords at once
an exiled acknowledged Roderic’s authority. Dermod was depo-
fed, as a man utterly unworthy of his ftation ; another
ance from fam^y was raffed to the throne ; and the unfor-
Henryll tunate prince, finding it impoffible to ftay with fafety
in Ireland, embarked with <5o of his followers for
England, and foon arrived at the port of Briftol, with
a defign to foiicit aftiftance from King Henry.
In England, Dennod’s charaffer was unknown, and
he was regarded as an injured prince driven from his
throne by an iniquitous confederacy. The clergy re¬
ceived him as the beneraif:or of their order, and enter¬
tained him in the monaftery of Auguftines wdth great
hofpitality. Having learned that Henry was then in
Aquitain, he immediately went thither, and in a very
abjefl manner implored his aftiftance, promifing to ac¬
knowledge him as his liege lord, and to hold his do¬
minions, which he was thus confident of regaining, in
vaffalage to Henry and his heirs.
Though nothing could be more flattering to the
ambition of the king of England than this fervile ad-
drefs, yet the lituation of his own affairs rendered it
impoffible for him at that time to reap from it any of
the advantages with which it flattered him. He there¬
fore difiniffed the Iriih prince with large prefents, and
a letter of credence addreffed to all his fubjetfts : noti-
iying his grace and protection granted to the king of
Leinfter} and declaring, that whofoever within his
dominions Ihould be difpofed to aid the unfortunate
prince in the recovery of his kingdom, might be affured
of his free licence and royal favour. •
Dermod returned to England highly pleafed with
the reception he had met with •, but notwithftanding
the king’s letter, none of the Englifh feemed to be
difpofed to try their fortu ies in Ireland. A month
elapfed without any profpeCl of fuccours, fo that Der¬
mod began to defpair. At laft, however, he perfuad-
ed, with great promifes, Richard earl of Chepftow, or,
1 R E
as it was formerly called, Strigu/, a nobleman of confi- utlar.d.
derable influence in Wales, but of broken fortune, to ^
affift him with a confiderable force to be tranfported perfua(]es
next fpring into Ireland. Overjoyed at thisfirft inftancefome ad-
of fuccefs, he advanced into South Wales, where, by venturers
the influence of the bilhop of St David’s, he procured
many other friends. Robeit Fitz-Btephen, a brave
and experienced officer, covenanted with him to en¬
gage in his fervice with all his followers, and Maurice
Fitz-Gerald his maternal brother ; while Dermod, on
his part, promifed to cede to the two principal leaders,
Fitz-Stephen and Fitz-Gerald, the entire dominion of
the town of Wexford, with a large adjoining territory,
as foon as by their aftiftance he fbould be reinftated in
his rights.
The Irifh prince having now accomplifhed his pur-
pofe, fet fail for Ireland in the winter of 1169, and
recovered a fmall part of his dominions even before
the arrival of his new allies j but being attacked with
a fuperior force by his old enemies Roderic and
CTRuarc, he found fiimfelf obliged to feign fubmif-
fion till the Englifh allies came to his afliftance. The
expefted fuccours arrived in the month of May 1170*
in a creek called the Bonn, near the city of Wexford,
Robert Fitz-Stephen commanded 30 knights, 60 men
in armour, and 300 archers. With thefe came Har¬
vey of Mountmorris, nephew to Earl Richard. He
had no military force along with him 5 but came folely
with a view of difeovering the nature of the country,
and reporting it to his uncle. Maurice of Pendergaft
commanded 10 knights and 200 archers: and thus the
Englifh force, which was to contend with the whole
ftrength of Ireland, amounted to no more than 600
men. 10
Trifling as this afliftance may feem, it neverthelefs ^uc"
changed the face of affairs almoft inftantaneoufiy.
Numbers of Dermod’s fubjefts who had abandoned
him in his diftrefs, now’ flocked to his ftandard. Wex¬
ford was immediately attacked, and furrendered in a
few days ; Fitz-Stephen and Fitz-Gerald were jointly
invefted with the lordftup of this city and its domain 5
and Harvey of Mountmorris w’as declared lord of two
confiderable diftrifts on the coaft. After three or four
weeks fpent in feafting and rejoicing, a new expedition
w’as undertaken againft the prince of Offory (a diftricl
of Leinfter), who had not only revolted from Dermod,
but put out the eyes of one of his fons, and that with
fuch cruelty, that the unhappy youth expired under the
operation. The allied army was now increafed to 3000.'
men, who wrere oppofed by the prince of Offory at the
head of 5000, ftrongly entrenched among woods and
moraffes. By the fuperior condutft: of the Englifh
troops, however, the Irifli were decoyed from their
advantageous fituation, and thus were entirely defeat¬
ed. The Englifh were for keeping the field till they
had totally reduced their enemies : but Dermod, accu-
ftomed only to ravage and plunder, contented himfelf
with deftroying the country ; and a hidden reverfe of
fortune feemed ready to take place. The prince of
Offory, though defeated, ftill appeared in arms, and
only w’aited for an opportunity of again oppofing the
enemy in the field. Maurice Pendergaft alfo joined
him with his whole troop,, being provoked by Der¬
mod, who had refufed him leave to return to Wales.
This defeftion, however, was in part fupplied by the
arrival:
[ 325 1
IKE [ 326 ] IRE
tIreland, arrival of Fitz-Gerald with 10 knights, 30 horfe-
v men, and toe archers. Pendergait in a fhort time re¬
pented of his new alliance, and retired into Wales ;
fo that the prince was obliged to make his fubmiffion
to Dermod, which the latter with fome relu&ance ac¬
cepted.
In the mean time, Roderic, having fettled all his
other affairs, advanced againft the allies with a power¬
ful army. Dermod was thrown into defpair j but en¬
couraged by Fitz-Stephen, he encamped in a very
ftrong fituation, where he was loon befieged by Roderic.
The latter, however, dreading the valour of the Eng-
lifh, condefcended to treat firfl with them, and then
with Dermod, in order to detach them from the inte-
refls of each other : but as this proceeded evidently
from fear, his offers were reje&ed by both parties j
upon which he began to prepare for battle : but at the
very time when the engagement flrould have commen¬
ced, either through the fuggellions of his clergy, or of
n "his own fears, Roderic entered into a new negociation j
I’eace con- which at laft terminated in a peace. The terms were,
aded. that Dermod fhould acknowledge the fupremacy of
Roderic, and pay him fuch fervice as the monarchs of
Ireland had ufually received from inferior princes •,
and as a fecurity for his faithful performance of this
article, he delivered up his favourite fon as an hoflage
to Roderic : but in order to eflablifh this accommoda¬
tion on the firmed bafis, the latter obliged himfelf to
give his daughter in marriage to the young prince as
foon as Leinfler fhould be reduced, and the peace of the
illand effe&ually reftored. By a fecret article, Dermod
engaged to difmifs the Britifh forces immediately after
the fettlement of his own province, and in the mean
time not to bring over any further reinforcements from
England.
Thus ended the firft Britifh expedition into Ireland;
the confequences of which were fo little dreaded at that
time by the natives, that their hifforians, though they
dwell upon the principal wars and contells in other
parts of the ifland, fpeak of the fettlement of the
Wellhmen in Leinfter with a carelefs indifference. But
though the fettlement of this colony feemed very little
alarming to the generality, it. could not efcape the ob-
fervation of difeerning perfons, that a man of Dermod’s
chara&er would not long keep his treaties; and that
on the firft emergency he would have recourfe to his
former allies, who thus would eftablifh themfelves more
12 and more, till at laft they would reduce the country
New ma- entire]y under their fubjedtion. Thefe refledlions, if
of Dermod any were t^len were >n a fhort time verified.
Dermod was fcarce fettled in his own dominions, when
he began to afpire at the fovereignty, and form
fchemes for dethroning Roderic. He applied to Fitz-
Stephen and Fitz-Gerald ; by whom he was again di¬
rected to apply to Richard earl of Chepftow, more
commonly known by the name of Strongbow, on ac¬
count of his feats of archery. Richard was very much
inclined to accept of his invitation ; but thought it in¬
cumbent upon him firft to obtain the confent of King
Henry. The king, however, did not incline that his
fubjedfs fhould make conquefts for themfelves in any
other country, and therefore difmiffed Richard with an
equivocal anfwer ; but the latter being willing to un¬
derhand his fovereign’s words in the moft favourable
ienfe, immediately fet about the neceffary preparations
for his expedition. In May 1171, Raymond le Grofs, Ireland.
Richard’s domeftic friend, and the near relation of    
Fitz-Stephen and Fitz-Gerald, landed at a place called^ ^*3
Dortdona/f near Waterford, with to knights and 70 jy of'Edit"
archers; and along with them came Harvey of Mount-lifh arrive"
morris, attended by a fmall train. The Englifh imme-in Ireland,
diately intrenched themfelves, and erefted a temporary
fort for themfelves : which proved a very neceffary pre¬
caution ; for the natives, juftly attributing this new
debarkation to the pra&ices of Dermod, inftantly
formed a tumultuous army, and marched to expel the
invaders. The Englifh prepared to meet them ; but
when they perceived the great fuperiority of the enemy,
they thought proper to retire to their fort. Here,
however, they muft have been totally cut off, had they
not luckily colledled a numerous herd of cattle from
the neighbouring country for their fubfiftence. Thefe Their fuc-
they drove with fury among the Irifh, who were thus efs ;>nd
put into the utmoft confufion. The invaders feized crue^y-
the favourable moment; and, falling upon their dif-
ordered enemies, put them to flight, and drove great
numbers of them into the fea, where they perilhed.
Seventy prifoners were taken, all of them principal ci¬
tizens of Waterford ; who, though they offered large
fums for their ranfom, and even that the city fhould be
delivered up to the Englifh, were all barbaroufly put to
death. This fuccefs and cruelty fo intimidated the
Irifh, that they fuffered thefe mercilefs invaders to
maintain their ftation unmolefted, and wait for the ar¬
rival of their affociates.
Richard in the mean time having aflembled his vaf-
fals, led them through Wales, where he was joined by
great numbers of other adventurers ; but, when juft
on the point of embarking, was furprifed by a pofitive
command from the king, to defift from his intended
enterprife, on pain of forfeiture of his lands and ho¬
nours. He was now, however, too much interefted
in his fcheme to retradl ; and therefore pretended to
difbelieve the authenticity of the royal mandate. OnEarlRicb-
the eve of the feaft of St Bartholomew, he landed at ard arrives
Waterford with 200 knights and 1200 infantry, allwitha
chofen and well appointed foldiers. They were im-P°_werfu*
mediately joined by Raymond and his troop ; and the ment>
very next day it was refolved to make an attempt upon
Waterford. The city was taken by ftorm, and a
dreadful maffacre enfued ; to which the cruel Dermod
had the merit of putting an end. The marriage of
Richard with Eva, the daughter of Dermod, was fo-
lemnized without delay, and a feene of joy and feftivi-
ty fucceeded the calamities of war.
A new expedition was now undertaken againft
Dublin ; the inhabitants of which had either manifeft-
ed fome recent difaffeiftion to Dermod, or had never
been thoroughly forgiven for their old defeflion. Ro¬
deric advanced againft the allied army with a formi¬
dable body, confifting, as is faid, of 30,000 men ;
but, fearing to come to a general engagement, he
contented himfelf with fome flight Ikirmilhes; after
which, great part of his vaffals forced him to difmifs
them, and Dublin was left to its fate. The inhabitants
were treated very feverely ; however, a confiderable
body of them, with Hefculph their governor, had the
good fortune to gain fome veffels lying in the har¬
bour, and made their efcape to the northern iflands.
Earl Richard was now invefted with the lordthip of
Dublin ;
I R E
Ireland.
[ 327 ]
I R E
16
All the ad¬
venturers
recallsd by
the king.
* See £«g-
lanJ, No
119,120.
-
Diftrefs of
the Enjnifh,
Dublin ; and appointed Milo de Cogan, a brave Eng-
lilh knight, his governor ; while he himfelf, in con-
junftion with the forces of Dermod, overran the coun¬
try of Meath, committing everywhere the moft horrid
cruelties. Roderic, in the mean time, unable to op-
pofe them in the field, fent deputies to Dermod, com¬
manding him to retire, and putting him in mind that
his fon was in his hands, and mud anfwer with his life
for the breach of thofe treaties which his father made
fo little fcruple to violate. Natural affedlion, however,
had very little place in the bread of Dermod. He ex-
prefl'ed the utmod indifference about his fon j and, wdth
the greated arrogance, claimed the fovereignty of all
Ireland ; Roderic, provoked at this anfwer, cut off the
young prince’s head.
This piece of impotent cruelty ferved only to make
the king odious to his own fubjetds, while Dermod and
his Englidi allies committed everywhere the greated
devadations, and threatened to fubdue the whole ifland.
This indeed they would probably have accomplifhed,
had not the extraordinary fuccefs of Strongbow alarm¬
ed King Henry ; who, fearing that he might render
himfelf totally independent on the crown of Britain,
ilfued his royal ediB, driftly forbidding any Englidi
velfel from pafling into Ireland with men, arms, or
provifions ; and commanding all his fubjects at that
time refident in Ireland, of whatever rank or degree,
to return to their country before the enfuing fead of
Eader, on pain of forfeiting their lands, and being de¬
clared traitors.
Our adventurers were plunged into the greated di-
flrcfs by this peremptory edi£L They now found
themfelves cut off from all fupplies in the midd of
their enraged enemies, and in danger of being forfaken
by thofe who had attached themfelves to them during
their fuccefs. Raymond was difpatched with a mod
fubmidive meifage to the offended monarch ; but be¬
fore he received any favourable anfwer, every thing was
thrown into confufion by the death of Becket *, fo
that the king had neither leifure nor inclination to at¬
tend to the affairs of Ireland. About the fame time
the death ot Dermod their great ally feemed almod to
give a finidiing droke to the Englidi affairs. An uni-
■ verfal defedlion took place among their aflbciates 5 and
before they had time to concert any proper meafures,
Hefculph, who had formerly efcaped from Dublin,
appeared before that city wdth a formidable body of
troops armed after the Daniib manner. A furious at¬
tack enfued ; which at lad ended in the defeat and
captivity of Hefculph, who was immediately put to
death. This danger, however, was foon followed by
one dill greater. Roderic had formed a powerful
confederacy wdth many of the Iridi chieftains, and the
kings of the northern ides, in order to extirpate the
Englilh totally from the idand. The harbour of
Dublin was blocked up by a fleet of 30 fhips from the
northern ifles *, while the confederated Irilh took their
ftations in fuch a manner as to furround the city, and
totally cut oft all fupplies of provifions. In two
months time the Englilh were reduced to great ftraits.
On the firft alarm, Richard had fent for affidance to
Fitz-Stephen ; who having weakened his own force, in
order to ferve the earl, the people of Wexford had
rifen and befieged Fitz-Stephen in his fort called Carrig,
near that city. A meflenger now' arrived, informing
Strongbow that his friend was in the utmod danger, Ireland;
and mud fall into the hands of his enemies if not aflift- ^ v 1
ed wdthin three days ; upon which a council of war was
called, in order to deliberate on the meafures neceffary
to be purfued in this defperate emergency. It was foon
refolved to enter into a treaty with Roderic upon any
terms that were not totally fervile or oppreflive. Lau¬
rence prelate of Dublin was appointed to carry the
terms ; which w'ere, that Richard propofed to acknow¬
ledge Roderic as his fovereign, and to hold the pro¬
vince of Leinder as his vaffal, provided he would raife
the fiege. Laurence foon returned with an anfwer, pro¬
bably of his own framing; namely, that Dublin, Water¬
ford, Wexford, and all the forts poffeffed by the Britifti,
ftiould be immediately given up ; and that the earl and
his affociates fliould depart with all their forces by a cer¬
tain day, leaving every part of the ifland free from their
ufurpations, and abfolutely renouncing all their pretend¬
ed claims. On thefe conditions they were to be fpared ;
but the lead reluctance or delay would determine the
befiegers to dorm the city.
Thefe terms, though they contained nothing info-
lent or unreafonable, confidering the prefent fituation
of the Knglifh, were yet intolerable to our indigent
adventurers. After fome time fpent in filence, Milo
de Cogan, fuddenly darting up, declared his reiblu-
tion to die bravely rather than fubmit to the mercy of
barbarians. The fpirit of defperate valour was in-
dantly caught by the whole affembly ; and it was re¬
folved to riik their whole fortune on one defperate ef¬
fort, by faliying out againd the enemy, and to make
their attack upon that quarter where Roderic himfelf jg
commanded. Accordingly, having perfuaded a body They total,
of the townfmen to take part in this defperate enter-b' defeat
prife, they marched out againd their enemies, whor
expedled nothing lefs than fuch a fudden attack. The'
befiegers were fecure and carelefs, without difeipline
or order; in confequence of which, they were un¬
able to fuftain the furious affault of the Englifh. A
terrible daughter enfued, and the Irifti indantly fled in
the greated confufion ; their monarch himfelf efcaping
only by mixing half naked with the crowd. The other
chieftains wdio were not attacked caught the panic,
and broke up their camps with precipitation ; while
the viflors returned from the purfuit to plunder, and
among other advantages, gained as much provifion as
was fufficient to fupport them for a whole year.
Strongbow being thus relieved from his diftrefs,
committed the government of Dublin to Milo de Co¬
gan, while he proceeded immediately to Wexford, in
order to relieve Fitz-Stephen : but in this he was dif-
appointed ; for that brave officer, having often repulfed
his enemies, wTas at lad treacheroufly deceived into fub-
miffion and laid in irons. Strongbow, however, conti¬
nued to advance ; and was again attacked by the Irifli,
whom he once more defeated. On his arrival at Wex¬
ford, he found it burnt to the ground; the enemy having
retired with Fitz-Stephen and the reft of the prifoners
to Holy Ifland, a fmall ifland in the middle of the har¬
bour, from whence they fent a deputation, threatening
to put all the prifoners to death if the lead attempt was
made to moled them in their prefent fituation. The
earl then proceeded to Waterford, and from thence to
Ferns; where he for fome time exercifed a regal autho-
lity, rewarding his friends and punching his enemies.
A
t their ene¬
mies.
I R E [ .
Irel.nui, A more important objeft, however, foon engaged his
'v' attention. The king of England, having lettled his
10 affairs as well as he could, now determined to conquer
Earl Rich- IrelantJ for himfelf. A fummons was infiantly dif-
nionedTo Patc^c'd to Earl Richard, expreffing the great eft refent-
England. ment at his prefumption and difobedience, and requi¬
ring his immediate prefence in England. The earl
found himfelf under the necefftty of obeying ; and ha¬
ving made the beft difpofitions the time would permit
for the fecurity of his Irifti poQeftions, embarked for
England, and met the king at Newnham near Glou-
cefter. Henry at firft afteffed great difpleafure ; but
foon allowed himfelf to be pacified by a furrender of
the city of Dublin, and a large territory adjacent, to¬
gether with all the maritime towns anti forts acquired
by Strongbow : while on his part he confented that the
earl fhould have all his other poffeiTions granted in per¬
petuity, to be held of the king and his heirs. The
other adventurers made their peace in a fimilar man¬
ner ; while the Irilh chieftains, inllead of uniting in
the defence of their country, only thought vhow to
make the moft of the approaching invafion, or at leaft
how to avert the threatened evils from their own par¬
ticular diilrifls. They faw the power of their own
fovereign on the point of total diffolution *, and they
faw it with indifference, if not with an envious and
malignant fatisfadlion. Some were even ready to pre¬
vent their invader, and to fubmit before he appeared
on the coaft. The men of Wexford, who had pofiel-
fed themfelves of Fitz-Stephen, refolved to avert the
confequences of their late perfidy and cruelty, by the
forwardnefs of their zeal for the fervice of the king of
England, and the readinefs of their fubmiffions. Their
deputies call themfelves at Henry’s feet ^ and, with
the moft paffionate expreflions of obedience, humbly
intreated that he would accept them as his faithful vaf-
fals, ready to refign themfelves, their lands, and pof-
feftions, to his ablolute difpofal. “ They had already
(they faid) endeavoured to approve their zeal by feizing
Robert Fitz-Stcphen, a traitor to his fovereign, who
had lately entered their territory by force of arms,
without any due warrant or fair pretence, had ftaugh-
tered their people, feized their lands, and attempted
to eftablilh himfelf independent of his liege lord.—
They kept him in chains, and were ready to deliver
him to the difpofal of his fovereign.”—The king re¬
ceived them with expreffions of the utmoft grace and
favour •, commended their zeal in reprefling the unwar¬
rantable attempts of Fitz-Stephen •, declared that he
fhould foon inquire into his dimes, and the wrongs
they had fuftained, and inflicl condign punilhment for
every offence committed by his undutiful fubjedls.—
Thus were the Irifhmen difmiffed in the utmoft joy and
exultation •, and the artifice of Henry, rvhile it infpired
thefe men with difpofitions favourable to his interefts,
proved alfb the moft effeclual means of faving Fitz-
Stephen from their cruelty.
Henry, having completed the preparations neceffary
for his expedition^ embarked at Milford with feveral
jo of his barons, 400 knights, and about 4000 foldiers,
King Hen- on board a ileet of 240 fail. He landed at Water-
ry lands in £or(j on ^ pea^ 0f gt Ldkg in Oftober 1172} with a
re an . profeffed defign not to conquer, but to take poffelTion
of a kingdom already his own, as being granted him
by the pope. Moft of the Irith indeed feemed tc be
2
28 ] IRE
of the fame opinion, and therefore fubmiued without Ireland,
the leaft refiftance. Strongbovv let them an example,v v~—
by making a formal furrender of Waterford, and do¬
ing homage to the king for the territory of Leinfter.
Fitz-Stephen was delivered up, with many accufations
of tyranny and injuftice. He was at firft fent to pri-
fon ; but foon purchafed his liberty, by lurrendering
Wexford, and doing homage for the reft of his poffefi- 21
fions to the king. The prince of Delmond was the Hnny Iriilj
firft Irilh chieftain who fubmitted. On the very day ^nI'e’t'^ '
after the king’s arrival, he attended his court, refigned ^-.jj
the city of Corke, did him homage, and ftipulated to
pay a tribute for the reft ol his territory. An hng-
lilh governor and garrilon were immediately appointed
to take poffeflion of his capital ; and the king difplayed
his power and magnificence by marching to Lifmoie,
where he chofe a lituation and gave the neceffary or¬
ders for building a fort. The prince of Tbomond
next fubmitted and did homage. He was followed by
the princes of Ofiory, Dtcies, and ail the inferior chiefs
of Manlier.
The king, after having provided for the fecurity of
all his newly acquired territories, and put garnfons in
the cities of Limerick,1 Corke, Waterford, and Wex¬
ford, proceeded to take poffefiion of Dublin, which
had been furrendered by Strongbowu The neighbour¬
ing lords took the opportunity of fubmitting as he ad¬
vanced. O’Carrol of Argial, a chieftain of great con-
fequence, repaired to his camp, and engaged to be¬
come his tributary j and even O’Ruarc, whom Roderic
had made lord of a confiderable part of Meath, volun¬
tarily fubmitted to the new fovereign.
Roderic, though furprifed at the defection of fou0^erjc
many of his allies, liill determined to maintain his own flu I holds
dignity, and at leaf! prelerve his province of Con
naught, feeing he could no longer call himfelf monarch
of the whole illand. With this defign he entrenched
himfelf on the banks of the Shannon *, and now, w hen
difencumbered from a crowd of faithlefs and difeon-
tented followers, he appears to have a£ted with a fpi-
rit and dignity becoming his Ration. Hugh de Lacey
and William Fitz-Andelm were commilftoned by the
king to reduce him : but Roderic wjas too ftrong to
be attacked with any probability of fuccefs by a de¬
tachment from the Englilh army ; and he at leaft af~
fetfted to believe, that his fituation was not yet fo to¬
tally defperate as to reduce him to the neceftity of re-
figning his dignity and authority, wEile his owm terri¬
tory remained inviolate, and the brave and powerful
chiefs of Ulfter ftill kept retired in their own diftririU
without any thoughts of fubmiflion. Henry in the
mean time attempted to attach the Irilh lords to his in-
tereft by elegant and magnificent entertainments, fuch
as to them appeared quite aftonilhing. Some hilloriarts
pretend that he eftabliftied the Englilh laws in all thofe
parts which had fubmitted to bis jurifdi&ion •, but this
muft appear extremely improbable, when we confider
how tenacious a rude and barbarous people are of their
ancient laws and cuftoms. The Iriih lords had been
accuftomed to do homage to a fuperior •, and they had
made no fubmiflion to Henry which they had not for¬
merly done to Roderic, and probably thought their,
fubmiflion to the king of England more honourable
than that to their Irilh monarchs; and it cannot be
fuppofed, that a wife and politic monarch, fuch as
Henry
Ireland
23
Henry ob-
liged to
leave Ire¬
land.
IKE [ 3
Henry undoubtedly was, fhould form at once fuch an
~ extravagant fcherne as altering the laws of a great num¬
ber of communities, none of which he had fubdued by
force of arms. By his tranfaftions both with the na¬
tives and adventurers, however, Henry had attained
the abfolute dominion of feveral maritime cities and
their dependencies ; fo that he had both a conliderable
number of real fubje£ts, and a large extent of territo¬
ry, in the ifland. To thefe fubje&s indeed Henry
granted the Englilh laws ; and gave the city of Dublin
by charter to the inhabitants of Bridol, to be held of
him and his heirs, with the fame liberties and tree cuf-
toms which they enjoyed at Briftol, and throughout
all his land. And, by another charter, executed foon
after, he confirmed to his burgefies of Dublin all man¬
ner of rights and immunities throughout his whole
land of England, Normandy, Wales, and Ireland,
wherever they and their effe&s {hall be, to be fully and
honourably enjoyed by them as his free and faithful
fubjecis. And as it was not eafy to induce his Eng-
liflh fubje&s immediately to fettle in thefe maritime
towns, he permitted the Oilmen to take poiTeffion of
Waterford ; and to them he granted a particular right
of denization, whereby they were invelled with the
rights and privileges of free fubje&s, and for the fu¬
ture to be governed by the laws of his realm. For the
better execution of thefe nerv laws, the king alfo made
a divifion of the diftri&s now fubjeft to him into {hires
or counties; which was afterwards improved and en¬
larged, as the extenfion of the Englilh fettlements and
the circumftances of the country required. Sheriffs
were appointed both for the counties and cities, with
itinerant judges, and other minifters of juftice, and
officers of Hate, and every appendage of Engliffi go¬
vernment and law. To complete the whole fyflem, a
chief governor, or reprefentative of the king, was ap¬
pointed. His bufinefs was to exercife the royal au¬
thority, or fuch parts of it as might be committed to
him in the king’s abfence j and, as the prefent Hate
of Ireland, and the apprehe ifions of war or infurrec-
tions, made it neceffary to guard againft hidden
accidents, it was provided, That in cafe of the death
of any chief governor, the chancellor, treafurer, chief-
juftice, and chief baron, keeper of the rolls, and
king’s ferjeant at law, ffiould be empowered, with
confent of the nobles of the land, to eleft a fucceffor,
who was to exercife the full power and authority of
this office, until the royal pleafure ffiould be further
known.
But while Henry was thus regulating the govern¬
ment of his new dominions, he received the unwel¬
come news, that two cardinals, Albert and Theodine,
delegated by the pope, had arrived in Normandy the
year before, to make inquifition into the death of Bec-
ket ; that having waited the king’s arrival until their
patience was exhauHed, they now fummoned him to
appear without delay, as he would avert the dreadful
fentence of excommunication, and preferve his domi¬
nions from a general interdift. Such denunciations
were of too great confequence to admit of his longer
ftay in Ireland ; he therefore ordered his forces and
the officers of his houfehold to embark without delay,
referving three {hips for the conveyance of himfelf and
his immediate attendants. Having therefore but a
ffiort time to fecure his Irilh interetfs, he addreffed
Vql. XI. Part I.
29 ] IRE . .
himfelf to the original Engliffi adventurers, and by Ireland,
grants and promifes laboured to detach them from
Strongbow, and to bind them firmly to himfelf. To
make amends for what he had taken from Fitz-Stephen,
he granted him a confiderable diftridt in the neigh¬
bourhood of Dublin, to be held by knight’s fervice
at the fame time eutrufting the maritime towns to his
own immediate dependants. Waterford was commit¬
ted to Humphrey de Bohun, Robert Fitz-Bernard,
and Hugh de Gundville, with a train of 20 knights.
In Wexford were ilationed William Fitz-Andelm,
Philip of Haftings, and Philip de Braofa, with a like
number of attendants. Hugh de Lacey had a grant
of all the territory of Meath, wdiere there was no
fortified place, and where of confequence no par¬
ticular refervation was neceffary, to be held of the king
and his heirs, by the fervice of 50 knights, in as full a
manner as it had been enjoyed by any of the Iriffi
princes. He alfo conftituted him lord governor of
Dublin, with a guard of 20 knights. Robert Fitz-
Stephen and Maurice Fitz-Gerald were appointed his
coadjutors, wdth an equal train ; and thefe, with others
of the firft adventurers, were thus obliged, under the
pretence of an honourable employment, to refide at
Dublin, fubjedl to the immediate infpeddion of De
Lacey, in whom Henry feems to have placed his chief
confidence. Lands wrere affigned in the neighbour¬
hood of each city for the maintenance of the knights
and loldiers. Orders w-ere given to build a caftle in
Dublin, and fortreffes in other convenient places; and
to John de Courcey, a baron diftinguilhed by his en~
terprifmg genius and abilities for war, w’as granted the
wffiole province of Ulfter, provided he could reduce it'
by force of arms.
Henry was no fooner gone, than his barons began DHbrders
to contrive how7 they might beft {Lengthen their owm e f':e.on,
interefts, and the Iriffi how they might belt ffiake off^^'"^’*
the yoke to which they had fo readily fubmitted. De UrC*
Lacey parcelled out the lands of Meath to his friends
and adherents, and began to eredl forts to keep the
old inhabitants in awe. This gave offence to O’Ruarc,
who ftill enjoyed the eaftern part of this territory as a
tributary prince. He repaired to Dublin, in order to
obtain redrefs from Lacey for fome injuries real or pre¬
tended ; but, as the parties could not come to an agree¬
ment, another conference was appointed on a hill
called Taragh. Both parties came with a confiderable
train of armed followers; and the event was a feuffle,
in which O’Ruarc and feveral of his folkwers were
killed, and which ferved to render the Englilh not a
little odious to the natives.
The fpirit of difaffeflion had foon after an oppor¬
tunity of {howing itfelf on the rebellion of King
Henry ’s fons, of which an account is given under the
article England, N° 1 21, £/ feq. The king had been
obliged to weaken his forces in Ireland, by withdraw¬
ing feveral of his garrifons. The foldiers who re¬
mained were alfo difeontented with their general Her-
vey of Mountmorris, on account of his feverity in dif-
cipline, and reftraining them from plunder, to which
they imagined themfelves entitled on account of the
deficiencies of their pay. Raymond le Gros, the fe-
cond in command, was much more beloved by the
foldiery ; and to fuch a height had the jealoufies be¬
tween the commanders arifen, that all effeftual op-
T t pofition
%
1 R £ r 3j>
Ireland, pofition to the IrHh chieftains was prevented ; and
* the event might have been fatal to the Engliih inte-
Stron«bow not; Henry found out a remedy. He fum-
the firft go- moned Earl Richard to attend him at Rouen in Nor-
■vernor of mandy, and communicated his intentions of commit-
Ireland. t]ng affairs of Ireland to his foie direftion. The
earl expreffed the utmoft readinefs to ferve his mailer ;
but obferved, that he had already experienced the envy
and malignity of his fecret enemies ; that if he ihould
appear in inch a diidinguiihed character as that-of the
king’s deputy in Ireland, their infidious practices
wTould be renewed, and his condudl mifreprefented.—
He therefore requefied that a colleague might be ap¬
pointed in the commiftion *, and recommended Ray¬
mond as a perfon of approved loyalty and abilities, as
well as highly acceptable to the foldiery. The king
replied, with an affefted air of regard and confidence,
that he had his free confent to employ Raymond in
any fervice he ihould deem neceffary, not as a col¬
league, but as an ail'iilant ; but that he relied entirely
on the earl himfelf, and implicitly trailed every thing
to his direction. To reward his fervices, he granted
him the town of Wexford, together with a fort ere6ted
at Wicklow *, and then difmiffed him with the moil
gracious expreffions of favour.
The earl landed at Dublin, where he was received
with all the refpe^l due to the royal commiffion. He
ilgnified the king’s pleafure, that Robert Fitz-Bernard,
w’ith the garrifon of Waterford, ihould inftantly em¬
bark and repair to Normandy *, that Robert Fitz-Ste-
phen and Maurice Pendergail ihould attend the fervice
of their fovereign in England •, and, agreeably to the
king’s inilruftions, took on him the cuilody of the ci¬
ties of Dublin, Waterford, and Wexford. Hugh de
Eacev and Milo de Cogan wTere, with the other lords,
commanded to repair to England for the fervice of the
king ; by which the earl’s forces were coniiderably
weakened, and he foon found himfelf under the neceflity
of appointing Raymond to the chief command. The
new general proved fuccefsful in fome enterprifes againil
the rebellious Iriih j but having prefumed upon his me¬
rits to demand in marriage Baiilia the earl’s lifter,
Richard refufed his confent, and Raymond retired into
Wales.
Thus the fupreme command again devolved upon
Hervey of Mountmorris j who, being fenlible that his
eharadler had fuffered much from a comparifon with
that of Raymond, determined to emulate his fucceffes
by fome bold attempt againlt the rebels. A detach¬
ment of 400 of his men, however, had the misfortune
to be furprifed and cut oft' by the enemy j and this
fuccefs ferved as a lignal for a general revolt. Several
A general of the Leinfter chieftains, wdio had lately made their
fubmiflions, and bound themfelves to the fervice of
King Henry, now7 openly difclaimed all engagements.
Even Donald Kevanagh, fon to the late King Dermod,
who had hitherto adhered to the Englifh in their
greateft difficulties, now declared againft them, and
claimed a right to the kingdom of Leinfter •, while
Roderic, on his part, was aftive in uniting the princes
of Ulfter, the native lords of Meath, and other chiefs,
againft their common enemy. This produced the
immediate recal of Raymond ; and Richard no longer
refufed his confent to the marriage with his filler,
■which was folemnized immediately on Raymond’s
Ireland.
. 27
revolt of
the Iriih.
o ] IRE
arrival. The very next morning, the bridegroom was
obliged to take the field againft Roderic, who had
committed great devaftations in Meath. By the vi¬
gorous condudl of the Englilh .commander, however,
he was not only prevented from doing farther mifehief,
but at laft convinced of the folly of refiftance ; and Roderic
therefore determined to make a final fubmiflion. Yet,^1'™.1^
confcious of his dignity, he difdained to fubmit to a
fubjefl; and therefore, inllead of treating with Earl
Richard, he fent deputies direflly to the king. The
deputies were, Catholicus archbilhop of Tuam, the
abbot of St Brandan, and Mqfter Lawrence as he is
ftyled, chancellor to the king of Connaught. 28
The terms of this fubmiffion, by which Henry be- Terms of
came foie monarch of Ireland, were as follow7: Ro-R^lu^ni^
deric confented to do homage and pay tribute, as
liegeman to the king of England } on w’hich condi¬
tion he was allowed to hold the kingdom of Con¬
naught, as well as his other lands and fovereignties, in
as ample a manner as he had enjoyed them before the
arrival of Henry in Ireland. His vaffals were to hold
under him in peace, as long as they paid their tribute
and continued faithful to the king of England 5 in
which Roderic w7as to enforce their due obedience,
and for this purpofe to call to his aflillance the Eng-
lifti government, if neceflary. The annual tribute to
be paid was every 10th merchantable hide, as well
from Connaught as from the reft of the itland ; ex¬
cepting thofe parts under the immediate dominion of
the king of England and his barons, viz. Dublin and
Meath with their appurtenances, Wexford and all
Leinfter, and Waterford with its lands as far as Dun-
garvan inclufive 5 in all which diftridls Roderic was not
to interfere, nor claim any pow7er or authority,—
The Irifti who had tied from thefe diftridls were to re¬
turn, and either pay their tribute, or perform the fer¬
vices required by their tenures, at the option of their
immediate lords 5 and, if refra&ory, Roderic, at the
requifition of their lords, was to compel them to re¬
turn. He was to take hoftages from his vaffals, fuch
as he and his liege-lord ftiould think proper 5 and on
his part to deliver either thefe or others to the king,
according to the royal pleafure. His vaffals were to
.furnifti hawks and hounds annually to the Englilh mo¬
narch *, and wrere not to detain any tenant of his im¬
mediate demefnes in Ireland, contrary to his royal
pleafure and command. This treaty was folemnly ra¬
tified in a grand council of prelates and temporal
barons, among w7hom wre find the archbilhop of Dub¬
lin one of the fubferibing witneffes. As metropolitan
of Leinfter, he w7as now become an Englilh fubjefl,
and was probably fummoned on this occafion as one
obliged to attend, and who had a right to aflill in
the king’s great council. It is alfo obfervable, that
Henry now treated w7ith Roderic not merely as a pro¬
vincial prince., but as monarch of Ireland. This is
evidently implied and fuppofed in the articles 5 al¬
though his monarchical powers and privileges w7ere
little more than nominal, frequently difregarded and
oppofed by the Iriih toparchs. Even by their fub¬
miflions to Henry, many of them in effedff difavowed
and renounced the fovereignty of Roderic *, but now7
his fupremacy feems to be induftrioufly acknowledged,
that the prefent fubmiffion might appear virtually the
fubmiflion of all the fubordinate princes, and thus the
king
29
Caufes of
the fubfe-
quent.di-
itreffes of
Ireland.
IRE f 33
Ireland, king of England be inverted with the fovereignty of
I1‘" v the whole ifland. The marks of fovereignty, however,
were no more than homage and tribute ; in every other
particular the regal rights of Roderic were left invio¬
late. The Englirti laws w^re only to be enforced in
the Englirti pale : and, even there, the Irirti tenant
might live in peace, as the fubjeft of the Irilh mo¬
narch ; bound only to pay his quota of tribute, and not
to take arms againft the king of England.
But though the whole ifland of Ireland thus be¬
came fubjedt to the king of England, it was far from
being fettled in tranquillity, or indeed from having
the lituation of its inhabitants mended almoft in any
degree. One great occafion of dirturbance was, that
the Englirti laws were confined only to thofe parts
which had been fubdued by force of arms : while the
chieftains that had only fubmitted to pay tribute, were
allowed to retain the ancient Irirti laws within the
limits of their own jurifdiftions. By thefe old Irirti
laws, many crimes accounted capital wdth us, fuch as
robbery, murder, &c. might be compenfated by a fum
of money. Hence it happened, that very unequal
punirtiments wxre inflifted for the fame offence. If
one Englifhman killed another, he was punilhed with
death j but if he killed an Irifliman, he wTas punifhed
only by a fine. If an Irifhman, on the other hand,
killed an Englilhman, he was certainly punifhed with
death : and as in times of violence and outrage, the
crime of murder was very frequent, the circumftance
juft mentioned tended to produce an implacable hatred
between the original inhabitants and the Englirti. As
the Irirti laws w’ere thus more favourable to the bar-
oarity natural to the tempers of fome individuals, many
of the Englirti were alfo tempted to lay afide the man¬
ners and cuftoms of their countrymen altogether, and
to aflbciate themfelves with the Irirti, that, by becoming
fubjeft to their laws, they might thus have ^an oppor¬
tunity of gratifying their brutal inclinations with lefs
controul than formerly ; and in procefs of time, thefe
degenerate Engli/h, as they rvere called, proved more
bitter enemies to their countrymen than even the Irirti
themfelves.
Another caufe of the diftrefies of Ireland was, the
great power of the Englifli barons, among whom
Henry had divided the greateft part of his Irilh domi¬
nions. The extent of their authority only inflamed
them with a defire for more j and, inftead of contri¬
buting their endeavours to increafe the power of their
fovereign, or to civilize the barbarous people over
whom they were placed, they did every thing in their
power to counteraft and deftroy each other. Henry
himfelf, indeed, feems to have been infected with a
very fatal jealoufy in this refpect; for, though the
abilities and fidelity of Raymond had abundantly ma-
nifefted themfelves, the king never could allow himfelf
to continue him in the government of the illand : and
the confequence of degrading him never failed to be a
fcene of uproar and confufion. To thefe two reafons
wTe muft likewife add another: namely, that in thofe
parts of the kingdom where the Irifti chieftains en¬
joyed the fovereignty, they were at full liberty to
make war upon each other as formerly, without the
leaft reftraint. This likewife induced many of the
Englirti to degenerate, that they might have an op¬
portunity of fharing the plunder got by thefe petty
] IRE
wars; fo that, on the whole, the ifland was a perpetual Ireland1.
fcene of horror, almoft unequalled in the hiftory of any v—
country. „o
After the death of Earl Richard, Raymond was im- Fitz-An-
mediately ele&ed to fucceed him ■, but was fuperfeded dclin’s ba<*
by the king, who appointed William Fitz-Andelm, a
nobleman allied to Raymond, to fucceed in his place. ”
The new governor had neither inclination nor abilities
to perform the talk artigned to him. He was of a
rapacious temper, fenfual and corrupt in his manners ;
and therefore only ftudied to enrich himfelf. The
native Irirti, provoked by fome depredations of the
Englirti, commenced hoftilities : but Fitz-Andelm, in-
ftead of reprefling thefe with vigour in the beginning,
treated the chieftains with afte&ed courtefy and flat¬
tery. 'ihis they had fufticient difeernment to fee, and
to defpife ; while the original adventurers had the bur¬
den of the whole defence of the Englijh pale, as the
Englirti territories were called, thrown upon them, at
the lame time that the bad conduct of the governor w’as
the caufe of perpetual diforders. The conlequence of
this was, that the lords avowed their hatred of Fitz-
Andelm : the foldiers were mutinous, ill-appointed, and
unpaid : and the Irifti came in crowds to the governor
with perpetual complaints againft the old adventurers, .
which were always decided againft the latter j and this
decifion increafed their confidence, without lefiening
their difaffedrtion.
In this unfavourable ftate of affairs, John de Cour-
cey, a bold adventurer, who had as yet reaped none
of the benefits he expected, refolved to undertake an
expedition againft the natives, in order to enrich him¬
felf with their fpoils. The Irirti at that time were gi¬
ving no offence ; and therefore pleaded the treaty
lately concluded with King Henry : but treaties were
of little avail, when put in competition with the ne-
ceflities of an indigent and rapacious adventurer. The
confequence was, that the flame of war was kindled
through the whole ifland. The chieftains took ad¬
vantage of the war with the Englirti, to commence
hoftilities againft each other. Defmond and Tho-
mond, in the fouthern province, were diftracled by the
jealoufies of contending chiefs, and the whole land was
wafted by unnatural and bloody quarrels. Treachery
and murder were revenged by pradlices of the fame
kind, in fuch a manner as to perpetuate a fuccertion of
outrages the moft horrid and the molt difgraceful to
humanity. The northern province was a fcene of the
like enormities ; though the new Englifli fettlers, who
were confidered as a common enemy, ought to have
united the natives among themfelves. All were equally
ftrangers to the virtues of humanity j nor was religion,
in the form it then affumed, capable of reftrainmg thefe
violences in the leaft.
Ireland was thus in a fliort time reduced to fuch a He is fuperi
ftate, that Henry perceived the neceflity of recalling £jdedlf>r
Fitz-Andelm, and appointing another governor. HeLa^ey^
was recalled accordingly and Hugh de Lacey ap¬
pointed to fucceed him. He left his government with¬
out being regretted, and is faid by the hiftorians of
thofe times to have done only one good a&ion during
the whole courfe of his adminiftration. This aftion
was nothing more important, than the removing of a
relick, called the Jlaff of Jefus, from the cathedral of
Armagh to that of Dublin j probably that it might
T t 2 ' b$
IRE [ 332 ] IRE
the war raged violently in this horrid violation of decorum by thrufling away the Ire'aivb
of Is eland.
Ireland, be in greater fafety, as
'  — Ulfter. De Lacey, however, was a man of a quite
3* different difpofition, and every way qualified for the
Prince John difficult government with which he was invefted : but
made lord at fame time, the king, by invefting his fon John
with the lordlhip of Ireland, gave occafion to greater
dilturbances than even thole which had already hap¬
pened. The nature of this lordffiip hath been much
difputed ; but the moft probable opinion is, that the
king’s fon was now to be invelled with all the rights
and powers which had formerly belonged to Roderic,
who was allowed the title of king of Ireland. It doth
not appear, indeed, that Henry had any right to de¬
prive Roderic of thele powTers, and ftill lefs had he to
difpofe of any of the territories of thofe chieftains wffio
had agreed to become .his tributaries ; which neverthe-
lefs he certainly did, and which failed not to be pro¬
ductive of an immediate wrar with thefe chiefs.
The new governor entered on his office with all that
fpirit and vigour which was neceffary •, but being mif-
reprefented to the king by fome factious barons, he
was in a ihort time recalled, and two others, totally
unfit for the government, appointed in his room. This
error was foon corrected, and Lacey was replaced in
three months. The fame jealoufy which produced his
firft degradation, foon produced a fecond ; and Philip
de Braoia, or Philip of Worcejler as he is called, a
man of a moft avaricious difpofition, was appointed to
fucceed him. This governor behaved in fuch a man¬
ner, that his fuperftitious fubjeCls expefted every mo¬
ment that the vengeance of heaven would fall upon
him, and deliver them from his tyranny. His power,
how
/ever, was o
f fnort duration •, for now Prince John
.33
His ir.du-
prepared to exercife the authority with which his father
had invefled him in Ireland. He was attended by a
confiderable military force : his train was formed of a
company of gallant Normans in the pride of youth; but
luxurious, infolent, and followed by a number of Ln-
gliflimen, ftrangers to the country they w'ere to vilit,
defperate in their fortunes, accuftomed to a life of pro¬
fligacy, and filled with great expectations of advantage
from their prefent fervice. The whole affembly em¬
barked in a fleet of 6o ffiips ; and arrived at Water¬
ford after a profperous voyage, filling the whole coun¬
try with the greateft furprife and expectation.
The young prince had not yet arrived at the years
of difcretion; nor indeed, from his fubfequent con¬
duct, doth it appear that his difpofition was fuch as
qualified him in the leaft for the high dignity to which
he was raifed. The hardy Welffimen who firft mi¬
grated into Ireland, immediately waited upon him to
do him homage; but they were difagreeable to the
gay courtiers, and to the prince himfelf, who minded
nothing but his pleafures. The Irilh lords were at
firft terrified by the magnificent reprefentation of the
force of the Englilh army ; and being reconciled to
fubmiffion by the dignity of the prince’s ftation, ha-
ftened in crowds to Waterford to do him homage.
They exhibited a fpe&acle to the Norman courtiers,,
which the latter did not fail to treat with contempt
and ridicule. The Irilh lords, with uncouth attire,
thick bulky beards, and hair Handing on end, advan¬
ced wfith very little ceremony ; and, according to their
own notions of refpeft, offered to kifs the young
prince. His attendants ftepped in, and prevented
Iriihmen. The whole affembly burft into peals of
laughter, pulled the beards, and committed feveral
other indignities on the perfons of their guefts ; which
were immediately and fev^rely refented. The chief¬
tains left the court, boiling with indignation ; and
meeting others of their countrymen battening to do
homage to the prince, they informed them of the re- 34
ception they themfelves had met wfith. A league was 3. general
inftantly formed to extirpate the Englilh, and therevolt*
whole nation flew to arms ; while John and his cour¬
tiers, inftead of oppoftng the enemy, employed them¬
felves in haraffing and oppreffing thofe who were under
their immediate jurifdiftion. The country was there¬
fore overrun by the barbarians, agriculture entirely
neglefted, and a dreadful famine threatened to follow
the calamities of war.
This terrible devaftation bad continued for eight
months before the king was fully acquainted with it.
He then determined to recal his fon ; but was at a lofs
whom he fliould name for his lucceffor. Lacey had
been murdered by an Irilh peafant, and the king was
at laft obliged to have reccurfe to John de Courcey,
whofe boifterous valour feemed now to be abloluteiy
neceffary to prevent the Englilh from being totally ex-
terminated. The new governor was obliged at firft to Suppreffed
a<!ft on the defenftve ; but as the enemies foon forgotbv Jnhn de
the league, and began their uffial hoftilities againftCourceJ’’
each other, he was at laft enabled to maintain the
authority of the Engliffi government, and to fupport
their acquifttions in Ireland, though not to extend
them. 36
In this fituation were the affairs of Ireland when Mifcrable
Henry II. died, and was fucceeded by his fon Rich-
ard I. The new king was determined on an expedition ^haid I.
to the holy land, which left him no leifure to attend to
the affairs of Ireland. John, by virtue of the powers
granted him by his father, took upon him the manage¬
ment of Irilh aflairs ; and immediately degraded De
Courcey from his government, appointing in his place
Hugh de Lacey the younger. De Courcey, provoked
at this indignity, retired into Ulfter, where he was
immediately engaged in a furious war with the natives,
and at laft almoft entirely detached himfelf from the
Engliffi government. The greateft confufion enfued :
Hugh de Lacey was recalled from bis government, and
William Petit earl marihal of England appointed in his
place. Petit’s adminiftration proved more unfortu¬
nate than that of any of his predeceffors. Confede¬
racies everywhere took place againft the Englifti ; the
latter were everywhere defeated, their towns taken ;
and their power would certainly have been annihilated,
had not the Irilh, as ufual, turned their arms againft
each other.
In this defperate fituation matters continued during
the whole reign of King Richard, and part of the reign
of John, while the diftreffes of the country were in-
creafed by the diffenfions and difaffection of the Eng¬
liffi lords, who afpired at independency, and made war ^ 1
upon each other like Irith chieftains. The prudent Somewhat
conduct of a governor named Mei/er Fitx-Hennj, how better un-
ever, at laft put an end to thefe terrible commotions p^er John,
and about the year 1208, the kingdom was more
quiet than it had been for a long time before. In
John came over to Ireland in perfon with an
army,
1210,
IRE
Ireland, army, witli a defign, as be faid, to reduce bis
tory nobles to a fenfe of tbeir duty. More than 20
Irifh chiefs waited upon bim immediately to do him
homage while three of the Englifti barons, Hugh and
Walter de Lacey and William de Braofa, fled to France.
The king, at the defire of his Irifli fubjefts, granted
them, for their information, a regular code and char¬
ter of laws, to be depoflted in the exchequer of Dub¬
lin, under the king’s feal. For the regular and effec¬
tual execution of thefe laws, befades the eftablifliment
of the king’s courts of judicature in Dublin, there was
now made a new and more ample divifion of the king^
lands of Ireland into counties, where fheriffs, and
many other officers, were appointed. Thefe counties
were, Dublin, Meath, Kildare, Argial, now called
Lowth, Katherlagh, Kilkenny, Wexford, Waterford,
Cork, Kerry, Limeric, Tipperary *, which marks the
extent of the Englifh dominions at this time as confined
to a part of Leinifer and Munfler, and to thofe parts
of Meath and Argial which lie in the province of Ul-
fler as now defined. Before his departure, the king
gave liberty to John de Grey, bifhop of Norwich,
whom be appointed governor, to coin money of the
fame weight with that of England; and which, by roy¬
al proclamation, was made current in England as well
as Ireland.
This ecclefiaftical governor is faid to have managed
affairs fo happily, that during the violent contefts be¬
tween John and his barons, Ireland enjoyed an unufual
degree of tranquillity. We are not to imagine, however,
that tins unhappy country was at this or indeed any
other period, till the end of Queen Elizabeth’s reign,
perfeclly free from d'forders, only they were confined
to thofe didridls moil remote from the Engliih govern¬
ment. In 1219. the commotions were renewed, through
immeafurable ambition and contentions of the
Ireland.
3s
Relapfes
into in for-
nnr r Hen Englifh barons, who defpifed all controul, and op-
jy1 III. '" preffed the jnhabitants in a terrible manner. The
diforders in England during the reign of Henry III.
encouraged them to defpife the royal authority ; they
were ever the fecret enemies, and fometimes the avowed
adverfaries, of each other *, and in many places where
they had obtained fettlements, the natives were firff
driven into infurre&ions by their cruelty, and then pu-
niflied with double cruelty for their refillance. The
Englifh laws, which tended to punifh the authors of
thefe outrages, were fcorned by an imperious arifto-
cratic faction, who, in the frenzy of rapine and
ambition, trampled on the molt falutary inftitutions.
In 1228, a remonftrance was prefented to the king
againft this dangerous negleft and fufpenfion of the
laws 5 which he anfwered by a mandate to the chief
governor, direfling that the whole body of nobility,
knights, free tenants, and bailiffs of the feveral coun¬
ties, fhould be convened •, that the charter of Englifh
laws and cufloms received from King John, and to
which they were bound by oath, fhould be read over in
their prefence; that they fhould be direfled for the
future ftriflly to obferve and adhere to thefe ; and that
proclamation fhould be made in every county of Ire¬
land, flriflly enjoining obedience, on pain of forfeiture
of lands and tenements. How little effefl was produ¬
ced by this order, we may learn from another, dated in
1,246; where the barons are corpmanded, for the peace
[ 333 1 1 R E'.
refrac- and tranquillity of the land, to per mil it to be governed
by the laws of England. ^ '
Nothing indeed can be conceived more terrible than £xce}pve
the flate of Ireland during the reign of Henry III.depravation
People -of all ranks appear to have been funk in the of manners,
lowed degree of depravity. The powerful Englifh
lords not only fubverted the peace and fecurity of the
people, by refufing to admit the falutary laws of their
own country,, but behaved with the utmofi: injuftice
and violence to the natives wdro did not enjoy the be¬
nefits of the Englifh conftitution. The clergy appear
to have been equally abandoned with the refi : nor in¬
deed could it be otherwife ; for through the partiali¬
ties of Henry himfelf, the neglefted, the worthlefs, and
the depreffed among the Englifh clergy, found refuge
in the church of Ireland. What were the manners of
thefe clergy, will appear from the following petition of
a widow to King Edward I.
“ Margaret le Blunde, of Cafhel, petitions our lord
the king’s grace, that (he may have her inheritance
which fire recovered at Clonmell before the king’s
judges, &c. againft David Macmackerwayt bifhop of
Cafhel.
“ Item, the faid Margaret petitions redrefs on ac¬
count that her father was killed by the faid bifhop.
“ Item, for the imprifonment of her grandfather
and mother, whom he fhut up and detained in pri-
fon until they perifhed by famine, becaufe they at¬
tempted to feek redrefs for the death of their fon, fa¬
ther of your petitioner, who had been killed by the faid
bifhop.
“ Item, for the death of her fix brothers and fifters,,
who were ftarved to death by the faid bifhop, becaufe
he had their inheritance in his hands at the time he
killed their father.
“ And it is to be noted, that the faid bifhop had
built an abbey in the city of Cafhel, on the king’s
lands granted for this purpofe, which he hath filled
with robbers, who murder the Englifh, and depopu¬
late the country ; and that when the council of our
lord the king attempts to take cognizance of the of¬
fence, he fulminates the fentence of excommunication
againft them.
“ It is to be noted alfo, that the faid Margaret has
five times crofted the Irifh fea. Wherefore, fhe peti¬
tions for God’s fake, that the king’s grace will have
compaffion, and that fhe may be admitted to take pof-
feflion of her inheritance.
“ It is further to be noted, that the aforefaid bifhop
hath been guilty of the death of many other Englifh.
men befides that of her father ; and that the aforefaid
Margaret hath many times obtained writs of our lord
the king, but to no eflfe£l, by reafon of the influence
and bribery of the faid bifhop.
“ She further petitions, for God’s fake, that (lie may
have coils and damages, &c.”
Matters continued in the fame deplorable ftate du-Little alte»
ring the reign of Edward I. with this additional grie-ration un.
vance, that the kingdom was infefted by invaficns oF*61
the Scots. The Engliih monarch indeed poflefled aliwa!c*
that prudence and valour which were neceffary to have
reduced the ifland to a ftate of tranquillity ; but his
projeft of conquering Scotland left him but little leifure.
to attend to the diftracled ftate of Ireland. Certain it
1 R E
[ 334 ]
I R E
Ireland, is, however, that the grievous diftrefs of that country
v' gave him great uneafinefs ; fo that he tranfmitted his
mandate to the prelates of Ireland, requiring them to
interpofe their fpiritual authority for compofing the
public diforders. About the fame time, the Irilh who
lay contiguous to the Englilh, and who dwelt among
them, prefented a petition to the king, offering to
pay him 8000 merks, upon condition that they were
admitted to the privileges of Englilh fubjedts. To
this petition he returned a favourable anfwer ; but his
good intentions were defeated by the licentious nobi¬
lity, who knew that thefe laws w’ould have circum-
Icribed their rapacious views, and controuled their
violence and oppreflion. Petitions of the fame kind
were feveral times repeated during this reign, but as
often defeated } though fome means were ufed for
the peace of the kingdom, fuch as the frequent call¬
ing of parliaments, appointing Iheriffs in fome new
counties, &c.
Thefe means were not altogether without effe£I.
They ferved to give fome check to the diforders of
the realm, though by no means to terminate or fubdue
them. The incurlions of the natives wTere repreffed,
and the Englilh lords began to live on better terms
with each other; and, in 1311, under Edward II.
the moll powerful of them were reconciled by the mar¬
riage of Maurice and Thomas Fitz-John, afterwards
the heads of the illudrious houfes of Defmond and Kil¬
dare, to two daughters of the earl of Uliler. But juft
at this happy period, wrhen the nation feemed to
have fome profpefl of tranquillity, more dreadful ca-
larcities than any hitherto related were about to take
fnvafionof place. The Scots had juft recovered their liberty un-
the Scots jer Rcbert Bruce, and w7ere now in no danger of being
rei^rfof again enflaved by a foreign powrer. Edward, the
Edward II. king’s brother, as a recompenfe for his fervices, de¬
manded a lhare of the royal authority. This was refu-
fed by Robert, and Edward wfas for the prefent fatisfied
by being declared heir apparent to the crown. But
the king, wifely confidering the neceflity of finding
out fome employment for a youth of fuch an afpiring
and ambitious difpofition, pointed out to his brother
the illand of Ireland, the conqueft of which wmuld be
eafy, on account of the diftra£led ftate in which it al-
moft always was, and which wr0uld make him an inde¬
pendent fovereign. This propofal was eagerly em¬
braced by Edward, and every thing neceffary for the
expedition immediately got ready. On the 25th of
May 1315, he landed on the north-eaftern coaft of
Ireland with 6000 men, to affert his claim to the fo-
vereignty of this kingdom. The Irilh lords of Ulfter,
who had invited and encouraged him to this enter-
prize, were now prepared to receive their new monarch,
flocked with eagernefs to his ftandard, and prepared
to wreak their vengeance on the common enemy.
Their progrefs was marked by defolation and carnage.
The Englilh fettlers were llaughtered, or driven from
their pofleflions, their caftles levelled with the ground,
and their towns fet on fire. The Englilh lords were
neither prepared to refill the invafion, nor fufficiently
united among themfelves. The confequence wTas, that
the enemy for fome time met with no interruption. An
intolerable fcarcity of provifions, however, prevented
Bruce from purfuing his advantages ; and though his
brother landed in Ireland with a powerful army, the
3
famine prevented him from being of any eflential fcr- Ireland*
vice. The forces which he left behind him, how-ever," v””1
proved of confiderable advantage ; and by means of this
reinforcement, he was enabled to take the city of Car-
rickfergus.
The terrible devaftations committed by Bruce and
his affociates, now7 induced fome Englilh lords to enter
into an affociation to defend their poffeflions, and repel
thefe invaders. For this purpofe, they raifed a confi¬
derable body of forces ; which coming to an engage¬
ment with Fediim prince of Connaught, one of Bruce’s
principal allies, entirely defeated and killed him with
8000 of his men. This defeat, however, had very
little efledl on the operations of Bruce himfelf. He
ravaged the country to the walls of Dublin, traverfe
the diftri£l of Offory, and penetrated into Munfter,
deftroying every thing with fire and fwqrd. The
Englilh continued to augment their army, till at laft
it amounted to 30,000 men; and then Bruce, no longer
able to oppofe luch a force, found it neceffary to retire
into the province of Ulfter. His retreat was effedled
with great difficulty ; and during the time of his in-
aftivity, the diftreffes of his army increafed to fuch a
degree, that they are faid to have fed upon the bodies
of their dead companions. At laft an end was pyt
to the fufferings and the life of this adventurer in
the battle of Dundalk, in 1318, where he was defeated They are
and killed by the Englilh under Sir Robert Binning-totaky de¬
ham. A brave Englilh knight, named Maupas, had^eate^*
rulhed forward to encounter Bruce himfelf, and both
antagonifts had killed each other ; the body of Mau¬
pas being found, after the battle, ftretched upon that
of Bruce. The king of Scotland had been advancing
with powerful fuccours to his brother : but Edward,
confident of viclory, refufed to wait his arrival ; and
Robert, on hearing of his brother’s death, inftantly
retired.
The defeat of the Scottilh invaders did not put an
end to the difturbances of this unhappy country. The
contentions of the Englilh with one another, of the
Irilh with the Engliih, and among themfelves, Hill
kept the illand in a ftate of the utmoft barbarity and
confufion. An attempt was made indeed, in the reign
of Edward II. to eftablilh an univerfity in Dublin ;
but for w7ant of proper encouragement the inftitution
for fome time languilhed, and then expired amidft
the confufion and anarchy of the country. The reign
of Edwrard HI. proved not much more favourable than ^
preceding times ha^ been. He was too much taken !VTiferie»«f
up writh the idea of conquering France, to pay muchtlie
regard to the interefts of Ireland. The
people, indeed, fenfibie of their own miferies, peti¬
tioned the king to admit all his fubje6ls in Ireland to
a participation of the Englifli laws ; but the petition
being delivered as ufual to the chief governor, and
laid before the parliaipent, it was either clandeftinely
defeated or openly rejedled. A new fcene of tumult
and bloodIhed immediately enfued ; which at laft pro¬
duced an order from the king, prohibiting all Irilh-
men, or Englilhmen married and having eftates in
Ireland, from bearing any public office whatever.—
This, inftead of having a tendency to promote peace,
made the diforder much greater than before ; and at
laft produced a remonftrance from the ftates met at
Kilkenny, in which they grievoufly complain not only
of
I R E
[ 335 ]
I R E
Ireland, of the diforclers of the kingdom, but alfo of the con-
4“—1 duft of the king himfelf in the edi£t above-mentioned :
and to this remonllrance the king thought proper to
give a gracious and condefcending anfwer, in order to
procure from Ireland the fuccours he wanted in his
expedition againft France.
It is not to be fuppofed, that mere promifes, unaf-
lilled by any vigorous exertion, could make the leaf!
alteration in the Hate of a kingdom involved in fo
much nailery. The diforders, however, at lafl: became
infuppOrtable to the inhabitants themfelves ; and a
parliament was fumraoned in 1368, the refult of which
was the famous ilatute of Kilkenny. The preamble
to this aft recites, that the Engliih had become mere
Irifli in their language, names, apparel, and manner
of living j had rejefted the Englifh laws, and fubmitted
to thole of the Irilh, with whom they had united by
44 marriage-alliance, to the ruin of the commonwealth.
Statute of —jt was therefore enafted, that marriage, nurture of
Kilkenny. jnfantSj gz_c< vvith the Irilh, Ihould be confidered and
punilhed as high treafon.—Again, if any man of
Englilh race {hall ufe an Irilh name, the Irilh lan¬
guage, or the Irilh apparel, or any mode or cultom of
the Irilh, the aft provides, that he lhall forfeit lands
and tenements, until he hath given fecurity in the
court of chancery to conform in every particular to the
Englifh manners •, or if he have no lands, that he lhall
be imprifoned till the like fecurity be given. The
Brehon law was pronounced to be a pernicious cuftom
and innovation lately introduced among the Englilh
fubjefts; and it was therefore ordained, that in all
their controverlies they Ihould be governed by the
common law of England 5 and that whoever Ihould
fubmit to the Irilh jurifdiftion Ihould be adjudged
guilty of high treafon. As the Englilh had been ac-
cultomed to make war or peace with the bordering
Irilh at pleafure, they were now exprefsly prohibited
from levying war without fpecial warrant from the
Hate.—It was alfo made highly penal for the Eng¬
lilh to permit their Irilh neighbours to graze their
lands, to prefent them to eccleliallical benefices, or to
receive them into monalleries or religious houfes j to
entertain their bards, who perverted their imagina¬
tions by romantic tales j or their news-tellers, who
feduced them by falfe reports,—It was made felony to
impofe or cefs any forces upon the Englilh fubjeft
againlt his will. And as the royal liberties and fran-
chifes were become fanftuaries for malefaftors, ex-
prefs power was given to the king’s (heriffs to enter
into all franchifes, and there to apprehend felons and
traitors.—Lallly, becaufe the great lords, when they
levied forces for the public fervice, afted with partia¬
lity, and laid unequal burdens upon the fubjefts, it was
ordained that four wardens of the peace in every coun¬
ty ihould adjudge what men and armour every lord or
tenant Ihould provide.—The Ilatute was promulged
with particular folemnity ; and the fpiritual lords, the
better to enforce obedience, denounced an excommu¬
nication on thofe who (hould prefume to violate it in
any inflancei
This ilatute, it is evident, could not tend to pro¬
mote the peace of the kingdom. This could only have
been done by removing the animofity between the native
Irilh and Englilh ; but fo far was the Ilatute of Kil¬
kenny from having any tendency of this kind, that it
manifellly tended to increafe the hatred between them. Ireland.
During the whole of this reign, therefore, the Hate 1 'v~~
of the Irifli government continued to be greatly dilor-
dered Aid embroiled. The Englilh intereft gradually
declined ; and the conneftions of the king’s fubjefts
with the original inhabitants, occafioned by their vici¬
nity and neceflary intercourfe, in defpite of all legal
injunftions, obliged the king to relax the feverity of
the ftatutes of Kilkenny, in cafes where they proved
imprafticable, or oppreflive in the execution. The
perpetual hoilility, however, in which the different
parties lived, proved an effeftual bar to the introduc¬
tion of thofe arts wdiich contribute to the comfort and
refinement of mankind. Even foreign merchants could
not venture into fuch a dangerous country without par¬
ticular letters of proteftion from the throne. The
perpetual fucceflion of new adventurers from England,
led by interefl: or neceflity, ferved only to inflame dif-
fenfion, inftead of introducing any effential improve¬
ment. Lawyers fent from England were notorioufly
infufficient, if not corrupt j and, as fuch, had frequent¬
ly been the objefts of complaint. The clergy were a
mean grovelling race, totally influenced by the crown.
Even prelates wTere commonly made the inferior agents
of government in collefting forces, and raifing war
againft the Irilh enemy ; but were not to be enticed
into this fervice, except by remittances from the ex¬
chequer. Attendance in parliament they dreaded as
the greateft hardfliip ; and either recurred to mean
excufes to avert the penalty of abfence, or fued to the
king to be exempted by patent from contributing or
affenting to thofe law's by which they were to be go¬
verned. 45
In this deplorable lituation the kingdom continued Povver of
till the time of Henry VII. who laid the foundation the.Engllfil
of the future civilization of the Irifli, as he alfo did of^e^rienry"
the Englifli nation. This he effefted byenafting fomeVII.
falutary laws, and appointing faithful and aftive go¬
vernors to fee them put in execution. Of thefe go¬
vernors Sir Edw'ard Poyning contributed more than
any other to the tranquillity of the Hate. During his
adminiftration was enafted the lawr known by the name
of Por/nwg's Law, and which hath fince been the fub- 46
jeft of much political debate. The purport of it was, p°yning’s
That no parliament fliould be held in that ifland withla'v'
out firfi: giving notice to the king of England, and ac¬
quainting him with the afts to be palled in that par¬
liament : neither fliould any aft palled, or any parlia¬
ment held, without the approbation of the king and
council, be deemed valid. Thus was the power of the
turbulent barons greatly broken 5 and the governor,
not having it in his power to affemble parliaments
when he pleafed, became a petfon of much lefs con-
fequence. The whole Irilh legiflation alfo became de¬
pendent on that of England, and hath ever fince conti¬
nued to be fo.
From this time ive may date the revival of the Eng¬
lilh power in Ireland ; which from the Scottilh war in
the time of Edward II. had gradually declined into
a miferable and precarious ftate of w'eaknefs. The au¬
thority of the crown, whjch had at laft been defied,
infulted, and rejefted, even in the Englifli territory,
was reflored and confirmed, and the rebellious vigo-
roufly oppofed and fuppreffed. The feignory of the
Britilh crown over the whole body of the Irilh, which
1 R E [33
Ireland, in former reigns feemed to have been totally forgotten,
v was now formally claimed and aflerted, and fome of the
moll ferocious chieftains by their marriage-connections
became the avowed friends of the Englilh powrer. An
ignominious tribute, called the B/ack Rent, was indeed
ilill paid to fome chieftains; but their hoftilities were
oppoled and chadded, and even in their own diftriCts
they were made to feel the fuperiority of Englifh go¬
vernment.
During the reign of Henry VIII. the Irilh affairs
were negleCted j and the diforders, which had only
been checked, and never thoroughly eradicated, re¬
turned as ufual. They were further promoted by the
innovations in religion which the king introduced, and
which were exceedingly difagreeable both to Englifh
and Irifli. The Reformation, however, continued to
make fome progrefs, though flowly, during the reign
of Edward VI. and even in the reign of Queen Mary j
for as the perfecution did not reach thither, many Pro-
teftants ded to Ireland in order to avoid the queen’s
cruelty. The machinations of the Spaniards againft
Queen Elizabeth excited the Irifh to frelh infurrec-
tions. The king of Spain, indeed, not only encou-
of Queen raged the natives in thofe infurreClions, but aCfually
Elizabeth, fent over troops to aflift them in driving out the
Englifh altogether. This they had well nigh effededj
but the Spaniards, upon feeing an army of Irifh de¬
feated by an handful of their enemies, were fo much
provoked that they furrendered all the places they had
made themfelves matters of, and even offered to affift
the Englifh in reducing the rebels 5 though it was not
thought proper to accept of their affittance. The
confequence of this was, that the Irifh, abandoned
by thefe allies, were unable to carry on the war; and
the grand rebel O’Neal of Tirowen, or Tirone, after
much treachery, evafion, and many pretended fubmif-
fions, was at laft obliged to fubmit in good earneft. He
fell upon his knees before the deputy, and petitioned
for mercy with an air and afpe6f of diftrefs. He fub-
fcribed his fubmiflion in the moft ample manner and
form. He implored the queen’s gracious commifera-
tiun ; and humbly fued to be reftored to his dignity,
and the ftate of a fubjeft, which he had juftly forfeit¬
ed. He utterly renounced the name of O^Neal, which
he had affumed on account of the great veneration in
which it was held among the Irifh. He abjured all
foreign power, and all dependency except on the
crown of England ; refigned all claim to any lands ex¬
cepting fuch as fhould be conferred upon him by let¬
ters patent , promifing at the fame time to aflilt the
ilate in abolifliing all barbarous cuftoms and eftablilhing
law and civility among his people. The lord deputy,
on the part of the queen, promifed a full pardon to
him and all his followers j to himfelf the reftoration
of his blood and honours, with a new patent for his
lands, except fome portions referved for certain chief¬
tains received into favour, and fome for the ule of
Englilh garrifons.
No infurgent now remained in this kingdom who
had not obtained or fued for mercy. Many, indeed,
were driven by neceflity to the continent, and earned
a fubfittence by ferving in the armies of Spain; and
ihjus a race of Irifh exiles was trained to arms, filled
■wh.hn malignant reientment againfl the Englilh. Thus
the honour of reducing all the enemies of the crown gf
1
47
All the
diforders
ended in
6 ] IRE
England in this ifland, after a continued conteft for Ireland.
440 years, was referved for the arms of Elizabeth. The '   J
ghaftlinefs of famine and defolation was now fomewhat 4S
enlivened by the rettoration of tranquillity. Indeed,Exorhltant
from the moft authentic accounts, the prices of pro-price.tot
vilions wrere fo high, that confidering the value of’^that™
money at that time, it is furpriling how the inhabi-time.
tants could fubfift. From an account of the rates of
provifions taken by the mayor of Dublin in 1602, it
appears, That wheat had rifen from 36s. to 9I. the
quarter j barley-malt from 10s. to 43s. the barrel;
oat-malt from 5s. to 22s. the barrel; peafe from
5s. to 40s. the peck ; oats from 3s. 4b. to 20s. the
barrel; beef from 26s. 8d. to 8i. the carcafe ; mut¬
ton from 3s. to 26s. the carcafe ; veal from ros. to
29s. the carcale ; a lamb from 12d. to 6s.; a pork
from 8 s. to 20s. 49
Under James I. Ireland began to aflume a quite dif-Th''
ferent appearance. That monarch valued himielf upon^
promoting the arts of peace, and made it his ftudy to^ameS
civilize his barbarous Irilh fubje&s. By repeated con-
fpiracies and rebellions, a vaft tradl of land had efchea-
ted to the crown in fix northern counties, Tyrconnel,
now called Donnega/, Tyrone, Derry, Fermanagh, Ca¬
van, and Armagh, amounting to about 500,000 acres;
a trad of country covered with woods, where rebels
and banditti found a fecure refuge, and which was de-
ftined to lie watte without the timely interpofition of
government. James refolved to difpofe of thefe lands
in fuch a manner as might introduce all the happy con-
fequences of peace and cultivation. He caufed furveys
to be taken of the feveral counties where the new fet-
tlements were to be ettablilhed ; defcribed particularly
the ftate of each ; pointed out the fituations proper for
the eredion of towns and cattles; delineated the cha- ^
raders of the Irifh chieftans, the manner in which
they fhould be treated, the temper and circumftances
of the old inhabitants, the rights of the new purcha-
fers, and the claims of both ; together with the impedi¬
ments to former plantations, and the methods of remo¬
ving them.
At his inftance it was refolved, that the perfons to
whom lands were afligned fhould be either new under¬
takers from Great Britain, efpecially from Scotland, or
fervitors, as they were called ; that is, men who had
for fome time ferved in Ireland, either in civil or mili¬
tary offices ; or old Irifh chieftains or captains. A-
mong the laft were included even thofe Irifh who had
engaged in the rebellion of Tirone, and ftill harboured
their fecret difcontents. To gain them, if poffible, by
favour and lenity, they were treated with particular in¬
dulgence. Their under-tenants and fervants were al¬
lowed to be of their own religion ; and, while all the
other planters were obliged to take the oath of allegi¬
ance, they were tacitly excepted. The fervitors were
allowed to take their tenants either from Ireland or
Britain, provided no Popifh recufants were admitted.
The Britifh undertakers were confined to their own
countrymen.
In the plantations which had been formerly attempt¬
ed, the Irilh and Englilh had been mixed together,
from a fond imagination that the one would have learn¬
ed civility and incjuflry from the other. But expe¬
rience had now difcovered, that this intercourfe ferved
oply to make the Irilh envy the fupeiior comforts of
their
THE [ 3
'rrfand. tLeir Englitfh neighbours, and to take the advantage
—of a free accefs to their houfes to deal their goods and
plot againlt their lives. It was therefore deemed ne-
ceffary to plant them in feparate quarters j and in the
choice of thefe fiiuations, the errors of former times
were carefully correfted. The original Englilh adven¬
turers, on their lirft fettlement in Ireland, were capti¬
vated by the fair appearance of the plain and open
diftridts. Here they eredled their caftles and habita¬
tions •, and forced the old natives into the woods and
mountains, their natural fortreiTes. There they kept
themfelves unknown, living by the milk of their kine,
without hufbandry or tillage *, there they increafed to
incredible numbers by promifcuous generation ; and
there they held their aifemblies, and formed their
confpiracies without difcovery. But now the northern
Irilh were placed in the moll open and accedible parts
of the country, where they might lie under the clofe
infpedtion of their neighbours, and be gradually habi¬
tuated to agriculture and the mechanic arts. To the
-Britilh adventurers were affigned places of the greateft
ilrength and command ; to the fervitors, Rations of
the greatefl danger, and greateft advantage to the
crown : but as this appeared a peculiar hardlhip, they
were allowed guards and entertainment, until the coun¬
try Ihould be quietly and completely planted.
The experience ef ages had Ihown the inconvenience
of enormous grants to particular lords, attended with
fuch privileges as obftrufted the adminiftration of civil
government : and even in the late reign, favourite un¬
dertakers had been gratified with fuch portions of land
as they were by no means able to plant. But, by the
prefent febeme, the lands to be planted were divided
in three different proportions j the greateft: to confift
of 2000 Engliih acres, the lead of 1000, and the
middle of 1500. One half of the efeheated lands in
each county was aftigned to the fmalleit, the other
moiety divided between the other proportions; and the
general diftributions being thus afeertained, to pre¬
vent all difputes between the undertakers, their ^ fettle-
ments in the refpeflive diftrifts were to be determined
by lot. Eftates were affigned to all, to be held of
them and their heirs. The undertakers of 2000 acres
were to hold of the king in capite ; thofe of 1500, by
knights fervice \ thofe of 1000, in common foccage.
The firft were to build a cattle, and inclofe a itrong
court-yard or lawn as it was called, within four
years; the fecond, to finith an houfe and bawn within
two years j and the third, to inclofe a bawn ; for even
this rude fpecies of fortification was accounted no in-
confiderable defence againft an Irifh enemy. The firft
were to plant upon their lands, within three years, 48
able men of Englilb or Scott iih birth, to be reduced to
20 families 4 to keep a demefne of 60c acres in their
own bands *, to have four fee farmers on 120 acres
each*, fix leafe-holders, each on 100 acres, and on
the reft, eight families of hulbandmen, artificers, and
cottagers. The others were under the like obligations
proportioneddy. All were, for five years aftei the date
of their patents, to refide upon their lands eitbe* in
peribn, or by fuch -agents as ffiould be approved by
the ft ate, and to keep a 'ufficient quantity of arms for
their defence. The Britiih an i fervitors weri not to
alienate their lands to mere Irilb, or to demife any
portions oi them to fiich perfohs as fliould reiufe to
You XL Part I.
57
] , IKE
take the oaths to government J they Were to let tlv m at Ireland,
determined rents, and for no thorter term that 21 years v—
or three lives. The houfes of their tenants wete to be
built after the Englifli fafhion, and united together in
towns or villages. They bad power to eredl manors,
to hold courts-baron, and to create tenures. The old
natives, whofe tenures were granted in fee-fimple, to
be held in foccage, were allowed the like privileges.
They were enjoined to let their lands at certain rents,
and for the like terms as the other undertakers ; to
take no Ivilh exadkons from their inferior tenants, and
to oblige them to forfake their old Scythian cuftom of
wandering with their cattle from place to place for pa-
ftuie, or creaghting as they called it; to dwell in
towns, and conform to the Englifh manner of tillage
and hulbandry. An annual rent from all the lauds’
was relerved to the crown for every 60 Engliih acres*
fix (hillings and eight pence from the undertakers, ten
{hillings from fervitors, and 13 {hillings and four pence
from Iriih natives. But for two years they were ex¬
empt from fuch payments, except the natives, who
were not fubjedl to the charge of tranfportation. What
gave particular credit to this undertaking, was the
capital part which the city of London was perfua-
ded to take in it. The corporation accepted of large
grants in the county of Derry ; they engaged to ex¬
pend L. 20,000 on the plantation, to build the cities
of Derry and Colerain, and ftipulated for fuc'n privi¬
leges as might make their fettlements convenient and
refpeilahle. As a competent force was necefiary to
protect this infant plantation, the king, to fupport
the charge, inftituted the order of baronets, an here¬
ditary dignity, to be conferred on a number not
exceeding 200 ; each of whom, on paffing his patent,
was to pay into the exchequer fuch a fum as would
maintain 30 men in Ulfter, for three years, at 8d. daily
pay.
But fcarcely had the lands been allotted to the dif¬
ferent patentees, when confiderable portions were re¬
claimed by the clergy as their rightful property. And
fo far had the eftates of the northern biffioprics been
embarrajTed, both by the usurpations of the Iriih lords,
and the claims of patentees, that they fcarcely afford¬
ed a competent, much lefs an honourable, provifion for
men of worth and learning, while the flate of the pa¬
rochial clergy was ftill more deplora hie. Moft of the
northern churches had been either deftroyed in the late
wars or had fallen to ruin: the benefices were fmall, and
either fhamefully kept by the biffiops in the way of
commendam or fequeftration •, or filled with minifters
as fcandalous as their income. The wretched flock
was totally abandoned •* and for many years divine
fervice had not been ufed in any parilh-church of Ul¬
fter, except in cities and great towns. To remedy
thefe abufes, and to make fome proper provilion for
the inftru&ion of a people immerfed in lamentable ig¬
norance, the king ordained, that all ecdefiaftical lands
fhould be reftored to their refpeiftive fees and churches,
and that all lands fhould be deemed eccleftaftical from
which biftiops had in former times received rents or
penfions: that compofitions fhould he made with the
patentees for the fite of cathedral churches, the refi-
dences of hifhops and dignitaries, and other church-
lands which were not intended to be conveyed to them j
who were to receive equivalents if they compounded
U u freely,
4
r
Ireland.
So
State of Ire.
land fince
that time.
*See BrU
—106.
IRE [
freely; or elfe to be deprived of their patents as the
king was deceived in his grant, and the poffeffions re-
ftored to the church. To provide for the inferior
clergy, the bifhops were obliged to refign all their im¬
propriations, and relinquiih the tythes paid them out
of pariihes, to the refpe&ive incumbents ; for which
ample recompenfe was made out of the king’s lands.
Every proportion allotted to undertakers was made a
parifh, with a parochial church to each. The incum¬
bents, befides their tythes and duties, had glebe-lands
aiTigned to them of 60, 90, or 1 20 acres, according to
the extent of their pariihes. To provide for a fuccei-
fiqn of worthy paftors, free-fchools were endowed in
the principal towns, and conliderable grants of lands
conferred on the univerfity of Dublin, which had
been re-eftablifhed by Queen Elizabeth, together with
the advowfon of fix parochial churches, three of the
largeft, and three of the middle proportion in each
county.
Such was the general fcheme of this famous northern
plantation, fo honourable to the king, and of luch
confequence to the realm of Ireland. Its happy ef-
fefls were immediately perceived, although the execu¬
tion by no means correfponded with the original idea.
Buildings were ilowly erected ; Britifh tenants were
difficult to be procured in fufficient numbers; the old
natives were at hand, offered higher rents, and were
received into thofe diftricts from which it was intend¬
ed to exclude them. In this particular, the London¬
ers were accufed of being notorioufly delinquent. They
a£ted entirely by agents ; their agents were intereiled
and indolent, and therefore readily countenanced this
dangerous intrufion of the natives : an error of which
fufficient caufe was afterwards found to repent. For
the prefent, however, a number of loyal and indu-
ftrious inhabitants was poured into the northern coun¬
ties, confiderable improvements made by the planters,
and many towns erefled. To encourage their indu-
llry, and advance his own projeft, the king was pleafed
to incorporate feveral of thefe towns, fo that they had a
right of reprefentation in the Irifh parliament.
The only difturbance that now enfued was from the
Popifh party, who never could bear to fee the Prote-
ftant religion eftablilhed in preference to their own,
while they had power to refill. After numberlefs in-
effeftual machinations and complaints, their fury broke
out in a terrible maffacre of the new Englilh fettlers in
the year 1641 *. The. affairs of Britain were at that
time in fuch confufion, that the rebellion could not be
quelled in lefs than ten years ; during which time the
country was reduced to a moll deplorable fituation. It
recovered again under Cromwell, Charles II. and the
fhort reign of James II. On the accelfion of Wil¬
liam III. matters were once more thrown into confu¬
fion by an attempt made in favour of the exiled mo¬
narch, who came over thither in perfon, and whofe
bad fuccefs is related under the article Britain,
TsJ0 cjoq—325. Since that time, Ireland hath recover¬
ed from the miferable fituation to which it was fo long
reduced. As yet, however, it is” far from being in
fuch a flourilhing Hate as either South or North Bri¬
tain. One great obilacle to the improvement of the
kingdom is the extreme poverty and opprelfion of
the common people. The produce of the kingdom,
either in corn or cattle, is not above two-thirds at
33§
]-
I It E
moll of what by good cultivation it might yield. The Ireland,
high roads throughout the fouthern and weftern parts ' v~—J
are lined with beggars, who live in huts or cabbins
without chimneys, or any covering capable of defend¬
ing the wretched inhabitants from the cold, wind, and
rain. “ It is a fcandal (fays a judicious traveller,
who lately vifited Ireland) to the proprietors of this
fertile country, that there is not the greateft plenty of
good corn and hay in it ; but fome of the bell land in
the king’s dominions is fuffered to be torn in pieces,
and cultivated in the vileft manner, by a fct of abjeft
miferable occupiers ■, who are abfolutely no better than
llaves to the defpicable, lazy, and oppreflive fubordi-
nate landlords.” ^
Another caufe confiffed in the various reffriblions Origin of
wdiich it had been thought proper to lay upon the Irilh the Irifh
trade; and the conllant and great preference given by(^contents-
government to the Englilh manufacturers, at lait Produ-state“of
cedthe moft grievous difeontents and diltreffes. On the the srgu-
part of England it was luppofed, that as Ireland had ment for
been fubdued by force of arms, the inhabitants ought an(l aga‘n*
in. every relpeCt to be fubjeft to the victorious Hate ;t!‘e
and that the intereft of the Englilh ought on all oc-
cafions to be confulted, without regarding the incon¬
veniences which might enfue to the Irilh. A very
different idea, however, was entertained by the Irilh
themfelves, or at lealt by the patriotic party among
them. 'They rejected all notions of dependence upon
the Britilh miniftry and parliament ; and though they
did not fcruple to acknowledge the king’s right of
conquelt, they molt poiitively denied that the Britilh
parliament had any authority whatever over them ;
and therefore looked upon the reltriCtions laid upon
their trade as the molt grievous and intolerable oppref-
fion. .
In the year 1719, according to Mr Crawford, the Caufe of
opprelfion and grievances of Ireland became altogether Sherlock
infupportable. A caufe relative to an eltate, betwixt an(l.Anne'
Heller Sherlock and Maurice Annefiey, was tried be-^e-v’n 1'1?>
fore the court of exchequer in Ireland. Here the lat¬
ter obtained a decree in bis favour ; button an appeal,
the fentence wjas reverfed by the lords. Annefley ap¬
pealed from them to the Englilh peers ; who having
reverfed the judgment of thofe of Ireland, he was put
in poffelfion of the fubjeCt in difpute. Sherlock ap¬
pealed again to the Irifh lords, and the matter became
very ferious. It was propofed to the confideration of
the judges, Whether by the laws of the land an appeal
lies from a decree of the court of exchequer in Ireland
to the king in parliament in Britain ? This queltion
being determined in the negative, Sherlock was again
put in poffelfion of the eltate. A petition w^as fome
time after prefented to- the houfe by Alexander Bur¬
rowses Iheriff of Kildare, fetting forth, “ That his pre-
deceflbr in office had put Sherlock in poffelfion of the
premifles : that, upon his entering into office, an injunc¬
tion, agreeable to the order of the Englilh peers, iffued
from the exchequer, requiring him to reftore Maurice
Annefley to the pofieffion of the above-mentioned lands;
and that, not daring to act in contradiction to the order
of the houfe, he was fined. In confequence of this, be- 54
ing afraid left he Ihould be taken into cuftody, he durft^P^he-
not come in to pals his accounts; and for this he waSpeersof
fined 1200I.” His condubt was applauded by the Irillr Ireland
lords, who commanded the fines impofed upon him toandEng-
l,e land.
IRE l 3
Ireland, be taken off; and in a (hort time after drew up a me-
morial to be prefented to his majefty. In this they
fet forth, that having fubmitted to Henry II. as their
liege lord, they had from him obtained the benefit of
Englifh law, with many other privileges, particularly
that of having a diilimff parliament. In confeqUence
of this concefiion, the Englilh had been encouraged to
come over and fettle in Ireland, where they were to
enjoy the fame privileges as in their own country.
They farther infilled, that though the imperial crown
of Ireland was annexed to that of Britain, yet be¬
ing a diilindl dominion, and no part of the kingdom
of England, none could determine with regard to its
affairs, but fuch as were authorifed by its known laws
and cufioms, or the exprefs confent of the king. It
was an invafion of his majefty’s prerogative for any
court of judicature to take upon them to declare, that
he could not by his authority in parliament determine
all controverfies betwixt his fubjedfs of this kingdom ;
or that, when they appealed to his majefty in parlia¬
ment, they did not bring their caufe before a compe¬
tent judicature : and they reprefented, that the prac¬
tice of appeals from the Irifti parliament to the Britifh
peers was an ufurped jurifdiftion affumed by the latter;
the bad confequences of which they pointed out very
fully.
This reprefentation being laid before his majefty in
parliament, it w7as refolved, that the barons of exche¬
quer in Ireland had afted with courage and fidelity,
according to law, &c. and an addrefs was prefented to
his majefty, praying him to confer on them feme mark
of his royal favour as a recorapenfe for the injuries
Bill ■’afied they ‘ufla’n6d from the Irilh legillature. This was
for the bet- followed by a bill for the better fecuring the depen-
ter fecuring dency of Ireland upon the crowm of Great Britain,
the depen- By this it was determined, “ That the fioufe of lords
of Ireland have not, nor of right ought to have, any
jurifdidlion to judge of, affirm, or reverfe, any judge¬
ment, fentence, or decree, given or made in any court
within the kingdom ; and that all proceedings before
the faid houfe of lords, upon any fuch judgment or
decree, are utterly null and void to all intents and pur-
pofes whatever.” It was alfo determined in this bill,
that “ the king’s majefty, by and with the advice and
confent of the lords fpiiitual and temporal, and com¬
mons of Great Britain in parliament affembled, had,
hath, and of right ought to have, full power and au¬
thority to make laws and ftatutes of fufficient force
and validity to bind the people of Ireland.”
This bill was looked upon by the Iriih to be equiva¬
lent to a total annihilation of their liberties; and they
were (fill farther exafperated in the year 1724, by the
patent granted to one Wood an Engliftiman to coin
difeontents halfpence and farthings for the ufe of Ireland. In
en account this affair Wood is faid to have adled very difhonour-
efWood’s ably; infomufch that a ftiilling of the halfpence he
patent. made were fcarcely worth a penny. Great quantities
of this bafe coin were fent over ; and it was ufed not
only in change, but accounts were likely to be paid in
It, io that dangerous confequences feemed ready to en-
fue. The Irifh parliament, in an addrefs to the king,
reprefented that they wxre called upon by their coun¬
try to lay before his majelly the ill confequences of
Wood’s patent, and that it was likely to be attended
with a diminution of the revenue and the ruin of trade.
dence of
Ireland.
56
The bill
generally
abhorred.
57
Farther
39 1 . r. R E
The fame was fet forth in an application made to his Ireland,
majeffy by the privy council. In (hort, the whole na- ' ~’v
tion feemed to unite their efforts in order to remedy an
evil of fuch dangerous tendency, the effefts of w’hich al¬
ready began to be felt. 5s
Among the controverfial pieces which appeared on Dr Swift in
this occafion, thofe of Dr Swift were particularly di- danger on
ftinguiftied. His Drapier’s letters are to this day held
in grateful remembrance by his countrymen ; but he tion to
tvas in danger of fuffjring deeply in the caufe. He Wood,
had been at particular pains to explain an argument
ufed by the Iriih on this occafion, viz. that brafs
money, being illegal, could not be forced upon the na¬
tion by the king, without exceeding the limits of his
prerogative. Hence the oppofite party took occafion
to charge the Iriih with a defign of calling off their
dependence on Britain altogether: but Swift having
examined the accufation with freedom, pointed out
the encroachments made by the Britilh parliament on
the liberties of Ireland ; and afferted, that any depen¬
dence on England, except that of being fubjedts to the
fame king, was contrary to the law of reafon, nature,
and nations, as well as to the law of the land. This
publication was fo difagreeable to government, that
they offered a reward of 300I. for the dilcovery of
the author ; but as nobody could be found who would
give him up, the printer w7as profecuted in his Head :
however, he was unanimoufly acquitted by a jury of
his countrymen.
The Iriih continued to be jealous of their liberties,
while the Britifh miniftry feemed to w’atch every op¬
portunity of encroaching upon them as far as poffible.
Apprehenfions being entertained of a defign upon Ire¬
land by the partifans of the pretender in 1715, a vote
of credit to government WTas paffed by the houfe of 59
commons to a confiderable amount. This laid the Djfpute
foundation of the national debt of that kingdom, which wrh S°\
was quickly augmented to feveral hundred thoufand aj)0ut
pounds ; for difeharge of which a fund had been pro- fund for
vided by adminiflration. An attempt wras made du-Payment of
ring the adminiftration of Lord Carteret (wffio govern- ^enational
ed Ireland till 1730), to veil this fund in the hands'*0
of his majefty and of his heirs for ever, redeemable by
parliament. This was oppofed by the patriotic party,
who infilled, that it was inconfiftent with the public
fafety, and unconftitutional, to grant it longer than
from feffion to feffion. In 1731 another attempt was
made to veil the lame in the crown for 21 years ; but
when the affair came to be debated, the ftrength of
both parties was found to be equally balanced. Im¬
mediately before the vote, however, Colonel Tottlng-
ham having rode poll on the occafion, arrived in the
houfe, and determined the queftion againft govern¬
ment. co
The behaviour of Lord Cherterfield, who was made EsceHenfe
governor of Ireland in 1745, is highly extolled, on ac-
count of his moderation, and the favour he Ihowed to^°ge^j el"
the liberties of the people. As the apprehenfions of
government were then very confiderable, on account
of the rebellion which raged in Scotland, his lordihip
was advifed to augment the military force of Ireland
by 4000 men. Inftead of this, however, he fent four
battalions to the duke of Cumberland, and encouraged
the volunteer affociations which formed in different
parts for the defence of their country. Thefe battalions
U u 2 he
1 l\ E
[ 34-° ]
I R E
61
His hu-
inanitv to
Ireland, 'he replaced by additional coT^ianies to the regiments
v already on the eftablidinient •, by which means he faved
a coniiderable expence to the nation, without augment¬
ing the influence of the crown. The fup’plies a iked
by him were final!, and raifed in the moft eafy and
agreeable manner to the people, expending the money
at the lame time with the utmoft economy. There
was even a having, which he applied to the ufe of the
public. It had been a cuftom with many of the lieu¬
tenant-governors of Ireland to heftow reverhonary
grants, in order to purchafe the sfliftance of friends in
lupport of their meafures. Lord Chelferfield, however,
being convinced that this practice was prejudicial to
the intereft of the nation, put a flop to it 5 but the
mod remarkable part of his adminiitration was, the
humanity with which he treated the Roman Catho¬
lics. Before his'arrival, the Romifh chapels in Dub-
the Roman lin had been (hut up •, their prieils were command-
Cathoiics. ecj by proclamation to leave the kingdom ; and fuch
as difobeyed had been fubjefted to imprifenment and
other penalties. Lord Chefterfk-ld, however, convin¬
ced that the affeftion is to be engaged by gentle
ufage, permitted them to exercife their religion with¬
out dillurbance. The accufations brought againd
them of forming plots againd government were difre-
garded ; and fo much was his moderation and upright-
nefs in this refpeff applauded by all parties, that, du¬
ring the whole time of his adminidration, the nation¬
al tranquillity was not once interrupted by the (mail¬
ed internal commotion. On his leaving the idand, his
bud was placed at the public expence in the cadle of
Dublin.
Lord Chederfield having left Ireland in the fpring
of 1746, the bland continued to be governed by lords
judices until the 13th of September, when William
earl of Harrington came over with the powers of lord
lieutenant. A conted in the election of reprefenta-
lives for the city of Dublin this year called forth the
Account of abilities of Mr Charles Lucas, fo much celebrated for
Mr Lucas his patriotic virtues. Having fome years before been
the <- e admitted a member of the common council, he re-
triot^P3' t0 exert himfelf in behalf of the privileges of
his fellow-citizens. The powers of this city-corpora¬
tion, as well as of others, had been changed by autho-
rityr derived from an a£I in the time of Charles II. •,
and among other innovations, for the purpofe of aug¬
menting the influence of the crown, they deprived the
commons of the power of choofing the city rnagidrates.
This was now veded in the board of aldermen ; which
being fubjeff in the exercife of its jurifdi£lion to the
approbation of the privy-council, was confequently de¬
pendent on government. Mr Lucas complained loudly
of the iniury ^ but as this law' could not be altered, he
fet himfelf to inquire, whether encroachments, which
could not be judified by law, had not been made on
the rights of the citizens ? Having fatisfied himfelf, by
fearching diligently into ancient records, that his ap-
prehenfions were well founded, he publifhed his difeo-
veries, explained the nature of the evidence refulting
from them, and encouraged the people to take the
proper deps for obtaining redrefs.
The confequence of this was a conted between the
commons and aklermen, which laded two years. The
former druggled in vain to recover their lod privileges;
but tlje exertions of Lucas in every flage of the dif-
pute had ranlered h'u fo rsfpe itable among his com- Ireland,
try men, that on the death of Sir James Somerville he v~—
HTas encouraged to declare himfoif a candidate for a
feat in parliament. Tills being highly agreeable to
his willies, he was ele&ed accordingly ; and didinguiih-
ed himfelt not only by the boll a.: is and energy of his
fpeeches, but more efpecially by a number of add re lies
to his countrymen. In fome of thefe he particularly
coniidered the feveral branches of the conditution, and
pointed out the encroachments of the Britilh legifla-
ture. Government, alarmed at his boldnefs, determi¬
ned to cruih him by the hand of power ; for which
reafon the mod obnoxious paragraphs wmre extradled
from his works, and made the foundation of a charge
before parliament. The commons voted hirn an ene¬
my to his country; and addrelfed the lord-lieutenant
for an order to profecute him by the attorney-general.
The univerfal edeem in which he was held could not
fereen him from miniderial vengeance : he was driven
from Ireland ; but having fpent fome years in baniih-
ment, he was once more enabled, through the exer¬
tions of his friends, to prelent himfelf as a candidate
for the city of Dublin. Being again elected, he con¬
tinued to didinguilli himfelf by the fame virtuous prin¬
ciples for wdiich he had been from the beginning fo
remarkable, and died with the charafter which he had
preierved though life, of the incorruptible Imcas. 63
In the year 1753, a remarkable conted took place njlpute
betwixt government and the Iridi parliament relative'Vit*a S°"
to previous conlent. As the taxes for defraying date
vernment
concerning
expences are impofed by the reprefentatives of the previous
people, it thence naturally follow's, that they have a conlent.
right to foperintend the expenditure of them ; and by
an infpedlion of the journals of the houfe of commons,
it appeared, that from the year 1692 they had exer-
cifed a right of calling for and examining the public
accounts. When any furplus remained in the treafurv,
it was alfo cudomary to difpofe of it by bill for the
good of the public. In the year 1749, however, a
coniiderable fum having remained in the treafury, the
difpofal of this money in future became an objecl to
minidry. In 1751, it w'as intimated to parliament
by the lord lieutenant, the duke of Dorfet, that his
majefty would gracioudy confent and recommend it to
them, that fuch part of the money as then remained
in the treafury fhould be applied to the reduefion of
the national debt. As this implied a right inherent
in his majelty to difpofe of the money as he thought
proper, the propofal was accounted an invafion of the
privileges of the houfe of commons. No notice was
therefore taken of the direction given by Dorfet, but
the bill was fent over to England as ufual without any
notice taken of his majedy’s conlent. In England,
however, this very material alteration w7as made, and
the word confent introduced into it. The commons at
this time did not take any notice of fuch an eflential
alteration ; but next year, on its being repeated, the
bill was rejected. Government were now at the utmod
pains to defend the meafure they had adopted, and
pamphlets were publidied in which it was judified on
various grounds. The event at lad, hotvever, was,
that his majeOy by letter took the money which had
been the fubjebl of difpute out of the treafury. ^
In the year 1760 Ireland fudained an inconfiderable Invafion by
hodile invalion, the lird that had been experienced in ‘ hurotin
the i76°*
I
IRE [ 34i ] IRE
Ireland.
.
Rife or the
White
Boys.
the kingdom for 70 years. The armament conlifted
originally of five Ihips •, one of 48 guns, ttvo of 36,
and two of 24 ; having on board 1270 land forces.
They were commanded by the celebrated Thurot,
whole reputation, as captain df a privateer, had advan¬
ced him to this dignity. The fquadron, however, was
driven by adverfe winds to Gottenburgh ■, where ha¬
ving continued a few days, they fet fail for the place of
their deflination. On their arrival at the coafl: of Ire¬
land, they were obliged to Ihelter themfelves in Lough
Foyle from a violent Horm which again overtook them.
The wind, however, having Ihifted, and continuing to
blow tempefiuoufiy, they were obliged to keep out to
fea. Two of the Ihips were thus feparated from the
reft by the violence of the ftorm, a'nd returned to
France ; but the remaining three dire&ed their courfe
to the ifiand of Hay, where they anchored ; and having
repaired their damages, took in a fupply of provilions,
and thence failed to Carrickfergus.
In the mean time, an officer belonging to the fmall
number of troops at that time in Carrickfergus took
poll on a riling ground, with an advanced party, to
obferve the motions of the enemy. A Ikirmifti enfued
betwixt this party and Thurot’s men, until the former,
having expended all their ammunition, were obliged
to retire into the town. Having in vain attempted to
prevent the enemy from taking pofieflion of it, the
Britifh troops ftiut themfelves up in the caftle, where
they were foon obliged to capitulate, after having kill¬
ed about 100 of their enemies, with the lofs of only
three on their own part. The French having plundex--
ed the town, fet fail on the 26th of February •, and three
days after were all taken by Captain Elliot, Thurot
himfelf being killed in the engagement.
Soon after the acceftion of George III. Ireland firft
began to be difturbed by a banditti who ftyled them¬
felves White Boys ; and as thefe were generally of the
Romifh perfuafion, the prejudices againft that feift
broke forth in the ufual manner. A plot was alleged
to have been formed qgainft government j French and
Spanifh emiffaries to have been fent over to Ireland,
and actually to be employed to affift in carrying it in¬
to execution. The real caufe of this commotion, how¬
ever, was as follows : About the year 1739 the mur¬
rain broke out among the horned cattle in the duchy
of Holftein, from whence it'foon after fpread through
the other parts of Germany. From Germany it reach¬
ed Holland, from whence it was carried over to Eng¬
land, where it raged with great violence for a number
of years. The mitigation of the penal laws againft
the papifts about this time encouraged the natives of
the fouth of Ireland to turn their thoughts towards
agriculture, and the poor began to enjoy the neceffa-
ries of life in a comfortable manner. A foreign de¬
mand for beef and butter, however, having become un¬
commonly great, by reafon of the cattle diftemper juft
mentioned, ground appropriated to grazing became
more valuable than that employed in tillage. The
cottars were everywhere dirpofteffed of their little pof-
feffions, which the landf irds let to monopolizers who
could afford a higher rent. Whole baronies were
now laid open to pafturage, while the former inhabi¬
tants were driven defpcrate by want of fubfiftence.
Numbers of them fled to the large citie«, or emigrated
to foreign countries, while thole who remained took
fmall fpots of land, about an acre each, at an exorbi- Ireland,
tant price, where they endeavoured if poflible to pro- u
cure the means of protrafting a miferable exiftence for
themfelves and families. For fome time thefe poor
creatures were allowed by the more humane landlords
the liberty of commonage j but afterwards this was
taken away, in defpite of juftice and a poiitive agree¬
ment ; at the fame time, the payment of tythes, and
the low price of labour, not exceeding the wages in
the days of Queen Elizabeth, aggravated the diftreffes
of the unhappy fufferers beyond meafure.
In fuch a fituation, it is no wonder that illegal me--
thods were purfued in expectation of redrefs. The
people, covered with white xhirts, affembled in parties
at night, turned up the ground, deftroyed bullocks,
levelled the inclofures of the commons, and committed
other adts of violence. Thefe unavailing efforts were
conftrued into a plot againft the government-, num¬
bers of the rioters were apprehended in the counties of
Limerick, Cork, and Tipperary, and fome of them
condemned and executed. In different places thefe
unhappy wretches, inftead of being looked upon as ob-
jedls of compafiion, were profecuted with the utmoft
feverity. Judge Afton, however, who was fent over
to try them, executed his office with fuch humanity as
did him the higheft honour. A moft extraordinary
and affedling inftance of this was, that on his retain
from Dublin, for above ten miles from Clonmell, both
Tides of the road were lined with men, women, and
children •, who, as he paffed along, kneeled down and im¬
plored the blefting of heaven upon him as their guardian .
and protedlor.
In the mean time, the violences of the White Boys
continued, notwitbftanding that many examples were
made. The idea of rebellion was ftill kept up ; and,
without the finalleft foundation, gentlemen of the firft
rank were publicly charged with, being concerned in
it, infomuch that fome of them were obliged to enter
bail, in order to protepl themfelves from injury. The
Catholics of Waterford gave in a petition to Lord
Hertford, the governor in 1765, in behalf of them¬
felves and brethren, protefting their loyalty and obe¬
dience to government ; but no effeflual ftep was taken
either to remove or even to inveftigate the caufe of the
difturbances.
About two years after the appearance of the White Of the Oals
Boys, a fimilar commotion arofe in Ulfter • which, &oys.
however, proceeded in part from a different caufe, and
was of much fhorter duration. By an aft of parlia¬
ment, the making and repairing of highways in Ire¬
land was formerly a grievous oppreflion on the lower
ranks of people. An houfekeeper who had no horfe
was obliged to work at them fix days in the year ; and
if he had a horfe, the labour of both was required for
the fame fpace of time. Befides this oppveftion, the
poor complained that they were frequently obliged to
woiii at roads made for the convenience of individuals,
and which were of no fervice to the public. Nor were
thefe the only grievances of which the infurgents at
this time complained : the tythes exafted bv the clergy
were laid to be unreafonable, and the rent of lands was
more than they could bear. In 1763, therefore, be¬
ing exafoerated by a road propofed to be made through
a part of the county of Armagh, the inhabitants moft;
immediately affefted by it rofe in a body, and decla¬
red i
IRE [ 34
, ^elaml. recl that they would make no more highways of the
kind. As a mark of dillinftion, they wore oak-
branches in their hats, from which circumfiance they
calledthemfelves Oah-boijs. The number of their par¬
tisans foon increafed, and the infurreftion became ge¬
neral through the counties of Armagh, Tyrone, Der¬
ry, and Fermanagh. In a few weeks, however, they
were difperfed by parties of the military •, and the
public tranquillity was redored with the lofs of only
two or three lives. The road-ail, which had been fo
juflly found fault with, w'as repealed next feffion ; and
it was determined, that for the future the roads Ihould
be made and repaired by a tax to be equally affeiTed
6.7 on the lands of the rich and poor.
Of the Steel Befides thefe, another fet of iniurgents called Steel-
®°^s‘ boys foon made their appearance, on the following ac¬
count. The eftate of an abfentee nobleman happen¬
ing to be out of leafe, he propofed, inftead of an addi¬
tional rent, to take fines from his tenants. Many
of thofe, who at that time poffeffed his lands, were
unable to comply with his terms j while others who
could afford to do fo, infilled upon a greater rent from
the immediate tenants than they were able to pay.
The ufual confequences of this kind of oppreflion in-
flantly took place. Numbers being dilpoflefled and
thrown deftitute, wrere forced into a£ls of outrage fimi-
lar to thofe already mentioned. One of thefe charged
with felony was carried to Belfaft, in order to be com¬
mitted to the county gaol \ but his aflbeiates, provoked
by the ufage they had received, determined to relieve
him. 'The defign was eagerly entered into by great
numbers all over the country •, and feveral thoufands,
having provided themfelves with offenfive weapons, pro¬
ceeded to Belfaft in order to refeue the prifoners. To
prevent this, he was removed to the barracks and put
under the guard of a party of foldiers quartered there )
but the Steel-boys prefled forward with a determina¬
tion to accomplifh their purpofe by force, and fome
ihots were adlually exchanged between them and the
foldiers. The confequences would undoubtedly have
been fatal, had it not been for a phyfician of highly
refpeflable charafter, wTho interpofed at the rilk of his
life, and prevailed on thofe concerned to fet the pri-
foner at liberty. The tumult, howrever, w’as not thus
quelled. The number of infurgents daily increafed,
and the violences committed by them wrere much greater
than thofe of the other two parties. Some rvere ta¬
ken and tried at Carrickfergus, but none condemned.
It was fuppofed that the fear of popular refentment
had influenced the judges j for w'hich reafon an a<ft
was paffed, enjoining the trial of fach prifoners for
the future to be held in counties different from thofe
where the crimes w’ere committed. This breach of
a fundamental law of the conftitution gave fuch of¬
fence, that though feveral of the Steel-boys were af¬
terwards taken up and carried to the callle of Dub¬
lin, no jury would find them guilty. This obnc.v*ous
law was therefore repealed j after which fome of the
infurgents, being tried in their refpe&ive counties,
were condemned and executed. Thus the commotions
were extinguiffied ; but as no methods were taken to
remove the caufe, the continued diftrefles of the people
drove many thoufands of them into America in a very
few years.
In the mean time a very material alteration had ta-
2
! ] IRE
ken place in the conftitution of the kingdom, with Ireland,
regard to the iuration of parliaments. At an early
period thefe had continued only for a year ; but after-
wards they were prolonged until the death of a fove-
reign, unlefs he chofe to diilblve it fooner by an ex¬
ertion of his prerogative. Thus, from the moment
of their eleflion, the commoners of Ireland were in a
manner totally independent of the people and under
the influence of the crown j and government foon avail¬
ed itlelf of this power to bribe a majority to ferve its
own purpofes. Various methods were thought of to
remedy this evil $ but all proved ineffe£lual until the
year 1768, when, during the adminiftration of Lord
Townfliend, a bill was prepared and fent over to Eng¬
land, by which it was enabled, that the Irifh parlia¬
ments thenceforth ihould be held every feven years.
It wras returned with the addition of one year ; and Parliament
ever fince the parliaments of this country have beenof ireiar d
oflennial. During this feflion ,an attempt was mademat'f?c“
by the Britiih miniftry to infringe the rights of thete!'n^’
houfe of commons in a very material point. A money- Englifa
bill, which had not originated in Ireland, was fent money-bill
over from Britain, but was rejected in a fpirited man-rejeiffe^*
ner. Its rejection gave great offence to the lord
lieutenant, who repeatedly prorogued them till the
year 1771.
The affairs of Ireland began now to draw towards
that crifis which effeffed the late remarkable revolu¬
tion in favour of the' liberties of the people. The
paffing of the octennial bill had diminiihed, but not
taken away, the influence of the crown ; and the fitua-
tion of affairs between Britain and America had inclined
miniftry to make the moft of this influence they could.
In 1773 Lord Harccuvt, at that time governor of
Ireland, exerted himfelf fo powerfully in favour of
adminiftration, that the voice of oppolition in parlia-
ment was almoft entirely filenced. The difficulties, DiitreiTed
however, under which the whole nation laboured began date of Ire-
now to be fo feverely felt, that an addrefs on the fubje£l'an.^ Eid
was prefented by the commons to his excellency. In i^'iieute
this they told him, that they hoped he would lay before nant.
the king the Hate of Ireland, reftriffed in its com¬
merce from the ftiort-fighted policy of former times, to
the great injury of the kingdom, and the advantage of
the rivals, if not of the enemies, of Great Britain.
Thefe hardihips, they faid, were not only impolitic,
but unjuft ; and they told his excellency plainly, that
they expefled to be reftored to fome, if not to all
their rights, which alone could jullify them to their
conftituents for laying upon them fo many burdens
during the courfe of this feflion.
This reprefentation to the lord lieutenant produ¬
ced no eftedl $ and Ireland for fome years longer con¬
tinued to groan under the burden of intolerable re-
ftri&ions. Thefe had principally taken place in the 71
reign of Charles II. At this time it was enadled, that Account of
beef or live cattle Ihould not be exported to England 5 t!ie reflrk-
neither were the commodities of Ireland to be ex-l1^5 °n, >e
ported to the American colonies, nor American goods
to be imported to any port in Ireland without firft un¬
loading them in fome part of England or Wales. All
trade with Alia was excluded by charters granted to
particular companies ; and reftriclions were impofed
upon almoft every valuable article of commerce fent to
the different ports of Europe. Towards the end of
King
IRE [ 343 ] IRE
Irdand. King William’s reign an abfolute prohibition was laid
on the exportation of Irilh wool. This reftriflion proved
clifadvantageous not only to Ireland, but to Great Bri¬
tain herfetf. The French were now plentifully fup-
plied by fmuggling with Irifh wool ; and not only en¬
abled to furniih woollen lluffs fufficient for their own
confumpt, but even to vie with the Britifh in foreign
markets. Other reftriclions confpired to augment the
national calamity , but that which was moft fenfibly
felt took place in 1776. “'There had hitherto (fays
Mr Crawford) been exported annually to America
large quantities of Irifh linens ; this very conhderable
fource of national advantage was now ihut up, un¬
der pretence of rendering it more difficult for the
enemy to be fupplied with the means of fubfiftence ;
but in reality, to enable a few rapacious Englifh
contrafters to fulfil their engagements, an embargo,
which continued, was in 1776 laid upon the expor¬
tation of provifions from Ireland, by an unconfiitu-
tional llretch of prerogative. Remittances to F.ng-
land, on various accounts, particularly for the pay¬
ment of our forces abroad, were more than ufually
confiderable. Thefe immediate caufes being com¬
bined writh thofe which were invariable and perma¬
nent, produced in this country very calamitous ef¬
fects. Black cattle fell very confiderably in their va¬
lue ; notwithdanding that, cuftomers could not be had.
The price of wool was reduced in a Hill greater pro¬
portion. Rents everywhere fell 5 nor, in many places,
was it poHible to collefl them. An univerfal llagna-
tion of bufinefs enfued. Credit was 'very materially
injured. Farmers were prefied by extreme neceffity,
and many of them failed. Numbers of manufafturers
were reduced to extreme neceffity, and would have
periflied, had they not been fupported by public cha¬
rity. 'Thofe of every rank and condition were deeply
affefted by the calamity of the times. Had the date
of the exchequer permitted, grants might have been
made to promote induftry, and to alleviate the national
diftrefs \ but it was exhaufted to a very uncommon
degree. Alnjoft every branch of the revenue had fail¬
ed. From want of money the militia law could not
be carried into execution. We could not pay our
forces abroad ; and, to enable us to pay thofe at home,
there was a neceffity for borrowing 50,000]. from
England. The money which parliament was forced
to raife, it was obliged to borrow at an exorbitant in-
tereft. England, in its prefent date, was adefled with
the wretched condition to which our affairs were re¬
duced. Individuals there, who had edates in Ireland,
were diarers of the common calamity 5 and the atten¬
tion of individuals in the Britidr parliament was turned
to our fituation, who had even no perfonal intered in
^ this country.”
Iri Hi Waits While things were in this deplorable fituation, Earl
taken into Nugent, in the year 1778, undertook the caufe of the
confidera- Irilh, by moving in parliament, that their affairs diould
EritiflT t*ie ke taken into confideration by a committee of the
lianienn^ vvi10le houfe. This motion being agreed to almod
unanimoufly, it was followed by feveral others, viz.
That the Iridi might be permitted to export direftly
to the Britilh plantations, or to the fettlements on
the coads of Africa, all goods being the produce and
manufaclure of the kingdom, excepting only wool, or
woollen manufadhires, &c. That all goods, being the
produce of any of the Britidr plantations, or of the Ireland'
fettlements on the coad of Africa, tobacco excepted, ~ v
be allowed to be imported direftly from Ireland to all
places, Britain excepted. That cotton yarn, the ma¬
nufacture of Ireland, be allowed to be imported into
Great Britain. That glafs manufactured in Ireland be
permitted to be exported to all places, Britain ex¬
cepted.—With refpet to the Irilh fail cloth and cor¬
dage, it was moved, that they diould have the fame
privilege as for the cotton yarn.
Thefe motions having paffed unanimoufly, bills for Petitions a-
the relief of Ireland were framed upon them according- Samft the
ly. The trading and manufaturing towns of Eng-^ief 6
land, however, now took the alarm, and petitions
againd the Iriffi indulgence were brought forward from
many different quarters, and numbers indructed to
oppofe it. In confequence of this a warm corded took
place on the fecond reading of the bills. Mr Burke
fupported them with all the drength of his eloquence 5
and as the minider Teemed to favour them, they were
committed; though the violent oppofition to them dill
continued, which induced many of their friends at that
time to defert their caufe.
Though the efforts of thofe who favoured the caufe Mew^at-
of Ireland thus proved unfuccefsful for the prefent, tempt in
they renewed their endeavours before the ChriltmastiVOur
vacation. They now urged, that, independent of all1*16
claims from judice and humanity, the relief of Ireland
was enforced by neceffity. The trade with Britidi
America was now lod for everj and it was indifpenfably
requifite to unite the remaining parts of the empire in
one common intered and adection. Ireland had hi¬
therto been paffive ; but there was danger that, by
driving her to extremities, flie would cad off the yoke
altogether ; or, even if this diould not happen, the ty¬
ranny of Britain would be of little advantage ; as, on the
event of a peace, the people would defert a country in
which they had experienced fuch oppreffion, and emi¬
grate to America, where they had a greater profpeff
of liberty. On the other hand, they infided, that very
condderable advantages mud enfue to Britain by the
emancipation of Ireland ; and every benefit extended
to that country would be returned with accumulated
intered. The bufinefs tvas at lad dimmed up in a mo¬
tion made by Lord Newhaven, in February 1769, that
liberty diould be granted to the Irilh to import fugars jq-ew7petj..
from the Wed Indies. This was carried ; but the turns rtgaioft'
merchants of GlafgowT and Mancheder having peti-them.
tioned againd it, it was again lod through the interfe¬
rence of the minider, who now exerted his influence
againd the relief he had formerly declared in favour of.
Various other efforts, however, were made to efferi:
the intended purpofe ; but nothing more could be ob¬
tained than a kind of compromife, by which Lord
Gower pledged himfelf, as far as he could anfwer
for the condu£T of others, that, during the recefs,
fome plan diould be fallen upon for accommodating
the affairs of Ireland to the fatisfatrion of all par¬
ties.
In the mean time the affairs of this country haffened
to a crifis 5 which forced the Britidi minidry to give
that relief fo long folicited, and which they fo often
promifed without any intention of performing their
promifes. As long as the affairs of the country were
under confideration of the Britidi parliament, the in-.
habitants
“Ireland.
An univer.
fal ferment
e: fues
throughout
the king¬
dom.
77
Affbcia-
tiors form¬
ed again ft
importing
Bririfh
commodi¬
ties.
. 7s
Kife of the
miijt. ry ai-
foc;ations
•in Ireland
79
They re-
folve to de¬
liver their
country
from the
tyranny of
Britain.
IRE [
habitants preferred fome degree of patience ;
when they found themfelves deferted by the minifter,
their difcontent wras inflamed beyond meafure. The
laws he had palled in their favour, viz. an allowance
to plant tobacco, and a bill for encouraging the growth
of her*, p, wrere confidered as mockery inflead of relief,
and it w?as now refolved to take fuch meafures as fhould
effectually convince the miniftry that it was not their
interett to tyrannize any longer. With this view, affo-
ciations againfl: the importation of liritifli commodities,
which had been entered into in fome places before, new
became univerfal throughout the kingdom } and luch
as prefumed to oppole the voice of the people in tins
refpedt, had the mortification to find themfelves ex-
pofed to public obloquy and contempt on that ac¬
count. Thus the Irilh manufadfures began to re¬
vive } and the people of Britain found themfe’ves
obliged ferioufly to take into confideration the relief
of that country, and to look upon it as a matter very
necefiary to their owm intereff. To this alio they were
Hill more ferioufly difpofed by the military, affbeiations,
which had taken place fome time before, and now
aflumed a mofl: formidable appearance. Thefe at firll
were formed by accidental caufes. The fituation of
Britain, for fome time, had not admitted of any effec¬
tual method being taken for the defence of Ireland.
Its coaffs had been infulted, and the trading fhips
taken by the French and American privateers j nor was
it at all improbable that an invalion might foon follow'.
“ Tire minifter (fays Mr Crawford) told u$, that the
fituation of Britain was fuch as rendered her incapable
of protecting us. The weaknefs of government, from
the following circumftance, was ffrikingly obvious.
The mayor of Belfaft having tranfmitted a memorial
to the lord lieutenant, fetting forth the unprotected
ftate of the coaft, and requefting a body of the milita¬
ry for its defence, received for anfwer, that he could
not afford him any other afliltance than half a troop of
difmounted horfe and half a company of invalids.”
In this dilemma, a number of the inhabitants of the
towrn affociated for the purpofe of felf-defence ; and,
on the fame principle, a few volunteer companies were
formed in different parts of the kingdom. Thefe chofe
their own officers, purchafed their own uniforms and
arms, and, with the affiftance of perfons properly qua¬
lified, affembled regularly on the parade to acquire a
knowledge in the military art. Their refpeClable ap¬
pearance, ahd the zeal they fliowed in the fervice of
their country, foon excited curiofity and attraCled
refpeft. Their number increafed every day *, and peo¬
ple of the firft confequence became ambitious of being
enrolled among them. As no foreign enemy appeared,
againll whom they might exercife their military prowefs,
thefe patriotic bands foon began to turn their thoughts
towards a deliverance from domeftic oppreflion. No
fooner was this idea made known, that it gave new
vigour to the fpirit of volunteering ; infomuch that,
by the end of 1778, the military affociations were
thought to amount at leaft to 30,000 men. But,
w'hile thus formidable from their numbers, and openly
avowing their intention to demand a reftitution of their
rights from the Britifh miniftry, they profeffed the
utmoft loyalty and affedion to the king ; and with re¬
gard to fobriety and decent demeanor, they were rot
onlyfunexceptionable, but exemplary. Inltead of ex-
3
344. 1 IRE
but, citing diforders themfelves, they reftrained every kind Ireland,
of irregularity, and exerted themfelves with unanimity
and vigour for the execution of the laws.
That fuch a body of armed men, acting without any
command or fupport from government, ihouid be an
object of apprehenfion to miniftry, is not to be won¬
dered at. In the infancy of their aifociations indeed
they might have been fuppreffed 5 but matters had been
fuffered to proceed too far j and, as they ftood at pre-
fent, all refiftance was vain. As the volunteers could
not be controuled, tome attempts were made to bring So
them under the influence of the crown ; but this being They are
found impoffible, minilfry thought proper to treat them Supplied
with an appearance of confidence j and, accordingly, ^it^arm*
orders wrere ilkied for fupplying them with 16,000 n^j.rv> I*1*
ftand of arms. g t
The. Irifti parliament, thus encouraged by the fpirit The parlia-
of the nation, and piefled by the difficulties arifing me^t ad-
from the diminiihed value of their eftates, refolved to^ff
exert themfelves in a becoming manner, in order to rei4f.
procure relief to their country. At their meeting in
O&ober 1779, an addrefs to his majefty w7as drawn
up ; in which it was exprefsly declared, that “ it was
not by temporary expedients, but by a free trade alone,
that Ireland was now to be faved from impending
ruin.” When this addrefs was carried up to the lord
lieutenant, the ffreets of Dublin wTere lined with vo¬
lunteers, commanded by the duke of Leinfter, in
their arms and uniform. But, though a general
expectation of relief was now' diffufed, an anxious
fear of difappointment ftill continued. If the ufual
fupply was granted for two years, there was danger of
the diftreffes continuing for all that time $ and after it
was granted, the prorogation of parliament might put
a flop to the expected relief altogether. The people,
however, were not now to be trifled with. As the
court-party ihowed an averflon to comply w’ith the po- ^
pular mealures, a mob rofe in Dublin, who, among T^iotju
other a£ts of violence, pulled down the houfe of the Dublin,
attorney-general, and did their utmoft to compel the
members to promife their countenance to the matter
in hand. "When the point therefore came to be de¬
bated, loma efpoufed the popular fide from principle,
others from neceffity •, fo that on the whole a majority
appeared in favour of it. A fhort money-bill was
palled and tranfmitted to England •, where, though
very mortifying to the minifter, it palled alfo.
On the meeting of the Britilh parliament in Decern- Affausof
ber, the affairs of Ireland were firft taken into confide- Ireland a-
ration in the houfe of peers. The neceffity of granting ?ain confi“
relief to that kingdom w'as ftrongly fet forth by tbe
lord w'ho introduced them. He faid, the Inih, now parliament,
confcious of poffeffing a force and confequence to
which they had hitherto been ftrangers, had refolved
to apply it to obtain the advantages of which the na¬
tion, by this fpirited exertion, now ftiowed themfelves
worthy. Had they for fome time before been grati¬
fied in leffer matters, they would now have received
with gratitude, what they would, as affairs ftood at
prefent, confider only as a matter of right. He then
moved for a vote of cenfure on his majefty’s minifters
for their negle£I of Ireland. This motion was re¬
jected ; but Earl Gower, who had now deierted the
caufe ol miniftry, declared, that there did not exit; ;n
his rnind a lingle doubt that the vote of ceniure was
not
I R E
f 345 ]
IRE
Lord
Korth’s
proportions
dom.
. 8S
His obfer-
vation*
upon them
Ireland, not well founded. He added, in his own vindication,
’ that early in the fummer he had proraifed that relief
Ihould be granted to Ireland, and had done every thing
in his power to keep his word j but that all his efforts
had proved frmtlefs.
In the houfe of commons the minifter found him-
felf fo hard prefled by the arguments of the minority,
and the fhort money-bill from Ireland, that he was obli¬
ged to declare, than in lefs than a week he intended to
move for a committee of the whole houfe to take the
affairs of Ireland into confideration. On the 13th of
December he accordingly brought forward his pro-
fn favour of pofitions in favour of this kingdom. The defign of
the king- thefe was to repeal the law's pfohibitihg the exporta¬
tion of Irifh manufadlures made of wool or wool flocks j
to repeal as much of the aft of 19th Geo. II. as pro¬
hibited the importation of glafs into Ireland, except of
Britifh manufafture, or the exportation of glafs from
Ireland ; and to permit the Iriih to export and impott
commodities to and from the Weft Indies and the
Britifh fettlements on the coaft of Africa, fubjeft to
fuch regulations and reftriftions as ftiould be impofed
by the Irifh parliament.
On thefe ptopofitions his lordfhip made. feveral re¬
marks by way of explanation. One obje6l of them,
he faid, was to reftore to Ireland the wool export
and woollen manufaflure. In 169I, from jealoufy or
fome other motive, an addrefs had been prefented by
the Englifh parliament, recommending a kind of com-
paft between the two kingdoms ; the terms of w'hich
were, that England fhould enjoy the woollen manufac-1
ture, and Ireland the linen, exclufively. But notwith-
ftanding this agreement, it was certain, that England
carried on the linen manufafture to as great extent as
Ireland, while at the fame-time the former retained
the monopoly of woollens. The firft ftep taken, in
confequence of this agreement, was to lay a heavy
duty, equal to a prohibition, upon all wool and w’ool-
lens exported 5 and when this a£I, which was but a
temporary one by way of experiment, expired, the
Englifh parliament pafled a flmilar one, and made it
perpetual •, by means of which and fome others a total
end was put to the woollen trade of Ireland.
With regard to the trade of Ireland, his lordfhip
obferved, that, upon an average of the fix years from
1766 to 1772, the export to Ireland was fomew'hat
more than twTo millions ; and, in the fucceeding fix
years, from 1772 to 1778, about as much more:
nearly one-half being Britifh manufacture and produce j
the other half certified articles, of which this country
was the medium of conveyance. The native produce
on an average, was fome what more than 900,000!. but
of this only 200,000!. were woollens. The woollen
manufacture of Ireland therefore would long continue
in a ftate of infancy *, and though cloths had been
manufactured fufficient for home confumption, yet it
could hardly be expeCted that Ireland would rival
Great Britain at the foreign markets, when, after the
expence of land-carriage, freight, infurance, and facto¬
rage, the latter was able to under fell Ireland in her
own market on the very fpot, even though aided by
the low wages and taxes paid in the country.
With regard to the linen, his lordfhip obferved, that
however profperous it might appear, yet ftill it was
capable of great improvement. The idea of extend-
•Vol. XI. Part L
ing and improving the linen manufactures of Ireland Ireland,
originated from a pamphlet written by Sir William w-—*
Temple *, and this gave rife to the compaCt which had
been referred to. But though this compaCt was now
about to be diflblved, it was his opinion that the boun¬
ties on importing Irifh linens ought not to be difeou-
tinned ; becaufe it appeared, that the Britifh bounties
had operated as a great encouragement to the Irifh
manufactures, at the fame time that the fum ap¬
propriated to this purpofe amounted to more than
13,000!.
With regard to the diflblution of the compaCI be¬
twixt England and Ireland, he obferved, that, as a
more liberal fpirit had now appeared on both fides of
the water, he hoped both kingdoms would be perfectly
contented. Ireland would never be able to rival Eng¬
land in the fine woollen fabrics; but allowing the Iriih
to manufacture their own wool, would put an end to
the contraband trade with France j and it ought to be
remembered, that whatever was an advantage to Ire¬
land, muft fooner or later be of Angular advantage to
Great Britain, and by the propofed regulations in their
commercial connections, the two kingdoms would be
put more upon an equality.
With regard to the glafs manufacture, his lordfhip
likewife obferved, that Ireland had been very injuri-
oufly treated. Before the aCt of 19th Geo. II. they
had begun to make fortie progrefs in the lower branch¬
es of the glafs manufacture ^ but by that aCt they were
not only prevented from importing any other glafs than
what was of Britifh manufacture, but alfo from export¬
ing their own glafs, or putting it on a horfe or carriage
with a defign to be exported. This aCt had been com¬
plained of in Ireland as a piece of great injuftice, and it
was the intention of his propofition to remove that
grievance.
With regard to the third propofition, his lordfhip
obferved, that allowing Ireland a free trade to the
colonies muft be confidered as a favour to that king¬
dom. Confidering her even as an independent ftate,
ftie could fet up no claim to an intercourfe with the
Britifh colonies. By every principle of juftice, of the
laws of nations, and the cuftom of the other European
powers who had fettlements and diftant dependencies,
the mother country had an exclufive right to trade
with, and to forbid all others from having any inter¬
courfe with them. Were not this the cafe, what na¬
tion under the fun would fpend their blood and trea-
fure in eftablifhing a colony, and protefting and defend¬
ing it in its infant ftate, if other nations were afterwards
to reap the advantages derived from their labour, ha¬
zard, and expence. But though Great Britain had a
right to reftrain Ireland from trading with her colonies,
his lordfhip declared himfelf of opinion that it would
be proper to allow her to participate of the trade.
This would be the only prudent means of affording her
relief; it would be an unequivocal proof of the candour
and fincerity of Great Britain 5 and he had not the
leaft doubt but it would be received as fuch in Ireland.
Britain, however, ought not to be a fufferer by her
bounty to Ireland j but this would be the cafe, fhould
the colony trade be thrown open to the latter, without
accompanying it with reftridlions fimilar to thofe
which were laid upon the Britifh trade with them. An
equal trade muft include an equal fhare of duties and
X x taxes :
Ireland.
86
They are
received
■with great
joy by the
Inlh.
IRE r 346
^axe« $ and this was the only proper ground on which
the benefits expedled by the Irith nation could be
either granted or defired.
Having made fome other obfervations on the pro¬
priety of thefe meafures, they were regularly formed
into motions, and paffed unanimoufly. In Ireland
they w’ere received with the utmoft joy and gratitude
by both houfes of parliament. On the 20th of De¬
cember the following refolutions were paffed $ viz.
That the exportation of woollen and other manufac¬
tures from Ireland to all foreign places will materially
tend to relieve its diftreffes, increafe its wealth, promote
its profperity, and thereby advance the welfare of
Britain, and the common ftrength, wealth, and com¬
merce of the Britifh empire : that a liberty to trade
with the Britilh colonies in America and the Weft
Indies, and the fettlements on the coaft of Africa, will
be productive of very great commercial benefits j will
be a moft affectionate mark of the regard and attention
of Great Britain to the diftreffes of the kingdom ; and
will give new vigour to the zeal of his majefiy’s brave
and loyal people of Ireland, to ftand forth in fupport
of his majefiy’s perfon and government, and the inte-
reft, the honour, and dignity of the Britilh empire.”
The fame refolutions were, next day, paffed in the
houfe of peers.
The higheft encomiums w-ere now paffed on Lord
North. His exertions in favour of Ireland were de¬
clared to have been great and noble ; he was ftyled
“ the great advocate of Ireland j” and it was foretold,
that he would be of glorious and immortal memory in
that kingdom. But while thefe panegyrics were fo
parliament, lavifiily made on the minifter, the members in oppofi-
tion, in the Britiih parliament, were fpoken of in very
indifferent terms. It was faid, that, while they
thought the minifter did not mean to go into the bu-
finefs of Ireland, they called loudly for cenfure againft
him for not doing it 5 but when it was found that he
meant ferioufly to take their affairs into confideration,
sg they had then bafely feceded, and wholly forfaken the
<Pkev „re intereft of the kingdom. Thefe cenfures were fo loud,
checked by that a member of the Britilh houfe of commons wrote
a letter a letter to be communicated to his friends in Ireland,
merr her of reprefented, that however politic it might
be to compliment the minifter on the prefent occafion,
it was neither very wife nor generous in the members
of the Irifh parliament to be fo ready in bellowing in-
veflives againll their old friends in England. With re¬
gard to the minifter, it was alleged, that until he was
driven to it by the meafures adopted in Ireland, his
conduct had been extremely equivocal, dilatory, and
indecilive. The minority had been juftly incenfed
againft him for having fo grofsly facrificed the honour
of the nation and the dignity of parliament as to re-
fufe any fubftantial relief to the Irilh, until their own
exertions had made,, it appear that every thing w'hich
could be done for them by the Britilh parliament was
not a matter of choice but of neceftity. The minority,
it was faid, had earneftly and repeatedly laboured to
procure relief for the people of Ireland j and if they
had now contented themlelves with a lilent acquiefcence
in the minifter’s propofitions, it was only until they
fhould know whether they would be fatisfa&ory to the
people of Ireland -} and uecaufe what was now done,
1
I R E
87
Excefiive
eulogiums
on L >rd
North to
the di (ad¬
vantage
of the mi¬
nority in
the Britifh
houfe of
commons.
appeared to be more an acl of ftate than of mefe par- Ireland,
liamentary deliberation and difcuffion. ' ^ J
To the propofitions already mentioned, Lord North
added three others. 1. For repealing the prohibition pr0pO('it;[onJ
of exporting gold coin from Great Britain to Ireland, in favour
2. For removing the prohibition to import foreign of Irelaift.
hops into Ireland, and the drawback on the exporta¬
tion of foreign hops. 3. For enabling his majefty’s
Irilh fubjeifts to become members of the Turkey com¬
pany, and to export •woollens in Britilh or Irilh bot¬
toms to the Levant. In fupport of this laft refolution
his lordlhip urged, that it was neceffary, becaufe the
exportation of woollens having been granted to Ire¬
land, the Irilh would naturally expedf a lhare in the
Turkey trade, which, as matters flood, was not pof-
lible, it having hitherto been a received opinion, that
no Irilhman could be elefted a member of the Turkey
company. Notwithftanding all the fatisfaftion, how¬
ever, with which the news of thefe bills were received
in Ireland, it was not long before thoughts of a dif- 90
ferent kind began to take place. It was fuggefted !sff’w dif-
that a free trade could be but of little ufe, if held by a
precarious tenure. The repeal of the obnoxious laws^|”ce° a 6
was reprefented as an aft of neceflity, not of choice,
on the part of the Britilh parliament. When that ne-
ceftity, therefore, no longer exifted, the fame parliament
might recal the benefits it had granted, and again fet¬
ter the Irilh trade by reftriftions perhaps more oppref-
five than before. To fecure the advantages they now
poffeffed, it was neceffary that the kingdom Ihould en¬
joy -the benefits of a free conftitution. For this the
people looked up to the volunteer companies j and the
idea of having fuch a glorious objeft in their power,
augmented the numbers of thofe which had alfo been 9l
increafed from other caufes. They had now received Numbers
the thanks of both houfes of parliament, and thus had oi the vo*
obtained the fanftion of the legiflature. Thus many ,n”
who had formerly fcrupled to conneft themfelves with
a lawlels body, made no fcruple to enter their lifts.
Government alfo engaged feveral of their friends in
the volunteer caufe. New companies were therefore
raifed j but whatever might be the political fentiments
of the officers, the private men were univerfally at¬
tached to the popular caufe. The national fpirit was
likewife kept up by feveral patriotic publications, par¬
ticularly the letters figned Owen Roe O’Neil, which
in an efpecial manner attrafted the public attention j
nor was the pulpit backward in contributing its part
in the fame caufe.
To give the greater weight to their determinations,
the volunteers now began to form themfelves into bat- themfelves
talions ; and in a very ihort time they were all united i;1t0 batta-
in this manner, excepting a fmall number of compa- il0ns•
nies, which, from accidental caufes, continued feparate.
The newfpapers were filled with refolutions from the
feveral corps, declaring Ireland to be an independent ireiand de.
kingdom, entitled by reafon, nature, and compaft, to dared an
all the privileges of a free conftitution •, that no power indepen-
in the world, excepting the king, with the lords and ‘|ent k‘n£~
commons of Ireland, had or ought to have power to
make laws for binding the Irilh j and that, in fupport
of thefe rights and privileges, they were determined to
facrifice their lives and property.
Notwithftanding all this zeal, however, the repre-
fentativea
Ireland.
94
Servile be¬
haviour of
the Irilh
parliament.
95
Frifh mu*
tiny bill
made per¬
petual.
96
5?ad ten¬
dency of it
fet forth by
Mr Grat¬
tan.
IRE [ 3
fentatives of the people in Ireland feem yet to have
behaved in a very fupine and carelefs manner, and to
have been entirely obedient to the dictates of govern¬
ment. One of the houfe of commons declared in the
month of April 1780, that “ no power on earth, ex¬
cepting the king, lords, and commons of Ireland, had
a right to make laws to bind the people.” “ Every
member in the houfe (fays Mr Crawford), one except¬
ed, acknowledged the truth of the propofition, either
in exprefs terms, or by not oppofing it ; and yet, how¬
ever allonilhing it may appear, it was evident, that had
the queftion been put, it would have been carried in
the negative. The matter was compromifed. The
queftion was not put j and nothing relating to it wras
entered on the journals.
This inattention, or rather unwil&ngnefs, of the ma¬
jority to ferve their country, w'as more fully manifefted
in the cafe of a mutiny bill, which they allowed to be
made perpetual in Ireland, though that in England
had always been cautioufly palled only from year to
year. After it was paffed, however, fome of the zea¬
lous patriots, particularly Mr Grattan, took great pains
to fet forth the bad tendency of that a£t. He obfer-
ved, that Handing armies in the time of peace were
contrary to the principles of the conftitution and the
fafety of public liberty ; they had fubverted the liberty
ef all nations excepting in thofe cafes where their num¬
ber was fmall, or the power of the fovereign over
them limited in fome refpedt or other j but it was in
vain to think of fetting bounds to the power of the
chief magiftrate, if the people chofe by a ftatute to
bind themfelves to give them a perpetual and irrefiftible
force. The mutiny bill, or martial lawr methodifed,
was dire&ly oppofite to the common law of the land.
It fet aftde the trial by jury and all the ordinary fteps
of law $ eftablifhing in their ftead a fummary proceed¬
ing, arbitrary crimes and punilhments, a fecret fen-
tence, and fudden execution. The objeff of this was
to bring thofe who were fubjeft to it to a ftate of im¬
plicit fubordination, and render the authority of the
fovereign abfolute. The people of England, therefore,
from a laudable jealoufy on all fubjefls in which their
liberty was concerned, had in the matter of martial
law exceeded their ufual caution. In the preamble
to the mutiny aft, they recited part of the declaration
of right, “ that Handing armies and martial law in
time of peace, without the confent of parliament, are
illegal.” Having then ftated the purity and fimplicity
of their ancient conftitution, and fet forth the great
principle of magna charta, they admitted a partial and
temporary repeal of it: they admitted an army, and a
lawT for its regulation, but at the fame time they limit¬
ed the number of the former, and the duration of
both 5 confining the exiftence of the troops themfelves,
the law that regulated them, and the power that com¬
manded them, to one year. Thus were the Handing
forces of England rendered a parliamentary army, and
the military rendered effeftually fubordinate to the ci¬
vil magiftrate, becaufe dependent on parliament. Yet
the people of England confidered the army, even thus
limited, only as a neceffary evil, and would not admit
even of barracks, left the foldier fhould be Hill more
alienated from the ftate of a fubjeft $ and in this ftate
of alienation have a poft of ftrength, which would aug¬
ment the danger arifing from his fituation. When
47 ] IRE
the parliament of Ireland proceeded to regulate the Ireland*,
army, therefore, they ought to have adopted the max-
ims of the Britifti conftitution, as wTell as the rules of
Britilh difcipline. But they had totally departed from
the maxims and example of the Englifti, and that in
the moft important concern, the government of the
fword. They had omitted the preamble which decla¬
red the great charter of liberty j they had left the num¬
ber of forces in the breaft of the king, and under thefe
circumftances they had made the bill perpetual.
It is probable that the bulk of the Iriih nation did
not at firft perceive the dangerous tendency of the bill
in queftion._ The reprefentations of Mr Grattan and
others, however, foon opened their eyes, and a general
diffatisfaftion took place. This was much increafed by
two unluccefsful attempts in the houfe of commons j one
to obtain an aft for modifying Poyning’s lawr; and the
other for fecuring the independency of the judges. An.
univerfal difguft againft the fpiritlefs conduft of parlia¬
ment now took place *, and the hopes of the people
were once more fet on the volunteers. 97
As it became now fomewdiat probable that thefe Reviews of
companies might at laft be obliged to aflert the rights ‘v',!un'
of their countrymen by force of arms, reviews were^^ted ~
judged nceffary to teach them how to aft in larger
bodies, and to give them a more exaft knowledge of
the ufe of arms. Several of thefe reviews took place
in the courfe of fummer 1780. The fpeftators in ge¬
neral were ftruck with the novelty and grandeur of the
fight j the volunteers became more than ever the ob-
jefts of efteem and admiration, and their numbers in*
creafed accordingly. The reviews in 1781 exceeded
thofe of the former year j and the dexterity of the
corps who had affociated more early was now obferved
to be greater than that of the reft. More than 5000
men were reviewed at Belfaft, whofe performances were
fet off to peculiar advantage by the difplay of 13
pieces of cannon. They {bowed their alacrity to ferve
their country in the field, on a report having arifen
that the kingdom was to be invaded by the combined
fleets of France and Spain ; and for their fpirited beha¬
viour on this occafion they received a fecond time the
thanks of both houfes of parliament.
Such prodigious military preparations could not but
alarm the Britiih miniftry in the higheft degree 5 and
it was not to be doubted that the Irifh volunteers would
come to the fame extremities the Americans had done,
unlefs their wifties were fpeedily complied with. Still,
however, it was imagined poflible to fupprefs them,
and it was fuppofed to be the duty of the lord lieute- •
nant to do fo. It was during the adminiftration of
the duke of Buckingham that the volunteers had
grown into fuch confequence; he was therefore re¬
called, and the earl of Carlifle appointed in his place. 9s
Though it was impoflible for the new governor to fup-Shameful
prefs the fpirit of the nation, he found it no difficultC0BC1 •‘ H
matter to obtain a majority in parliament. Thus every
redrefs was for the prefent effeftually denied. Neither1:1 iruainenti
the modification of Poyning’s law, nor the repeal of
the obnoxious parts of the mutiny bill, could be ob¬
tained. The' volunteers, exafperated at this beha¬
viour, refolved at once to fhow that they were refol-
ved to do themfelves juftice, and were confcious that
they had power to do fo. At a meeting of the officers
of the louthcrn battalion of the Armagh regiment, com-
X x 2 manded
IRE
[ 348 ]
I R E
Ireland.
99
A general
meeting*)!
the volun¬
teers ap¬
pointed.
too
K.e!blutions
of this
oieeling.
tnanded by tbe earl of Charlemont, the following refo*
lutions were entered into December 28. 1781. 1. That
the molt vigorous and effectual methods ought to be
purfued for rooting corruption out from the legiflative
t^pdy. 2. For this purpofe a meeting of delegates from
all the volunteer affociations was neceffary } and Dun¬
gannon, as the moft central town in the province of Di¬
ffer, feeffied to be the moft proper for holding fuch a
meeting. 3. That as many and lafting advantages
might attend the holding fuch a meeting before the
prefent feflion of parliament was much farther advan¬
ced, the 15th of February next fliould be appointed
for it.
Thefe refolutions proved highly offenfive to the
friends of government, and every method was taken
to difcourage it. On the appointed day, however, the
reprefentatives of 143 volunteer corps attended at Dun¬
gannon 5 and the refults of their deliberation were as
follows. 1. It having been afferted, that volunteers,
as fuch, cannot with propriety debate or publfth tbyeir
opinions on political fubjefts, or on the conduft of
parliament, or public men, it w’as refolved unanimoufly,
that a citizen, by learning the ufe of arms, does not
abandon any of bis civil rights. 2. That a claim from
any body of men, other than the king, lords, and com¬
mons of Ireland, to make laws to bind the people, is
illegal, unconftitutional, and a grievance. 3. Refol¬
ved, with one diffenting voice only, that the powers
exercifed by the privy council of both kingdoms, under
colour or pretence of the law of Poyning, are uncon¬
ftitutional and a grievance. 4. Refolved unanimoufly,
that the ports of this country are by right open to all
foreign countries not at war with the king 5 and that
any burden thereupon, or obftruftion thereto, except¬
ing only by the parliament of Ireland, are unconftitu¬
tional and a grievance. 5.. Refolved, with one dif¬
fenting voice only, that a mutiny bill, not limited in
point of duration from feflion to feflion, is unconfti¬
tutional and a grievance. 6. Refolved unanimoufly,
that the independence of judges is equally effential to
the impartial adminiftration of juftice in Ireland as in
England, and that the refufal or delay of this right
is in itfelf unconffitutional and . a grievance. 7. Re¬
folved, with 11 diffenting voices only, that it is the
decided and unalterable determination of the volunteer
companies to feek a redrefs of thefe grievances $ and
they pledged themfelves to their country, and to each
other, as freeholders, fellow’-citizens, and men of ho¬
nour, that they would, at every enfuing eledion, fup-
port only thofe who had fupported them, and would
fupport them therein, and that they would ufe all
conftitutional means to make fuch purfuit of redrefs
fpeedy and effedual. 8. Refolved, with only one dif¬
fenting voice, that the minority in parliament, who
had fupported thofe conftitutional rights, are entitled
to the moft grateful thanks of the volunteer compa¬
nies, and that an addrefs to the purpofe be iigned by
the chairman, and publiftied with the refolutions of the
prefent meeting. 9. Refolved unanircoufly, that four
members from each county of the province of Di¬
ffer, eleven to be a quorum, be appointed a committee
till the next general meeting, to ad for the volunteer
corps, and to call general meetings of the province as
occafion requires. 10. The committee being appoint¬
ed., and the time of general meetings, and fome other
affairs of a fimilar nature fettled, it was refolved una- Ireland,
nimoufly, that the court of Portugal having unjuftly '"“""v ~ "J
refufed entry to certain Irilh commodities, the dele¬
gates would not confume any wine of the growth of
Portugal, and that tney w’ould ufe all their influence
to prevent the ufe of the faid wine, excepting what
was then in the kingdom, until fuch time as the Iriffi
exports Ihould be received in the kingdom of Portu¬
gal. 11. Refolved, with only two diffenting voices,,
that they hold the right of private judgment in mat¬
ters of religion equally facred in others as in themfelves j
and that they rejoiced in the relaxation of the penal
laws againft the Papifts, as a meafure fraught with the
happieft confequences to the union and profperity of the
inhabitants of Ireland.
While thefe proceedings took place at Dungannon,
the miniftry carried all before them in parliament. In party pret
a debate concerning the exclufive legillative privileges vails excef-
of Ireland, a law member, fpeaking of the arbitrary fively h1
adls of England, afferted, that “ power conffituted Par^amen*‘
right j” and a motion that the commons fliould be de¬
clared the reprefentatives of the people wras carried in
the negative. Thefe fcandalous proceedings could not
but haften the ruin of their caufe. The refolutions
entered into at the Dungannon meeting were received
throughout the kingdom wdth the utmoft applaufe. A I02
few days after, Mr Grattan, whofe patriotifm has been Mr Grat-
already taken notice of, moved in the houfe of .commons ta»,s mo-
for a long and fpirited addrefs to his majefty, declaring
the rights of the kingdom, and afferting the principle ciar;ng’thl
which now began *to prevail, that Ireland could legally mdepen-
be bound by no power but that of the king, lords, and denoy of
commons of the country; though the Britilh parliament*1’?*®!’1^
had aflumed fuch a power. This motion was at prefent rc^e c‘"
rejefted by a large majority ; but their eyes were foon
enlightened by the volunteers.
Thefe having now appointed their committees of
correfpondence, were enabled to communicate their
fentiments to one another with the utmoft facility and
quicknefs. An affociation was formed in the name of ^
the nobility, reprefentatives, freeholders, and inhabi-0f the vo-
tants of the county of Armagh, wherein they fet forth lunteers to
the neceflity of declaring their fentiments openly re-d^P111"
fpefting the fundamental and undoubted rights of the1'0^’
nation. They declared, that, in every fttuation in
life, and with all the means in their power, they would
maintain the conftitutional right of the kingdom to be
governed only by the king and parliament of Ireland ;
and that they would, in every inftance, uniformly and
ftrenuoufly oppofe the execution of any ftatutes, ex¬
cepting fuch as derived their authority from the parlia¬
ment juft mentioned ; and they pledged themfelves, in
the ufual manner, to fupport what they now declared
with their lives and fortune.
This declaration was quickly adopted by all the
other counties, and fimilar fentiments became univer-
fally avowed throughout the kingdom. The change in
the Britifli miniftry in the fpring of 1782 facilitated the io^
wifties of the people. The duke of Portland, who Favourable
came over as lord lieutenant in April that year, fent a meffage
moft welcome meffage to parliament. He informed
them, that “ his majefty, being concerned to find that the duke
difcontents and jealoufies were prevailing among his of Port,
loyal fubjefts in Ireland, upon matters of great weight land,
and importance, he recommended it to parliament to
take..
103
Declaration
i°5
Mr Grat¬
tan’s fecond
attempt in
favour of
1 R E ;[ 349 1
Ireland, take the fame ihto their moft ferious confideratlon, in people ;
■—order to fucb a finaL adjuftment as might give mutual
fatisfaftion to his kingdoms of Great Britain and Ire¬
land.”
Mr Grattan, whofe patriotic efforts had never been
flackened, now ventured to propofe a fecond time in
parliament the addrefs which had been rejefled before,
his addrefs. On the 16th of April he began a fpeech to this pur-
pofe with a panegyric on the volunteers, and the late
Condudf of the people. The Irilh, he faid, were no
longer a divided colony, but an united land, manifeft-
ing itfelf to the reft of the world in fignal inftances of
glory. In the reft of Europe the ancient fpirit was
expired liberty was yielded, or empire loft j nations
were living upon the memory of paft glory, or under
the care of mercenary armies. In Ireland, however,
the people by departing from the example of other
nations, had become an example to them. Liberty,
in former times and in other nations, was recovered
by the quick feelings and rapid impulfe of the popu¬
lace. But in Ireland, at the prefent period, it wTas
recovered by an aft of the whole nation reafoning for
three years on its fituation, and then refcuing itfelf by
a fettled fenfe of right pervading the land. The meet¬
ing of the delegates at Dungannon was an original mea-
fure •, and, like all of that kind, continued to Be matter
of furprife, until at laft it became matter of admira¬
tion. Great meafures, fuch as the meeting of the
Englilh at Runny Mead, and of the Irifh at Dungan¬
non, were not the confequences of precedent, but car¬
ried in themfelves both precedent and principle *, and
the public caufe in both inftances would infallibly have
been loft had it been trufted to parliament. The
meeting at Dungannon had refolved, that the claim of
the Britifh parliament was illegal j and this was a con-
ftitutional declaration. The Irifti volunteers were af-
fociated for the prefervation of the lawTs, but the con¬
duct of the Britifh parliament fubverted all law. Eng¬
land, however, had no reafon to fear the Irifh volun¬
teers ; they would facrifice their lives in her caufe.
The two nations formed a general confederacy. The
perpetual annexation of the crown was a great bond,
but magna charta wTas a greater. It would be eafy.
for Ireland to find a king ; but it would be impoflible
to find a nation who would communicate to them fuch
a charter as magna charta; and it was this tyhich made
their natural connexion with England. The Irifh
nation were too high in pride, chara&er, and power,
to fuffer any other nation to make their laws. England
had indeed brought forward the queftion, not only by
making laws for Ireland the preceding feffion, but by
enabling his majefty to repeal all the laws which Eng¬
land had made for America. Had fhe confented to
repeal the declaratory law againft America ? and would
file refufe to repeal that againft Ireland ? The Irifh na¬
tion were incapable of fubmitting to fuch a diftinc-
tion.
Mr Grattan now found his eloquence much more
powerful than formerly. The motion which, during
this very feflion, had been rejected by a great majority,
was now agreed to after a fliort debate, and the addrefs
to his majefty prepared accordingly. In this, after
thanking his majefty for his gracious meffage, and de¬
claring their attachment to his perfon and government,
they afiured him, that^the fubjeds of Ireland are a free
Treiand-
10^
It is agreed
to.
i°7
3ubftance
«f the ad¬
drefs.
IRE
that the crown of Ireland is an imperial
crown, infeparably annexed to that of Britain, on which
connedion the interefts and happinefs of both nations
effentially depend j but the kingdom of Ireland is di-
ftind, with a parliament of its own : that there is no
body of men competent to make laws to bind Ireland,
except the king, lords, and commons thereof, nor any
other parliament that hath any power or authority of
any fort whatfoever, in this country, except the par¬
liament of Ireland. They affured his majefty, that they
humbly conceive, that in this right the very effence ofr
their liberties did exift $ a right which they, on the
part of all Ireland, do claim as their birthright, and
which they cannot yield but with their lives. They
affured his majefty, that they had feen with concern
certain claims advanced by the parliament of Great
Britain, in an ad intitled, “ For the better fecuring
the dependency of Ireland j” an ad containing matter
entirely irreconcileable to the fundamental rights of the
nation. They informed his majefty, that they conceiv¬
ed this ad, and the claims it advanced, to be the
great and principal caufe of the difcontents and jealou-
fies in the kingdom. They affured him, that his
commons did moft fincerely wifti, that all the bills,
which become law in Ireland, Ihould receive the ap¬
probation of his majefty under the feal of Great Bri¬
tain j but yet, that they conceived the pradice of
fupprefling their bills in the council of Ireland, or al¬
tering them anywhere, to be another juft caufe of
difcontent and jealoufy. They further affured his ma¬
jefty, that an ad intitled, “ For the better accommo¬
dation of his majefty’s forces,” being unlimited in du¬
ration, and defedive in fome other circumftances, was
another juft caufe of jealoufy and difcontent. Thefe,
the principal caufes of jealoufies and difcontent in the
kingdom,, they had fubmitted to his majefty, in humble
expedation of redrefs : and they concluded with an af-
furance, that they were more confident in the hope of-
obtaining redrefs, as the people of Ireland had been, and
wrere, not more difpofed to (hare the freedom of Eng¬
land, than to fupport her in her difficulties, and to (hare
her fate.
To this remarkable addrefs a moft gracious anfvver It is gracL
was given. In a few days the lord lieutenant made aou% re-
fpeech to both houfes 5 in which he informed them,ce^ve^‘
that, by the magnanimity of the king, and wifdom of
the Britifh parliament,, he was enabled to affure them,
that immediate attention had been paid to their repre-
fentations, and that the legiflature of Britain had con¬
curred in a refolution to remove the caufes of their dif¬
contents, and were united in a defire to gratify every
wifti expreffed in the late addrefs to the throne ; and
that, in the mean time, his majefty was gracioufly dif¬
pofed to give his royal affent to ads to prevent the
fuppreffing of bills in the Irifti privy-council, and to li¬
mit the mutiny-bill to the term of twTo years.
The joy which now diffufed itfelf all over the kingr Extreme
dom wTas extreme. The warmeft addreffes were pre-joy of the
fented not only to his majefty but to the lord lieute-Irifli.
nant. The commons inftantly voted icc,oool. to his
majefty, to enable him to raife 20,000 men for the
navy y and foon after, 5000 men were like wife voted
from the Irifti eftablifhment. The volunteers became
in a peculiar manner the objeds of gratitude and uni-
verfal panegyric j but none was placed in fo confpicu-
GUS
xoS
IRE
:frraan'd. ous a light as Mr Grattan. Addrefles of thanks flow-
^ ed in upon him from all quarters j and the commons
Mr Grat- ^ddreffed his majefty to give him 50,000k as a re-
tan re- compenfe of his fervices j for which they promifed to
warded. make provifion.
This requeft was alfo complied with; but ftill the
be^n^tQ63 jeal°uhes the Irilh were not completely eradicated,
rrevive. As the intended repeal of the declaratory aft was found
to be limple, without any claufe exprefsly relinquhhing
the claim of right, feveral members of the houfe of
commons were of opinion, that the liberties of Ireland
were not yet thoroughly fecured. The majority, however,
were of opinion, that the limple repeal of the obnoxious
aft was fufficient ; but many of the nation at large dif¬
fered in fentiments. Mr Flood, a member of the houfe,
and a zealous patriot, now took the lead in this mat¬
ter ; while Mr Grattan loft much of his popularity by
efpoufmg the contrary opinion. The matter, however,
was to appearance finally fettled by the volunteers, who
declared themfelves on Mr Grattan’s fide. Still fome
murmurings were heard; and it muft be owned, that
.IIZ even yet the conduft of Britain appeared equivocal,
conduft of -A-n Englilh law was paffed, permitting^ importation from
Britain. one °f the Weft India illands to all his majefty’s domi¬
nions ; and of courfe jpcluding Ireland, though the
trade of the latter had already been declared abfolutely
free. This was looked upon in a very unfavourable
light. Great offence was alfo taken at a member of the
Englilh houfe of lords for a fpeech in parliament, in
which he afferted, that Great Britain had a right to
bind Ireland in matters of an external nature ; and
propofed to bring in a bill for that purpofe. The pub¬
lic difcontent was alfo greatly inflamed by fome circum-
llances relating to this bill, which were particularly
obnoxious. Lord Beauchamp, in a letter addreffed
to one of the volunteer corps, was at pains to ftiow that
the fecurity of the legiflative privileges obtained from
the parliament of Britain was infufficient. The lawyers
corps, alfo, who took the queftion into confidera-
tion, were of the fame opinion ; but the circumftance
which gave the greateft offence was, that the chief
juftice in the Englilh court of king’s bench gave
judgement in an Irilh caufe direftly contrary to a
law which had limited all fuch judgements to the firft
of June. All thefe reafons of difcontent, however,
were removed on the death of the marquis of Rocking-
1I3 ham, and the appointment of the new miniftry who
Affaire fucceeded him. Lord Temple came over to Ireland,
finally fet- and his brother and fecretary Mr Grenville went to
tied under England^ where he made fuch reprefentations of the
“f-difcontents which prevailed concerning the infufficiency
Lord Tem- of the declaratory aft, that Mr Townlhend, one of the
pie fecretaries of ftate, moved in the houfe of commons for
leave to bring in a bill to remove from the minds of the
people of Ireland all doubts refpefting their legiflative
and judicial privileges. This bill contained, in the fulleft
and moft exprefs terms, a relinquilhment on the part of
the Britilh legiflature of all claims of a right to inter¬
fere with the judgment of the Irilh courts, or to make
laws to bind Ireland in time to come. Thus the con-
teft was at laft ended; and ever fince this kingdom has
•continued to flourilh, and to enjoy the bleflings of
tranquillity and peace, free from every kind of reftric-
tion either on its commerce or manufaftures, till the
commencement of the rebellion in 179^*
IRE
Some time after the above tranfaftion, the commer- Ireland.
ctalproportions of Mr Pitt were rejefted by both houfes v
of the Irilh parliament; and in the latter end of the
year 1788, very warm debates took place on the regen¬
cy bill; but the fudden and unexpefted recovery of his
majefty put a period to this political conteft. The
queftion refpefting the emancipation of the Roman
Catholics was much agitated about this period, and the
miniftry rendered themfelves ftill more popular by ap¬
pointing Earl Fitzwilliam to fucceed the marquis of
Buckingham as lord lieutenant of Ireland. It is to be
prefumed, however, that the joy of the people on this
occalion chiefly originated from the hope, that the bill
for the Catholic emancipation, brought in by Mr Grat¬
tan on the 12th of February 179 T, and another on
the 14th of the fame month, for the diminution of the ri^
national expenditure, would be allowed to pafs. The Bill ir fa-
minirtry, however, feemed to reprobate thefe meafures, vour of the
in confequence of which Earl Fitzwiliiam was recalled,
and Lord Camden appointed his iucceffor, wdiich was e ’
fo repugnant to the feelings of the people, that the day
of Lord Fitzwilliam’s departure (25th March) was
obferved at Dublin as a day of general mourning. The
bill in favour of Catholic emancipation was rejefted on
the 4th of May, by a majority of 71, which had a
powerful tendency to increafe the popular difcontent.
Of this difaffeftion the rulers of France determined to 1I(.
avail themfelves, and fitted out a fleet for the invafion French at-
of Ireland, confifting of 18 fail of the line, 13 frigates, tempt to
and 12 floops, with tranfports, and 25,000 men, which an^ n ’re*
were under the command of General Hoche. This 1111 ’
formidable armament failed from Breft on the 10th of
December 1796; but fo tempeftuous was the weather
that the fleet was difperfed ; the fquadron under the
command of Admiral Bouvet returned to Breft on the
31ft after reaching Bantry bay ; a (hip of the line and
two frigates periihed at fea ; another French frigate-was
taken by the Britifh, and a French fhip of the line
efcaped, after fighting for fome time againft two Bri-
tilh ftiips.
It was no doubt a fortunate circumftance for Bri¬
tain, yet the internal anarchy and confufion of Ireland
were ftill rapidly gaining ground. The members of
the fociety of United Iriftimen, inftituted in the year
1791, profeffed to have no other objefts in view than
a reform in parliament, and that the people of every
religious profeflion fhould enjoy an equality of civil
rights; but it was afterwards undeniably proved, that
they anxioufly wiftied to bring about a revolution, and
eftablifti a republican government, fimilar t® that which
then deluged France with blood. The members fwore
“ to obtain a complete reform in the legiflature, on
the principles of civil, political, and religious liberty;
and never to inform, or give evidence, in any court, ri$
againft any member of that or fimilar focieties.” So CWgin of
plaufible were thefe objefts, that their numbers e ’
creafed with aftoniflung rapidity, and their divificns
and fubdivifions were foon extended all over the king¬
dom. Many loyal fubjefts, afraid of the extenfion of
Roman Catholic privileges, alfo formed affociations un¬
der the title of Orangemen, in order to deprive Papifts
of arms ; and they in their turn affumed the name of
defenders : in confequence of which the moft terrible
outrages were committed on both fides. The United
Iriflimen ftill continued the moft numerous; but the
firft
[ 350 1
%
I
Ireland.
117
Irifh re-
public.
11S
Adlions
with the
rebels.
IRE [ 35i ] IRE
firft diredl communication between them and the French
directory took place in 1795 through the medium of one
Mr Lewins j and in the following year the invafion,
already mentioned, vcas concerted on the frontiers of
France, between Lord Fitzgerald, Arthur O’Connor,
and General Hoche, the failure of which did not feem
to intimidate the rebels. Arms continued to be diftri-
buted with fecrecv among the members, and a cor-
refpondence with the French diredory was ftill pre¬
fer ved.
As proceedings of fuch a nature wTere juftly alarm¬
ing to the Britilh government, the Infurreflion AEi was
palled in March 1796, by which magiftrates were autho¬
rized to place the people under martial law; a meafure
no doubt juftifiable from the alarming nature of the
times j but it certainly had the effe6! of increaling the
difcontents, and was alfo produdive of numerous ads
of oppreflion. Yet fuch as were conneded with the
United Irilhmen were guilty of adions equally atroci¬
ous. So fully convinced were they of ultimate fuccefs,
that in December 1797 an executive diredory was
nominated for the government of the Irifh republic,
conlilling of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, Mr A. O’Con¬
nor, Mr Oliver Bond, Dr M‘Niven, and Counfellor
Emmet. With fuch confummate art was their con-
fpiracy planned, and with fuch profound fecrecy wTas it
conduded, that there is great reafon to believe it
might have been carried into effed, had not Mr Rey¬
nolds made a difcovery in March 1798, w’hich led to
the apprehenlion of the principal ringleaders, and Fitz¬
gerald received a mortal wound w'hile refilling the of¬
ficers. This reverfe of fortune did not prevent the no¬
mination of another diredory j but its fate was fimilar
to the former, and information wras given againfl them
by a Captain Armftrong, who had entered into their
fociety for the purpofe of betraying them. John and
Henry Sheares, two of the diredors, were apprehended
on the 2111 of May 1798 ; Mr Neiifon and a number
more of the fame defcription on the 23d, and the me¬
tropolis was proclaimed in a flate of infurredion. The
guards were made three times flronger than before ;
and the whole city might be confidered as forming but
one garrifon. Dublin was thus delivered from the
dreadful havock and devaftation premeditated by the re¬
bels ; but in the provinces of Leinfter and Connaught,
as well as in various other places, they appeared in for¬
midable bodies, intercepted the mail coaches, and thus
gave the fignal for a general infurredion.
In their attack upon the town of Naas, on the 2.4th
of May, they experienced a lignal defeat from Lord
Gosford at the head of the Armagh militia, and left
400 men dead on the field. General Dundas defeated
a confiderable body of the rebels near Kilcuilen, and
on the 25th Lord Roden vanquifhed another body of
them about 400 ftrong, the leaders of whom were ta¬
ken and executed, On the 26th they fiiared the fame
fate at Tallagh hill, when 350 of them were flain.
They attacked the town of Carlow to the number of
1000, where they were defeated with the lofs of 400
men \ but as the inhabitants fired upon the king’s
troops, one half of the town was burnt in revenge.
The rebels made an attack upon Kildare on the 29th,
but the gallant condud of Sir J. Duff and the troops
under his command, made them foon retire with the
lofs of 2.90 men. In Wicklow and Wexford, however,
the rebellion raged with the mod dreadful fury j in the
latter of which they were computed to have 15000 men
on the 25th of May, when they furrounded and cut to
pieces the North York militia at Oulard, commanded
by Colonel Foot and Major Lombard. They attacked
and carried the town of Ennifcorthy, but with the lofs
of 400 men, and a party of the Meath militia fell into
their hands on the 29th. The town of Wextord fur-
rendered to them next day, when Harvey, Fitzgerald,
and Colclough, who had been made prilbners on the
26th for treafon, were inftantly let at liberty, and Har¬
vey was appointed their commander-in-chiet. Having,
left a garrifon in the towm, the rebel commander march¬
ed on the 5th of June to attack New Rofs, where Ma¬
jor-general Johnfton obilinately defended the town for
feveral hours, and at laft forced the enemy to retreat
with confiderable lofs. This defeat fo exafperated the
rebels, that they butchered 105 royalifts whom they
found in the jail of Wexford. Their attempt upon
Gorey wTas ineffedlual, as w’ell as that upon Newton
Barry on the 3d of June, where Colonel Lefirange de¬
feated them with the lofs of 500 men killed in the ac¬
tion. On the following day, however, the tide of for¬
tune feemed to turn in their favour near Slievebay
mountain, where the royal forces under Colonel Wal¬
pole were defeated with the lofs of 54 men, and the
commander himfelf was {lain in the adlion. Encou¬
raged by this fuccefs, they refolved to make an attack
upon Arklow ; but the grape-ihot of General Need¬
ham made terrible havock among them ; yet their
ftrong pofition near Vinegar hill was ftill maintained
by their main body, from w'hich it was found impracti¬
cable to diflodge them before the 21ft, w’hen they were
nearly furrounded by General Lake, with his troops in
five columns, led into aCtion by Generals Dundas,
Johnfon, Euftace, Duff, and Loftus, The carnage
w;as terrible, as the rebels defended themfelves with
great obflinacy for an hour and a half, and loft 13
pieces of cannon. The towm of Wexford furrendered
next day, and on the 26th Harvey and Colclough were
apprehended on one of the Sallee ifiands, who were
tried and executed, together with Keughe, the rebel
governor of Wexford.
The details of carnage and bloodflied are by no.
means agreeable to the feelings of humanity, yet a re¬
gard to hiftorical truth obliges us to give them, but in
as concife a manner as we poffibly can. The rebels
gained pofl'effion of Antrim about the 7th of June, but
were foon obliged to abandon it by the exertions of
General Nugent. Still, howmver, a fpirit of infurrec-
tion continued formidable in the counties of Antrim
and Down ; but the rebels wmre defeated on the 12th
at Ballynahinuch, where they loft upwards of 400 men,
and the royal forces only 20 in killed and wounded.
Munro, their general, was taken prifoner and executed.
It is to be lamented that both rebels and royalifts feem¬
ed, during this unnatural confeft, to be fuch utter
ftrangers to every principle of humanity, that fome
have deemed it a very difficult matter to determine
which party was the worft, although the bifhop of Kil-
lala, who fuffered much for his attachment to govern¬
ment, gives it againft the latter. This, however, was
deftined to be terminated in a very ffiort time, for
Marquis Cornwallis was now appointed lord-lieutenant
of Ireland, and arrived in Dublin on the 20th of June..
The
Ireland.
IRE [ 352 ] IRE
Ireland. The firft jneafure, adopted by his excellency, foon
after his arrival, had .1 more powerful effefl in cruflnng
the rebellion than all the rigorous meafures formerly
purfued. On the 7th of July he made an offer of his
majefty’s pardon to all who fhould furrender before a
certain day. The confequence of this proclamation
was, that numbers returned to their allegiance, and de¬
livered up all the arms in their poffeffion. Some, how¬
ever, of the moil notorious offenders were tried by a
fpecial commiflion, condemned, and executed, fuch as
J. and H. Sheares, M‘Cann, Byrne, and others. Mr
Oliver Bond, who was condemned on the 23d of July,
had powerful intereft made for him in order to fave his
life on account of his refpeftable connexions. The
fentence of death was to be changed into banifnment,
on condition he would tell all he knew refpedling the
rebellion. He was accordingly pardoned, but his death
happened foon after. Some of the moft defperate of
the rebels flill continued to lurk about the mountains of
Wicklow and Wexford, notwithflanding the proclama¬
tion of the amneffy, but thefe wTere gradually reduced.
It was the general opinion about this time, that the
rebellion wras completely ended, when the people wrere
1T9 fuddenly and unexpectedly alarmed by the landing of
A bsdy of a body of French troops under General Humbert.
French This happened at Killala, on the 2 2d of Auguft 179^*
Ireland1 number being at firfl very much exaggerated,
Lord Cornwallis defigned to march againft them in
perfon at the head of the army. In the mean time
Humbert marched on towards Caftlebar, where he
engaged the Britifh forces under General Lake, obli¬
ging them to retreat writh the lofs of fix pieces of can¬
non, and a confiderable number of men. Lord Corn¬
wallis came up with the French near Caillebar, and
forced them to retreat *, and General Humbert having
been joined by a number of the rebels, he made a cir¬
cuitous march in order to favour their efcape, in con¬
fequence of which the greater part of them got away
in fafety. Ninety-three of them and three of their
generals were taken prifoners. The French having
furiendered, the public were aftonifhed to find that
this tremendous army amounted to no more than 844
men !
On the 16th of September a French brig made its
appearance off the ifle of Rutland, on the north-weft
coaft of Donegal, where the crew landed, together
with General Rey and the celebrated Napper Tandy,
fuftaining the rank of a French general of brigade.
On inquiring after Humbert, they feemed aftonilhed at
being informed that he and his men Were prifoners.
In the end of September a fhip of the line and eight
frigates, with troops and ammunition for Ireland, failed
from Breft harbour •, but the coaft was too well defend¬
ed by the fquadron under the command of Sir J. B.
Warren, for fuch art armanent to be fuccefsful. The
{hip of the line, called the Hoche, {truck after a gallant
defence; and the whole fquadron wTas captured, with the
exception of two frigates. This defeat was a death¬
blow to the hopes of uie French as well as to the Irifti
rebelsr- The celebrated Theobald Wolfe Tone was
found among the prifoners in the Hoche, who W’as con-
fidered as the ableft man at Paris from Ireland, in re-
fpedt of negociating. He was tried by a court martial
at Dublin, where it was allowed that he made a very
anly defence, neither denying nor excufing his crime,
3
but refting the merits of his plea on the idea of his be¬
ing, as he thought, a citizen of France, and an officer
in the fervice of that country. His arguments, how¬
ever, were ineffeffual, and the court would not even
grant his requeft to be {hot rather than hanged, in con¬
fequence of wffiich he committed filicide in prifon. The
fpirit of rebellion might be faid to die with this wonder¬
ful man ; for the few rebels who {till continued with
General Holt, the laft of the rebel chiefs, gradually
laid down their arms, as did Holt himfelf, who was
banilhed for life.
At the termination of this horrible conteft, it was
computed that not fewer than 30,000 perfons loft their
lives, independent of many thoufands who were wmund-
ed or tranfported.
The only remaining event of any importance con-
nedled with the hiftory of this country, is its union
with Great Britain. This event had been long in con¬
templation, but it was firft announced in the Britifti
houfe of commons on the 2 2d of January 1799, by a Union with
meffage from his majefty, conceived in thefe wmrds :
“ George R. His majefty is perfuaded, that the un¬
remitting induftry with which our enemies perfevere in
their avowrnd defign of effedling the feparation of Ireland
from this country, cannot fail to engage the particular
attention of parliament; and his majefty recommends
it to this houfe, to confider of the moft effedlual means
of finally defeating this defign, by difpofing the parlia¬
ments of both kingdoms, to provide in the manner
which they {hall judge moft; expedient, for fettling fuch
a complete and final adjuftment, as may beft tend to
improve and perpetuate a connexion effential for their
Common fecurity, and confolidate the ftrength, power,
and refources of the Britifti empire.” On the 31ft the
meafure was taken into confideration, when Mr Pitt
moved feven refolutions as the bafis of it, which wTere
oppofed by Mr Sheridan, wftio gave it as his decided
opinion, that the fair and free approbation of parlia¬
ment could never be afeertained, wffiile any of its mem- -
bers were under government influence, on which ac¬
count he oppofed the union; as did alfo Meffrs Grey,
Tierney, Jones, Sir F. Burden, General Fitzpatrick,
Dr Lawrence and others. It alfo met with confider¬
able opposition in the houfe of peers, and in the Irilh
parliament the oppofition wras formidable. In the ad-
drefs to his majefty, the paragraph recommending an
union was voted to be expunged, by a majority of 111
againft: 106, in confequence of wffiich the city of Dub¬
lin w’as twice illuminated. In the houfe of peers, howr-
ever, a majority appeared in favour of the union ; and
when it was introduced in form by a meffage from
the lord lieutenant, it was carried in favour of the
union, after a long and interefting debate, by a ma¬
jority of 161 againft 115. The articles of the intend¬
ed union were tranfmitted to England by the lord
lieutenant; they were again fubmitted to the Britiftr
parliament on the 2d of April j on the 2d of July the
bill received the royal affent, and the union took place
on the 1 ft of January 1801.
In confeqilence of this union, which we truft will
prove an unfpeakable blefting to both countries, the
Irifti are to have a {hare of all the commerce of Great
Britain, with the exception of fuch parts of it as be¬
long to chartered companies, and confequently not free
to the inhabitants of the Britifh empire indiferiminately.
The
IrelanU.
120
IRE
[ 353 I
I R E
Ireland.
Ill
Climate,
&.c. 'if Ire¬
land.
in
Linen ma¬
nufacture
earl, intro¬
duced.
The commons of Ireland are reprefented by a hundred
members in the imperial parliament; the fpiritual and
temporal peerage of that country by four biihops and
twenty-eight lay-lords, who are elected by the bifhops
and peers of Ireland, and hold their feats for life ; and
the title of his Britannic majelty is “ king of the united
kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, defender of the
faith j” the title of king of France being now laid
afide. The former laws and courts of juftice in Ire¬
land are ftill retained, as alfo the court of chancery,
and the king of Great Britain is ftill reprefented by a
lord-lieutenant. No part of the debt contraffed by
Britain prior to the union is to be paid by Ireland,
which only contributes to the expences of the empire
in the ratio of i to 74. But as this in time might
prove extravagantly favourable to that country, in con-
fequence of a rapid increafe of its trade and commerce,
it may be revifed and altered by parliament in the
courfe of twenty years. By one claufe of the a£t of
union it is declared, that fuch peers of Ireland as are
not elcdfed into the houfe of lords, are competent to
fit in the houfe of commons as reprefentatives of Britilh
towns and counties, on condition that they give up all
the privileges of the peerage during their continuance
in the lower houfe.
The climate of Ireland would almoft perfe&ly agree
with that of England, were the foil equally improved,
being abundantly fruitful both in corn and grafs, efpe-
cially the latter 5 in confcquence of which, an infinite
number of black cattle and ftieep are bred, particularly
in the province of Connaught. Few countries produce
finer grain than that which grows in the improved parts
of this kingdom. The northern and eaftem counties are
beft cultivated and inclofed, and the moft populous.
Ireland is known to have many rich mines ; and
there is no inconfiderable profpeft of gold and filver in
fome parts of the kingdom. No country in the world
abounds more in beautiful lakes, both frelh and fait
water ones; and it is alfo plentifully watered with many
beautiful rivers. The commodities W’hich Ireland ex¬
ports, as far as her prefent trade will permit, are hides,
tallow, beef, butter, cheefe, honey, wax, hemp, metals,
and fifh : wool and glafswere, till December 23. 1779,
prohibited ; but her linen trade is of late grown of
very great confequence. England, in the whole, is
thought to gain yearly by Ireland upwards of 1,400,000!.
and in many other refpefts fire mull be of very great
advantage to that kingdom. Formerly, indeed, fhe
was rather a burden to her elder fifter than any benefit j
but the times are changed now, and improve every day.
Mr O’Halloran fays, the linen manufa&ure was car¬
ried on in Ireland in very early days to a great ex¬
tent ; and Gratianus Lucius quotes a defcription of
the kingdom, printed at Leyden in 1627 in which the
author tells us, “ That this country abounds with flax,
which is fent ready fpun in large quantities to foreign
nations. Formerly (fays he) they wove great quan¬
tities of linen, which was moftly confumed at home,
the natives requiring above 30 yards of linen in a ihirt
or fhift.” So truly expenfive was the Irilh falhion of
making up ftiirts, on account of the number of plaits
and folds, that, in the reign of Henry VIII. a ftatute
palled, by which they were forbidden, under a fevere
penalty, to put more than feven yards of linen in a
flurt or fli i ft.
Vol. XL Part I.
We may form fome idea of what the trade of Ire- Ireland
land mull have been in former times, when, lo late as ^ *
the reign of Brien Boru, who died in 1014, notwith-
ftanding the ravages and diftreffes which a Danilh war,
of above 200 years continuance, muft have produced
throughout the kingdom, the annual duties arifing
from goods imported into the fingle port of Limerick,
and paid in red wine, amounted to 369 pipes! Even
fo lately as the laft century, it is fcarcely credible what
riches this city derived from the bare manufafture of
Ihoes, which were exported in amazing quantities
whereas now7, inftead of Ihoes and boots, we fee the raw
hides Ihipped off for foreign markets.
No country in the world feems better fituated for a
maritime power than Ireland, where the ports are con¬
venient to every nation in Europe, and the havens
fafe and commodious. The great plenty of timber,
the fuperior excellence of the oak, and the acknow¬
ledged Ikill of her ancient artizans in wood-'.vorks,
are circumftances clearly in her favour. That the Ififh
formerly exported large quantities of timber, is manifeft
from the churches of Gloucefter, Wefttninfter mona-
ftery and palace, &c. being covered with Irilh oak. 123
The government of the kingdom is in the hands ofOovenw
a viceroy, or lord-lieutenant, who lives in very great 1 nt> P0*
fplendor. In his abfence there are lordsjuftices (ftyled ^itl0n*
their excellencies'), generally three in number, viz. lord
primate, lord high chancellor, and, before the union,
the fpeaker of the houfe of commons. The parliament
of Ireland, while it cxifted, was regulated in the fame
way as the Britilh parliament.
Ireland is divided into four large provinces, and thofe
again into 3 2 counties, as follows :
I. ULSTER.
Counties. Houfes.
1. Antrim 20738
2. Armagh 131 25
3. Cavan 9268
4. Down 26090
5. Donnegal 12357
6. Fermanagh 5674
7. Londonderry 145 27
8. Monaghan 26637
9. Tyrone 16545
144961
Extent, See.
Length 68l
Breadth 98 miles
Circumference 46c j
Irilh plantation acres, 28368379
Englilh acres, 4491205.
Parilhes, 365
Boroughs, 29
Baronies, 55
Archbilhopric, I
Bilhoprics, 6
Market towms, 58
II. L EINSTER.
1. Caterlogh, or Car-
low . 5444
2. Dublin 24145
3. Kildare 8887
4. Kilkenny 3231
5. King’s county 9 294
6. Longford 6057
7. Lowth 8150
8. Meath(Eaft) 14000
9. (Queen’s coun¬
ty 11226
10. Weftmeath 9621
11. Wexford *3OI5
12. Wicklow 7781
Length I04~)
Breadth 55 >■ miles
Circumference 360 j
Irilh acres, 26429589 or
4281155 Englilh.
Parilhes, 858
Boroughs, 53
Baronies, 99
Market-towns, 63
Archbilhoprie, 1
Bilhoprics, 3
The rivers are, the Boyne,
Barrow, Liffy, Noir, and the
May.
120851
Yy
III.
Ireland.
Counties.
Clare
Cork
Kerry
Limerick
Tipperary
6. Waterford
I R E
III. MUNSTER.
Houfes.
11381
47334
“653
10380
1832 5
9485
Extent, &c.
Length iooI
Breadth 107 > miles
Circumference 600 j
Irilli acres 3289932 j 5329146
Parifhes, 740 [Enghlh
Boroughs, 26
Baronies, 63
Archbiihopric, I
Biihops, 6
IV. CONNAUGHT.
Galway 15576 Length 90
Leitrim 5I56 Breadth 80
Mayo 15089 Circumference 500
Rofcommon 8780 Irilhacres, 2272915 j 3681746,
Sligo 597° Parifhes, 330 [Englith
}
miles
Parifhes, 330
  Boroughs, 1 o
50571 Baronies, 43
Archbifhopric, I
Bifhop, 1
Rivers are the Shannon, May,
Suck, and Gyll.
In 1731, while the duke of Dorfet was lord-lieuten¬
ant, the inhabitants were numbered, and it wras found
that the four provinces contained as follows :
Connaught
Leinfter
Munfler
U lifer
21604')
203087 I
!> Proteflants.
360632 \
221780
447916
?5Soto ) P*Pifls-
70o453 J I309768J
The return of houfes in Ireland for the year 1754,
was 395,439 j and for the year 1766, it was 424,046.
Suppofing therefore the numbers to have increafed at
the fame rate, the number of houfes now cannot be lefs
than 454,130 ; which, allowing five perfons to a fa¬
mily, wall make the number of inhabitants 2,260,650 :
but as the return of the houfes by hearth-colleftors is
rather under than above the truth, and as there are
many families in every parilh who are by lawT excufed
from that tax, and therefore not returned, the number
on a moderate eflimate will be 2,500,000. Sir W.
Petty reckoned 160,000 cabins without a chimney •,
and if there be an equal number of fuch houfes now,
the number of people will be above 3,000,000.
It has been frequently obferved by the moft celebra¬
ted writers on political arithmetic, that plenty of food,
frequency of marriage, a falubrious climate, a mild and
equitable government, and an increafed demand for la¬
bour, are the never failing criteria of an increafing po¬
pulation in any country whatever. The three firft of
thefe have contributed in a very powerful manner to
increafe the population of Ireland in the 18th century.
The climate of that country has changed for the bet¬
ter in a moft aftonifhing degree fince the middle of the
i 7th century. The extenfive forefts with which it once
abounded, no longer exid, to obftruft the circulation of
a free current of air; and fome inquifitive philofophers
have hazarded an opinion, that the atmofphere of Ire¬
land contains a larger proportion of oxygen in any giv-
354 1 1 R. E
en quantity, than is to be met with in fome other coun- Irelani.
tries. It cannot be known what efteft this may have
on the population of a country, becaufe it is found by
eminent chemifts, that about 75 of oxygen in 100 parts
of atmofpheric air, conftitute the proportion difeovered
by analyfis of the air in different climates, and at dif¬
ferent heights.
That the population of Ireland is increafing, not-
withftanding the ravages of the late rebellion, appears
from the rapid increafe and ilourifhing ftate of trade
and commerce, which unavoidably occafions an in¬
creafe of labour, and that again a multiplication of
hands. All articles of the nature of provifions, as well
as manufadlures, have rapidly increafed, and the tillage'
in particular is fix times more extenfive than it was a-
bout the year 1783, fo that fix times more people are
employed in that fingle department of labour than were
required at the fore mentioned period. The people
thus engaged muft alfo furnith employment for a much
greater number of mechanics of all deferiptions, as the
numerous and varied branches of trade depend on each
other like the links of a chain. The aftoniihing in¬
creafe of the quantity of many articles imported into
Ireland for home confumption, fuch as coals, drapery,
tobacco, tea, and fugar, mav be regarded as another
decifive proof of an increaled population. In 1783,
there were 230,135 tons of coals imported, but in
1804 there were 4x7,030 tons, notwithftanding the
confumption was greatly diminiihed, owing to an aug¬
mentation of 7s. per ton on the price of that important
article. There were 353,753 yards of old drapery im¬
ported in 1783 ; but in 1804, according to the cuftom-
houfe books, they amounted to no fewer than 1,330,304
yards, or almoft a fourfold increafe. In the year 1783,
there were imported of tobacco 3,459,861 pounds j but
in 1804 that quantity was almoft doubled : and as the
ufe of that article has greatly declined, it follows of
confequence, that the population has wmnderfully in¬
creafed. The fame fa£t is alfo proved from the con¬
fumption of tea and fugar at thefe two different periods,
the quantity of both articles having been doubled in
1804.
If then wc allow’, on an average, fix perfons to each
houfe in Ireland, it will appear from accurate returns
made in the year 1777, that there were 2,690,556
people in that country, and 3,900,000 in 1788. If it
be admitted as a fadt (in fupport of w hich many re-
fpeftable documents could be produced), that the po¬
pulation of Ireland has, fince the year 1791, expe¬
rienced an annual average increafe of nearly 91,448
fouls, it may fairly be concluded that the whole inha¬
bitants of that country cannot be eftimated much un-
der 5,395,436 fouls. It muft at the fame time be ac¬
knowledged, that the caufes affedling the population of
Ireland have not always operated with uniformity, and
therefore a permanently accurate ftandard cannot be
fixed, although there is every reafon to believe that it
is rather on the increafe than the contrary. The ave¬
rage number of perfons which we have afligned to each
houfe is indeed greater than what is found to obtain in
England or Wales (viz. 5^), but it is fully warranted
by the adtual furvey of different counties. Mr Arthur
Young found the average number to be fix in fome
parts of the province of Ulfter j the fame at Drumo-
land in the province of Munfter j and at Kilfane it w’as
6L
IRE
t
Jrelind,
I VO,
Ireland. G\. Mr Tiglie confiders fix as tlie average number in
'—the county of Kilkenny ; while in the town of Cove,
and county of Cork, it was found no lefs than 9^ !
The fame author afferts that in one village he found
the average number to be 9, and in others 7 and 8, fo
that 6 mud be confidered as a moderate ellimate ; and
Mr Newenham feems fully warranted, from thefe con-
fiderations, in efeimating the population of Ireland, in
round numbers, at 5,400,000 fouls.
As numerous reafons confpire to evince, that the po¬
pulation of this country is doubled in the courfe of 46
years, we think with Mr Newenham, that it is ex¬
tremely probable that it will not amount to lefs than
8,413,224 by the year 1837 •, an^ yet Ireland is ful¬
ly competent to fupport this population, immenfe as
* Inquiry it is
into the Po- According to Young, Newenham, and others, the
filiation of p0int 0f fertility even furpafies that of England ;
it contains not fuch a large proportion of wTafte land',
and many extenfive tradls of the produdfive foil feem to
be wholly unrivalled in refpedl of fertility. For an
ample detail of the uncommon richnefs and fertility of
the foil of Ireland' in general, we refer our readers to
the inftrudKve Tour of Mr A. Young, which contains
many experiments made by himfelf on the foils of dif¬
ferent counties.
What a valuable acquifition to the Britilh empire, of
which it now happily forms a conftituent part, fince it
can augment the military ftrength of the whole in a
very powerful manner, and make fuch refpedfable ad¬
ditions to the Britilh revenue as cannot fail to refult
from its flourishing commerce. Ireland in a ftate of
enmity againft Britain, both weakened the latter, and
rendered herfelf vulnerable in a high degree *, but fince
both are happily united, and have only one common
intereft, we truft that the moll daring enemy fhall ever
find them invulnerable.
Appearance Beauty feems to be more diffufed in England, among
and cha- the lower ranks of life, than in Ireland ; wdiich may,
however, be attributed to the mere modes of living.
In England, the meaneft cottager is better fed, better
lodged, and better drefled, than the moll opulent far¬
mers here, wrho, unaccuftomed to what our peafants
reckon the comforts of life, know no luxury but in deep
potations of aquavitae.
From this circumllance, we may account for a fa£l
reported by the officers of the army here. They fay,
that the young fellow's of Ireland, who offer to enlill,
are more generally below the given height than in
England. There can be no appeal from their telli-
mony j for they wrere Irilh, and the ftandard is an in¬
fallible tell. No reafon, indeed, can be given why
the caufes wffiich promote or prevent the growth of
other animals, ffiould not have fimilar effedls upon the
human fpecies. In England, where there is no flint
of provifions, the growth is not checked ; but, on the
contrary, it is extended to the utmolt bound of na¬
ture’s original intention •, whereas, in Ireland, where
food is neither in the fame quantity nor of,the fame
quality, the body cannot expand itfelf, but is dwarfed
and Hunted in its dimenfions. The gentlemen of Ire¬
land are full as tall as thofe of England : the difference,
then, between them yid the commonalty, can only
proceed from the difference of food.
The inhabitants, in general, of this kingdom are
]
IRE
1*4
radler of
nhe inha-
Atants.
very far from, what they have too often and unjuflly Ire’-Td.
been reprefented by thofe of our country who never
faw them, a nation of wild Iriih. Miferable and op-
preffed, as by far too many of them are, an Englilh-
man will find as much civility in general, as amongff
the fame clafs in his own country : and, for a fmall pe¬
cuniary confideration, they will exert themfelves’ to
pleafe you as much as any people perhaps in the
king’s dominions. Poverty and oppreffion will natu¬
rally make mankind lour, rude, and unfociable 5 and
eradicate, or at lead fupprefs, all the more amiable
principles and paffions of humanity. But it ffiould
feem unfair and ungenerous to judge of, or decide
againft, the natural difpofition of a man reduced by in¬
digence and oppreffion almod to defperation. Let
commerce, agriculture, and arts, but call forth the
dormant aflivity of their genius, and roule the native
fpirit of enterprife, which now lies torpid within
them 5 let liberal laws unfetter their minds, and plen¬
ty cheer their tables *, they wall foon fliow themfelves
deferving to rank with the moil refpedlable focieties in
Europe.
“ The lower Iriffi, (fays Carr f), are remarkable forf Stranger
their ingenuity and docility, and a quick conception ;
in thefe properties they are equalled only by the Ruf-P'21?*
fians. It is curious to fee wdth wffiat fcanty materials
they will work; they build their own cabins, and make
Bridles, ilirrups, cruppers, and ropes for every ruilic
purpofe, of hay 5 and Britiffi adjutants allow that Irilh
recruits are fooner made foldiers of than Englifh ones.
“ That the Iriih are not naturally lazy, is evident
from the quantity of laborious work which they wall
perform, when they have much to do, wffiich is not
frequently the cafe in their owm country, and are ade¬
quately paid for it, fo as to enable them to get proper-
food to fupport fevere toil. Upon this principle, in
England, an Irifh labourer is always preferred.
“ The handfomeil peafants in Ireland are the na¬
tives of Kilkenny and the neighbourhood; and the moil
wretched and fqualid near Cork and Waterford, and in
Munfter and Connaught. In the county of Rofcom-
mon the male and female peafantry and horfes are
handfome, the former are fair and tall, and poffefs great
flexibility of mufcle : the men are the beil leapers in
Ireland : the fineil hunters and moil expert huntfmen
are to be found in the fine fporting county of Ferma¬
nagh. In the county of Meath the peafants are very
heavily limbed. In the county of Kerry, and along
the weilern ihore, the peafants very much refemble the
Spaniards in expreffion of countenance, and colour of
hair.
“ The inftruflion of the common people is in the
loweil ilate of degradation. In the fummer a wretched
uncharaftered itinerant derives a fcanty and precarious
exiilence by wrandering from pariffi to parifli, and open¬
ing a fchool in fome ditch covered with heath arid
furze, to wffiich the inhabitants fend their children to
be inilrudted by the miferable breadlefs being, who is
nearly as ignorant as themfelves j and in the winter
thefe pedagogue pedlars go from door to door offering
their fervices, and pick up juft fufficient to prevent
themfelves from periffiing by famine. What propor¬
tion of morals and learning can flow from fuch a foutte
into the mind of the ragged young pupil, can eafily be
imagined, but cannot be refledled upon without ferious
Y y 2 concern*
Irtlantl.
125
Arcount of
the "ogs in
Ireland.
126
Trade of
Ireland on
the in-
creafe.
I HE [35
concern. A gentleman of undoubted veracity Hated,
not long fmce, before the Dublin affociation for diftri-
buting bibies and teilaments amongft the poor, that
whole parities were without a bible.
“ Their hofpitality, when their circumllances are not
too wretched to difplay it, is remarkably great. It is
thus beautifully defcribed by Mr Curran. ‘ The hofpi¬
tality of other countries is a matter of neceflity, or con¬
vention : in favage nations, of the firft 5 in polifned, of
the latter : but the hofpitality of an Irifhman is not the
running account of pqfted and ledgered courtelies, as in
other countries : it fprings, like all his other qualities,
his faults, his virtues, dire&ly from the heart. The
heart of an Irilhmen is by nature bold, and he confides;
it is tender, and he loves; it is generous, and he gives;
it is focial, and he is hofpitable.”
The bogs wherewith Ireland is in fome places over¬
grown, are not injurious to health, as is commonly
imagined ; the w'atery exhalations from thefe are nei¬
ther fo abunda it nor fo noxious as thofe from marlhes,
which become prejudicial from the various animal and
vegetable fubllances wdiich are left to putrefy as foon
as the waters are exhaled by the fun. Bogs are not,
as one might fuppofe from their blacknefs, maffes of
putrefaftion ; but, on the contrary, they are of fuch a
texture, as to refill putrefaftion above any other fub-
flance w’e know of A fhoe, all of one piece of lea¬
ther, very neatly Hitched, was taken out of a bog
fome years ago, yet entirely frefn ;—from the very fa-
fiiion of which, there is fcarce room to doubt that it
has lain there fome centuries. Butter, called roufkin,
had been found in hollowed trunks of trees, where it
had been hid fo long, that it was become hard and al-
tnoH friable, yet not devoid of unftuofity ; that the
length of time it had been buried was very great, we
learn from the depth of the bog, which was ten feet,
that had grown over it. But the common phenome¬
non of timber-trees dug out of thefe bogs not only
found, but alfo fo embalmed as afterwards to defy the in¬
juries of time, demonHrate the antifeptic quality of
them. The horns of the moofe-deer muH have lain
many centuries in a bog ; for the Irilh hiHories do not
recognize the exiflence of the animal whereon they
grew. Indeed, human bodies have, in many places,
been dug up entire, which muH have lain there for
ages. The growth of bogs, however, is variable in
dilferent places, from the variety of conditions in the
fituation, foil, humidity, and quantity of vegetable
food ; in fome places it is very rapid, in others very
flow'; and therefore their altitudes cannot afford any
certain meafure of time. In the manufafluring coun¬
ties of the north, peat- fuel has become fo fcarce, that
turburies let from five to eight guineas an acre. In
fome places they are fo eradicated, there does not re¬
main a trace of them, the ground being now converted
into rich meadow's and fweet paHures.
If we truH to authorities, we muff conclude that
Ireland was not originally inferior to England, either
in the fertility of the foil or falubrity of the climate.
When this country {hall have felt the happy effefts of
the late conceflions and indulgences of the Britifh par¬
liament, by repealing feveral a£ls which reffrained the
trade: of this kingdom with foreign ports, and allow¬
ing the exportation of w’oollen manufadtures and glafs,
and {hall have received further indulgences from, the
6 ] IRC
fame authority ; and when the fpirit of induftry {hall Irer*us
be infufed, in confequence of it, into the common
people ; their country will not be inferior to any other Irun~S:ck
on the globe under the fame parallel. '' “
IRENAEUS, St, a bifliop of Lyons, w’as born in
Greece about the year 1 20. He was the difciple of
Pappias and St Polycarp, by whom, it is faid, he was
fent into Gaul in 157. Pie lived at Lyons, where
he performed the office of a priefl ; and in 178 wras
fent to Rome, w'here he difputed with Valentinus, and
his two difciples Florinus and Blallus. At his return
to Lyons, he fucceeded Photinus, biffiop of that city ;
and fuffered martyrdom in 202, under the reign of
Severus. He wrote many books in Greek, of w hich
there only remains a barbarcus Latin verfion of his five
books againff heretics, fome Greek fragments in dif¬
ferent authors, and Pope Vigor’s letter mentioned by
Eufebius. The beff editions of his works are thofe
of Erafmus, in 1526; of Grabe, in 1702; and of
Father Maffuet, in 1710.
He ought not to be confounded with St Irenaeus the
deacon, who in 275 fuffered martyrdom in Tufcany,
under the reign of Aurelian ; nor with St Irenaeus,
biihop of Sirmich, who fuffered martyrdom on the
25th of March 304, during the perfecution of Dio-
clefian and Maximianus.
IRENE, emprefs of the eaff, celebrated for her va¬
lour, wit, and beauty ; but detefiable for her cruelty,
having facrificed her own fon to the ambition of reign¬
ing alone. She died in 803.
IRESINE, a genus of plants belonging to the di-
oecia clafs, and in the natural method ranking under
the 54th order Mifcellanec?. See Botany Index.
IRIDIUM, a metal obtained from crude platina.
See Chemistry, N° 2153, p. 699.
IRIS, in Physiology, the rainbow'. The wrord is
Greek, fuppofed by fome to be derived from «£»
“ I fpeak, I tellas being a meteor that is fuppoied
to foretel, or rather to declare rain. See Rainbow.
Lunar Iris, or Moon-rainbow. See Rainbojv,
Lunar.
Iris, in Anatomy, a Hriped variegated circle round
the pupil of the eye, formed of a duplicature of the
uvea. See Anatomy Index.
Iris is alfo applied to thofe changeable colours w'hich
fometimes appear in the glaffes of telefcopes, micro-
fcopes, &c. fo called from their fimilitude to a rain¬
bow. The fame appellation is alfo given to that co¬
loured fpedlrum, w'hich a triangular prifraatic glafs will
projeft on a wall, when placed at a due angle in the
fun-beams.
Iris, the Flower de Luce, or Flag-flower, &c. a
genus of plants, belonging to the triandria clafs, and
in the natural method ranking under the Hxth order,
Enjatce. See Botany Index.
IRON, one of the metals, and one of the hardeft
and mofl ufeful, as wrell as the mofl abundant. See .
Chp;mistry and Mineralogy Index-, and for its elec¬
trical and magnetical properties, fee Electricity and
Magnetism.
IRON-Moulds, and fpots of ink in linen, may be ta¬
ken out by moiflening the Hained part in a folution of
oxalic acid in diflilled w'ater, and then waffiing it out
in pure water.
InON-Sick, in the fea-language, is faid of a ffiip or
boat.
run [. 357 ] I R R
Iron-wood boat, when her bolts or nails are fo eaten with ruft,
. H . . and fo w?orn away, that they occafion hollows in the
Irritability, whereby the veffel is rendered leaky.
hoN-Wood, in Botany. See SiD£ROXYL,um, Bo¬
tany Index.
IRON-Wbrt, in Botany. See Sideritis, Botany
Index*
IRONY, in Rhetoric, is when a perfon fpeaks con¬
trary to his thoughts, in order to add force to his dif-
Courfe ; whence Quintilian calls it diverjiloquium.
Thus, when a notorious villain is fcornfully compli¬
mented wnth the title of a very honelt and excellent
perfon ; the character of the perfon commended, the'air
of contempt that appears in the fpeaker, and the exor¬
bitancy of the commendations, fufficiently difcover the
didimulation of irony.
Ironical exhortation is a very agreeable kind of trope j
which, after having fet the inconveniences of a thing
in the cleared light, concludes with a feigned encou¬
ragement to purfue it. Such is that of Horace, when,
having beautifully defcribed the noife and tumults of
Rome, he adds ironically,
Go now, and (ludy tuneful verfe at Rome!
IROQUOIS, the name of five nations in North
America, in alliance with the Britilh colonies. They
are bounded by Canada on the north, by the Britifh
plantations of New York and Pennfylvania on the eaft
and fouth, and by the lake Ontario on the wed.
IRRADIATION, the aft of emitting fubtile ef¬
fluvia, like the rays of the fun, every way. See Ef¬
fluvia.
IRREGULAR, fomething that deviates from the
common forms -or rules •, thus, -we fay an irregular for¬
tification, an irregular building, an irregular figure,
&.C.
Irregular, in Grammar, fuch infleftions of words
as vary from the general rules •, thus we fay, irregular
nouns, irregular verbs, &c.
The diflinftion of irregular nouns, according to Mr
Ruddiman, is into three kinds, viz. variable, defeftive,
and abundant ; and that of irregular verbs into anoma¬
lous, defeftive, and abundant.
IRRITABILITY, in Anatomy and Medicine, a
term firft invented by Gliffon, and adopted by Dr Hal¬
ler to denote an effential property of all animal bodies;
and which, he fays, exifts independently of and in
contradiftinftion to fenfibility. This ingenious author
calls that part of the human body irritable, which be¬
comes (hotter upon being touched ; very irritable, if it
contrafts upon a flight touch ; and the contrary, if by
a violent touch it contrafts but little. He calls that a
fenfible part of the human body, which upon being
touched tranfmits the imprefiion of it to the foul; and
in brutes, he calls thofe parts fenfible, the irritation of
which occafions evident figns of pain and difquiet in
the animal. On the contrary, he calls that infenfible,
wdiich being burnt, tore, pricked, or cut till it is quite
deflroyed, occafions no fign of pain nor convulfion, nor
any fort of change in the fituation of the body. From
the refult of many cruel experiments he concludes, that
the epidermis is infenfible ; that the fkin is fenfible in a
greater degree than any other part of the body ; that
the fat and cellular membrane are infenfible j and the
mufcular fifth fenfible, the fenfibility of which he a-
feribes rather to the nerves than to the fiefii itlelf. The
tendons, he fays, having no nerves diftributed to them,
are infenfible. The ligaments and capfulseof the articu¬
lations are alfo concluded to be infenfible; whence Dr
Haller infers, that the (harp pains of the gout are not
feated in the capfulae of the joint, but in the fkin, and
in the nerves which creep upon its external furface. The
bones are all infenfible, fays Dr Haller, except the teeth j
and likewife the marrow’. Under his experiments the
periodeum and pericranium, the dura and pia mater, ap¬
peared infenfible ; and he infers, that the fenfibility of
the nerves is owing to the medulla, and not to the mem¬
branes. The arteries and veins are held fufceptible of
little or no fenfation, except the carotid, the lingual,
temporal, pharyngal, labial, thyroidal, and the aorta
near the heart ; the fenfibility of which is aferibed to
the nerves that accompany them. Senfibility is allow¬
ed to the internal membranes of the flomach, inteftines,
bladder, ureters, vagina, and womb, on account of their
being of the fame nature with the fkin : the heart
is alfo admitted to be fenfible : but the lungs, liver,
fpleen, and kidneys, are poflefTed of a very imperfeft,
if any, fenfation. The glands, having few nerves, are
endowed wuth only an obtufe fenfation. Some fenfibi¬
lity is allowed to the tunica choroidis and the iris,
though in a lefs degree than the retina ; but none to
the cornea. Dr Haller concludes, in general, that the
nerves alone are fenfible of themfelves ; and that, in
proportion to the number of nerves apparently diilri-
buted to particular parts, fuch parts poflefs a greater
or lefs degree of fenfibility.
Irritability, he fays, is fo different from fenfibility,
that the mofl irritable parts are not at all fenfible, and
vice verfa. He alleges fafts to prove this pofition, and
alfo to demonftrate, that irritability does not depend
upon the nerves, which are not irritable, but upon the
original formation of the parts which are fufceptible of
it. Irritability, he fays, is not proportioned to fenfi-
bility j in proof of which, he obferves, that the intef-^
tines, though rather lefs fenfible than the ffomach,
are more irritable ; and that the heart is very irritable,
though it has but a fmail degree of fenfation.
Irritability, according to Dr Haller, is the diftin-
guifhing charafterirtic between the mufcular and cellu¬
lar fibres •, whence he determines the ligaments, periof-
teum, meninges of the brain, and all the membranes
compofed of the cellular fubftance, to be void of irrita¬
bility. The tendons are unirritable \ and though he
does not abfolutely deny irritability to the arteries, yet
his experiments on the aorta produced no contraftion.
The veins and excretory dufts are in a fmail degree
irritable, and the gall-bladder, the duftus choleffochus,
the ureters and urethra, are only affefted by a very
acrid corrofive j but the lafteal veflels are confiderably
irritable. The glands and mucous finufes, the uterus
in quadrupeds, the human matrix, and the genitals, are
all irritable ; as are alfo the mufcles, particularly the
diaphragm. The oefophagus, ftomach, and inteftines,
are irritable : but of all the animal organs the heart is
endued with the greateft irritability. In general, there
is nothing irritable in the animal body but the mufcular
fibres: and the vital parts are the moft irritable. This
power of motion, arifing from irritations, is fuppofed
to--
\
I R V [ 358 ] ISA
Iirogatio to be dhTerent from all other properties of bodies, and
T !' probably relides in the glutinous mucus of the mufcular
 ' ) fibres, altogether independent of the influence of the
foul. The irritability of the mufcles is faid to be de-
ftroyed by drying of the fibres, congealing of the fat,
and more efpecially by the ufe of opium in living ani¬
mals. The phyfiological fyftem, of which an abltraft
has been now given, has been adopted and confirmed
by Caftell and Zimmermann, and alfo by Dr Brock-
lelby, who fuggefts, that irritability, as diftinguiftied
from fenfibility, may depend upon a feries of nerves dif¬
ferent from Inch as ferve either for voluntary motion
or fenfation. This dodfrine, howrever, has been contro¬
verted by M. le Cat, and particularly by Dr Whytt
in his Phyfiological Effays. See alfo Anatomy, N° 86,
et feq, and N° 136.
IRROGATIO, a law term amongft the Romans, lig-
nifying the inlirument in wdrich were put down the pu-
nilhments which the law provided againfl: fuch offences
as any perfon w7as accufed of by a magiflrate before
the people. Thefe puniflrments wTere firft proclaimed
viva voce by the accufer, and this was called Inquijitio:
The fame, being immediately after expreffed in writ¬
ing, took the name of Rogatio, in refpedl of the people,
who were to be confulted or alked about it, and was
called Irrogatio in refpedt of the criminal, as it imported
the muldt or punilhment afligned him by the accufer.
IRROMANGO, or Erramongo, one of the New
Hebrides illands, is about 24 or 25 leagues in circuit j
the middle of it lies in E. Long. 169. 19. S. Lat. 18.
54. The inhabitants are of the middle fize, and have
a good lhape and tolerable features. Their colour is
very dark •, and they paint their faces, fome w’ith black,
and others with red pigment: their hair is curly and-
crifp, and fomewhat woolly. Few women were feen,
and thofe very ugly : they wore a petticoat made of
the leaves of fome plant. The men w-ere quite naked,
excepting a belt tied about the wTaift, and a piece of
cloth, or a leaf, ufed for a wrapper. No canoes w?ere
feen in any part of the ifland. They live in houfes
covered with thatch : and their plantations are laid ®ut
by line, and fenced round. An unlucky fcuffle be¬
tween the Britifli failors and thefe people, in which
four of the latter were defperately w’ounded, prevent¬
ed Captain Cook from being able to give any parti¬
cular information concerning the produce, &c. of this
ifland.
IRTIS, a large river of Alia, in Siberia, which
riles among the hills of the country of the Kalmucks,
and, running north-eall, falls into the Oby near To-
bollk. It abounds with filh, particularly fturgeon, and
delicate falmon.
IRVINE, a fea-port and borough town of Scot¬
land, in the bailiwick of Cunningham, and county of
Ayr ; feated at the mouth of a river of the fame name
on the frith of Clyde, in W. Long. 2. 55. N. Lat. 55.
36. This port had formerly feveral buffes in the her-
ring-filhery. At prefent that branch is given up 5 but
the inhabitants Hill employ a number of veffels in the
coal trade to Ireland, and alfo in the Baltic and carry¬
ing trade. Ship-building and rope making are carried
on to a conliderable extent at Irvine.
ISAAC, the Jewifli patriarch, and example of filial
obedience, died 1716 B. C. aged 180.
IS/EUS, a Greek orator, born at Colchis, in Sy- Ifaac
ria, was the difciple of Lyfias, and the mailer of De-
mofthenes; and taught eloquence at Athens, about *‘auna'
344 years B. C. Sixty-four orations are attributed
to him } but he compofed no more than <;o, of which
only 10 are now remaining. He took Lyfias for his
model, and fo well imitated his llyle and el sgance,
that we might eafily confound the one with the other,
were it not for the figures which Ifieus firfi introduced
into frequent ufe. He was alfo the firlt wdio applied
eloquence to politics, in which he was followed by his
difciple Demofthenes.
He ought not to be confounded with Ifaeus, another
celebrated orator, who lived at Rome in the time of Pliny
the younger, about the year 97.
ISAIAH, or the Prophecy of Isaiah, a canonical
book of the Old Teftament. Ilaiah is the firft of the
four greater prophets •, the other three being Jeremiah,
Ezekiel, and Daniel. This prophet was of royal
blood, his father Amos being brother to Azariah king
of Judah. The five firft chapters of his prophey re¬
late to the reign of Uzziah 5 the vifion in the lixth
chapter happened in the time of Jotham : the next
chapters to the fifteenth, include his prophecies un¬
der the reign of Ahab ; and thofe that were made un¬
der the reigns of Hezekiah and Manaffeh, are related
in the next chapters to the end. Ifaiah foretold the
deliverance of the Jew’s from*their captivity in Babylon
by Cyrus, one hundred years before it came to pals.
But the moft remarkable of his predictions are thofe
concerning the Meffiah, which deferibe not only his
defeent, but all the remarkable circumftances of his life
and death. The ftyle of this prophet is noble, ner¬
vous, fublime, and florid, which he acquired by con-
verfe wTith men of the greateft abilities and elocution :
Grotius calls him the Demofthenes of the Hebrews.
However, the profoundnefs of his thoughts, the lofti-
nefs of his exprefiions, and the extent of his prophecy,
render him one of the moft difficult of all the pro»-
phets; and the commentaries that have been hitherto
written on his prophecy fall ftrort of a full explication
of it. Bifliop Lowth’s new tranflation, &c. publiihed
in 1778, throws confiderable light on the compolition
and meaning of Ifaiah.
I SATIS, woad ; a genus of plants belonging to
the tetradynamia clafs; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 39th order, Siliquofce. One fpecie,:; of
this plant, the twSioria, yields a colouring matter. See
Colour-Making and Dyeing Index.
Isatis, in Zoology, a fynonyme of the canis lagopus.
See Canis, Mammalia Index.
ISAURA, or Isaurus, in Ancient Geography, a
ftrong city at Mount Taurus, in Ifauria, twice demo-
liftied ; firrt by Perdiccas, or rather by the inhabitants,
who, through defpair, deftroyed themfelves by fire
rather than fall into the hands of the enemy •, again
by Servilius, who thence took the furname Ifauricus.
Strabo fays there wrere two Ifauras, the old and the newr,
but fo near that other writers took them but for one.
ISAURIA, a country touching Pamphylia and Cili¬
cia on the north, rugged and mountainous, fituated al-
moft in Mount Taurus, and taking its name from Ifaura;
according to lome, extending to the Mediterranean by
a narrow flip. Stephanus, Ptolemy, and Zofimus,.
make
2
I S E [ 359 ] I S I
Ifanrica make no mention of places on the fea ; though Pliny
. II does, as alfo Strabo j but doubtful, whether they are
K1 '*■ places in Ifauria Proper, or in Parajphylia, or in Ci¬
licia.
ISAURICA, a part of Lycaonia, bordering on
Mount Taurus.
ISCA DtTMNIORUM, in Ancient Geography, a town
in Britain. Now Exeter, capital of Devonlhire. W.
Long. 3. 40. Lat. 5. 44. Called Caer-ljh in Britifh,
(Camden.)
Isca Silurum, in Ancient Geography, the ftation of
the Legio II. Augufta, in Britain. Now Caerleon, a
town of Mon mouth dure, on the Ufke.
ISCHALTS, or IscAI.lS, in Ancient Geography, a
town of the Belgaein Britain. Now llchejier, in Somer-
fetlhire, on the river 111.
ISCHiTAJM, a genus of plants belonging to the po-
lygamia clafs •, and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 4th order, Gramina, See Botany Index.
ISCHIUM, in Anatomy, one of the bones of the
pelvis. See Anatomy, N° 41.
ISCHIA, an illand of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, about 15 miles in circumference, lying on the
coatl of the Terra di Lavoro, from which it is three
miles diilant. It is full of agreeable valleys, which
produce excellent fruits. It hath alfo mountains on
which grow vines of an excellent kind : likewdfe foun¬
tains, rivulets, and fine gardens.
Ischia, a towm of Italy, and capital of an ifland of
the fame name, with a bifhop’s lee and a ftrong fort.
Both the city and fortrefs Hand upon a rock, which is
joined to the ifland by a Hrong bridge ; the rock is
about feven furlongs in circumference. The city is
like a pyramid of houfes piled upon one another, which
makes a very ftngular and ftriking appearance. At the
end of the bridge next the city are iron gates, which
open into a fubterraneous palfage, through which they
enter the city. They are always guarded by foldiers
who are natives of the ifland. E. Long. 13. 55. N. Lat.
40. 50.
ISCHURIA, t'rxHZ'M (formed from ai-gia “ I flop,”
and “ urine,”) in Phyjic, a difeafe confifting in an
entire fuppretlion of urine. See Medicine Index.
ISELASTICS, a kind of games, or combats, ce¬
lebrated in Greece and Afla, in the time of the Roman
emperors.
The viblor at thefe games had very confiderable
privileges conferred on him, after the example of Au-
guftus and the Athenians, who did the like to con¬
querors at the Olympic, Pythian, and Illhmian games.
They w'ere crowned on the fpot immediately after their
vi£lory, had penfions allowed them, were furnifhed with
provifions at the public coft, and were carried in triumph
to their country.
ISENACH, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Upper Saxony, from whence one of the Saxon princes
takes the title of duke. There are iron mines in the
neighbourhood. E. Long. 9. 17. N. Lat. 51. o.
ISENARTS, or Eisenarts, a conflderable towm of
Germany, in Auftria and in Stiria 5 famous for its iron
mines. E. Long. 15. 25. N. Lat. 46. 56.
ISENBURG, a large town of Germany, capital
of a county of the fame name, with a handfome
caftle, feated on the river Seine, in E. Long. 7. 14.
N. Lat. 50. 28. The county belongs to the eleclor
of Treves.
ISENGHEIN, a town of the Auflrian Nether¬
lands, with the title of a principality, feated on the
river Mandera, in E. Long. 3. 18. N. Lat. 50. 44.
ISERNIA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and in the county of Molife, with a biihop’s
fee. It is feated at the foot of the Apennines, in E.
Long. 14. 20.
ISH, in Scots Law, fignifies expiry. Thus we fay
“ the ijh of a leafe.’’ It lignifies alfo to go out ; thus
we fay “ free ijh and entry” from and to any place.
ISIA, feafts and facrifices anciently folemni-
zed in honour of the goddefs His.—The Ifia were full
of the molt abominable impurities; and for that rea-
fon, thofe who were initated into them were obliged
to take an oath of fecrecy. They held for nine days
lizcceflively, but grew fo fcandalons, that the fenate
abolilhed them at Rome, under the confulate of Pifo
and Gabinius. They were re-eftablilhed by Auguftus,
and the emperor Commodus himfelf aflifted at them,
appearing among the priefts of that goddefs with his
head lhaven, and carrying the Anubis.
I SI AC table, is one of the molt conflderable mo¬
numents of antiquity, difeovered at Rome in 1525,
and fuppofed by the various figures in bas relief upon
it, to reprefent the feafts of Ills, and other Egyptian
deities. There have been various opinions as to the
antiquity of this monument ; fome have fuppofed that
it was engraved long before the time when the Egyp¬
tians worlhipped the figures of men and women. Ci¬
thers, among whom is Bilhop Warburton, apprehend,
that it was made at Rome by perfons attached to the
worlhip of His. Dr Warburton confiders it as one of
the molt modern of the Egyptian monuments, on ac¬
count of the great mixture of hieroglyphic charadlers
w7hich it bears.
ISIACI, priefts of the goddefs His.—Diofcorides
tells us, that they bore a branch of fea wmrmwood in
their hands inftead of olive. They fung the praifes of
the goddefs twice a day, viz. at the rifling of the fun,
when they opened her temple; after which they begged
alms the reft of the day, and returning at night, re¬
peated their orifons, and fliut up the temple.
Such was the life and office of the ijiaci; they ne¬
ver covered their feet with any thing but the thin
bark of the plant papyrus, which occafioned Pruden-
tius and others to fay they went barefooted. They
wore no garments but linen, becaufe His was the firit
who taught mankind the culture of this commodity.
ISIDORES, called Damiatensis, or Pelusiota,
from his living in a folitude near that city, was one of
the moft famous of all St Chryfoftom’s difciples, and
flouriffied in the time of the general council held in
421. We have 2012 of his epiftles in five books.
They are ftiort, but well written, in Greek. The beft
edition is that of Paris, in Greek and Latin, printed in
1638, in folio.
ISIGNI, a town of France, in Lower Normandy,
with a fmall harbour, and well known on account of
its fait works, its cyder, and its butter. W. Long. o.
50. N. Lat. 49. 20.
ISINGLASS. See Ichthyocolla.
ISIS, a celebrated deity of the Egyptians,.daugh-
Iftnghein
I S L [ 360 ] I S L
ter of Saturn and Rhea, according to Diodorus of Si¬
cily. Some fuppofe her to be the fame as lo, who
was changed into a cow, and rellored to her human
form in Egypt, where fhe taught agriculture, and go¬
verned the people with mildnefs and equity, for
which reafons (he received divine honours after death.
According to fome traditions mentioned by Plutarch,
Ifis married her brother Ofiris, and was pregnant by
liim even oefore (lie had left her mother’s womb. Thefe
two ancient deities, as fome authors obferve, compre¬
hended all nature and all the gods of the heathens.
Ids was the Venus of Cyprus, the Minerva of Athens,
the Cybele of the Phrygians, the Ceres of Eleulis,
the Proferpine of Sicily, the Diana of Crete, the Bel-
lona of the Romans, &c. Ofiris and Ills reigned con¬
jointly in Egypt } but the rebellion of Typhon, the
brother of Ofiris, proved fatal to this fovereign* The
ox and the cow were the fymbols of Ofiris and Ifis j
hecaufe thefe deities, while on earth, had diligently
applied themfelves to cultivating the earth. As Ills
Was fuppofed to be the moon, as Ofiris the fun, (he
was reprefented as holding a globe in her hand, with
a veffel full of ears of corn. The Egyptians believed
that the yearly and regular inundations of the Nile
proceeded from the abundant tears which Ifis (hed for
the lofs of Ofiris, whom Typhon had bafely murdered.
The word IJis, according to fome, fignifies “ ancient,”
and on that account the infcriptions on the ftatues of
the goddefs were often in thefe words: “ I am all that
has been, that (hall be 5 and none among mortals has
hitherto taken off my veil.” The worfliip of Ifis was
univerfal in Egypt, the priefts were obliged to obferve
perpetual chaility, their head was clofely (liaved, and
they always walked barefooted, and clothed themfelves
in linen garments. They never ate onions, they ab-
ftained from fait with their meat, and were forbidden
to eat the flefli of (beep and of hogs. During the
night they wTere employed in continual devotion near
the ftatue of the goddefs. Cleopatra, the beautiful
queen of Egypt, was wont to drefs herfelf like this
goddefs, and affc£ied to be called a fecond Ifis.
Isis, or Thames, a river that has its rife in Glou-
cefterfture, and flow's through only a fmall part of Wilt-
fliire. It enters this county near its fource, and be¬
gins to be navigable for boats at Cricklade $ but af¬
ter running in a ferpentine manner about four miles,
it leaves Gloucefterlhire at a village called Cajile
Eaton.
Isis, a genus of animals belonging to the order zoo-
phyta, in the clafs vermes. See Helminthology
Index.
ISLAM, or Islamism •, the true faith, according
to the Mahometans. See Mahometanism.
ISLAND, a trail of dry land encompaffed with
water 5 in which fenfe it (lands contradiftinguiihed from
Continent, or Terra Firma.
Several naturalifts are of opinion, that the iflands
were formed at the deluge *, others think, that there
have been new iflands formed by the calling up of vaft
heaps of clay, fand, mud, &c.others think they have
been feparated from the continent by violent (forms,
inundations, and earthquakes. Thefe laft have ob-
ferved, that the Eaft Indies, which abound in iflands
more than any other part of the world, are likewife,
more annoyed with earthquakes, tempefts, lightnings, Hand
volcanoes, &c. than any other part. Others again ^ 11^
conclude, that iflands are as ancient as the world, and 1 '-~i“ arc
that there were fome at the beginning j and among
other arguments, fupport their opinion from Gen. x. 5.
and other palfages of Scripture.
Varenius thinks that there have been iflands pro¬
duced each of thefe ways. St Helena, Afcenfion,
and other deep rocky iflands, he fuppofes to have be¬
come fo by the fea’s overflowing their neighbouring
champaigns; but by the heaping up huge quantities
of fand, and other terreftrial matter, he thinks the
iflands of Zealand, Japan, &c. were formed. Suma¬
tra and Ceylon, and moft of the Eafl: India iflands,
he thinks, were rent off from the main land j and con¬
cludes, that the iflands of the Archipelago were form¬
ed in the fame w'ay, imagining it probable that Deu¬
calion’s flood might contribute towards it. The an¬
cients had a notion that Delos, and a few other iflands,
rofe from the bottom of the fea •, which, how fabulous
foever it may appear, agrees with later obfervations.
Seneca takes notice, that the illand Therafia rofe thus
out of the iEgean fea in his time, of which the mari¬
ners were eye witneffes.
It is indeed very probable, that many iflands have
exifted not only from the deluge, but from the crea¬
tion of the world •, and we have undoubted proofs of
the formation of iflands in all the different ways above-
mentioned. Another way, however, in which iflands
are frequently formed in the South fca, is by the
coralline infers. On this fubjedl there is a curious
differtation by Alexander Dalrymple, Efq. in the
Philofophical Tranfa&ions for the year 1768, to which
w’e refer the reader. See alfo Geography Index.
Islands of Ice. See IcE-IJland.
Floating Islands. Hiltories are full of accounts of
floating iflands j but the greateft part of them are
either falfe or exaggerated. What we generally fee
of this kind is no more than the concretion of the
lighter and more vifcous matter floating on the furface
of the water in cakes *, and, with the roots of the
plants, forming congeries of different fizes, which, not
being fixed to the fhore in any part, are blown about
by the winds, and float on the furface. Thefe are
generally found in lakes, w'here they are confined from
being carried too far *, and, in procefs of time, fome
of them acquire a very confiderable fize. Seneca tells
us of many of thefe floating iflands in Italy *, and fome
later writers have defcribed not a few of them in other
places. But, however true thefe accounts might have
been at the time when they w'ere written, very few
proofs of their authenticity are now to be found ; the
floating iflands having either difappeared again, or
been fixed to the fides in fuch a manner as to make a
part of the (hore. Pliny tells us of a great ifland which
at one time fwam about in the lake Cutilia in the coun¬
try of Reatinum, which was difeovered to the old Ro¬
mans by a miracle j and Pomponius tells us, that in
Lydia there were- feveral iflands fo loofe in their foun¬
dations, that every little accident (hook and removed
them.
Island (or Iceland) Cryftal. S^e Crystal, Ice¬
land; Mineralogy Index.
ISLE-adam, a town of France, with a handfome
caftle,
1
Ifle-de-
Dieu
II
Iflington
I S L
caftle, and the title of a baron j Feated on the river
Oife, three miles from Beaumont, and 20 from Paris,
E. Long. 2. 13. N. Lat. 49, 7.
hb£-de-Dieu, a fmall illand of France, in the fea of
Galcony, and on the coaft of Poitou, from which it is
diftant 14 miles. W. Long. 2. 5. N. Lat. 46. 45.
IslE-de-France, is one of the 12 general governments
of France under the old divifion \ bounded on the
north by Picardy, on the weft by Normandy, on the
fouth by the government of Orleannois, and on the
eaft by that of Champagne. It is about 90 miles in
length, a?id as much in breadth ; and is watered by the
rivers Seine, Marne, Oife, and Aifne. The air is tem¬
perate, and the foil fertile $ and it abounds in wine,
corn, and fruits. It contains 10 fmall diftricls, and
Paris is the capital city.
ISLEBIANS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a name giv¬
en to thofe who adopted the fentiments of a Lutheran
divine of Saxony, called John Agricola, a difciple and
companion of Luther, a native of Bleb, whence the
name j who interpreting literally fome of the precepts
of St Paul with regard to the Jevvifti law, declaimed
againft the law and the neceftity of good works. See
Antinomians.
ISLINGTON, a village of Middlefex, on tha north
fide of London, to which it is almoft contiguous. It
appears to be of Saxon origin 5 and in the conqueror’s
time was written Illedon, or Ifendon. The church
is one of the prebends of St Paul’s j to the dean and
chapter of which a certain precindl here belongs, for
the probate of wills, and granting adminiftrations.
The church was a Gothic ftrudlure, erefted in 1503,
and ftood till 17 Jl, when the inhabitants applied to
parliament for leave to rebsild it, and foon after erect¬
ed the prefent ftru&ure, which is a very fubftantial
brick edifice, though it does not want an air of light-
nefs. Its houfes are above 2000, including the Upper
and Lower Holloways, three fides of Newington
Green, and part of Kingfland, on the road to Ware.
The White-conduit houfe in this place, fo called from
a white ftone conduit that ftands before the entrance,
has handfome gardens with good w'alks, and two large
rooms, ope above the other, for the entertainment of
company at tea, &.c. In the S. W. part of this vil¬
lage is that noble refervoir, improperly called New
River Head \ though they are only two bafons, which
receive that river from Hertfordfliire, and from whence
the water is thrown by an engine into the company’s
pipes for the fupply of London. In the red-moat on the
north fide of thefe bafons, called Six-Acre Field, from
the contents of it, which is the third field beyond the
White Conduit, there appears to have been a fortrefs
in former days, enclofed with a rampart and ditch,
which is fuppofed to have been a Roman camp made
ufe of by Suetonius Paulinus after his retreat, which
Tacitus mentions, from London, before he fallied
thence, and routed the Britons uader their queen Boa-
dicea *, and that which is vulgarly, but erroneoufly,
called Jack Straw’s caftle, is a fquare place in the
S. W. angle of the field, fuppofed to have been the
feat of the prsetorium or Roman general’s tent. In
this pariih are two charity-fchools •, one founded in
1613 by Dame Alice Owen, for educating 30 chil¬
dren. This foundation, together with that of a row of
VoL. XL Part I.
[ 361 ]
ISO
alms-houfes, are under the care of the brewers com- Klip
pany. Here is an hofpital with its chapel, and a work- 11
houfe for the poor. There is a fpring of chalybeate oc *J°"a!
water, in a very pleafant garden, which for fome years
wTas honoured by the conftant attendance of the prin-
cels Amelia, and many perfons of quality, who drank
the waters. To this place, which is called New Tun¬
bridge Wells, many people refort, particularly during
the fummer, the price of drinking the waters being
Ios. 6d. for the feafon. Near this place is a houfe &f
entertainment called Saddler's Wells, where, during the
fummer feafon, people are amufed with balance-ma-
fters, walking on the wire, rope-dancing, tumbling,
and pantomime entertainments.
ISLIP, a town of Oxfordfiiire, 56 miles from Lon¬
don, is noted for the birth and baptifm of Edward
the Confeflor. By means of inland navigation, it has
communication with the rivers Merfey, Dee, Ribble,
Oufe, Trent, Darwent, Severn, Humber, Thames,
Avon, &c. which navigation, including its windings,
extends above 300 miles, in the counties of Lincoln,
Nottingham, York, Lancafter, Weftmoreland, Chefter,
Stafford, \Yarwick, Leicefter, Oxford, Wprcefter,
&c. It has a good market for fheep, and fome re¬
mains of an ancient palace, faid to have been King
Ethelred’s. Here is a charity-fchool. The chapel
wherein Edward was baptized flood at a frnall diftance
north from the church, is ftill called the king’s chapel,
was entirely defecrated during Cromwell’s ufurpation,
and converted to the meaneft ufes of a farm-yard ; at
prefent it has a roof of thatch. It is built of ftone.
15 yards long and 7 broad, and retains traces of the
arches of an oblong window at the eaft end. This
manor was given by Edward the Confeffor to Weft
minfter abbey, to which it ftill belongs.
ISMAELITES, the defendants of Ifmael; dwell¬
ing from Havila to the wildernefs of Sur, towards
Egypt, and thus overfpreading Arabia Petraea, and
therefore Jofephus calls Ifinael the founder of the
Arabs.
ISMARUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Cicones in Thrace, giving name to a lake. In Vir
gil it is called Ifmara. Servius fuppofed it to be h
mountain of Thrace $ on which mountain Orpheus
dwelt.
ISNARDIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
tetrandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 17th order, Calycanthemce. See Botany Index.
ISNY, an imperial town of Germany, in Suabia,
and in Algow : feated on the river Ifny, in E. Long.
9. 10. N. Lat. 47. 33.
ISNIC, a town of Turkey in Afia, and in Natolia,
with a Greek archbilhop’s fee. It is the ancient
Nice, famous for the firft general council held here
in 325. There is now nothing remaining of its an¬
cient fplendour but an aquedudt. The Jews inhabit
the greateft part of it j and it is feated in a country
fertile Sin corn and excellent wane. E. Long.'ao. 0.
N. Lat. 47. 15.
ISOCHRONAL, is applied to fuch vibrations of
a pendulum as are performed in the fame fpace of
time; as all the vibrations or fwings of the fame pen¬
dulum are, whether the arches it deferibea are ftiorter
or longer.
Z z
Isochronal
Ifocli renal
line
!!
Ifpahan. ■
ISP [ 362 ] IS P
Isochronal Line, that in wlftch a heavy body is fup
pofed to delcend without any acceleration.
ISOCRATES, one of the greateil orators of
Greece, was born at Athens, 436 B. C. He was the
fon of Theodoras, who had enriched Imnfelf by ma-
l;ing mufical inftrunients, and gave his fon a liberal
education. Ifocrutes was the difciple of Prodicus,
Gorgias, and other great orate,rs. He endeavoured at
lirfl to declaim in public, but without fuccefs} ~ he
therefore contented himfelf with inltrufting his fcho-
lavs, and making private orations. He always (bowed
great love for his country ; and being informed of the
lofs of the battle of Cheronea, he abilained four days
from eating, and died, aged 98. There are Hill ex¬
tant 21 of his difeourfes or orations, which are excel¬
lent performances, and have been tranflated from the
Greek into Latin by Wolfius. liberates particularly
excelled in the juftnefs of his thoughts, and the ele¬
gance of his expreflions. There are alfo nine letters
attributed to him.
ISOETES, a genus of plants belonging to the
cryptogamia clafs. See Botany Index.
ISOLA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and in the Farther Calabria, with a bifliop’s
fee. It is a fea-port town, and is feated 15 miles
fouth ea(l of St Severina. E. Long. 7. 33. N. Lat.
39* I-
ISOPERIMETRICAL figures, in Geometry,
are fuch as have equal perimeters or circumferences.
ISOPYRUM, a genus of plants belonging to the
polyandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 26th order, Multifehquce. See Botany
Index.
ISOSCELES TRIANGLE, in Geometry, one that
has tvTo equal fides.
ISPAHAN, or, as the Perfians pronounce it, Spau-
haavn, the capital of Perfia, is lituated in the province
of Irac Agemi, or Perfia Proper, upon the ruins, as
generally fuppofed, of the ancient Hecatompylos, or,
as others think of the Afpa of Ptolemy. Mod of the
eaftern aftronomers and geographers place it in N. Lat.
32. 25. E. Long. 86. 40. It Hands in a very extenfive
plain, furrounded by mountains •, and has eight diHrifts
belonging to it, that contain about 400 towns and vil¬
lages. The fertility of the foil, the mildnefs of the fea-
fons, and the fine temperature of the air, all confpire to
render Ifpahan one of the mofl charming and delightful
cities in the world. It is unanimoufly agreed, that the
prefent city is of no great antiquity j and the two parts
into which it is divided, preferve the names of two con¬
tiguous towms, from the junction of which it was form¬
ed. The inhabitants of thefe, notwithHanding their
neighbourhood, bear an inveterate antipathy to each
other; which they difeover on all public occafions.
Spauhawn owes the glory it now poffeffes to the great
Shah Abas j who, after the conqueH of the kingdoms
of Lar and Ormus, charmed with the fituation of this
place, made it the capital of his empire, between the
years 1620 and 1628. The mountains, with which
this city is furrounded, defend it alike from the fultry
heats of fummer and the piercing winds of the winter
. feafon : and the plain on which it Hands is watered by
feveral rivers, which contribute alike to its ornament
and ufe. Of thefe rivers, the’Zenderoud, after being
joined by the Mahmood, pafles by Spauhawn j where it
has three line bridges over it, and is as broad as the Iipahan.
Seine at Paris. The waters of thefe united Hreams are ~ v—-
fweet, pleafant, and wholefome, almoH beyond compa-
rifon •, as indeed are all the fprings found in the gardens
belonging to the houfes of Spauhawn. The extent of
Spauhawn is very great 5 not lefs perhaps than 20 miles
within the walls, which are of earth, poorly built, and
fo covered with houfes and Hiaded with gardens, that in
many places it is difficult to difeover them. The Per¬
fians are wont to fay, Spauhawn nifpigehon, i. e. Spau¬
hawn is half the world. Chardin fays, that fome rec¬
koned the number of inhabitants at 1,000,000 ; but he
did not look upon it as more populous than London, or
containing more than 600,000. At a distance, the city
is not eafily diflinguiffied ; many of the flreets being a-
dorned with plantains, and every houfe having its garden,
the whole looks like a wood. The flreets in general are
neither broad nor convenient; there being three great
evils which attend them : the firfl is, that being built
on common fewers, thefe are frequently broke up, which
is very dangerous, confidering that mofl people are on
horfeback j the fecond is, that there are many wells or
pits in them, which are not lefs dangerous •, the third
arifes from the people’s emptying all their ordure from
the tops of their houfes : this laft, indeed, is in fome
meafure qualified by the drynefs of the air, and by its
being quickly removed by the peafants, who carry it
away to dung their grounds. Some reckon eight, and
others ten gates, befides pofterns ; but all agree that
there is no difficulty of entering at any hour of the day
or night. The three principal fuburbs annexed to it
are, Abas-Abad, built by Shah Abas, and belonging
to the people of TaurisJulfa, inhabited by a colony
of Armenians, called by fome New Julfa, to diftinguilh
it from the ancient city of that name, fituated in Arme¬
nia, upon the Araxes, wffience the original inhabitants
of New Julfa were brought; and Ghebr-Abad, or, as
the Arabs pronounce it, Kebr-Abad, the flreet of the
magians, occupied entirely by the profefibrs of magifm,
or the religion of the ancient Perfians. The river Zen¬
deroud feparates the city of Ifpahan and Abas-Abad
from Julfa and Ghebr-Abad. This city has fuffered
greatly fince the commencement of the dreadful rebel¬
lion in 1721 } the whole kingdom from that period, till
a fewr years ago, having been almoft a continued feene
of blood, ravages, and confufion. A celebrated mo¬
dern traveller, who was on the fpot, tells us, that the
inhabitants of Julfa, not many years before the above
revolution happened, amounted to 30,000 fouls j had
13 churches, and above 100 priefts; and paid the Per-
fian court 200 tomans * yearly for the free exercife of* The to-
their religion : that fome of the ftreets were broad and mari 1S rec
handfome, and planted with trees, with canals and k1°nescl ^ri
fountains in the middle j others narrow and crooked, ’
and arched a-top •, others again, though extremely nar¬
row, as well as turning and winding many ways, were
of an incredible length, and refembled fo many laby¬
rinths : that, at a fmall diflance from the town, there
were public walks adorned wdth plane-trees on either
hand, and ways paved with Hones, fountains, and cif-
terns : that there were above 100 caravanferas fqr the
ufe of merchants and travellers, many of which were
built by the kings and prime nobility of Perfia: that, as
little rain fell there, the ftreets were frequently full of
duft, which rendered the city difogreeable during a
confiderablq.
I S R t 363 ] I S S
Ifpahan confiderable part of the fumraer j that the citizens,
II. however, to make this inconvenience more tolerable,
flraente., upe(j tQ water ■when the w’eather was warmer than
ufual: that there was a caftle in the eaftern part of the
town, which the citizens looked upon as impregnable,
in which the public money, and mod of the military
ftores, were faid to be kept : that, notwithllanding the
baths and caravanferas w'ere almoll innumerable, there
was not one public hofpital: that mod of the public
buildings were rather neat than magnificent, though the
great meydan or market-place, the royal palace (which
is three quarters of a league in circumference), and the
alley denominated Toiler bag adjoining to it, made a
very grand appearance : that the former contained the
royal mofque ; the building denominated hayserich,
where all forts of foreign commodities were expofed to
lale •, and the mint, dyled by the Perfians ferraa-khoneh,
where the current money of the kingdom w7as coined :
that, befides the native Perfians, there were then in
Ifpahan above 10,000 Indians all fupported by trade *,
20,000 Georgians, Circaflians, and Tartars of Daghe-
dan or Lefgees, with a confiderable number of Englidi,
Dutch, Portuguefe, and a few French : that the Capu¬
chins, difcalceated or barefooted Carmelites, Jefuits,
Dominicans, and Aullin friars, had likewife their con¬
vents here, though they were unable to make any con¬
verts •, and that there were above 100 mofques and pub¬
lic colleges. But fince the fatal period above mention¬
ed, the fuburb of Julfa svas almoft totally abandoned by
the Armenians. The government of Ifpahan, twenty-
three leagues long and as many broad, comprehending
feveral diftridls, moft of them formerly well peopled,
appeared not many years ago little better than a defert;
moft of the inhabitants of that fertile and delightful
tradl being fted and difperfed. Multitudes of them had
taken a precarious refuge in the mountains of Loriftan,
lying between Ifpahan and Sufter, whofe lands were left
untilled, and their houfes mouldered into ruins. In
fliort, all the diftrefles of an unfuccefsful war, or the in-
vafion of a barbarous enemy, could not have plunged
the people of Ifpahan into greater mifery than the vic¬
tories of their tyrannical king Nadir Shah, who feemed
more felicitous to humble his own fubjetts than his ene¬
mies. See Persia.
ISPIDA. See Alcedo, Ornithology Index.
ISRAEL, the name which the angel gave Jacob,
after having wreftled with him all night at Mahanaim
or Penuel (Gen. xxxii. 1, 2, and 28, 29, 30, and Ho-
fea xii. 3.). It fignifies a conqueror of God, ova prince
of God, or, according to many of the ancients, a man
•who fees God.
By the name of Ifrael is fometimes underftood the
perfon of Jacob 5 fometimes the whole people of Ifrael,
or the whole race of Jacob j and fometimes the king¬
dom of Ifrael, or of the ten tribes, diftinft from the
kingdom of Judah.
ISRAELITES, the defeendants of Ifrael ; who
were at firft called Hebrews, by reafon of Abraham,
who came from the other fide of the Euphrates; and
afterwards Ifraelites, from Ifrael the father of the
twelve patriarchs ; and laftly Jews, particularly after
their return from the caotivity of Babylon, becaufe the
tribe of Judah was then much ftronger and more nume¬
rous than the other tribes, and foreigners had fcarcely
any knowledge of this tribe.
ISSACHAR, one of the divifions of Paleftine by Iffachar
tribes •, lying to the fouth ol Zabulon,- fo as by a nar-
row fiip to reach the Jordan, between Zaoulon and u '
Manaffeh, (Jofh. xix.). But whether it reached to the
fea, is a queftion •, fome holding that it did : an after-
tion not eafy to be proved, as Joihua makes no mention
of the fea in this tribe, nor does Jofephus extend it
farther than to Mount Carmel-, and in Jolh. xvii. 10.
Aiher is faid to touch Manaffeh on the north, which
could not be if Iffachar extended to the fea.
ISSOUDUN, a town of France, in Berry, wdiich
carries on a trade in wood, cattle, cloth, hats, and
ftockings $ is feated partly on a plain, and partly on an
eminence. E. Long. 2. 5. N. Lat. 46. 57.
ISSUE, in common law, has various applications;
being fometimes taken for the children begotten be¬
tween a man and his wife—fometimes for profits growl¬
ing from amercements or fines—fometimes for pro¬
fits of lands and tenements—but more frequently
for the point of matter depending in fuit, whereupon
the parties join, and put their caufe to the trial of the
jury.
In all thefe occafions, iffue has but one fignification,
w-hich is, an effeft of a caufe preceding ; as the chil¬
dren are the effeft of the marriage between the pa¬
rents ; the profits growdng to the king or lord, from the
punifttment of any man’s offence, are the effedl of his
tranfgreftion ; the point referred to the trial of twTelve
men is the effeft of pleading, or procefs. See Plea
and Iffue.
ISSUES, in Surgery, are little ulcers made defign-
edly by the furgeon in various parts of the body, and
kept open by the patient, for the prefervation and re¬
covery of his health.
ISSU3, now7 Ajazo, a town of Cilicia in Natolia,
with a harbour on the Levant fea, a little to the north
of Scanderoon. E. Long. 36. 25. N. Lat. 36. 56.
Near this place, in a difficult pafs betw-een the
mountains and the fea, Alexander the Great fought his
fecond battle with Darius. One great caufe of the de¬
feat which the Perfians received here was the bad con¬
duct of their monarch, who led his numerous forces in¬
to a narrow place, where th°y had' not room to aft.
Alexander was fo much furprifed when he firft received
the news that Darius was behind him, that he could '
fcarcely believe it to be true : but when he wras tho¬
roughly fatisfied of the faft, and that Darius had again
paffed the river Pinarus, he called a council of war,
wherein, without afking any body’s advice, he only told
them, that he hoped they would remember their former
aftions ; and that they, wffio were always conquerors,
were about to fight people wffio were always beat. He
further obferved, that Darius feemed to be infatuated,
fince he had with fuch expedition quitted an open and
champaign country, wdiere his numbers might have aft- '
ed with advantage, to fight in a place inclofed, wffiere
the Macedonian phalanx might be well drawn up, and
where his numbers could only incommode him. He
then made the neceffary difpofitions 'for repaffing the
mountains, ported guards where he found them necef¬
fary, and then commanded his troops to refrefh them--'
felves, and to take their reft till morning.
At break of day he began to repafs the mountains,
obliging his forces to move in clofe order where the
road was narrow7, and’ to extend-’themfelves as they
Z z 2 had
I S S [ 5^4 ] 1ST
ififus. had more room $ the right wing keeping always clofe
"“v 1t0 the mountain, and the left to the fea-fhore. On
the right there was a battalion of heavy-armed troops,
befides the targeteers under the command of Nicanor
the fon of Parmenio. Next thefe, extending to the
phalanx, were the corps of Coenus and Perdiccas ; and
on the left the refpedfive bodies commanded by Amyn-
tas, Ptolemy, and Meleager. The foot appointed to
fupport them were commanded by Craterus j but the
whole left wing was committed to Parmenio, with
itridt orders not to decline from the fea-lhore, left
the Perfians Ihould furround them. Darius ordered
20,000 foot and 30,000 horfe to retire, finding that
he already wanted room to draw up the reft. His firit
line confided of 30,000 Greek mercenaries, having
on their right and left 60,000 heavy-armed tropps,
being the utmoft the ground would allow’. On the left,
towards the mountain, he polled 20,000 men, which,
from the hollow lituation of the place, were brought
quite behind Alexander’s right wing. The reft of his
troops were formed into clofe and ufelefs lines behind
the Greek mercenaries, to the number in all of 600,oco
men. When this was done, he fuddenly recalled the
horfe who had retired, fending part of them to take poll
on his right againft the Macedonians commanded by
Parmenio j and the reft he ordered to the left towards
the mountain : but, finding them unferviceable there,
he fent the greateft part of them to the right •, and then
took upon himfelf, according to the cuftom of the Per-
lian kings, the command of the main body. As foon
as Alexander perceived that the weight of the Perfian
ho^fe was difpofed againft his left wing, he difpatched,
with as much fecrecy as he could, the Theffalian ca¬
valry thither, and fupplied their places on the right by
fome brigades of horfe from the van, and light-armed
troops. He alfo made fuch difpofitions, that, notwith-
ftanding the mighty advantage of the hollow mountain,
the Perfians could not furround him. But, as thefe
precautions had confiderably weakened the centre of his
army, he ordered thofe advanced polls on the enemy’s
left, of which he was moll apprehenfive, to be attacked
at the very beginning of the fight 5 and, when they
wrere ealily driven from them, he recalled as many
troops as were neceffary to ftrengthen his centre.
When all things were in order, Alexander gave ftridl
command, that his army Ihould march very flowly.
As for Darius, he kept his troops fixed in their polls,
and in fome places threw up ramparts j whence the
Macedonians rightly obferved, that he thought himfelf
already a prifoner. Alexander at the head of the right
wing engaged firft, and without any difficulty broke and
defeated the left wing of Darius. But, endeavouring
to pafs the river Pinarus after them, his troops in fome
meafure lofing their order, the Greek mercenaries fell
upon them in flank, and made them fight, not only for
victory, but for their lives. Ptolemy the fon of Seleu-
cus, and 1 20 Macedonians of fome rank, were killed
upon the fpot. IJut the foot next to Alexander’s right
wing coming in feafonably to its relief, fell upon the
mercenaries in flank, amongft whom a dreadful carnage
was made •, they being in a manner furrounded by the
horfe and light-armed troops, which at firtl purfued the
left wing, and the foot that now paffed the river. The
Perfian horfe on the right ftill fought gallantly j but,
when they were thoroughly informed of the rout of
their left wing and of the deftruflion of the Greek mer- liTus
cenaries, and that Darius himfelf was fled, they began Ifthmia.
to break, and betake themfelves to flight alfo. The
Theffalian cavalry purfued them clofe at the heels j and
the narrow craggy roads incommoded them exceeding¬
ly, fo that vaft numbers of them perilhed. As for Da¬
rius, he fled, foon after the left wing was broken, in a
chariot with a few of his favourites : as far as the coun¬
try wTas plain and open, he efcaped well enough ; but,
when the roads became rocky and narrow, he quitted
it, and mounting a horfe, rode all the night : his cha¬
riot, in which were his cloak and his bow, fell into
the hands of Alexander, who carried them back to his
camp.
In refpefl to the battle of Iffus, Diodorus informs us,
that Alexander looked everywdiere about for Darius ;
and, as foon as he difeovered him, wdth his handful of
guards attacked him and the flower of the Perfian army
which was about him j being as defirous of obtaining
this vi£lory by his perfonal valour, as of fubduing the
Perfian empire by the courage of his foldiers. But
tvhen Oxathres, the brother of Darius, faw Alexander’s
defign, and how fiercely he fought to accompliffi it, he
threw himfelf, with the horfe who were about him, be¬
tween his brother’s chariot and the enemy, where an
obftinate fight was maintained, till the dead bodies rofe
like an entrenchment about the chariot of Darius. Ma¬
ny of the Perfian nobility were llain, and Alexander
himfelf was wounded in the thigh. At laft the horfes
in the chariot of Darius ftarted, and became fo unruly,
that the king himfelf wras forced to take the reins j the
enemy, however, preffed fo hard upon him, that he was
conftrained to call for another chariot, and mounted it
in great danger. This was the beginning of the rout,
which foon after became general. According to this
author, the Perfians loft 200,000 foot, and 10,000 (
horfe j the Macedonians 300 foot, and 150 horfe.
Juftin informs us, that the Perfian army confifted of
400,000 foot, and 100,000 horfe. He fays, that the
battle wTas hard fought; that both the kings were
wounded ; and that the Perfians ftill fought gallantly
when their king fled, but that they were afterwards
fpeedily and totally routed : he is very particular as to
their lofs, which he fays amounted to 61,000 foot,
10,000 horfe, and 40,000 taken prifoners j of the Ma¬
cedonians he fays there fell no more than 130 foot, and
150 horfe. Curtius fays, that of the Perfians there fell
100,000 toot, and 10,000 horfe : of Alexander’s army
504, he fays, were wounded j 32 foot and 150 horfe
killed. That w’e may not fufpecl any error in tranf-
cribers, his own obfervation confirms the fa£t : Tantulo
impendio ingens vi&oria Jletit, “ So fmal 1 was the coft of
fo great a vidtory.”
ISTHMIA, or Isthmiah Games; one of the four
folemn games which were celebrated every fifth year in
Greece. They had the name from the iithmus of Co¬
rinth, where they wrere celebrated. In their firft infti-
tution, according to Paufanias, they confifted only of
funeral rites and ceremonies in honour of Melicertes :
but Thefeus afterwards, as Plutarch informs us, in emu¬
lation of Hercules, wffio had appointed games at Olym¬
pia in honour of Jupiter, dedicated thofe to Neptune,
his reputed father, who W’as regarded as the particular
protedlor of the ifthmus and commerce of Corinth. The
fame trials of ikill were exhibited here as at the other
three
I T A [36
Ifthmu* three facred games ; and particularly thofe of mufic and
II poetry. Thefe games, in which the viftors were only
Italian’ rewarded with garlands of pine leaves, were celebrated
v with great magnificence and fplendor as long as paga-
nifm continued to be the eftabliihed religion of Greece ;
nor were they omitted even when Corinth was facked
and burnt by Mumrriius the Roman general; at which
time the care of them was transferred to the Sicyoniaris,
but was reftored again to the Corinthians when their ci¬
ty was rebuilt.
ISTHltlUS, a narrow neck, or flip of ground,
which joins two continents j or joins a peninfula to
the terra firma, and feparates two leas. See Penin¬
sula.
The mod celebrated ifthmufes are that of Panama
or Darien, which joins North and South America 5 that
of Suez, which connects Alia and Africa ; that of Co¬
rinth, or Peloponnefus, in the Morea 5 that of Crim-
Tartary, otherwife called Faurica Cherfonefus ; that of
the peninfula Romania, and Eriflb, or the ifthmus of
the Thracian Cherfonefus, twelve furlongs broad, being
that which Xerxes undertook to cut through. The an¬
cients had feveral deflgns of cutting the ifthmus of Co¬
rinth, which is a rocky hillock, about ten miles over j
but they were all in vain, the invention of fluices being
not then known. There have been attempts too for
cutting the ifthmus of Suez, to make a communication
between the Red fea and the Mediterranean : but thefe
alfo failed ; and in one of them a king of Egypt is faid
to have loft 120,000 men.
ISTRIA, a peninfula of Italy, in the territory of
Venice, lying in the north part of the Adriatic fea. It
is bounded by Carniola on the north ; and on the fouth,
eaft, and weft, by the fea. The air is unwholefome,
efpecially near the coaft ; but the foil produces plenty
of wine, oil, and paftures ; there are alfo quarries of fine
marble. One part of it belongs to the Venetians, and
the other to the houfe of Auftria. Cabo d’lftria is the
capital town.
ITALIAN, the language fpoken in Italy. See the
article Language.
This tongue is derived principally from the Latin ;
and of all the languages formed from the Laftin, there
is none w7hich carries with it more vifible marks of its
original than the Italian.
It is accounted one of the moft perfect among the
modern tongues. It is complained, indeed, that it has
too many diminutives and fuperlatives, or rather aug-
mentatives 5 but without any great reafon : for if thofe
words convey nothing farther to the mind than the juft
ideas of things, they are no more faulty than our pleo-
nafms and hyperboles.
The language correfponds to the genius of the peo¬
ple, who are flow and thoughtful: accordingly their
language runs heavily, though fmoothly j and many
of their words are lengthened out to a great degree.
They have a great tafte for mufic j and to gratify their
paflion this way, have altered abundance of their pri¬
mitive words; leaving out confonants, taking in vowels,
foftening and lengthening out their terminations, for
the fake of the cadence.
Hence the language is rendered extremely mufical,
and fucceeds better than apy other in operas and fome
parts of poetry : but it fails in ftrength and nervouf-
nefs ; and a great part of its words, borrowed from the
, ] 1,T A
Latin, become fo far difguifed that they are not eaflly Italic clia-
known again. raifter ^
The multitude of fovereign ftates into which Italy has itaiy#
been divided has given rife to a great number of different —i
dialedts in that language ; wdiich, however, are all
good in the place where they are ufed. The Tufcan
is ufually preferred to the other dialedts, and the Ro¬
man pronunciation to that of the other cities ; whence
the Italian proverb, Lingua Tofcana in bocca Romana.
The Italian is generally pretty well underftood
throughout Europe; and is frequently fpoken in Ger¬
many, Poland, and Hungary. At Conftantinople, in
Greece, and in the ports of the Levant, the Italian is
ufed as commonly as the language of the country : in¬
deed in thofe places it is not fpoken fo pure as in Tuf-
cany, but is corrupted with many of the proper words
and idioms of the place ; whence it takes a new name,
and is called Frank Italian.
ITALIC character, in Printing. See Letter.
ITALIC A, in Ancient Geography, a town of Bae-
tica in Spain, built by Scipio Africanus, after finiflung
the Spanifh war, for the reception of the wounded fol-
diers. At fii'ft it was a municipium ; afterwards a co¬
lony : which w?as a matter of wonder to the emperor
Adrian, the privileges of a municipium being beyond
thofe of a colony (Gellius). Famous for being the
birthplace of the emperors Trajan and Adrian, and
of the poet Silius Italicus. Now Sevilla Vieja, fcarcely'
four miles from Seville ; a fmall village of Andalufia
on the Guadalquivir.—Gorjiniuni in Italy was thus alfo
called.
ITALY, one of the fined countries of Europe, ly¬
ing between 7 and 10 degrees of E. Long, and be¬
tween 37 and 46 degrees of N. Lat. On the north,
north-weft, and north-eaft, it is bounded by France,
Switzerland, the country of the Grilbns, and Germa¬
ny ; on the eaft, by the Adriatic fea or gulf of Ve¬
nice ; and on the fouth and weft, by the Mediterra¬
nean ; its figure bearing fome refemblance to that of
a boot. Its length from Aofta, at the foot of the,
Alps in Savoy, to the utmoft verge of Calabria, is
about 600 miles ; but its breadth is very unequal, be¬
ing in fome places near 400 miles, in others not above
25 or 30. r
Italy was anciently known by the names of Satur-\Xs different
nia, Genotria, Hefperia, and Aufonia. It was called nallies‘
Saturnia from Saturn; who, being driven out of
Crete by his fon Jupiter, is fuppofed to have taken
refuge here. The names of Oenotria and Aufonia are
borrowed from its ancient inhabitants the Oenotrians
and Aufones; and that of Hefperia or Wejlern was
given it by the Greeks, from its lituation with refpedl
to Greece. The name of Italia, or Italy, which in
procefs of time prevailed all over the reft, is by fome
derived from Italus, a king of the Siculi : by others,
from the Greek word Italos, lignifying an ox ; this
country abounding, by reafon of its rich paftures,
with oxen of an extraordinary fize and beauty. All
thefe names were originally peculiar to particular pro¬
vinces of Italy, but afterwards applied to the whole
country. 2
This country, like moft others, was in ancient times Divifion in
divided into a great number of petty ftates and king- a.ncicnt
doms. Afterwards when the Gauls fettled in thetmies‘
weftern, and many Greek colonies in the eaftsrn parts,
it
I T A [
Italy. |t was divided, with refpeft to its inhabitants, into
t v ■■■' three great parts, viz. Gallia Cifalpina, Italy properly
fo called, and Magna Groecia. The molt weltern and
northern parts of Italy were in great part pofieiTed by
the Gaulsand hence took the name of Gallia, with
the epithets of Cifalpina and Citerior, becaufe they lay
on the fide of the iVlps next to Rome •, and Toyota,
with relation to the Roman gown or drefs which the
inhabitants ufed •, but this lalt epithet is of a much
later date than the former. This appellation was an¬
tiquated in the reign of Auguftus, when the divilion
of Italy into eleven provinces, introduced by that
prince, took place. Hence it is that the name of Cif-
alpine Gaul frequently occurs in the authors who flou-
rilhed before, and fcarce ever in thofe who wrote af¬
ter, the reign of Auguftus. This country extended
from the Alps and the river Varus, parting it from
Tranfalpine Gaul, to the river Aefus *, or, as Pliny
will have it, to the city of Ancona, in the ancient Pi-
cenum. On the north, it was divided from Rhaetia
by the Alps, called Alpes Rhceticce; and from Illyricum
by the river Formio : but on this fide, the borders of
Italy were, in Pliny’s time, extended to the river
Arfia in Iftria. On the fouth, it reached to the Li-
guftic fea, and the Apennines parting it from Etruria ;
fo that under the common name of Cifalpine Gaul
were comprehended the countries lying at the foot of
the Alps, called by Pliny and Strabo the Subalpine
countries, Liguria, Gallia Cifpadana and Tranfpadana.
Italy, properly fo called, extended, on the coaft of the
Adriatic, from the city of Ancona to the river Trento,
now the Fortore ; and on the Mediterranean, from the
Macra to the Silarus, now the Sele. Magna Graecia
comprifed Apulia, Lucania, and the country of the
Bruttii. It was called Greece, becaufe moft of the ci¬
ties on the coaft were Greek colonies. The inhabi¬
tants gave it the name of Great, not as if it was larger
than Greece, but merely out of oftentation, as Pliny
informs us.
All thefe countries were inhabited by a great num¬
ber of different nations fettled at different times, and
from many different parts. The names of the moft
remarkable of them were the Aborigines, or thofe whofe
origin was utterly unknown, and confequently were
thought to have none ; the Sabines, Hetrurians or Tuf-
^ cans, the XJmbri, Sammies, Campam, Apuln, Calabm,
Subdued by Lucanii, the Bruttii, and the Latins. From a colony
the Ro¬
mans.
of the latter proceeded the Romans, who gradually
fubdued all thefe nations one after another, and held
them in fubje&ion for upwards of 700 years. All
there nations were originally brave, hardy, temperate,
and well fkilled in the art of war; and the Romans
much more fo than the reft. Their fubjeffion to
Rome, however, inured them to flavery ; their oppref-
fion by the emperors broke their fpirit *, and the vaft
wealth which wras poured into the country from all
parts of the world, during the time of the Roman
profperity, corrupted their manners, and made them
degenerate from their former valour. Of this degene¬
racy the barbarous nations of the north took the ad¬
vantage to invade the empire in innumerable multi¬
tudes, Though often repelled, they never failed to
return ; and it was found neceffary to take great num¬
bers of them into the Roman fervice, in order to de¬
fend the empire againft the reft of their countrymen.
3
366 ] I T A
In the year 476, the Heruli, prefuming on the fervi- Italy,
ces they had done the empire, demanded a third part ~ v ‘ ' ■'
of the lands of Italy •, and being refufed, choie one ^ ^
Gdoacer, a man of low birth, but of great valour and ruip
experience, for their king j and having totally de-
ftroyed the remains of the Roman empire, proclaimed
Odoacer king of Italy. The new monarch, however,
did not think proper to alter the Roman form of go¬
vernment, but fuftered the people to be governed by
the fenate, confuls, &.c. as before. He enjoyed his dig¬
nity in peace till the year 488, when Zeno, emperor
of Conftantinople, being hard preffed by Theodoric
king of the Oftrogoths, advifed him to turn his arms
againft Odoacer, whom he could eafily overcome, and
thus make himfelf fovereign of one of the fineft coun¬
tries in the world. 5
Theodoric accepted the propofal with great joy, Invaded by
and fet out for Italy, attended by an infinite number
of people, carrying with them their wives, children,
and effefts, on waggons. Several Romans of great
diftindlion attended him in this war •, while, on the
other hand, many of his countrymen chofe to remain
in Thrace, where they became a feparate nation, and
lived for a long time in amity with the Romans. The
Goths, being deftitute of ihipping, w^ere obliged to
go round the Adriatic. Their march was performed
in the depth of winter and during the whole time, a
violent famine and plague raged in their army. They
wrere alfo oppofed by the Gepidae and Sarmatians j but
at laft having defeated thefe enemies, and overcome
every other obftacle, they arrived in Italy in the year
489. Theodoric advanced to the river Sontius, now
Zonzo, near Aquileia, where he halted for lome time
to refrefh his troops. Here he was met by Odoacer
at the head of a very numerous army, but compofed
of many different nations commanded by their refpec-
tive chiefs, and confequently without fufficient union 5
or zeal for the common caufe. Theodoric therefore Odoacer de
gained an eafy vidfory, cut many of his enemies in pie-feate<h
ces, and took their camp. Odoacer retired to the
plains of Verona, and encamped there at a fmall di-
ftance from the city •, but Theodoric purfued him clofe,
and loon forced him to a fecond engagement. The
Goths obtained another victory •, but it coft them dear.
Odoacer’s men made a much better refiftance than
before, and great numbers fell on both fides. The
victory, however, was fo far decifive, that Odoacer
wras obliged to (hut himfelf up in Ravenna *, fo that
Theodoric having now no enemy to oppofe him in the
field, befieged and took feveral important places, and
among the reft Milan and Pavia. At the fame time,
Tufa, commander in chief of Odoacer’s forces, de¬
fected to the enemy with the greateft part of the
troops he had with him, and was immediately employ¬
ed in conjunction with a Gothic officer in purfuit of
his fovereign. Odoacer had left that city, and was
advanced as far as Faenza, where he was clofely be¬
fieged by Tufa ; but the traitor, declaring again for
his old mailer, joined him with all his troops, and de¬
livered up feveral officers that had been appointed by
Theodoric to lerve under him. Thefe were fent in
irons to Ravenna ; and Odoacer being joined by Fri-
deric, one of Theodoric’s allies, with a confiderable
body of troops, once more advanced againft his ene¬
mies. He recovered all Liguria, took the city of
Milan,
Italy.
I T A [
Milan, and at laft belleged Theodoric himfelfin
Italy.
via. The Goths, having brought all their families and
effe&s along with them, were greatly diftrefled for
want of room ; and muft have undoubtedly fubmitted,
if their enemies had continued to agree among them-
felves. The quarrels of his followers proved the ruin
of Odoacer. Theodoric finding that the enemy re¬
mitted the vigour of their operations, applied for fuc-
cours to Alaric king of the Vifigoths, who had fet¬
tled in Gaul. As tire Vifigoths and Odrogoths were
originally one and the fame nation, and the Vifigoths
had received among them fome years before a great
number of Oftrogoths under the conduct of Videroer
coufin-german to Theodoric, the fupplies were readily
granted. The inaction of the enemy gave thefe fuc-
cours time to arrive •, upon which Theodoric inftantly
ioined them, and marching againft his enemies gave
them a total overthrow. Odoacer again took refuge
in Ravenna, but was clofely befieged by Theodoric in
493. The fiege laftcd three years; during which O-
doacer defended himfelf with great bravery, and great¬
ly annoyed the befiegers with his fallies. Theodoric,
however, impatient of delay,, leaving part of his army
to lalockade the city, marched with the reft againft
the ftrong holds which Odoacer had garrifoned. All
thefe he reduced with little difficulty •, and in 492 re¬
turned to the fiege of Ravenna. The befieged w’ere
now reduced to great ftraits both by the enemy wdth-
out and a famine within, the price of wheat being rifen
to fix pieces of gold per buffiel. On the other hand,
the Goths w?ere quite wmrn out with the fatigues of
fuch a long fiege; fo that both parties being willing
to put an end to the war, Odoacer fent John biftiop of
Ravenna to Theodoric with terms of accommodation.
Jornandes informs us, that Odoacer only begged his
life j which Theodoric bound himfelf, by a folemn
oath, to grant him: but Procopius fays, that they
agreed to live together on equal terms. This laft
feems very improbable : but wffiatever w7ere the terms
of the agreement, it is certain that Theodoric did not
keep them ; for having a few days after invited Odoa¬
cer to a banquet, he difpatched him with his own
hand. All his fervants and relations were maflacred
at #the fame time : except his brother Arnulphus, and
a few more, who had the good luck to make their
efcape, and retired beyond the Danube.
Thus Theodoric became mafter of all Italy, and
proclaimed took upon himfelf the title of king of that country, as
king of Ita- Odoacer had done before; though, with a pretended
his powereS^e^erenGe to emPeror Conftantinople, he fent
with mode-mehhngers alking liberty to affume that title after he
had acfually taken it. Having fecured his new king¬
dom as w'ell as he could by foreign alliances, Theodoric
next applied himfelf to legifiation, and enacied many
falutary laws befides thofe of the Romans which he re¬
tained. He chofe Ravenna for the place of his refi-
dence, in order to be near at hand to put a flop to
the incurfions of the barbarians. The provinces w7ere
governed by the fame magiftrates that had prefided
over them in the times of the emperors, viz, the confu-
lares, correBors, and prcejides. But befides thefe, he
fent, according to the cuftom of the Goths, inferior
judges, diftinguiffied by the name of counts, to each
city. Thefe were to adminifter juftice, and to decide
all controverfies and difputes. And herein the polity
- 7
Submits,
and is put
to death.
Theodoric
ration.
367 ] ITA
Pa- of the Goths far excelled that of the Romans. For in
the Roman times a whole province was governed by
a confularis, a corredtor, or a praefes, who refided in
the chief city, and to whom recourfe was to be had at
a great charge from the moft remote parts : but Theo¬
doric, befides thefe officers, appointed not only in the
principal cities, but in every fmall town and village,
inferior magiftrates of known integrity, who were to
adminifter juftice, and by that means fave thofe who
had law-fuits the trouble and expence of recurring to
the governor of the whole province ; no appeals to di-
ftant tribunals being allowed, but in matters of the
greateft importance, or in cafes of manifeft injuitice.
Under the adminiftration of Theodoric Italy enjoy¬
ed as great happinefs as had been experienced under
the very beft emperors. As he had made no altera¬
tion in the laws except that above mentioned ; fo he
contented himfelf with the fame tributes and taxes that
had been levied by the emperors ; but was, on all oc-
cafions of public calamity, much more ready to remit
them than moft of the emperors had been. He did
not treat the natives as thofe of the other Roman pro¬
vinces were treated by the barbarians who conquered
them. Thefe ftripped the ancient proprietors of their
lands, eftates, and poffeffions, dividing them among
their chiefs ; and giving to one a province -with the
title of duke, to another a frontier country with the
title of marquis ; to fome a city with the title of count, ..
to others a caftle or village with the title of baron. But
Xheodoric, who piqued himfelf upon governing after
the Roman manner, and obfcrving the Roman law's and
inftitutions, left every one in the full enjoyment of his
ancient property. As to religion, though he himfelf,
like moft of his countrymen, profeffed the tenets of
Arius, he allowed his fubjedls to profefs the orthodox
docftrine without moleftation, giving liberty even to
the Goths to renounce the dodtrines in which they
had been educated, and embrace the contrary opinions.
In Ihort, Iris many virtues, and the happinefs of his
fubjedts, are celebrated by all the hiftorians of thofe
times. 'The end of his reign, however, was fullied by
the death of the celebrated philofopher Boethius, and p
his father-in-law Symmachus. They wTere both behead- Beheads
ed in Pavia, on an unjuft fufpicion of treafon ; and B^thius
fcarce was the fentence put in execution when the king^!,^™”
repented, and abandoned himfelf to the moft pungent and dies of
forrow. The excefs of his grief affedled his underftand- grief,
ing : for not long after, the head of a large fifti being
ferved up to fupper, he fancied the head of the fifti to
be that of Symmachus threatening him in a ghaftly
manner. Hereupon, feized wi.th horror and amaze¬
ment, he was carried to his bed-chamber, where he died
in a few days, on the 2d of September 526.
After the death of Theodoric, the kingdom devol¬
ved to Athalric his grandfon ; who being at that time
only eight years of age, his mother Amalafuntha took
upon her the regency. Her adminiftration was equally
upright with that of Theodoric himfelf; but the barba- 10
rians of whom her court was compofed, finding fault Amalafim-
vvith the encouragement Ihe gave to learning, forced t^ia tlie re“
her to abandon the education of her fon. The latter
thereupon plunged into all manner of wickednefs, and tably
behaved to his mother with the greateft arrogance; and,
the faflion finding themfelves thus ftrengthened, at laft
commanded the queen to retire from court.
Amalafuntha, ,
T T A r 368 1 I T A
IfaU*. AiTialafuntTia, exerting her authority, feized three of
tlie ringleaders of the fedition, whom die confined in
the mod remote parts of Italy. But thefe maintaining
a fecret correfpondence with their friends and rela¬
tions, never ceafed to dir up the people againft her 5
infomuch, that the queen, apprehending that the fac¬
tion might in the end prevail, wrote to the emperor
.Tudinian, begging leave to take refuge in his domi¬
nions. The emperor readily complied with her requed,
offering a noble palace at Durazzo for her habitation j
but the queen having in the mean time caufed the three
ringleaders to be put to death, and no new didurb-
ances arifing thereupon, die did not accept of the em¬
peror’s offer. In 533, Athalric having contradfed a
lingering diftemper by his riotous living and debauch¬
eries, Amalafuntha, to avoid the calamities with which
Italy wa"s threatened in cale of his death, formed a de-
fign of delivering it up to Juffinian : but before her
fcheme was ripe for execution, Athalric died. Upon
which the queen took for her colleague one Theodotus
her coufin •, obliging him, however, to fwear that he
ir would fuffer her to enjoy and exercife her former power.
Is treacher-This he very readily did, but foon forgot his promife j
foned "'and ~anC^ w^en to°^ t^ie liberty to remind him of it,
put to caufed her to be feized and confined in an ifland of the
death; lake Bolfena in Tufcany. But as Theodotus had great
reafon to believe that this conduft would be refented
by Juftinian, he obliged her to write to him that no
injury or injuftice had been done her. Along with
this letter he fent one written by himfelf, and filled
with heavy complaints againft Amalafuntha. 1 he em¬
peror, however, wTas fo far from giving credit to what
Theodotus urged againft her, that he openly efpoufed
her caufe, wrote her a moft affedlionate letter, and af-
fured her of his proteftion. But before this letter
could reach her, the unhappy princefs was ftrangled in
the bath by the friends of thofe whom in the reign of
her fon flie had defervedly put to death for raifing di-
12 flurbances in the ftate.
For which On the news of Amalafuntha’s death, Juftinian re-
reafon Ju- folved upon an immediate w'ar with the Goths; and,
ftiman t0 facii;tate t’ne enterprife, ufed his utmoft endeavours
orfthe W3r to induce the Franks to affift him. To his felicitations
Goths. he added a large fum of money ; which laft was very
acceptable to his new' allies. They promifed to afiift
the emperor to the utmoft of their power ; but inftead
of performing their promife, while Juftinian’s arms
were employed againft the Goths, Thierri, the eldeft
fon of Clovis, feized on feveral cities of Liguria, the
Alpes Cottiae, and great part of the prefent territory
of Venice, for himfelf. Juftinian, hotvever, found fuf-
ficient refources in the valour of Belifarius, notwith-
ftanding the defedlion of his treacherous allies. This
celebrated general w^as vefted with the fupreme com¬
mand, and abfolute authority. His inftru&ions w'ere
to pretend a vc^age to Carthage, but to make an at¬
tempt upon Sicily j and if he thought he could fuc-
ceed in the attempt, to land there ; otherwife to fail
for Africa, without difeovering his intentions. Ano¬
ther general, named Mundus, commander of the troops
in Illyricum, was ordered to march into Dalmatia,
which was fubjeft to the Goths, and attempt the re-
dudlion of Salonae, the better to open a paffage into
Italy. This he accomplifhed without difficulty, and
Belifarius made himfelf mafter of Sicily fooner than he
2
himfelf had expe&ed. The ifland was reduced on the Italy,
laft of December 535 ; upon which Belifarius, with- "
out lofs of time, palled over to Reggio, which opened
its gates to him. From Reggio he purfued his march
to Rome, the provinces of Abrutium, Lucania, Pug¬
lia, Calabria, and Samnium, readily lubmitting to him.
The city of Naples endured a liege : but Belifarius
entered in through an aquedudf, and gave it up to be
plundered by his foldiers.
Theodotus alarmed at thefe fucceffes, and having
neither capacity nor inclination to carry on the wTar,
fent ambaltadors to Juftinian with propofals of peace.
He agreed to renounce all pretenfions to the illand of
Sicily • to fend the emperor yearly a crown of gold
weighing 300 pounds-, and to fupply him with 3000
men whenever he ftiould think proper to demand them.
Several other articles were contained in the propofal,
W'hicl) amounted to the owming of Juftinian for his
lord, and that he held the crown of Italy only through
his favour. As he apprehended, howrever, that thefe
offers might not yet be fatisfadlory, he recalled his 13
ambaffadors for further orders. They were now de- Dieodotus
fired to inform Juftinian, that Theodotus was willing the ^
to refign the kingdom to him, and content himfelf kingdom,
wdth a penfion fuitable to his quality. But he obliged
them by an oath not to mention this propofal, till
they found that the emperor would not accept of the
other. The firft propofals were accordingly rejedled
as they had fuppofed ; upon which the ambaffadors
produced the fecond, figned by Theodotus himfelf,
who in his lette? to the emperor told him, among
other things, that being unacquainted with war, and
addidled to the ftudy of philofophy, he preferred his
quiet to a kingdom. Juftinian, tranfported with joy,
and imagining the war already finiihed, anfwered the
king in a moft obliging manner, extolling his wifdom,
and giving him befides what he demanded the greateft
honours of the empire. The agreement being con¬
firmed by mutual oaths, lands were affigned to Theo¬
dotus out of the king’s domain, and orders were dif-
patched to Belifarius to take poffeffion of Italy in his
name.
In the mean time, a body of Goths having entered
Dalmatia, with a defign to recover the city of Salonse,
were encountered by an inferior army of Romans,
commanded by the fon of Mundus above mentioned.
The Goths proved victorious $ and the young general
of the Romans w?as killed, and moft of his army cut
in pieces. Mundus marched againft the enemy to re¬
venge the death of his fon j but met with no better
fuccefs, his troops being defeated, and he himfelf kill¬
ed in the engagement. Upon this the Romans aban- 14
doned Salonee and all Dalmatia; and Theodotus, ela- Theodotus
ted with his fuccefs, refufed to fulfil the articles of the re^Ll^es t0
treaty. Juftinian difpatched Conftantianus, an officer of *
great valour and experience, into Illyricum, with or- the treaty,
ders to raife forces there, and to enter Dalmatia 5 at
the fame time he wrote to Belifarius to purfue the war
with the utmoft vigour.
The Goths were now reduced to the greateft ftraits.
Conftantianu* drove them out of Dalmatia ; and Beli¬
farius having reduced all the provinces which compofe
the prefent kingdom of Naples, advanced towards
Rome. The chief men of the nation, finding their
king incapable of preventing the impending ruin, af-
fembled
I T A
t 3^9 1
I T A
Italy.
I5
He is de-
pol'od, and
Vitiges
cbolen in
his ftead.
16
He co'letds
a great
■*ar;ny.
fettiMed vvitViout his confent, and difpatched ambaf.
fadors to Belifarius with propofals of peace. Thefe
propofals were rejefted j and Belifarius returned for
anfwer, that lie would hearken to no terms, nor (heath
his fword, till Italy was reannexed to the empire to
tvhich it belonged. The Goths finding Theodotus
Hill inadlive, unanimoully depofed him ; and chofe in
his ftead one Vitiges, a man of great valour, but of a
mean defcent. Theodotus fled to Ravenna j but the
new king difpatched after him a meffenger, who foon
overtook him and cut off his head.
Vitiges began his government by writing a circular
letter, in which he exhorted his countrymen to exert
their ancient courage, and fight bravely for their lives
and liberties. He then marched with what forces he
could colledl: towards Rome •, but not thinking himfelf
able to defend that city againil the Roman forces, he
abandoned it to Belifarius, and arriving at Ravenna
was joined by the Goths from all parts, fo that he
foon found himfelf at the head of a confiderable army.
Belifirius in the mean time entered Rome without op-
pofition, on the 9th or loth of December 53^. The
Gothic garrifon retired by the Porta Flammia, while
Belifarius entered by the Porta Afmaria. Leudaris,
governor of the city, who (laid behind, was fent, to¬
gether wuth the keys, to the emperor. Belifarius
immediately applied himfelf to the repairing of the
■walls and other fortifications *, filled the granaries
with corn, which he caufed to be brought from Sicily $
and ftored the place with provifions, as if he had been
preparing for a fiege ; which gave no fmall uneafinefs
to the inhabitants, who chofe rather that their city
thou id lie Open to every invader, than that they (houlu
be liable to the calamities of a fiege. While Belifarius
was thus employed at Rome, the city of Benevento,
with great part of the territory of Samnium, was de¬
livered up to him : at the fame time the cities of Nar¬
nia, Spoleto, and Perufia, revolting from the Goths,
received Roman garrifons j as did mold of the cities of
Tufcany.
In the mean time, Vitiges having collefled an army
of 150,000 men, refolved to march diredlly to Rome,
and engage Belifarius J or, if he declined an engage¬
ment, to lay fisge to the city. But apprehending
that the Franks, who wTere in confederacy with the
emperor, might fall upon him at the fame time, he
fent ambaffadors to them, with offers of all the Gothic
poffeffions in Gaul, befides a confiderable fum of
money, provided they joined him againfl the emperor.
The Franks with their ufual treachery confented to the
propofal, received the money and the territories agreed
on, and then refufed to fulfil the terms of the treaty.
Vitiges, however, began bis march to Rome, leaving
behind him all the fortified towns on the road, the
reduclion of which he knew would coft him too much
trouble. Belifarius, whofe army, reduced by the
many towns he had garrifoned, did not now amount
to above 5000 men, difpatched meffengers to Conftan-
tianus in Tufcany •, and to Beffas, by nation a Goth,
but of the emperor’s party, in Umbria, with orders
to join him with all poffible expedition •, writing at
the fame time to the emperor himfelf for fupplies in
the mofl prefling manner. Conflantianus joined him
purfuant to his orders; and foon after, Beffas, fall¬
ing in with part of the enemy’s vanguard, killed a
Vol. XL Part I.
confiderable number of them, and put the reft to flight. Italy.
Belifarius had built a fort upon a bridge about a mile —-v—“
from Rome, and placed a ffrong garrifon in it to
difpute the paffage with the enemy ; but the garrifcn,
fcized with a panic at the approach of the Goths,
abandoned their poll in the night, and fled into Cam¬
pania. Early in the morning Vitiges paffed over great
part of his army, and marched on till he was met by
Belifarius, who, knowing nothing of what had hap¬
pened, came with 1000 horfe to view the ground
about the bridge. He was greatly furprifed when he
beheld the enemy marching up againfl; him ; however,
left he ftiould heighten their courage by his flight or ment be-
retreat, he flood his ground, and received the enemy at tween the
the head of bis fmall body, expofing himfelf, without
his ufual prudence and difcretion, to the greateft dan¬
gers. Being known by fome fugitives, and difcovered
to the enemy, they all aimed at him alone, which
made his own men the more folicitous to defend him;
fo that the whole conteff was for fome time about his
perfon. At laft the Goths were driven back to their
camp, which the Romans with great temerity attempt¬
ed to force. In this attempt, however, they fnet with
fuch a vigorous reflftance, that they foon abandoned
the enterprife, and retired with precipitation to a
neighbouring eminence ; whence they were forced down
by the enemy, put to flight, and purfued to the very
gates of the city. Here they were in greater danger
than ever ; for thofe within, fearing that the enemy
might in that COnfufion enter with them, refufed to
admit them. The general himfelf cried out earneftly
to them, telling who he was, and commanding them
to open the gatesbut as they had been informed by
thofe who firft fled, that he was (lain, and they could
not diftinguilh him on account of the blood and duft
with which his face was covered, they gave no ear to
what he faid. In this extremity, having encouraged
his men, who were now driven into a narrow compafs,
to make a laft effort, he put himfelf at their head, and
attacked the enemy with fuch fury, that the Goths
imagining frefti troops were fallying out upon them,
began to give ground, and at laft retired to their
camp. The Roman general did not purfue them ; but
entered the city, where he was received with loud accla¬
mations.
A few days after, the city was clofely in hefted by
Vitigcs ; who, to diftrefs the inhabitants, pulled down fie«<=cl by
the aquedudls by which water was conveyed into the the Goths,
city, and which had been built at an iminenfe charge
by the Roman emperors. Belifarius on his part omit¬
ted nothing for his defence ; in'- much that the coward¬
ly citizens affembled in a tumultuous manner, and railed
at the general on account of his fuppofed temerity.
Vitiges, to encourage this mutinous difpofition, dif¬
patched ambaffadors to the fenate with propofals of
Thefe ambaffadors, hoXvever, were difmiffed
any anfwer, and the fiege was be^un with
great vigour. Belifarius made a gallant defence, and
in (even months is faid to have deflroyed 40,000 of
the Goths. About this time he received a fupply of
1600 archers from the emperor; and thefe, in feveral
fuccefsful (allies, are faid to have killed 4000 more of
the enemy.
The Romans, elated with their fucceffes, now be¬
came impatient for an engagement ; and at laft. not-
3 A withftanding
peace.
without
I T A
ita’y- withftanding all the remonftrances of their general, for-
v'"~“ ced him to lead them out againft the enemy. The iuc-
cefs was anfwerable to the rafh attempt. The Romans
were defeated, with the lofs of fome of their braveft
officers, and a great many of their common foldiers j
after which they contented themfelves with fallying out
in fmall parties, wffiich they commonly did with the
greatefl: fuccefs.
But though the Romans had the fatisfa6Hon of thus
cutting off their enemies, they were moft grievoufly
affluffed with a famine and plague j infomuch that the
inhabitants, no longer able to bear their calamities,
Were on the point of forcing Belifarius to venture a
fecond battle, when a feafonable fupply of troops, viz.
3000 Ifaurians, 800 Thracian horfe, and 1300 horfe
of other nations, together with 500 Italians wrho joined
them by the way, arrived at Rome. Belifarius imme¬
diately Tallied out by the Flaminian gate, and fell
upon the Goths in order to give his allies time to
enter by the oppofitc fide of the city, wffiich they did
without the lofs of a man.—The Goths hearing of
the arrival of thefe troops, and their numbers being
magnified as is ufual in fuch cafes, began to defpair
of becoming mailers of the city j efpecially as the fa¬
mine and plague raged with great violence in their
camp, and their army was much reduced. Ambaffadors
were therefore dilpatched to Belifarius with propofals
of peace j but the only thing they could obtain was a
ceflation of arms for three months, during which time
they might fend ambaffadors to the emperor. The
negociations with the emperor, however, proved un-
fuccefsful j and the fiege was purfued with great vigour
till Vitiges received the news of the taking of Rimini
by the Romans. As this city was but a day’s journey
from Ravenna, the Goths were fo much alarmed, that
The fiege immediately raifed the fiege of Rome, after it had
raifed. continued a year and nine days. Belifarius fell upon
their rear as they paffed the bridge of the Tiber, and
cut great numbers of them in pieces, wffiile others,
ftruck with a panic, threw themfelves into the river and
were drowned.
The firll; enterprife of Vitiges, after raifing the
fiege of Rome, wras an attempt upon Rimini; but
while he was employed in this fiege, the Romans made
themfelves mailers of Milan 5 upon which a Gothic
general, named Uraia, was immediately difpatched with
a powerful army to retake it. In the mean time,
however, a fupply of 7000 Romans arrived from the
emperor, under the command of Narfes, a celebrated
general. The immediate confequence of this was the
railing of the fiege of Rimini j for Vitiges perceiving
the two Roman armies coming againff him, and con¬
cluding, from the many fires they made, that they
were much more numerous than they really wrere, fled
in fuch hafte, that the greateft part of the baggage was
left behind. The confufion of the Goths was fo great,
that, had not the garrifon been extremely feeble, they
might have eafily cut them off in their retreat, and thus
put an end to the war at once. 'The fuccefs of the
Romans, however, was now retarded by fome mifun-
derftandings between the two generals : fo that, though
Belifarius made himfelf mailer of Urbinum and Urbi-
ta- ventutn, while Narfes reduced fome other places, yet
ken by the the important city of Milan was fullered to fall into
Goths. the hands of the Goths, who maffacred all the inhabi-
I T A
tants that were able to bear arms, to the number of Italy.
300,000, and fold the women for flaves. The city 1'""
was alio totally demolilhed ; and this difaller made
fuch an impreffion on the mind of Jullinian, that he
immediately recalled Narfes, and gave the command of
his troops to Belifarius.
Vitiges, who had promifed himfelf great advantages
from the difagreement of the two generals, was much
difappointed by the recall of Narfes : and therefore
dreading the power of Belifarius wdien at the head of
a formidable army, thought of engaging in alliance
with fome foreign prince. In his choice, however, he
was fomewbat at a lofs. He knew’ the treachery of
the Franks, and therefore did not apply to them. He
applied to the Lombards; but, though tempted by
the offer of a large fum of money, they continued in¬
violably attached to the Roman intereft At lalt he
found means to perfuade Chofroes king of Perfia to
make war upon Jullinian, which he thought would
infallibly procure the recall of Belifarius. But the
Roman general, underftanding his defign, puffied on
the war in the moft vigorous manner j while, in the
mean time, the treacherous Franks, thinking both na-j,aiy invatj.,
tions fufficiently weakened by their mutual hoftilities,ed by the
refolved to attack both, and feize upon the country
for which they contended. Accordingly, Theodebert,
unmindful of the oaths he bad taken both to the
Goths and Romans, paffed the Alps at the head of
150,000, or, as fome wall have it, 200,000 men, and
entered Liguria. As no hoftilities wrere committed by
them on their march, the Goths concluded that they
w’ere come to their affiftance •, and therefore took care
to fupply them with proviflons. Thus they crofs-
ed the Po without oppofition j and having iecured the
bridge, marched towards the place, wdiere a body of
Goths was encamped j who, looking upon them as
friends, admitted them without hefitation. But they
were foon convinced of their miftake ; for the Franks
falling unexpectedly upon them, drove them out of the
camp with great flaughter, and feized on their bag¬
gage and provifions. A body of Romans that lay at a
fmall difiance from the Goths concluding that they
had been defeated by Belilarius, advanced wfith great
joy to meet him as they imagined; but the Franks fall¬
ing unawares upon them, treated them as they had
done the Goths, and made themfelves mafters of their
camp. Thus they acquired a very coniiderable booty
and ftore of provifions ; but the latter being foon con-
fumed, and the country round about quite exhaufted,
vaft numbers of the Franks periihed ; fo that Theode¬
bert at laft found himfelf obliged to return. In bisway
he deftroyed Genoa and feveral other places, and arrived
in his own dominions loaded with booty. 22
In the mean time, Beliiarius was making great pro-Succefs of
grefs. He took the cities of Auximum and Faefulge 'iehhirias.
after an obltinate fiege ; the inhabitants of the former
having for fome time fed on grafs before they would
furrender. After this he invefted Ravenna, the capital
of all the Gothic dominions in Italy. The place was
defended by a very numerous garrifon, commanded by
the king in perfon, who exerted all his bravery in the
defence of his metropolis. A.s the fiege, however, was
pufhed on with great vigour, it was evident that the
city muft at laft fubmit; and the great fucceffes of the
Romans began to give jealoufy to the neighbouring
potentates.
f 37° J
I T A
Italy, potentates. Theodebert king of the Franks offered to
1 " v _1"“- affiff Vitiges with an army of 500,000 men ; but Be-
liiarius, being informed of this negociation, fent am-
baffadors to Vitiges, putting him in mind of the
treachery of the Franks, and affured him that the em¬
peror was ready to grant him very honourable terms.
The king, by the advice of his counfellors, rejected
the alliance of the Franks, and fent ambaffadors to
Conftantinople ; but in the mean time, Belil’arius, in
order to bring the citizens to his own terms, bribed
one of them to fet fire to a magazine of corn, by
which means the city was foon ffraitened for want of
provifions. But, notwithftanding this difalfer, they
rtill continued to hold out, till the arrival of the am¬
baffadors from Conllantinople, who brought very fa¬
vourable terms. Thefe were, That the country beyond
the Po, with refpedl to Rome, Ihould remain to the
Goths •, but that the reft of Italy fhould be yielded to
the emperor, and the royal treafure of the Goths Ihould
be equally divided between him and the king. To
thefe conditions, however, Belifarius pofitively refufed
to affent ; being defirous of leading captive the king of
the Goths, as he had formerly done the king of the
Vandals, to Conftantinople. He therefore purfued
the fiege with more vigour than ever, without heark¬
ening to the complaints of his foldiess and officers,
who were quite tired out with the length of the fiege :
he only obliged fuch of the officers as were of opi¬
nion that the town could not be taken, to exprefs
their opinion in writing, that they might not deny it
afterwards.
The Goths wrere as weary of the fiege as the Ro¬
mans; but fearing left Juftinian ffiould tranfplant
them to Thrace, formed a refolution, without the con-
fent of their king, of furrendering to Belifarius himfelf,
and declaring him emperor of the weft. To this they
were the more encouraged by the refufal of Beli¬
farius to agree to the terms propofed by the emperor ;
whence they concluded that he defigned to revolt,
and make himfelf emperor of Italy. Of this, however,
Belifarius had no defign ; but thought proper to ac¬
cept of that title, in order to accelerate the furrender of
the city, after acquainting his principal officers with
what had paffed. Vitiges at laft difcovered the plot ;
but finding himfelf in no condition to oppofe it, he
commended the refolution of his people, and even
wrote to Belifarius, encouraging him to take upon him
the title of and affuring him of his affiftance.
Upon this Belifarius preffed the Goths to furrender ;
which, however, they ftill refufed, till he had taken
an oath that he would treat them with humanity, and
maintain them in the poffeffioh of all their rights and
"Ravenna privileges. He was then admitted into the city, where
reduced, he conduced himfelf with great moderation towards the
CS ^ot^s > hut feized on the royal treafure, and fecured
fonei'. ^ perfon of the king. 'The Roman army, when it
entered Ravenna, appeared fo very inconfiderable, that
the Gothic women on beholding it could not forbear
fpitting in the faces of their hufbands, and reviling
them as cowards.
The captivity of Vitiges, and the capture of Raven¬
na, did not terminate the war. Belifarius was foon
after recalled to take the command of the army in
the eaft. The Goths were greatly furprifed that he
fhould leave hi? 'ne\v kingdom out of regard to the
I T A
orders of the emperor ; but, after bis departure, chofe Italy,
one Udebald, a man of great experience in affairs both v ”
civil and military, for their king. He revived the
drooping fpirits of his countrymen, defeated the Ro¬
mans, and reduced all the province ofVenetia; but
was in a ftiort time murdered, and Eraric, a Rugian,
fucceeded to the throne. He was fcarcely invefted with
the fovereignty, when his fubjedls began to think of
depofing him, and raifing Totila to the throne ; which
the latter accepted, upon condition that they pre-
vioufly difpatched Eraric. This was accordingly done ;
after which Totila was proclaimed king of Italy in the
year 542. 24
The new king proved a very formidable enemy to Succefs of
the Romans, who now loft ground everywhere. They a-
made an attempt on the city of Verona ; in which j^”anse
they mifcarried through their own avarice, having dif-
puted about the divifion of the plunder till the oppor¬
tunity of taking the town was paft. They were next
defeated in two bloody engagements; the confequence
of which was, that the Goths made themfelves mafters
of all the ftrong places in Tufcany. From thence
marching into Campania and Samnium, they reduced
the ftrong town of Beneventum, and laid fiege to
Naples. During the fiege of this daft place, feveral
detachments were fent from the king’s army, which
took Cumae, and recovered all Brutia, Lucania, A-
pulia, and Calabria, where they found confiderable
fums which had been gathered for the emperor’s ufe.
The Romans, in the mean time, diffieartened by their
Ioffes, and deprived of thofe fums which fliould have
paid their wages, refufed to take the field. A confi¬
derable fleet was therefore fent by Juftinian to the re¬
lief of Naples: but Totila, having timely notice of
this defign, manned, with incredible expedition, a
great number of light veffels ; which, falling unex-
pedtedly on the Roman fleet, took or funk every ffiip,
and made prifoners of all on board, excepting a few
who efcaped in their boats. A fimilar fate attended
another fleet difpatched from Sicily for the fame pur-
pofe. They put to fea in the depth of winter ; and,
meeting with a violent ftorm, were driven afliore near
the enemy’s camp ; who funk the ffiips, and made
what daughter they pleafed of the feamen and foldiers.
Upon this fecond difafter, the Neapolitans, defpairing
of further relief, fubmitted to Totila ; who granted
them honourable terms, and treated them with great
humanity. As they had been long pinched with fa¬
mine, Totila, apprehending they might endanger their
lives by indulging their appetites too much at firft,
placed guards at the gates to prevent their going out,
taking care at the fame time to fupply them fparingly
with provifions, but increafing their allowance every
day. Being thus by degrees reftored to their former
ftrength, he ordered the gates to be fet open, and gave
every one full liberty to flay in the city or remove as
he thought fit. The garrifon he treated with extraor¬
dinary kindnefs. They were firft fupplied with (hips
to carry them to Conftantinople ; but the king having
difcovered that their real defign was to fail to Rome,
in order to reinforce the garrifon of that city (which
they knew he was foon to beliege), he was fo far
from punilhing them as they expected, that he furniffi-
ed them with horfes, waggons, and provifions, and
ordered a body of Goths to effort them to Rome by
3 A 2 land,
[ 371 1
I T A [ 372 ] I T A
land, as the winds had proved unfavourable for uhtir
paffage by fea.
Totila having thus become mafter ot Naples and
moft of the other fortreffes in thele parts, began to
think of reducing Rome alfo. He firft attempted to
perfuade the citizens to a furrender : but finding his
perfuafions ineffecdunl, he fent a detachmest of his
army into Calabria to reduce Otranto, which had not
yet fubmitted *, after which, he marched with the reft
of his forces againft the towns in the neighbourhood of
Rome. The city of Tibur, now Tivoli, about 18
miles from Rome, was betrayed to him •, and all the in¬
habitants, together with their biftiop, were put to the
fword. Several other ftrong holds in the neighbourhood
of that city he took by ftorm •, fo that Rome was in a
manner blocked up by land, all communication with
the neighbouring country being cut off.
Juftinian, in the mean time, being greatly perplex¬
ed by the bad news he every day received from Italy,
recalled Belifarius from Perfia, notwithftanding the
luccefs which attended him there. To fave Rome,
however, was now impoffible even for Belifarius hiiti-
felf. As foon as he arrived in Italy, finding himfelf
unable either to relieve'the towns which were befieged,
or to ftop the progrefs of the Goths, he difpatched
letters to Juftinian, informing him, that being defti-
tute of men, arms, and money, it was impofiible for
him to profecute the war *, upon which the emperor
ordered new levies to be made, all the veterans being
engaged in the Perfian war. In the mean time, how¬
ever, Totila purfued his good fortune *, took the cities
of Firmum, Afculum, Auximum, Spoletum, &c. and
at length advanced to Rome, which he inverted on all
fides. As he drew near the city, two officers, whom
Belifarius had fent into the city, ventured to make a
Tally, though contrary to the exprefs orders of their
general, thinking they ffiould furprile the Goths *, but
they were themfelves taken in an ambufcade, and, moft
of their men being cut in pieces, narrowly efcaped
falling into the hands of the enemy. Belifarius made
feveral attempts to relieve the city : but all of them,
however well concerted, by fome accident or other
proved unfuccefsful 5 which gave him fo much unea-
finefs, that he fell into a feveriffi diforder, and was for
fome time thought to be in danger of his life. The
city was foon reduced to great ftraits ; a dreadful fa¬
mine enfued; and the unhappy citizens having confumed
every thing that could be fuppofed to give them nourifh-
ment, even the grafs that grew near the walls, were obli¬
ged, it is faid, to feed on their own excrements. Many
put an end to their lives, in order to free themfelves
from the intolerable calamities they fuffered. The reft
addreffed their governor Beffas in the moft pathetic
manner, intreating him to fupply them with food j or
if that was not in his power, either to give them leave
to go out of the town, or to terminate their mi*
feries by putting them to death. Beffas replied, that
to fupply them with food was impoffible } to let them
go, unfafe 5 and to kill them impious. In the end, how¬
ever, he fuffered thofe who w7ere willing to retire, to
leave the city, upon paying him a fum of money *, but
moft of them either died on the road, or were cut in
pieces by the enemy. At laft, the befieged, unable
to bear their miferies any longer, began to mutiny, and
tq prefc their governor to come to an agseement with
Totila. This, however, he mil refufed ; upon which, Italy,
four of the Ifaurians who guarded one oi the gates, -"v—~“‘
went privately to the camp o; Totila, and offered to j(,
admit him into the city. The king received this pro- aRfj taken,
pofal with great joy •, and fending four Goths of great
ftrength and intrepidity into the town along with
them, he filently approached the gates in the night¬
time with his w'hole army. The gates were opened by
the Ifaurians, as they had promhed ; and upon the
firft alarm, Beffas with moft of the loldiers and offi¬
cers fled out of the town. T he inhabitants took
fanfluary in th- churches j and only 60 of them and
26 foldiers were killed after the town was taken. To¬
tila, however, gave his foldiers full liberty to plunder
the city : which they did for feveral days together,
ftripping the inhabitants of all their wealth, and leaving
nothing in their houfes but naked walls; by which
means many perfons of diftinflion were reduced to beg
their bread from door to door. In the houfe of Beffas
was found an immenfe treafure, which he had icanda-
loully amaffed during the fiege, by felling to the people,
at an exorbitant price, the corn which had been ftored
up for the ufe of the garrilon.
Totila, thus become mafter of Italy, fent ambaffa-
dors to Juftinian with very refpeffful letters, definng
to live on the fame terms with him that Theodoric had
done with his predeceffor Anaitafius j promiiing in that
cafe to refpeft him as his father, and to affift him,
when he pleafed, with all his force, againft any other
nation whatever. On the contrary, if the emperor re-
jefled his offers, he threatened to level Rome with the
ground, to put the whole fenate to the fword, and to
carry the war into Illyricum. The emperor returned no
other anfwer, than that he referred the whole to Beli¬
farius, who had full power to manage all things of that
nature. Upon this Totila refolved to deftroy the city $
and had aclually throwm down a third part of the
wall, when he received a letter from Belifarius, dif-
fuading him from his intention. After having ferioufly
confidered this letter, Totila thought proper to alter
his refolution with regard to the deftrudrtion of the
city j but fent every one of the inhabitants into Luca-
nia, without leaving a Angle perfon in the metropolis.
Belifarius hearing of this, immediately returned to the
capital, and undertook to repeople and repair it. He
cleared the ditch which had been filled by Totila, but
was for the prefent obliged to fill up the breaches in
the walls with ftones loofely heaped upon one another,
and in this fituation the city was again attacked by the
Goths. Belifarius, however, had taken care to fupply
the inhabitants with plenty of provifions, fo that they
were now in no danger of fuffering by famine ; and the
affaults of tbe enemy were vigoroufly repelled, not¬
withftanding the bad fituation of the fortifications, fo
that Totila at laft abandoned the enterprife.
In the mean time the Perfians gained great advan-
tages over the Romans in the Fall, fo that there was a recalled,
neceffity for recalling Belifarius a lecond time. He was
no fooner gone, than Totila renewed his efforts wfith
greater vigour than ever 5 and at the fame time the
Franks, concluding that both Romans and Goths would
be much weakened by fuch a deftru6tive war, feized
upon Venetia, which belonged to both nations, and
made it a province of the French empire. Totila did
not oppofe them ) but having obtained a reinforcement
o£
r:
I T A [ 373 T I , T A
Italy- of 6000 Lombards, returned immediately before Rome,
v fully intent on making himfelf mailer of that metro¬
polis. Having clofely inverted it by fea and land, he
hoped in a fhort time to reduce it by famine : but
againft this the governor wifely provided, by cauling
corn to be fown within the walls j fo that he could pro¬
bably have defied the power of Totila, had not the city
been again betrayed by the Ifaurians, who opened one
of the gates and admitted the enemy.
Thus the empire of the Goths was a third time efta-
blilhed in Italy ; and Totila, immediately on his be¬
coming mafter of Rome, difpatched ambaffadors to
Juftinian, offering to alhll him as a faithful ally
againrt any nation whatever, provided he would al¬
low him the quite poffeffion of Italy. But Jurtinian
was fo far from hearkening to this propofal, that
he would not even admit the ambaffadors into his
prefence 5 upon which Totila refolved to purfue the
war with the utmoft vigour, and to make himfelf ma-
,3 fter not only of thofe places which the Romans poflef-
Narfesfent ed in Italy, but in Sicily alfo. This he fully accom-
kuo Italy, plifhed *, when Narfes, who had formerly been joined
in the command with Belifarius, was appointed general,
with abfolute and uncontrouled authority. But v,rhile
. this general rvas making the neceffary preparations for
his expedition, Totila, having equipped a fleet of 300
galleys, fent them to pillage the coafts of Greece,
where they got an immenfe booty. They made a de-
fcent on the illand of Corfu ; and having laid it wafte,
they failed to Epirus, where they furprifed and plun¬
dered the cities of Nicopolis and Anchialus, taking ma¬
ny rtiips on the coaft, among which w'ere fome laden
with provilions for the army of Narfes. After thefe
fucceffes they laid fiege to Ancona in Dalmatia. Being
defeated, however, both by fea and land, Totila once
more fent ambaffadors to Conftantinople, offering to yield
Sicily and all Dalmatia, to pay an annual tribute for
Italy, and to afhft the Romans as a faithful ally in all
their wars : but Juftinian, bent upon driving the Goths
out of Italy, wmuld not even fuffer the ambaffadors to
appear in his prefence.
Totila finding that no terms could be obtained, be¬
gan to levy nerv forces, and to make great preparations
ky fea and land. He foon reduced the itlands of
Corfica and Sardinia } but tins was the laft ©f his fuc¬
ceffes. Narfes arrived in Italy with a very formidable
army, and an immenfe treafure to pay the troops their
arrears, the want of which had been one great caufe of
the bad fuccefs of Belifarius in his laft expedition. He
immediately took the road to Rome ; while Totila af-
fcmbled all his forces, in order to decide the fate of
w, 29 Italy by a general engagement. The battle proved
feats and vei7 °bftinate ; but at lart the Gothic cavalry being
kills Totila. put to the rout, and retiring in great confufion among
the infantry, the latter were thereby thrown into fuch
diforder, that they could never afterwards rally. Nar¬
fes, obferving their confufion, encouraged his men to
make a laft effort ; which the Goths not being able to
withiland, betook themfelves to flight, with the lofs of
6000 men killed on the fpot. Totila finding the day
irrecoverably loft, fled with only five horfemen for his
attendants ; but was purfued and mortally wounded by
a commander of one of the bodies of barbarians who
followed Narfes. He continued his flight, however,
for fome time longer 5 but was at laft obliged to halt
in order to get his wound dreffed, foon after which he Italy-
expired. v "" J
This difafter did not yet entirely break the fpirit of
the Goths. They chofe for their king one Teia, de-
fervedly efteemed one of the moft valiant men of their
nation, and who had on feveral occafions diftinguiihed
himfelf in a moft eminent manner. All the valour and
experience of Teia, however, were now infuflicient to
flop the progrefs of the Romans. Narfes made him¬
felf mafter of a great number of cities, and of Rome
itfelf, before the Goths could affemble their forces.-—
The Roman general next proceeded to invert: Cumae j
which Teia determined at all events to relieve, as the
royal treafure was lodged in that city. This brought
on an engagement, which, if Procopius is to be credit¬
ed, proved one of the moft bloody that ever was
fought. The Roman army confifted of vaft multi- an£j xeia>
tudes brought from different nations : the Goths were
few in comparifon j but, animated by defpair, and
knowing that all was at flake, they fought with the
utmoft fury. Their king placed himfelf in the firft
rank, to encourage his men by his example •, and is
faid to have given fuch proofs of his valour and con-
du£t as equalled him to the moft renowned heroes of
antiquity. The Romans difeovering him, and know¬
ing that his death would probably put an end to the
battle, if not to the war itfelf, directed their whole
force againft him, fome attacking him with fpears, and
others difeharging againft him fhowers of darts and
arrows. Teia maintained his ground with great in¬
trepidity, received the miflive weapons on his ftiield,
and killed a great number of the enemy with his own
hand. When his (hield was fo loaded with darts that
he could not eafily wield it, he called for another.
Thus he fhifted his fhield three times ; but as he at¬
tempted to change it another time, his breaft being
neceffarily expofed for a moment, a dart llruck him in
that moment with fuch force, that he immediately fell
down dead in the place where he had flood from the
beginning of the battle, and upon heaps of the enemy
whom he had killed. The Romans, feeing him fall,
cut off his head and expofed it to the fight of the
Goths, not doubting but they would be immediately
diiheartened and retire. In this, however, they ivere
difappointed. The Goths maintained the fight with*
great vigour, till night put an end to the engagement.
The next day the engagement was renewed early in
the morning, and continued till night : but on the'
third day, the Goths defpairing of being able to over¬
come an enemy fo much fuperior to them- in numbers,
fent deputies to Narfes, offering, to lay down their
arms, provided fuch of them as chofe to remain in
Italy were allowed to enjoy their eftates and poffeflions
without moleftation, as fubjedls of the empire •, and
thofe wTho were willing to retire elfew’here, were fuf-
fered to carry with them all their goods and eft’edls.
To thefe terms Narfes readily affented ; and thus the t],e empjre
empire of the Goths in Italy was finally deftroyed, the of the
country now becoming a province of the eaftern Ro-Goths in
man empire. Italy.
In this conqueft Narfes had been aflifted, as al¬
ready obferved, by many barbarous nations, among
whom w:ere the Lombards, at that time fettled in Pan-
nonia. On the conclufion of the war, they wTere dif-
miffed with rich prefents, and the nation for fome time ■
continued
’Italy.
'Nai fe? in¬
vites the
Lombard*
Who re.
duce the
greateft
part of
Italy.
T T A ■ [
continued faitliful allies to the Romans. In the r
" time Juftinian dying, Narfes, who governed Italy with
an abfolute fway, was accufed to the emperor "juftin
li. and to the emprefs Sophia, of afpiring to the fo-
vereignty of the country. Hereupon he was recalled,
and Longinus fent to fucceed him. As Narfes was an
eunuch, the emprefs is reported to have faid, that his
employment at Conftantinople fliould be to diftribute
in the apartment of her women the portion of wool
tvhich each wTas to fpin. Narfes, enraged at this far-
cafm, replied, that he fhould begin fuch a web as
Ihe Ihould never be able to finiih 5 and immediately diL
patched meffengers to Alboinus king of the Lom-
. bards, inviting them into Italy. Along with the mef¬
fengers he fent fome of the bed fruits the country af¬
forded, in order to tempt him the more to become ma¬
iler of fuch a rich kingdom.
Alboinus, highly pleafed with the opportunity of
invading a country with which his fubjedls were already
well acquainted, began without lofs of time to make
the neceflary preparations for his journey. In the
month of April, 568, he fet out with his whole nation,
men, women, and children j carrying with them all
their moveables. This promifeuous multitude arrived
by the w7ay of Illria j and advancing through the pro¬
vince of Venetia, found the whole country abandoned,
the inhabitants having fled to the neighbouring iflandS
in the Adriatic. 7 he gates of Aquileia were opened
by the few inhabitants who had courage to Hay : mod
of them, howrever, had fled wuth all their valuable ef¬
fects ; and among the red the patriarch Paulinus,
who had carried with him all the facred utenfils of
the churches. From Aquileia, Alboinus proceeded to
Forum Julii, of which he likewife became mafler with¬
out oppofition. Here he fpent the winter; during
which time he eredted Friuli into a dukedom, which
has continued ever fince. In 569, he made himfelf
mader of Trivigi, Oderzo, Monte Selce, Vicenza,
Verona, and Trent ; in each of which cities he left a
drong garrifon of Lombards under the command of an
officer, whom he diflinguifhed by the title of duhe:
but thefe dukes w’ere only officers and governors of ci¬
ties, who bore the title no longer than the prince
thought proper to continue them in their command
or government. Padua and fome other cities Alboi¬
nus left behind him without attempting to reduce
them, either becaufe they were too well garrifoned,
or becaufe they lay too much out of his way. In
570, he entered Liguria. The inhabitants were fo
terrified at his approach, that they left their habita¬
tions with luch of their effedls as they could carry off,
and fled into the mod mountainous and inacceflible
parts of the country. The cities of Brefcia, Barga-
mo, Lodi, Como, and others quite to the Alps, being
left almod without inhabitants, fubmitted of courfe j
after which he reduced Milan, and was thereupon pro¬
claimed king of Italy.
But though the Lombards had thus conferred the
title of king of Italy on their fovereign, he w?as by no
means pofleffed of the whole country, nor indeed was
it ever in the povrer of the Lombards to get poffeflion
of the whole. Alboinus having made himfelf mafler
of Venetia, Liguria, ./Emilia, Hetruria, and Umbria,
applied himfelf to legiflation and the civilization of his
fubjedts. But before he could make any progrefs in
X
Italy.
374 1 I T A
this work, he was taken off by the treachery of his
wife ; and Clephis, one of the nobles, chofen king in ^
his dead. Clephis rebuilt fome cities which had been
ruined during the wars between the Goths and Ro¬
mans, and extended his conqueds to the very gates of
Rome •, but as he behaved both to the Romans and
Lombards with the greated cruelty, he wras murdered,
after a fhort reign of 18 months. His cruelty gave the
Lombards fuch an averlion againfl regal power, that
they changed their form of,, government, being govern¬
ed only by their dukes for the fpace of ten years. Du¬
ring this interregnum, they proved fuccefsful in their
wars with the Romans, and made themfelves maflers
of feveral cities : but perceiving that their kingdom,
thus divided, could not fublifl, they refolved once
more to fubmit to the authority of one man ; and ac¬
cordingly, in 585, Autharis wTas chofen king of the
Lombards.
The great objeft of ambition to the new race of
Lombard monarchs was the conqueff of all Italy j and Charie-
this proved at lad the ruin of their empire by Charles magne-
the Great, as related under the article France, N° 27.
As the Lombards, however, had not been pofleffed of
the whole territory of Italy, fo the whole of it never
came into the pofieffion of Charlemagne : neither fince
the time of the Goths, has the whole of this country
been under the dominion of any Angle date. Some of
the fouthern provinces were dill poffeffed by the em¬
perors of Condantinople ; and the liberal grants of Pe¬
pin and Charlemagne himfelf to the pope, had invefled
him with a confiderable Ihare of temporal power. The
territories of the pope indeed wrere fuppofed to be held
in vaffalage from France j but this the popes them- Extent of
felves always fliffly denied. The undifputed territory his Italian
of Charlemagne in Italy, therefore, was reflri&ed to dominions,,
Piedmont, the Milanefe, the Mantuan, the territory
of Genoa, Parma, Modena, Tufcany, Bologna, the
dukedoms of Friuli, Spoleto, and Benevento j the lad
of which contained the greated part of the prefent
kingdom of Naples.
The feudal govt nment which the Lombards had in¬
troduced into Italy, naturally produced revolts and
commotions, as the different dukes inclined either to
change their maders or to fet up for themfelves. Se¬
veral revolts indeed happened during the life of Char¬
lemagne himfelf; which, however, he always found
means to crulh : but after his death, the fovereignty
of Italy became an objedl of contention between the
kings of France and the emperors of Germany. 7'hat *
great monarch had divided his extenfive dominions
among his children j but they all died during his life¬
time, except Louis, whom he affociated with himfelf
in the empire, and who fucceeded to all his dominions
after his death. From this time we may date the trou¬
bles wfith which Italy was fo long overwhelmed j and
of which, as they proceeded from the ambition of thofe
called kings of Italy and their nobles, of the kings of
France, and of the emperors of Germany, it is difficult
to have any clear idea. The. following ffiort Iketch,
however, may perhaps give fome fatisfadlion on this
perplexed fubjedl. Hiftory of
At the time Louis the fon of Charlemagne wras de-the difturb-
clared emperor of the Wed, Italy w’as held by ®er‘
nard the fon of Pepin, brother to Louis. Though this,./
Bernard bore the title of kingy yet he was only ac-.j,ac¬
counted agne.
I T A [ 375 1 I T A
counted a vaffal of the emperor. His ambition, how¬
ever, foon prompted him to rebel againft his uncle ;
but being abandoned by his troops, he was taken pri-
foner, had his eyes pulled out, and died three days
after. As the difturbances ftill continued, and the
nobles of Lombardy were yet very refra£lory, Lo-
thaire, eldeft fon to the emperor, was in the year
8 23 fent into Italy ; of which country he was firlt
crowned king at Rome, and afterwards emperor of the
Weft, during his father’s lifetime. But though his
abilities were fufficient to have fettled every thing in a
ftate of tranquillity, his unbounded ambition prompt¬
ed him to engage in a rebellion againft; his father j
whom he more than once took prifoner ; though in the
end he was obliged to fubmit, and afk pardon for his
oftcnces, which was obtained only on condition of his
not palling the Alps without leave obtained from his
father.
In the mean time, the Saracens, taking advantage
of thefe inteftine wars, landed on the coafts of Italy,
and committed fuch ravages, that even the biihops
were obliged to arm themfelves for the defence of the
country. Lothaire, however, after returning from his
unnatural w7ar with his father, was fo far from attempt¬
ing to put an end to thefe ravages, or to reftore tran¬
quillity, that he feized on fome places belonging to the
fee oi Rome, under pretence that they were part of
his kingdom of Lombardy j nor wrould he forbear
thefe encroachments till exprefsly commanded to do
lo by his father. After having embroiled himfelf, and
almoft loft all his dominions, in a w7ar with his brothers
after the death of Louis, and declared his fon, alfo
called Louis, king of Italy, this ambitious prince
died, leaving to Louis the title of emperor as wTell
as king of Italy, with which he had before invefted
him.
T he new emperor applied himfelf to the reftoration
of tranquillity in his dominions, and driving out the
Saracens from thofe places which they had feized in I-
taiy. This he fully accomplilhed, and obliged the in¬
fidels to retire into Africa*, but in 875 he died with¬
out naming any fucceffor. After his death, fome of
the Italian nobles, headed by the duke of Tufcany,
reprefented to the pope, that as Louis had left no
fucceflbr, the regal dignity, which had fo long been
ufurped by foreigners, ought now to return to the I-
talians. The pope, however, finding that Charles
the Bald, king of France, had fuch an ambition for
the imperial crown, that he would ftick at nothing to
obtain it, refolved to gratify him, though at as high
a price as poffible. He accordingly crowned him em¬
peror and king of Lombardy, on condition of his own¬
ing the independency of Rome, and that he himfelf
only held the empire by the gift of the pope. This
produced a confpiracy among the difeontented nobles ;
and at the fame time the Saracens renewing their in-
curlions, threatened the ecclefiaftical territories with
the utmoft danger. The pope folicited the emperor’s
afhftance with the greateft earneftnefs ; but the latter
died before any thing effeflual could be done j after
which, being diftreffed by the Saracens on one hand,
mid the Lombard nobles on the other, the unhappy
pontiff was forced to fly into France. Italy now fell
into the utmoft confufion and anarchy ; during which
^tiiue many of the nobles and ftates of Lombardy af-
fumed an independence, which they have ever lince re¬
tained.
In 877, the pope was reconducled to Italy with an
army by Bofon fon-in-law to Louis II. of France : but
though he inclined very much to have raifed this prince
to the dignity of king of Italy, he found his intereft
infuflicient for that purpofe, and matters remained in
their former fituation. The nobles, who had driven
out the pope, were now indeed reconciled to him : but
notwithftanding this reconciliation, the ftate of the
country was worfe than ever : the great men renoun¬
cing the authority of any fuperior, and every one
claiming to be fovereign in his own territories. To
add to the calamities which enfued through the am¬
bition of thefe defpots, the Saracens committed every¬
where the moft terrible ravages j till at laft the Italian
nobles, defpifing the kings of the Carlovingian race,
ivho had weakened themfelves by their mutual diffen-
fions, began to think of throwing off even all nominal
fubmiflion to a foreign yoke, and retaining the imperial
dignity among themfelves. Thus they hoped, that, by
being more united among themfelves, they might be
more able to refift the common enemy. Accordingly
in 885 they went to Pope Adrian 5 and requefting him
to join them in afferting the independency of Italy,
they obtained of him the twTo following decrees, viz.
That the popes, after their eledfiorr, might be confe-
crated rvithout waiting for the prefence of the king or
his ambaffadors ; and that, if Charles the Grofs died
without fons, the kingdom of Italy, with the title of
emperor, ftrould be conferred on fome of the Italian
nobles.
Thefe decrees xvere produ6five of the worft confe-
quences imaginable. The emperor complained of be¬
ing deprived of his right ; and the diflenlions between
the Italian nobles themfelves became more fatal than
ever. The two moft powerful of thefe noblemen, Be-
rer.garius duke of Friuli, and Guido or Vido duke of
Spoleto, entered into an agreement, that on the death
of the emperor the former ftrould feize on the king¬
dom of Italy, and the latter on the kingdom of
France. Berengarius fucceeded without oppofition;
but Vido was difappointed, the French having already
chofen Eudes or Otho for their king. Upon this he re¬
turned to Italy, nnd turned his arms againft Berenga¬
rius. Vido proved vidlorious in an engagement, and
drove his rival into Germany j where he fought the af-
fiftance of Arnolphus, who had fucceeded to the crown
after the death of Charles. Having thus obtained the
kingdom of Italy, Vido employed his time in reforming
the abufes of the ftate, and confirming the grants for¬
merly given to the pope, out of gratitude for his having
fanftified his ufurpation and declared him lawful king of
Italy. This tranquillity, however, was of flrort dura¬
tion. Arnolphus fent an army into Italy 5 the Saracens
from Spain ravaged the northern parts of the country,
and getting poffeflion of a caftle near the Alps, held it
for many years after, to the great diftrefs of the neigh¬
bouring parts, which were expofed to their continual in-
curfions j and at the fame time Benevento was befieged
and taken by the forces of the eaftern emperor, fo that
Vido found his empire very confiderably circumfcribed-
in its dimenfions.
The new king, diftreffed by fo many enemies, affo-
cisted bis fan Lambert with him in the government,
and
f
I T A
Italy. and bribed the Germans to return to tbeir own coun-
try*. In 893, however, they again invaded Italy ; but
were fuddenly obliged to leave the country, after hav¬
ing put Berengarius in poffeflion of Pavia. In the
mean time, Vido died, and his fon Lambert drove out
Berengarius ; but having joined a fadlion, headed by
one Sergius, againft Pope Formofus, the latter offered
the kingdom of Italy to Arnolphus } who thereupon en¬
tered the country with an army, befieged and took
Rome, maffacring the fa&ion of Sergius with the molt
unrelenting cruelty.
Arnolphus thus mailer of Italy, and crowned empe¬
ror by the pope, began to form fchemes of llrengthen-
ing himfelf in his new acquiutions by putting out the
eyes of Berengarius : but the latter having timely no¬
tice of this treachery, tied to Verona •, and the Italians
were fo provoked at this and the other cruelties of Ar¬
nolphus, that they drove him out of the country. His
departure occaiioned the greateft confulion at Rome.
Formofus died foon after ; and the fucceffors to the pa¬
pal dignity, having now no army to fear, excited the
greateft difturbances. The body of Formofus was dug
up and thrown into the Tiber by one pope ; after which
that pope was ftrangled, and Formolus’s body buried
again in the Vatican, by order of another. At laft the
coronation of Arnolphus was declared void, the Sergian
fabfion entirely demolifhed, and the above-mentioned
decrees of Adrian were annulled j it being now deter¬
mined that the elefted popes Ihould not be confecrated
but in prefence of the emperor or his ambaffadors.
During thefe confutions Lambert enjoyed the king¬
dom in quiet ; but the nobles hating him on account of
his arbitrary and tyrannical government, began again
to think of Berengarius. In the mean time, however,
another faftion offered the crown to Louis king of
Arles. This new competitor entered Italy with an army
in 899 ; but was forced by Berengarius to renounce his
claim upon oath, and to fwear thirt he vvould never a-
gain enter Italy, even though he fhould be invited to
be crowned' emperor.-—This oath, however, was foon
forgot. Louis readily accepted o‘ another invitation,
and was crowned king of Italy at Pavia in 901. Ihe
following year he forced Berengarius to fly into Bava¬
ria ; but having unadvifedly dilbanded his army, as
thinking himfelf now fecurely feated on the throne, Be¬
rengarius, who watched every opportunity, furprifed
'him at Verona, and put out his eyes.
Thus Berengarius at laft became king of Italy with¬
out a rival 5 and held his kingdom for 2o years after-
w’ards, without any oppolition from his fubjedls, who at
laft became fenfible of the mifchiefs ariling from civil
difcords. He was not yet. however, without troubles.
The Hungarians invaded Italy with a formidable army,
and advanced within a fmall diftance of Pavia. Beren¬
garius armed the w’hole force of his dominions j and
came againft them with fuch a multitude, that the Hun¬
garians retired without venturing an engagement. A
great many of their men were loft in paffing a river;
upon w'hich they fent deputies tp Berengarius, offering
to reftore all their booty, and never to come again into
Italy, provided they were allowed a fafe retreat. Thefe
conditions wrere imprudently denied ; upon which the
Hungarians attacked the army of Berengarius in def-
pair, and defeated them with great llaughter. After
this they overran the whole country, and plundered the
3
1 376 1
1 T A
towns of Trevlfo, Vicenza, and Padua, without relift- Faly, ^
ance, the inhabitants flying everywhere into fortified v *
places. This devaftation they continued f > two years ;
nor could their departure be procured v in out paying
them a large fum of money ‘ which, however, proved
of little avail ; for the following year they returned and
ravaged the territory of Friuli without controul.
Scarcely were thele invaders departed, when the Sa¬
racens, who had fettled at the foot ot the Alps, in¬
vaded Apulia and Calabria, and made an irruption a4
far as Acqui in the neighbourhood of Pavia ; while
the inhabitants, inttead ot oppofing them, fled to foms
forts which had been erebled in the time of the firft ir¬
ruption of the Hungarians. In9i2, however, John,
prefbyter of Ravenna, having attained the papal dignity
by means of Theodora wife of Aldebcrt count of lul-
cany, applied himfelf to regulate the affairs of the
church, and to reprefs the inlults of the Saracens.
While he was confidering on the moft proper methods
of effecting this, one of the Saracens, who had received
an injury from his countrymen, fled to Rome, and of¬
fered to deliver the Italians from their invafions, if the
pope would but allow him a fmall body of men. His
propofals being accepted, 6o young men were chofen*
all well armed ; who being condufted by the Saracens
into by paths, attacked the infidels as they were re¬
turning from their inroads, and feveral times defeated
great parties of them. Thefe Ioffes affedting the Sara¬
cens, a general alliance was concluded amongft all their
cities; and having fortified a town on the Garigliano,
they abandoned the reft, and retired hither. Ihus they
became much more formidable than before; which a-
larming the pope, he cbnfulted with Arnulphus prince
of Benevento and Capua, fending at the fame time am¬
baffadors to Conftantine the Greek emperor, inviting
him to an alliance againft the infidels. Ihe Saracens,
unable to withftand fuch a powerful combination, were
befieged in their city : where being reduced to great
Units, they at laft fet fire to it, and fallied out into the
woods; but being purfued by the Italians, they were
all cut off to a man.
In this expedition It is probable that Berengarius
gave great afliftance : for this very year,. 9*55 was
crowned emperor by the pope, dhis gave difpleafure
to many of the ambitious nobles ; confpiracies were
repeatedly formed againft him ; in 922, Rodolphus king
of Burgundy was crowned alio king of Italy ; and in
934, Berengarius was treacheroufly affafftnated at Ve¬
rona ; of which difturbances the Hungarians taking the
advantage, plundered the cities of Mantua, Brefcia,
and Bergamo. Marching afterwards to Pavia, they Pavia plun-
invefted it clofely on all ftdes ; and about the middle of dered and
March 925, taking advantage of the wind, they fet
fire to the houfes next the walls, and during the con- riiins.
fufion broke open the gates, and getting poffeffion of
the city treated the inhabitants with the greateft barba¬
rity. Having burnt the capital of the kingdom, they
next proceeded to Piacenza, where they plundered the
fuburbs; and then returned to Pannonia laden wTith
booty.
The affairs of Italy now fell into the utmoft confu-
fion. A faftion was formed againft Rodolphus in fa¬
vour of Hugh count of Arles. The latter prevailed,
and was crowned king at Pavia in 9i7’ f fta^3ns»
however, foon tepented of their choice. The Romans
firft
Italy.
. . . 1 T. A t 3
firft invited Kim to be their governor, and then drove
him -‘lit with ddgrace ; at the fame time choofing a oon-
ful, tribunes, &c. as if they had defigned to affert their
ancient liberty.. One facdion, in the mean time, offered
the crown to Rodolphus, and the other to Arnold duke
of Bavaria, while the Saracens took this opportunity to
plunder the city of Genoa.
Hugh, in the mean time, was not inactive. Having
colle&ed an army, he marched directly againft Arnold,
and entirely , defeated him. Rodolphus delivered him
from all apprehenfions on his part, by entering into an
alliance with him, and giving his daughter Adelaide in
marriage to Lotharius, Hugh’s fon. Being thus free
from all danger from foreign enemies, he marched a-
gainlf the Romans ; but with them he alfo came to an
agreement, and even ga' e his daughter in marriage to
Alberic, whom they had chofen conful. In the mean
time the country was infeiled by the Hungarians and
Saracens, and at the fame time depopulated by a plague.
Endlefs confuiracies were formed againft Hugh himfelf;
and at laft, in 947, he was totally deprived of the re¬
gal power by Berengarius, grandfon to the firft king of
that name 5 foon after which he retired into Burgundy,
and became a monk.
Though Berengarius was thus poflefTed of the fu-
preme power, he did not affume the title of hing till
after the death of Lotharius, which happened in 950 ;
but in the mean time Italy was invaded by Henry
duke of Bavaria, and the Hungarians. The former
took and plundered the city of Aquileia, and ravaged
the neighbouring country ; after which he returned
without moleftation into Germany ; the latter made a
furious irruption ; and Berengarius being unable to op-
pofe them, was at laft obliged to purchafe their depar¬
ture by money. In railing the fum agreed upon, how-
the Hun a eVer’ -Berengar’us kid to have been more oppreftive
lians ancf3 t^an even the Hungarians themfelves. Every indi-
Berengari- vidual, without diftindtion of age or fex, wTas obliged
ns. to pay fo much for their head, not excepting even the
poor. The churches were likewife robbed ; by which
means the king railed an immenfe fum of money, ten
bufhels of which he gave to the Hungarians, but kept
the much greater part to himfelf.
Berengarius, not yet fatisfied, wanted to be put in
pofieffion of Pavia, which was held by Adelaide, the
widow of Lotharius. In order to obtain his purpofe,
he propofed a marriage between her and his fon Adel-
bert. This propofal was rejected ; upon which Beren¬
garius befieged and took the city. The queen was
confined in a neighbouring caftle, from whence fhe
made her efcape by a contrivance of her confefibr
With hi m and one female attendant fhe concealed
herfelf for fome days in a wood ; but being obliged
to remove from thence for wa it of food, fhe applied
for protection to Adelard bifhop of Reggio. By him
fhe was recommended to his uncle Atho, who bad a
ftrong caftle in the neighbourhood of Canoza. Here
file was quickly befieged by Berengarius ; upon which
meflengers were difpatchcd to Otho king of Germany,
acquainting him, that, by expelling Berengarius, and
marrying Adelaide, he might eafily obtain the king¬
dom of Italy. i his propofal he readily accepted, and
married Adelaide •, but allowed Berengarius to retain
the greateft part of his dominions, upon condition of
his doing homage for them to the kings of Germany.
Vol. XI. Part I.
38
Italy op
prefTed by
77 1 I T A.
He deprived him, however, of the dukedom of" Friuli Italy:
and marquifate of Verona, which he gave to Henry v——'
duke of Bavaria.
Berengarius, thus freed from all apprehenfion, not°tho
only oppreffed his fubjefts in a mott tyrannical manner,
but revolted agaimt Otho himfelf. This at laft pro-[^°and
cured his ruin : for, in 9^L Otho returned with an emoeror of
army into Italy, where he was crowned king by thetue weft,
archbiftiop of Milan ; and the year following was
crowned emperor by the pope. On this occafion he re¬
ceived the imperial crown from his holinefs, and kiffed
his feet with great humility : after which they both
went to the altar of St Peter, and bound themfelves by
a folemn oath, the pope to be always faithful to the em¬
peror, and to give no afliftance to Berengarius or Adel-
bert his enemies j and Otho, to confult the welfare
of the church, and to reltore to it all iis patrimony
granted by former emperors. Otho, befides this, be¬
llowed very rich prefents on the church of St Peter.
He ordained that the election of popes Ihould be ac¬
cording to the canons *, that the elected pope Ihould
not be confecrated till he had publicly promifed, in
prefence of the emperor’s commilTaries, to obferve every
thing formerly fpecified with regard to the rights of
the emperors; that thefe commiffaries Ihould conftantly
refide at Rome, and make a report every year how
juftice was adminiftered by the judges ; and in cafe of
any complaints, the commiffaries fliould lay them be¬
fore the pope ; but if he neglefted to intimate them,-
the imperial commiflaries might then do what they
pleafed.
Thus we fee that Otho, however much he might
allow the pope’s fupremacy in fpiritual matters, plainly
affumed the fovereignty in temporals to himfelf; and
thus Italy was for upwards of 300 years accounted a
part of the German empire. The popes, however, by
no means reliftied this fuperiority of the emperor.
The latter was hardly departed, when the pope,
(John XII.) broke the oath which he had juft be¬
fore fworn with fo much folemnity ; and entered firft
into an alliance with Adelbert count of Tufcany to
expel the Germans, and then folicited the Hungarians
to invade Italy. This treachery was foon punilhed
by Oho. He returned with part of his army, and
affembled a council of bilhops. As the pope did not
appear, Otho pretended great concern for his abfence.
The bilhops replied, that the confcioufnefs of his guilt
made him afraid to Ihow himfelf. The emperor then
inquired particularly into his crimes ; upon which
the bilkops accufed him of filling the palace with
lewd women, of ordaining a bilhop in a liable, ca-
ftrating a cardinal, drinking the devil’s health, &c.
As the pope ftill refufed to appear in order to juftify He depots
himfelf from thefe charges, he was formally depofed j the pope,
and Leo the chief fecretary, though a layman, elefted
in his Head.
The new pope, in compliment to the emperor, grant¬
ed a bull, by which it was ordained that Otho and his
fucceffors Ihould have a right of appointing the popes
and inverting archbilhops and bilhops •, and that none
fhould dare to confecrate a biftiop without leava ob¬
tained from the emperor. Thus were the affairs of the
Italians ftill kept in the utmoft confufion even during
the reign of Otho I. who appears to have been a wife
and a dive prince. He was no fooner gone, than the
3 B nt’.v
Ita'y.
- 41
The Ita¬
lians revolt
but are re¬
duced.
42
State of
Italy at the
death of
Otho.
I T A [ 3/8 ]
new pope tvas depofed, all his decrees annulled, and cuftomary tribute.
John replaced. The party of Leo was now' treated with
great cruelty : hut John was foon hopped in his career;
for about the middle of May, the fame year (964) in
which he had been reftored, being furprifed in bed
with a Roman lady, he received a blow on the head
from the devil (according to the authors of thofe times),
of which he died eight days after. After his death a
cardinal deacon, named Benedict, was eledled by the
Romans, but depofed by Otho, and banilhed to Ham¬
burgh.
The emperor wras fcarce returned to Germany, when
’his fickle Italians revolted, and fent for Adelbert, who
had fled to Corfica. But being foon reduced, they con¬
tinued quiet for about a year ; after which they revolt¬
ed again, and imprifoned the pope. Otho, however,
provoked at their rebellious difpoiition, foon returned,
and punifhed the rebels with great feverity; after
which he made feveral laws for the better regulation
of the city of Rome, granting feveral privileges to the
Venetians, and caufed his fon Otho, then only thirteen
vears of age, to be crowned emperor.
This ceremony being over, Otho difpatched an am-
baflador to Nicephorus, emperor of Conftantinople, de¬
manding his ftep-daughter Theophania in marriage for
the young emperor ; but upon this alliance being rejedf-
ed, and that not without circumilances of the mod atro¬
cious perfidy, Otho inftantly invaded the countries of
Apulia and CaRbria, and entirely defeated the Greek
army in thofe parts. In the mean time, however, Ni¬
cephorus being killed, and his throne ufurped by John
Zimifces, Otho immediately entered into an alliance
with the latter, and eafily obtained Theophania for his
fon. She was crowned with great folemnity on the 8th
of April 969 : at the fame time it is pretended by fome
authors, that the Greeks renounced their rights to Ca¬
labria and Apulia ; though this is denied by others.
After the celebration of this marriage, the emperor un¬
dertook an expedition againfl the Saracens, wdio flill
icfided at the foot of the Alps; but being informed of
the death of feveral nobles in Germany, he thought
proper to return thither, where he died of an apoplexy
in the year 973. ...
At the time of Otho’s death Italy was divided into
the provinces ot Apuba, Calabria, the dukedom of Be-
nevento, Campania, Terra Romana, the dukedom of
Spoleto, Tufcany, Romagna, Lombardy, and the mar-
quifates of Ancona, Verona, Friuli, Trevifo, and Genoa.
Apulia and Calabria were ftill claimed by the Greeks ;
but all the reft were either immediately fubjeft to, or
held of, the kings of Italy. Otho conferred Benevento
(including the ancient Samnium) on the duke of that
name. Campania and Lucania he gave to the dukes of
Capua, Naples, and Salerno. Rome with its territory,
Ravenna with the exarchate, the dukedom of Spoleto,
with Tufcany, and the marquifate of Ancona, he grant¬
ed to the pope ; and retained the reft of Italy under the
form of a kingdom. Some of the cities were left free,
but all tributary. He appointed feveral hereditary
marquifates and counties, but referved to himfelf the
fovetfign jurifd'nftion in their territories. The liberty
. of the cities confifted in a freedom to choofe their own
magiilrates, to be judged by their own laws, and to
difpofe of their own revenues, on condition that they
took the oath of allegiance to the king, and paid the
I T A ‘
    The cities that were not free ivere Italy.
governed by the commiflaries or lieutenants of the etn- “ v
peror ; but the free cities were governed by two or more
confuls, afterwards called potejlates, chofen annually,
who took the oath of allegiance to the emperor before
the biihop of the city or the emperor’s commuTary.
The tribute exafted was called foderum, parata, et man-
Jionaticum. By the foderum was meant a certain quan¬
tity of corn which the cities were obliged to furniih to
the king, when marching with an army or making a
progrefs through the country ; though tne value of
this was frequently paid in money. By the pa rata
w7as underftood the expence laid out in keeping the
public roads and bridges in repair ; and the manjlona-
ticum included thofe expences which were required for
lodging the troops or accommodating them in their
camp. Under pretence of this laft article, the inhabi¬
tants were fometimes ftripped of all they pofiefied,
except their oxen and feed for the land. Befides re¬
gulating what regarded the cities, Otho diftributed
honours and poileftions to thofe who had ferved him
faithfully. The honours con lifted in the titles of duke,
marquis, count, captain, valvafor, and vahajin : the
poffeffions were, befides land, the duties ariftng from
harbours, ferries, roads, fdh-ponds, mills, falt-pits,
the ufes of rivers, and all pertaining to them, and
fuch like. The dukes, marquifes, and counts, were
thofe who received dukedoms, marquifates, and coun¬
ties, from the king in fiefs; the captains had the
command of a certain number of men by a grant from
the king, duke, marquis, or count ; the valvafors
were fubordinate to the captains, and the valvafins to
them. # 43
No fooner was the death of Otho I. known in Italy, Great dif-
than, as if they had been now freed from all reftraint, ^bance^
the nobles declared war againft each other : forne ci-
ties revolted, and chofe to themfelves confuls ; while the q^o i.
dominions of others were feized by the nobles, who
confirmed their power by ereeling citadels. Rome
efpecially was haraffed by tumults, occafioned chiefly
by the feditious pradfices of one Cincius, who. preifed
his fellow-citizens to reftore the ancient republic. As
the pope continued firm in the interefts ot the em¬
peror, Cincius caufed him to be ftrangled by one
Franco a cardinal deacon ; who was foon after re¬
warded with the pontificate, and took upon him the
name of Boniface VII. Another pope was chofen by
the faction of the count of Tufcany ; who being, ap¬
proved by the emperor, drove Cincius and Boniface
out of the city. Difturbances of a fimilar kind took
place in other cities, though Milan continued quiet
and loyal in the midft of all this uproar and confu-
fi°n' - „
In the mean time Boniface fled for refuge to Con¬
ftantinople, where he excited the emperor to make
war againft Otho II. In 979 an army.was accordingly
fent into Italy, which conquered Apulia and Calabria ;
but the next year Otho entered Italy with a formidable
army ; and having taken a fevere revenge on. the au¬
thors of the difturbances, drove the Greeks entirely out
of the provinces they had feized. Having then caufed
his fon Otho III. at that time a boy. of ten years of
age, to be proclaimed emperor, he died at Rome in
the year 983. Among the regulations made, by this
emnetor, one is very remarkable, and muft give us a
/
I T A [3
Italy. ftrange idea of the inhabitants of Italy at that time.
I'“ v He made a law, That no Italian fliould be believed up¬
on his oat’ ; and that in any difpute which could not
be decided otherwife than by witnefles, the parties
Ihou’d have recourfe to a duel.
Otho III. fucceeded to the empire at twelve vears
of age ; and during his minority the dillurbances in
Italy revived. Cincius, called alfo Crefcentius, re¬
newed his fcheme of reftoring the republic. The
pope (John XV.) op poling his fchemes, was driven
out of the city ; but was foon after recalled, on hearing
that he had applied to the emperor for affiftance. A
few years alter Crefcentius again revolted, and ex¬
pelled Gregory V. the fuccefibr of John XV. ; railing
44 to the papal dignity a creature of his own, under the
Rorre ta- name of 'John XVI. Otho, enraged at this infult, re-
Otho'iri turincd to Rome with a powerful army in 998, be-
lieged and took it by alfault 5 after which he caufed
Crefcentius to be beheaded, and the pope he had fet
up to be thrown headlong from the caftle of St An¬
gelo, after having his eyes pulled out, and his nofe cut
off. Four years after, he himfelf died of the fmallpox ;
or, according to feme, was poifoned by the widow of
Crefcentius, whom he had debauched under a promife
of marriage, juft as he was about to punifti the Romans
for another revolt.
Otho was fucceeded in the imperial throne by Henry
duke of Bavaria, and grandfon to Otho II. Henry
had no fooner fettled the affairs of Germany, than he
found it neceffary to march into Italy againft Ardouin
marquis of Ivrea, who had affumed the title of king
of Italy. Him he defeated in an engagement, and
was himfelf crowned king of Italy at Pavia in 1005 •,
but a few years after, a new conteft arofe about the
papal chair, which again required the prefence of the
emperor. Before he arrived, however, one of the
competitors (Benedidl VIII.) had got the better of
his rival, and both Henry and his queen received the
imperial crowm from his hands. Before the emperor en¬
tered the church, the pope propofed to him the follow7-
ing queftion : “ Will you obferve your fidelity to me
and my fucceffors in every thing ?” To which, though
a kind of homage, he fubmitted, and anfvvered in the
affirmative. After his coronation, he confirmed the
privileges beftowed on the Roman fee by his prede-
ceffors, and added fome others of his own; ftill how¬
ever, referring for himfelf the fovereignty and the
power of fending commiffaries to hear the grievances
of the people. Plaving repelled the incurfions of the
Saracens, reduced fome mere rebellions of his fubjedls,
and reduced the greateft part of Apulia and Calabria,
he died in the year 1024.
The death of this emperor was, as ufual, followed
by a competition for the crown. Conrad being chofen
emperor of Germany, was declared king of Italy by
the archbifhop of Milan j wffile a party of the nobles
made offer of the crown to Robert king of France,
or his fon Hugh. But this offer being declined, and
likewife another to William duke of Guienne, Conrad
enjoyed the dignity conferred on him by the archbi¬
fhop without molef ation. He was crowned king of
Italy at Monza in 1026 ; and the next year he recei¬
ved the imperial cro3§Tn from Pope John XX. in pre¬
fence of Canute the Great, king of England, Den¬
mark, and Norway, and Rodolph III. king of Bur-
79 ] I T A
gundy. His reign was fimilar to that of his prede- Italy,
ceffors. The Italians revolted, the pop£ was expelled, v
the malecontents were fubdued, and the pope reftored,
after which the emperor returned to Germany, and
died in 1039. 45
Under Henry III. who fucceeded Conrad, the dil>f he fff-
turbances tvere prodigioufly augmented. Pope Syl- ! !ni
vefter II. wras driven out by Benedicl •, who in his
turn wras expelled by John bilhop of Sabinum, who
affumed the title of Sytve/Ier III. Three months af¬
ter Benedict was reftored, and excommunicated his ri¬
vals ; but loon after religned the pontificate for a fum
of money. In a fliort time he reclaimed it ; and thus
there were at once three popes, each of whom was
fupported on a branch ol the papal revenue, while all
of them made themfelves odious by the fcandalous lives
they led. At laft a prieit called Gratian put an end
to this fingular triumvirate. Partly by artifice, and
partly by prefents, he perfuaded all the three to re¬
nounce their pretenfions to the papacy •, and the
people of Rome, out of gratitude for fo fignal a fer-
vice to the church, chole him pope, under the name
of Gregory VI. Henry III. took umbrage at this
eleftion, in which he had not been confulted, and
marched with an army into Italy. Pie depofed Gre¬
gory, as having been guilty of fimony , and filled the
papal chair with his own chancellor Heidiger, bifhop
of Bamberg, who affumed the name of Clement II.
and afterwards confecrated Henry and the emprefs
Agnes. This ceremony being over, and the Romans
having fworn never to eleft a pope without the appro¬
bation of the1 reigning emperor, Henry proceeded to
Capua, where he was vilited by Drago, Rainulphus,
and other Norman adventurers •, who leaving their
country at different times, had made themfelves ma¬
ilers of great part of Apulia and Calabria, at the ex- ^5
pence of the Greeks and Saracens. Henry entered He invefts
into treaty with them ; and not only folemnly invefted ^ Nor¬
thern with thofe territories which they had acquired by man' whh
n 1 J 1 t tome tern-
conqueit, but prevailed on the pope to excommuni-toties jn
cate the Beneventines, who had refufed to open their pulia and
gates to him, and beftowed that city and its depend-Calabria,
encies, as fiefs of the empire, upon the Normans, pro¬
vided they took poffeffion by force of arms. The em¬
peror was fcarce returned into Germany when he re¬
ceived intelligence of the death of Clement II. Pie
was fucceeded in the apoftolic fee by Damafus Il.j
who alfo dying foon after his elevation, Henry nomi¬
nated Bruno bilhop of Toul to the vacant chair. This
Bruno, who was the emperor’s relation, immediately
affumed the pontificals; but being a modeft and pious
prelate, he threw' them off on his journey, by the per-
fuafion of a monk of Cluny, named Hildebrand, after¬
wards the famous Gregory VII. and w'ent to Rome
as a private man. “ The emperor alone (faid Hilde¬
brand) has no right to create a pope.” He accom¬
panied Bruno to Rome, and fecretly retarded his elec¬
tion, that he might arrogate to himfelf the merit of
obtaining it. The fcheme fuccee led to his wilh j
Bruno, who took the name of Leo IX. believing him¬
felf indebted to Hildebrand for the pontificate, fa¬
voured him with his particular friendlhip and confi¬
dence ; and hence originated the power of this enter-
prifing monk, of obfeure birth, but boundlefs ambi¬
tion, who governed Rome fo long, and vvhofe zeal for
3 -B 2 " the
I T A
r 350 ]
I T A
declared
king; of the
.■Romans.
Ita’y. tlie exaltation of the church occafloned fo many troubles
to Europe.
Leo loon after his elevation waited on the empe¬
ror at Worms, to crave affiltance again(1 the Norman
princes, who were become the terror of Italy, and
Ireated their fubjefts with great feverity. Henry
furnilhed the pope with an army j at the head of which
he marched againft the Normans, after having excom¬
municated them, accompanied by a great number of
biihops and other ecclefiaitics, who were all either
hilled or taken prifoners, the Germans and Italians
being totally routed. Leo himfelf was led captive to
Benevento, which the Normans were now mailers of,
and which Henry had granted to the pope in exchange
for the fief of Bamberg in Germany 5 and the apollo-
lic fee is to this day in poffeflion of Benevento, by
virtue of that donation. The Normans, however, who
had a right to the city by a prior grant, reifored it,
in the mean time, to the princes of Lombardy 5 and
Leo was treated with fo much refpedd by the conquerors,
that he revoked the fentence of excommunication,
and joined his famftion to the imperial inveititure for
the lands which they held in Apulia and Calabria.
Leo died foon after his releafe: and the emperor
47 about the fame time caufed his infant fon, afterwards
Henry IV. the famous Henry IV. to be declared king of the Ro¬
mans, a title itill in ufe for the acknowledged heir of
empire. Gebebard, a German bifliop, wTas defi¬
ed pope, under the name of Vi£lor II. and confirmed
by the addrefs of Hildebrand, who waited on the em¬
peror in perfon for that purpofe, though he difdained
to confult him beforehand. Perhaps Hildebrand would
not have found this talk fo eafy, had not Henry been
involved in a war wuth the Hungarians, who prefled
him hard, but whom he obliged at laft to pay a large
tribute, and furnifh him annually with a certain number
of fighting men.
As foon as the emperor had finilhed this war and
others to which it gave rife, he marched into Italy
to infpefl the condufl of his filler Beatrice, widow
of Boniface marquis of Mantua, and made her pri-
foner. She had married Gozelo, duke of Lorrain,
without the emperor’s confent j and contracted her
daughter Matilda, by the marquis of Mantua, to God¬
frey duke of Spoleto and Tufcany, Gozelo’s fon by a
former marriage. This formidable alliance jultly alarm¬
ed Henry; he therefore attempted to diflblve it, by
carrying his filler into Germany, w-here he died foon
after his return, in the 39th year of his age, and the
16th of bis reign.
The emperor, in his lall journey to Italy, conclu¬
ded an allance with Contarini, doge of Venice. That
republic was already rich and powerful, though it had
only been enfranchifed in the year 998, from the tri¬
bute of a mantle of cloth of gold, which it formerly
paid, as a mark of fubjeflion to the emperor of Con-
llantinople. Genoa wTas the rival of Venice in power
and in commerce, and was already in poffeflion of the
illand of Corfica, which the Genoefe had taken from
the Saracens. Thefe twTo cities engroffed at this time
almoll all the trade of Europe. There was no city
in any refpefl equal to them either in France or Ger-
_ **“ f many.
the'pope’s Henry IV. was only five years old at his‘father’s
power. death. The popes made ufe of the refpite given them
49
to His coiiteft:
48
by his minority, to lhake off in ‘great meafure their ^tary
dependence upon the emperors. After a variety of con- ~''f~
tells about the pontificate, Nicholas II. a creature of
Hildebrand’s, was defied: who, among others, paffed
the following celebrated decree, viz. That for the fu¬
ture, the cardinals only Ihouid elefl the pope ; and that
the eleflion Ihouid afterwards be confirmed by the red
of the clergy and the people, “ Saving the honour
(adds he) due to our dear fon Henry, now king; and
who, if it pleafe God, (hall be one day emperor, accord¬
ing to the right which we have already conferred upon
him.” After this he entered into a treaty with the
Norman princes above-mentioned ; who, though they
had lately fworn to hold their poffeffions from the em¬
peror, now fwore to hold them from the pope ; and
hence arofe the pope’s claim of fovereignty over the
kingdoms of Naples and Sicily.
Thus was the power of the German emperors in
Italy greatly diminilhed, and that of the popes pro¬
portionally exalted ; of which Henry foon had futfi-
cient evidence. For having affumed the government
into his own bands in the year 1072, being then 22
years of age, he was fummoned by Alexander II.
appear before the tribunal of the holy fee, on account w.th the
of his loofe life, and to anfwer the charge of ha-eiT'Peror*
ving expofed the inveftiture of bifhops to fale ; at the
fame time that the pope excited his German fubje6ls
to rebel againft him. The rebels, however, were de¬
feated, and peace was reftored to Germany; but
foon after, Hildebrand above-mentioned being ele£led
to the pontificate under the name of Gregory VII.
openly affumed the luperiority over every earthly mo¬
narch whatever. He began with excommunicating
every ecclefiaftic who Ihouid receive a benefice from
the hands of a layman, and every layman who ftiould
take upon him to confer fuch a benefice. Henry, in-
ftead of refenting this infolence, fubmitted, and wrote
a penitential letter to the pope : who, upon this, con-
defeended to take him into favour, after having fevere-
ly reprimanded him for his loofe life ; of which the
emperor now confeffed himfelf guilty.
The quarrel between the church and the emperor
was, hou'ever, foon brought to a crifis by the follow¬
ing accident. Solomon king of Hungary, being de-
pofed by his brother Geyfa, had fled to Henry for
protection, and renewed the homage of Hungary to
the empire. Gregory, who favoured Geyfa, exclaimed
againft this aft of fubmiffion ; and faid in a letter to
Solomon, “ You ought to know that the kingdom of
Hungary belongs to the Roman church ; and learn
that you will incur the indignation of the holy fee, if
you do not acknowledge that you hold your domi¬
nions of the pope, and not of the emperor.” Henry,
though highly provoked at this declaration, thought
proper to treat it with negleft; upon which Gregory
refumed the difpute about inveftitures. The prede-
ceffcrs of Henry had always enjoyed the right of no¬
minating bifhops and abbots, and of giving them in¬
veftiture by the crofs and the ring. This right they
had in common with almoft all princes. The prede-
ceffors of Gregory VII. had been accuftomed on their
part, to fend legates to the emperors, in order to en¬
treat their afliftance, to obtain their confirmation, or
defire them to come and receive the papal fanftion,
but for no other purpofe. Gregory, however, fent
two
I T A [ 381 ] I T A
Inly, two legates to fummon H^nry to appear before him as
*■"" ^ ' a delinquent, becaufe he ftill continued to bellow in-
veilitures, notwithfcanding the apoflolic decree to the
contrary p adding, that if he fhould fail to yield obe¬
dience to the church, he mail expe£t to be excommu¬
nicated and dethroned. Incenfed at this arrogant
meiihge from one whom he confidered as his vaifal,
Henry difmiffed the legates rvdth very little ceremony,
50 and in 1106 convoked an affembly of all the princes
The empe- and dignified ecclefiaftics at Worms ; where, after ma-
the tPfS t'uie deliberation, they concluded, that Gregory ha-
“C ‘,0i:ie’ ving ufurped the chair of St Peter by indirect means,
infefted the church of God with a great many novel¬
ties and abufes, and deviated from his duty to his fove-
reign in feveral fcandalous attempts, the emperor, by
that fupreme authority derived from his predeceflbrs,
ought to diveft him of his dignity, and appoint ano¬
ther in his place. In confequence of this determina¬
tion, Henry fent an ambaflador to Rome, with a for¬
mal deprivation of Gregory •, who, in his turn, convo¬
ked a council, at which were prefent no bilhops, who
unanimoufiy agreed that the pope had juft caufe to
depofe Henry, to diflblve the oath of allegiance which
the princes and ftates had taken in his favour, and to
prohibit them from holding any correfpondence with
him on pain of excommunication ; which was immedi-
51 ately fulminated againft the emperor and his adhe-
Andhethe rents. “ In the name of Almighty God, and by our
emperor; autbority (faid Gregory), I prohibit Henry, the fon
of our emperor Henry, from governing the Teutonic
kingdom and Italy ; I releafe all Chriftians from their
oath of allegiance to him ; and ftriflly forbid all per-
fons from ferving or attending him as king !” The cir¬
cular letters written by this pontiff breathe the fame
fpirit with his fentence of depofition. He there re¬
peats feveral times, that “ bilhops are fuperior to kings,
and made to judge them !” expr.effions alike artful and
prefumptuous, and calculated for bringing in all the
churchmen of the world to his ftandard.
Gregory knew well what confequences would fol¬
low the thunder of the church. The German bilhops
came immediately over to his party, and drew along
with them many of the nobles : the flame of civil w;ar
ftill lay fmothering, and a bull properly diredted was
fufficient to fet it in a blaze. The Saxons, Henry’s
old enemies, made ufe of the papal difpleafure as a
pretence for rebelling againft him. Even Guelfe, to
whom the emperor had given the duchy of Bavaria,
fupported the malecontents with that power which he
owed to his fovereign’s bounty : nay, thofe very princes
and prelates who had afliited in depofing Gregory,
gave up their monarch to be tried by the pope •, and
his holinefs was folicited to come to Augfbuig for that
purpofe.
Willing to prevent this odious trial at Augfburg,
Henry took the unaccountable refolution of fuddenly
paffnag the Alps at Tirol, accompanied only by a few
domellics, to afk abfolution of Pope Gregory his op-
preffor ; who was then in Canoza, on the Apennine
mountains, a fortrefs belonging to the countefs or
Who is at duchefs Matilda above mentioned. At the gates of
laft obliged this place the emperor prefented himfelf as a humble
to lubmit. penitent. Pie alone was admitted within the outer
court j where, being dripped of his robes, and wrap¬
ped 111 fackcloth, he was obliged to remain three daysj
in the month of January, bare-footed and fading, be¬
fore he was permitted to kifs the feet of his holinefs;
who all that time was (hut up wfith the devout Matilda,
whofe fpiritual direflor he had long been, and, as fome
fay, her gallant. But be that as it may, her attach¬
ment to Gregory, and her hatred to the Germans, was
fo great, that Ihe made over all her ellates to the apo-
ftolic fee j and this donation is the true caufe of all the
wars which fince that period have raged between the
emperors and the popes. She poffeffed in her own
right great part of Tufcany, Mantua, Parma, Reggio,
Placentia, Ferrara, Modena, Verona, and almoft the
whole of what is now called the patrimony of St Peter,
from Viterbo to Orvieto j together with part of Um¬
bria, Spoleto, and the Marche of Ancona.
The emperor was at length permitted to throw him¬
felf at the pontift’s feet; who condefcended to grant
him abfolution, after he had fworn obedience to him
in all things, and promifed to fubmit to his folemn de-
cifion at Augiburg : fo that Henry got nothing but
difgrace by his journey v while Gregory, elated by his
triumph, and now looking upon himfelf (not altoge¬
ther without reafon) as the lord and mafter of all the
crowned heads in Chriftendom, faid in feveral of his
letters, that it was his duty “ to pull down the pride
of kings.”
This extraordinary accommodation gave much dif-
guft to the princes of Italy. They never could forgive
the infolence of the pope, nor the abjeft humility of
the emperor. Happily, however, for Henry, their in¬
dignation at Gregory’s arrogance overbalanced their
deteftation of his rneannefs. He took advantage of this
temper; and by a change of fortune, hitherto unknown
to the German emperors, he found a ftrong party in
Italy, when abandoned in Germany. All Lombardy
took up arms againft the pope, while he was raifing all
Germany againft the emperor. Gregory, on the other
hand, made ufe of every art to get another emperor
eletled in Germany : and Henry, on his part, left no¬
thing undone to perfuade the Italians to eleift another 53
pope. The Germans chofe Rodolph, duke of Suabia,Rodolph
who was folemnly crowned at Mentz ; and Gregory, c^oten
hefitating on this occafion, behaved truly like the fu-
prenae judge of kings. He had depofed Henry, but
ftill it was in his power to pardon that prince : he
therefore affefled to be difpleafed that Rodolph was
confecrated without his order ; and declared, that he
would acknowledge as emperor and king of Germany,
him of the two competitors who Ihould be moll fubmif-
five to the holy fee.
Henry, however, trufting more to the valour of his
troops than to the generofity of the pope, fet out im¬
mediately for Germany, where he defeated his enemies
in feveral engagements : and Gregory, feeing no hopes
of fubmiffion, thundered out a fecond fentence of ex-
communication againft him, confirming at the fame
time the eleftion of Rodolph, to whom he fent a golden
crown, on which the following well-known verfe, equal¬
ly haughty and puerile, was engraved.
Petra dedit Petro, Petrus diadema Rodo/pho.
This donation was alfo accompanied with a moft
enthufiaftic anathema againft Henry. After depriving
him of Jlrength and combat, and condemning him never
to be vifloriousy it concludes with the following re-
markable
'ItnJj.
I T A r 3
markable apoRropbe to St Peter and St Paul: “ Make
54
Defeated
all men fenfible, that as you can bind and loofe every
thing in heaven, you can al!o upon earth take from or
give to every one, according to his deferts, empires,
kingdoms, principalities—let the kings and the princes
of the age then indantly feel your power, that they
may not dare to defpife the orders of your church ;
let your juilice be fo fpeedily executed upon Henry,
that nobody may doubt but he falls by your means,
and not by chance.”
In order to avoid the efiedfs of this feccnd excom¬
munication, Henry aflembled at Brixen, in the county
of Tirol, about 20 German bifhops : who, adding alfo
for the bifhops of Lombardy, unanimoufly refolved,
that the pope, inftead of having power over the empe¬
ror, owed him obedience and allegiance ; and that Gre¬
gory VII. having rendered himfelf unworthy of the
papal chair by his conduct and rebellion, ought to be
depofed from a dignity he fo little delerved. They
accordinaly degraded Hildebrand 5 and eledted in his
room Guibert, archbilhop of Ravenna, a perlon of un¬
doubted merit, who took the name of Clement III.
Plenry promifed to put the new pope in poiTeffion of
Rome : but he was obliged, in the mean time, to em¬
ploy all his forces againft his rival Rodolph, who had
leaffembled a large body of troops in Saxony. The
two armies met near Merlhurg, and both fought with
and killed. great fury ; but the fortune of the day feemed inclined
to Rodolph, when his hand was cut off by the famous
Godfrey of Bouillon, then in the fervice of Henry, and
afterwards renowned for his conqueft of Jerufalem.
Difcouraged by the misfortune of their chief, the re¬
bels immediately gave way \ and Rodolph perceiving
his end approaching, ordered the hand that was cut
oft' to be brought him, and made a fpeech to his offi¬
cers on the occafion, which could not fail to have an
influence on the emperor’s affairs. “ Behold (faid
he) the hand with which I took the oath of allegi¬
ance to Henry ; and which oath, at the inftigation of
Rome, I have violated, in perfidioufly afpiring at an
honour that w-as not my due.”
Thus delivered from this formidable antagonift,
• Henry foon difperfed the reft of his enemies in Ger¬
many, and fet out for Italy in order to fettle Clement
in the papal chair. But the gates of Rome being fhut
againft him, he was obliged to attack it in form. The
{lege continued upwards of two years \ Henry during
that time being obliged to quell fome infurre&ions in
Germany. The city was at length carried by aflault,
and with difficulty faved from being pillaged ; but
Henry IV. Gregory was not taken: he retired into the caftle of
St Angelo, and thence defied and excommunicated
the conqueror. The new pope was, however, con-
fecrated with the ufual ceremonies ; and expreffed his
gratitude by crowming Henry, with the concurrence
of the Roman fenate and people. Mean while the
fiege of St Angelo was going on •, but the emperor
being called about fome affairs into Lombardy, Robert
Guifcard took advantage of his abfence to releafe Gre¬
gory, who died foon after at Salerno. His laft words,
borrowed from the Scripture, were worthy of the
greateft faint : “ I have loved juftice, and hated ini¬
quity ; therefore I die in exile !”
Henry, however, did not enjoy all the advantages
55
Rome
taken by
82 ] I T A •
which might have been expected from the death of Italy.
Gregory. The fubfequent popes trode in the paths of
their predeceffor. In 1101, Pafcal II. excited young
Henry to rebel againft his father. The emperor did
all in his power to difluade him from proceeding to
extremities, but in vain. The young prince perfitfed
in his rebellious intentions ; and having by feigned
fubmiflions prevailed on the emperor r> ciffband his
army, he treacheroufly feized and confined him. He'n-
ry, however, found means to efcape from his confine¬
ment, and attempted to engage all the fovereigns of
Europe in his quarrel ^ but before any thing effeffual
could be done, he died at Liege in the year 1 ic6, ^<5
The difpute about inveftitures was not terminated Difpute de.
by the depofition and deatln of Henry IV. His fontween ^
Henry V. purfued the very fame eon duel for which he y
had depofed his father. Pafcal oppofed him with vio- " ' '
fence ; upon which Henry gave him an invitation into
Germany, to end the difpute in an amicable manner.
Pafcal did not think proper to accept of this invita¬
tion ; but put himfelf under the proteftion of Philip I.
king,of France, who undertook to mediate between
the contending parties. His mediation, however,
proved ineffeflual, and Henry was prevented by the
wars in Hungary and Poland from paying any further
attention to the affair of inveftitures. At laft, having
fettled his affairs in Germany, he took a refolution of
going to Rome, in order to fettle the difpute perfon-
ally with the pope. To give his arguments the
greater weight, however, he marched at the head of
an army of 80,000 men. Pafcal received him with
great appearance of friendftiip, but wmuld not renounce
the claim of inveftitures ; and Henry, finding him!elf
deceived in his expedlations, ordered the pope to be
feized. The conful put the citizens in arms to defend
the pope, and a battle was fought within the walls of
Rome. The {laughter was fo great, that the waters
of the Tiber were tinged with blood. The Romans
were defeated, and Pafcal was taken prifoner. The
latter renounced his right of inveftiture ; folemnly
fwore never to refume it, and broke his oath as foon
as Henry was gone, by fulminating the fentence of
excommunication againft him. In 1114 died the
countefs Matilda, who had bequeathed all her domi¬
nions to the pope, as we have already obferved $ but
Henry thinking himfelf the only lawfful heir, alledged,
that it was not in Matilda’s power to alienate her
eftates, which depended immediately on the empire.
He therefore fet out for Lombardy, and fent ambafla-
dors to the pope, befeeching him to revoke the fen¬
tence of excommunication above mentioned. Pafcal,
however, would not even favour the ambafladors with
an audience •, but dreading the approach of Henry
himfelf, he took refuge among the Norman princes in
Apulia. Henry arrived at Rome in 1117 •, but being
foon after obliged to leave it in order to fettle fome
affairs in Tufcany, the pope returned to Rome, but
died in a few days. On the third day after his de-
ceafe, Cardinal Cajetan was elected his fucceflbr, with¬
out the privity of the emperor, under the name of
Gelajtus II. The new pope w’as inffantly depofed by
Henry $ -who fet up the avchbifhop of Prague, under
the name of Gregory VIII. Gelafius, though flip-
ported by the Norman princes, was obliged to take
refuge
2
1 T A [ 383 ] I T A
Italy.
57 .
Determina
tion of the
affair of in.
veftitures
* See
Guelphs ami
Gibelincs.
58
Italy in¬
vaded by
Frederic"
Batbarolfa.
refuge in France, where he died ; and the archbilhop
of Vienna was elected by the cardinals then prefent un¬
der the name of Cahxtus II.
The new pope attempted an accommodation with
Henry ; which not fucceeding, he excommunicated
the emperor, the antipope, and his adherents. He
next fet out for Rome, where he was honourably re¬
ceived ; and Gregory VIII. was forced to retire to
Sutri, a ftrong town garrifoned by the emperor’s
troops. Here he was befieged by Calixtus and the
Norman princes. The city was foon taken, and Gre¬
gory thrown into prifon by his competitor ; but at
la!t, the Hates of the empire being quite wearied out
with fuch a long quarrel, unanimoully fupplicated
Henry for peace. He referred himfelf entirely to
their decilion ; and a diet being affembled at Wurtz-
burg, it was decreed that an embaify Ihould be imme¬
diately fent to the pope, defiring that he would con¬
voke a general council at Rome, by which all difputes
' might be determined. This w7as accordingly done, and
the affair of inveftitures at length regulated in the fol¬
lowing manner, viz. That the emperor fhould leave the
communities and chapters at liberty to fill up their
own vacancies, without beftowing inveftitures with the
crofs and ring \ that he fhould reftore all that he had
unjuftly taken from the church ; that all eleiftions
ftiould be made in a canonical manner, in prefence of
the emperor or h!s commiffaries : and whatever difputes
might happen ihould be referred to the decilion of the
emperor, afiifted by the metropolitan and his fuffragans j
that the perfon defied (hould receive from the emperor
the inveftlture of the fiefs and fecular rights, not with
the crofs, but with the fceptre j and Ihould pay allegi¬
ance to him for thefe rights only. .
After the death of Henry, the ufual diforders took
place in Italy ; during which, Roger duke of Apulia
conquered the illand of Sicily, and aflumed the right
of creating popes, of whom there wTere two at that
time, viz. Innocent II. and Anacletus. Roger drove
out the former, and Lothario emperor of Germany
the latter, forcing Roger himfelf at the fame time to
retire into Sicily. The emperor then conducted In¬
nocent back to Rome in triumph ; and having fubdued
all Apulia, Calabria, and the reft of Roger’s Italian
dominions, eredled them into a principality, and be-
ftow'ed it, with the title of duke, upon Renaud a Ger¬
man prince, and one of his own relations.
In the feign of Conrad III. who fucceeded Lotha¬
rio, the celebrated factions called the Guelphs and
Gibelines *, arofe, which for many years deluged the
cities of Italy with blood. They took their origin
during a civil war in Germany, in which the enemies
of the emperor were ftyled Guelphs, and his friends
Gibelines; and thefe, names were quickly received in
Italy as well as other parts of the emperor’s dominions.
Of this civil war many of the cities in Italy took the
advantage to fet up for themfelves ; neither wras it in
the power of Conrad, who during his whole reign was
employed in unfuccefsful crufades, to reduce them 5
but in 115.8 Frederic Barbaroffa, fucceflor to Con¬
rad, entered Italy at the head of a very numerous and
well difciplined army. His army was divided into
feveral columns, for the conveniency of entering the
country by as many different routes. Having paffed
the Alps, he reduced the town of Brefcia ; where he
made feveral falutary regulations for the prefervation Italy,
of good order and military difcipline. Continuing to ''"“""v *
advance, he befieged Milan, which furrendered at dif-
cretion. He was crowned king of Lombardy at
Monza ; and having made himfelf mailer of all the
other cities of that country, he ordered a minute in¬
quiry to be fet on foot concerning the rights of the
empire, and exacted homage of all thofe who held of
it, without excepting even the bilhops. .Grievances
were redrefled •, magiftracies reformed •, the rights of
regality difcuffed and afcertainedj new laws enafted
for the maintenance of public tranquillity and the en¬
couragement of learning, which now began to revive
in the fchool of Bologna; and, above all, fubvaffals
were not only prohibited from alienating their lands,
but alfo compelled, in their oath to their lords para¬
mount, to except the emperor nominally, when they
fw’ore to ferve and aflift them againft all their enemies.
The pope took umbrage at this behaviour towards the
ecclefiaftics : but Frederic juftified what he had done,
telling his deputies it was but reafonable they fhould do
homage for the fiefs they poffeffed; as Jefus Chrift him¬
felf, though the lord of all the fovereigns upon earth,
had deigned to pay for himfelf and St Peter the tribute
which was due to Csefar.
Frederic having fent ccmmiffaries to fuperintend the
eleftion of new magiftrates at Milan, the inhabitants
were fo much provoked at this infringement of their
old privileges, that they infulted the imperialifts, re¬
volted, and refufed to appear before the emperor’s tri¬
bunal. This he highly refented, and refolved to chaf-
tife them feverely : for which purpole he fent for a
reinforcement from Germany, which foon after arrived
with the emprefs, while he himfelf ravaged Liguria,
declared the Milanefe rebels to the empire, and plun¬
dered and burnt the city of Crema which was in alli¬
ance with that of Milan.
In the mean time, Pope Adrian IV. dying, two
oppofite fablions eledled tw'o perfons known by the
names of ViBor II. and Alexander III. The empe¬
ror’s allies neceffarily acknowdedged the pope chofen
by him; and thofe princes who were jealous of the
emperor, acknowledged the other. Vidlor II. Frede¬
ric’s pope, had Germany, Bohemia, and one half of
Italy on his fide ; wdiile the reft fubmitted to Alex¬
ander III. The emperor took a fevere revenge on his t^es
enemies ; Milan was razed from the foundation, and anci de-
falt ftrewed on its ruins; Brefcia and Placentia were ffioys ML
difmantled ; and the other cities which had taken part laD> &c“
with them wTere deprived of their privileges. Alexan¬
der III. hqwever, who had excited the revolt, returned
to Rome after the death of his rival; and at his re¬
turn the civil wrar wras renewed. The emperor caufed
another pope, and after his death a third, to be elec¬
ted. Alexander then fled to France, the common
afylum of every pope who. w7as oppreffed by the empe¬
rors-; but the flames of civil difeord which he had
raifed continued daily to fpread. In ri68, the cities
of Italy, fupported by the Greek emperor and the
king of Sicily, entered into an affbeiation for the de¬
fence of their liberties ; and the pope’s party at length
prevailed. In 1176, the imperial army, worn out by
fatigues and difeales, was defeated by the confederates,
and Frederic himfelf narrowly efcaped. About the
fame time, he was defeated at fea by the Venetians ;.
and i
-V.
Jnh.
60
Submits
I T A |
&nJ liis elded: fon Henry, who eornmSndeJ his fleet,
fell into the hands of the enemy. The pope, in ho¬
nour of this victory, failed out into the open fea, ac¬
companied by the whole fenate j and after having pro¬
nounced a thoufand benedictions on that element, threw
into it a ring as a mark of his gratitude and afftcdion.
Hence the origin of that ceremony which is annually
performed by the Venetians, under the notion of efpou-
fing the Adriatic. Thefe misfortunes difpofed the
emperor towards a reconciliation with the pope : but,
reckoning it below his dignity to make an advance, he
rallied his troops, and exerted himfelf with fo much
vigour in repairing his lofs, that the confederates were
defeated in a battle •, after which he made propofals of
peace, which were now joyfully accepted, and Venice
was the place appointed for a reconciliation. The em-
to the pope, peror, the pope, and a great many princes and cardi¬
nals, attended; and there the emperor, in T177, put
an end to the difpute, by acknowledging the pope,
killing his feet, and holding his ftirrup while he mount¬
ed his mule. This reconciliation was attended with
the fubmiffion of all the towns of Italy which had en¬
tered into an affociation for their mutual defence.
They obtained a general pardon, and were left at li¬
berty to ufe their own laws and forms of government,
but were obliged to take the oath of allegiance to the
emperor as their fuperior lord. Calixtus, the anti¬
pope, finding himfelf abandoned by the emperor in
confequence of this treaty, made alio his fubmiflion to
Alexander, who received him with great humanity ;
and in order to prevent for the future thofe diltur-
bances which had fo often attended the eleflions of
the popes, he called a general council, in which it was
decreed, that no pope Ihould be deemed duly elec¬
ted without having two-thirds of the votes in his fa¬
vour.
The affairs of Italy being thus fettled, Barbaroffa
returned to Germany ; and having quieted fome dif-
lurbances w'hich had arifen during his abfence in Ita¬
ly, at laft undertook an expedition into the Holy
Land ; where having performed great exploits, he wras
drowmed as he was fvu’mming in the river Cydnus, in
the year 1190. He was fucceeded by his fon Henry
VI. who at the fame time became heir to the domi¬
nions of Sicily by the right of his wife, daughter of
William king of that country. After fettling the af¬
fairs of Germany, the new emperor marched with an
army into Italy, in order to be crowned by the pope,
and to recover t!*e fucceflion of Sicily, which was
ufurped by Tancred his wife’s natural brother. For
this purpofe, he endeavoured to conciliate the affec¬
tions of the Lombards, by enlarging the privileges of
Genoa, Pifa, and other cities, in his way to Rome;
w'here the ceremony of the coronation was performed
by Celeflin III. on the day after Eafter in the year
1191. The pope, then in the 86th year of his age,
had no fooner placed the crown upon Henry’s head,
than he kicked it off again, as a teftimony of the power
refiding in the fovereign pontiff to make and unmake
emperors at his pleafure.
The coronation being over, Henry prepared for the
conqueff of Naples and Sicily ; but in this he was cp-
pofed by the pope : for though Celeftin confidered
Tancred as an ufurper, and defired to fee him deprived
pf the crown of iSicily, which he claimed as a lief of
I
Italy.
61
Frederic
fucceeded
by Henry
VI.
62
384 ] I T A
the fee, yet he was much more averfe to the emperor’s
being put in poireffion of it, as that would render him
too powerful in Italy for the interefi: of the church.
Henry, however, without paying any regard to the
threats and remonllrances of his holinefs, took almoft
all the towns of Campania, Calabria, and Apulia ;
invefted the city of Naples ; and fent for the Genoefe
fleet, which he had before engaged, to come and form
the blockade by fea : but before its arrival, he was
obliged to raife the fiege, in confequence of a dread¬
ful mortality among his troops : and all future attempts
upon Sicily were ineffedlual during the life of Tan¬
cred.
The whole reign of Henry from this time feems to His peifidy
have been a continued train of the mold abominable and cruelty,
perfidies and cruelties. Having treacheroufly feized
and imprifoned Richard I. of England, in the manner
related under that article, N° 128—130. he had no
fooner received the ranfom paid for his royal captive,
than he made new preparations for the conqueft of Si¬
cily. As Tancred died about this time, the emperor,
with the afliftance of the Genoefe, accomplifhed his
purpofe. The queen-dowager furrendered Salerno,
and her right to the crown, on condition that her fon
William ihould poffefs the principality of Tarentum ;
but Henry no fooner found himfelf mailer of the place,
than he ordered the infant king to be caftrated, to
have his eyes put out, and to be confined in a dun¬
geon. The royal treafure was tranfported to Ger¬
many, and the queen and her daughter confined in a
convent.
In the mean time, the emprefs, though near the age
of 50, was delivered of a fon, named Frederic; and
Henry foon after aflembled a diet of the princes of
Germany, to wdiom he explained his intentions of ren¬
dering the imperial crown hereditary, in order to pre¬
vent thofe dilfurbances which ufually attended the elec¬
tion of emperors. A decree palled for this purpofe;
and Frederic, yet in his cradle, was declared king of
the Romans. Soon after, the emperor being folicited
to undertake a crufade, obeyed the injunftions of the
pope, but in fuch a manner as to make it turn out to
his own advantage. He convoked a general diet at
Worms, where he folemnly declared his refolution of
employing his whole power, and even of hazarding
his life, for the accomplilhment of fo holy an enter-
prife ; and he expatiated upon the fubjeft with fo
much eloquence,..that almofl: the whole affembly took
the crofs. Nay, fuch multitudes from all the provin¬
ces of the empire enlifted themfelves, that Henry di¬
vided them into three large armies; one of which, un¬
der the command of the bifliop of Mentz, took the
route of Hungary, where it w’as joined by Margaret,
queen of that country, who entered herfelf in this pi¬
ous expedition, and actually ended her days in Pale-
fline : the fecond was aflembled in Lovrer Saxony, and
embarked in a fleet furnifhed by the inhabitants of
Lubec, Hamburg, Holftein, and Friezland : and the
emperor in perfon conduced the thiru into Italy, in
order to take vengeance on the Noimans in Naples and
Sicily who had rifen again!! his government.
1 he rebels were humbled ; and their chiefs were
condemned to periih by the mol! excruciating tor¬
tures. One Jornandi, of the houfe of the Norman
princes, was tied naked on a chair of red-hot iron, and
crowned
I T A
[ 3*5 ]
I T A
63
Diftuiban-
ces in the
beginning
ef the
reign of
Italy- crowned with a circle of the fame burning metal, which
—was nailed to his head. The emprels, ihocked at fuch
cruelty, renounced her faith to her hulband, and en¬
couraged her countrymen to recover their liberties.
Refolution fprung from defpair. The inhabitants be¬
took themfelves to arms ; the emprefs Conflantia head¬
ed them *, and Henry, having difmiffed his troops, no
longer thought necefl’ary to his bloody purpofes, and
fent them to purfue their expedition to the Holy Land,
was obliged to fubmit to hi;; wire, and to the condi¬
tions which (he was pleafed to impole on him in fa¬
vour of the Sicilians. He died at Medina in 1197,
foon after this treaty ; and, as was fuppofed, of poilbn
adminiftered by the emprefs.
The emperor’s fon Frederic had already been de¬
clared king of the Romans, and confequently became
emperor on the death of his father; but as Frederic II.
was yet a minor, the adminiftration was committed to
Frederic II. his uncle the duke of Suabia, both by the will of
Henry and by an affembly of the German princes.
Other princes, however, incenfed to fee an ele&ive em¬
pire become hereditary, held a new diet at Cologne,
and chofe Otho duke of Brunfwick, fon of Henry the
Lion. Frederic’s title was confirmed in a third aflem-
bly at Arnfhurg ; and his uncle, Philip duke of Sua¬
bia, was elefted king of the Romans, in order to give
greater weight to his adminiilration. Thefe two elec¬
tions divided the empire into two powerful faftions,
and involved all Germany in ruin and defolation. In¬
nocent III. who had fucceeded Celeftin in the papal
chair, threw7 himfelf into the fcale of Otho, and ex¬
communicated Philip and all his adherents. This able
and ambitious pontiff was a fworn enemy of the houfe
of Suabia ; not from any perfonal animofity, but out
of a principle of policy. That houfe had long been
terrible to the popes, by its continual polfeflion of the
imperial crowm ; and the accellion of the kingdom of
Naples and Sicily made it ftill more to be dreaded :
Innocent, therefore, gladly feized the prefent favour¬
able opportunity for divefling it of the empire, by
fupporting the ele&ion of Otho, and fowbng diviiions
among the Suabian party. Otho was alfo patronifed
by his uncle, the king of England ; which naturally
inclined the king of France to the fide of his rival.
Faftion clafhed wTith faflion ; friendfhip wuth intereft ;
caprice, ambition, or refentment, gave the fway ; and
nothing was beheld on all hands but the horrors and
the miferies of civil w7ars.
Meanwdiile, the emprefs Confhntia remained in Si¬
cily, where all was peace, as regent and guardian for
her infant fon Frederic II. who had been crowned
king of that ifland, with the confent of Pope Cele-
ftin III. But fhe alfo had her troubles. A new in-
vefliture from the holy fee being neceffary, on the
death of Celeilin, Innocent III. his fucceffor, took
advantage of the critical fituation of affairs for aggran¬
dizing the papacy, at the expence of the kings of Si¬
cily. They poifefl’ed, as has been already obferved,
the privilege of filling up vacant benefices, and of
judging all ecclefiaflical caufes in the laft appeal : they
were really popes in their own ifland, though vaffals of
his holinefs. Innocent pretended that thefe powers
had been furreptitioufly obtained : and demanded, that
Conflantia (hould renounce them in the name of her
fon, and do liege, pure, and Ample homage for Sicily.
Vol. XL Part I.
But before any thing'' was fettled relative to this affair,
the emprefs died, leaving the regency of the kingdom
to the pope ; fo that he was enabled to preferibe what
conditions he thought proper to young Frederic. The
troubles of Germany llill continued ; and the pope re¬
doubled his efforts to detach the princes and prelates
from the cauie of Philip, notwithftanding the remon-
ftrances of the king of France, to whom he proudly
replied, “ Either Philip mult lofe the empire, or I
the papacy.” But all thefe diffenlions and troubles in
Europe did not prevent the formation of another cru-
fade, or expedition into Alia, for the recovery of the
Holy Land. Thofe who took the crofs were princi¬
pally French and Germans : Baldwin, count of Flan¬
ders, was their commander; and the Venetians, as
greedy of wealth and power as the ancient Carthagi¬
nians, furnilhed them with Ihips, for which they took
care to be amply paid both in money and territory.
The Chriitian city of Zara, in Dalmatia, had wuth-
drawm itfelf from the government of the republic : the
army of the crofs undertook to reduce it to obedience;
and it was befieged and taken, notwithftanding the threats
and excommunications of thejrope.
While the crufaders were fpreading defolation
through the eaft, Philip and Otho were in like manner
defolating the weft. At length Philip prevailed ; and
Otho, obliged to abandon Germany, took refuge in
England. Philip, elated with fuccefs, confirmed his
eledlion by a fecond coronation, and propofed an ac¬
commodation with the pope, as the means of finally
eftablilhing his throne ; but before it could be brought
about, he fell a facrifice to private revenge, being ail'af-
finated by the count Palatine of Bavaria, whofe daugh¬
ter he had promifed to marry, and afterwards rejefted.
Otho returned to Germany on the death of Philip ;
married that prince’s daughter ; and was crowned at
Rome by Pope Innocent III. after yielding to the holy
lee the long-difputed inheritance of the countefs Ma¬
tilda, and confirming the rights and privileges of the
Italian cities. But thefe conceflions, as far at leaft as
regarded the pope, were only a facrifice to prefent po¬
licy : Otho, therefore, no fooner found himfelf in a
condition to aft offenfively, than he refumed his grant ;
and in 1210 not only recovered the poffeflions of the
empire, but made hoftile incurfions into Apulia, ra-
vaging the dominions of young Frederic king of Na¬
ples and Sicily, who was under the proteftion of the
holy fee. For this reafon he was excommunicated by
Innocent; and Frederic, now 17 years of age, was
elefted emperor by a diet of the German princes. O-
tho, however, on his return to Germany, finding his
party ftill confiderable, and not doubting but he ftiou'd
be able to humble his rival by means of his fuperior
force, entered into an alliance with his uncle John
king of England, againft Philip Auguftus king of
France, A. D. 1213. The unfortunate battle of Bou-
vines, where the confederates were defeated, completed
the fate of Otho. He attempted to retreat into Ger¬
many, but was prevented by young Frederic ; who
had marched into the empire at the head of a power¬
ful army, and was everywhere received with open
arms. Thus abandoned by all the princes of Germa¬
ny, and altogether without refource, Otho retired to
Brunfwick where he lived four years as a private man^
dedicating his time to the duties of religion.
3C
Italy.
Frederic
I T A [ 386
being now univerfally acknowledged fuin«
pope.
Italy- Frederic II.
v emperor, was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle m 1215,
with great ■magnificence *, when, in order to preferve
the favour of the pope, he added to the other folem-
nities of his coronation a vow to go in perfon to the
Holy Land.
The bad fuccefs of this expedition hath been already
taken notice of under the article Croisade. The em¬
peror had, on various pretences, refufed to go into the
eaft ; and in 1225, the pope, incenfed at the lofs of
His quarrel Damietta, wrote a fevere letter to him, taxing him
with the with having facrificed the interefts of Chriftianity by
delaying fo long the performance of his vow, and
threatening him with immediate excommunication if he
did hot inftantly depart with an army to Afia. Frede¬
ric, exafperated at thefe reproaches, renounced all cor-
refpondence with the court of Rome : renewed his ec-
cleliailical jurifdiftion in Sicily ; filled up vacant fees
and benefices •, and expelled fome biihops, who were
creatures of the pope, on pretence of their being con¬
cerned in pradlices againft the date.
The pope at firft threatened the emperor with the
thunder of the church, for prefuming to lift up his
hand againll the fandluary 5 but finding Frederic not
to be intimidated, he became fenfible of his owm im¬
prudence in wantonly incurring the refentment of fo
powerful a prince, and thought proper to foothe him
by fubmifiive apologies and gentle exhortations. They
were accordingly reconciled, and conferred together at
Veroli in 1226 j where the emperor, as a proof of his
fincere attachment to the churchy publifhed fome very
fevere edicts againlt herefy, which feem to have autho-
rifed the tribunal of the inquifition. A folemn aflembly
was afterwards held at Ferentino, where both the pope
and the emperor were prefent, together with John de
Brienne, titular king of Jerufalem, who was come to
Europe to demand fuccours againft the foldan of
Egypt. John bad an only daughter named Yolanda,
whom he propofed as a wife to the emperor, with the
kingdom of Jerufalem as her dow’er, on condition that
Frederic fhould within two years perform the vow
lie had made to lead an army into the Holy Land. Fre¬
deric married her on thefe terms, becaufe he chofe to
pleafe the pope ; and fince that time the kings of Sicily
have taken the title of king of Jerufalem. But the em¬
peror was in no hurry to go and conquer his wife’s por¬
tion, having bufinefs of more importance on his hands at
home. The chief cities of Lombardy had entered
into a fecret league, with a view to renounce his au¬
thority. He convoked a diet at Cremona, where all
the German and Italian noblemen were fummoned to
attend. A variety of fubjefts were there difeuffed ;
but nothing of confequence was fettled. An accom¬
modation, however, wras foon after brought about by
the mediation of the pope $ wTho, as umpire of the
difpute, decreed, that the emperor fliould lay afide his
refentment againft the confederate towms, and that ;the
towns fhould furnilh and maintain 400 knights for the
relief of the Holy Land.
Peace being thus concluded, Honorius reminded
the emperor of his vow ; Frederic promifed compli¬
ance : but his holinefs died before he could fee the exe¬
cution of a projedt which he feemed to have fo much
at heart. He was fucceeded in the papal chair by
Gregory IX. brother of Innocent III. j who, pur-
] I T A
: the lame line of policy, urged the departure of
Italy.
Frederic for the Holy Land j and finding the emperor
ftill backward, declared him incapable of the imperial
dignity, as having incurred the fentence of excommu¬
nication. Frederic, incenfed at fuch infclence, ravaged
the patrimony of St Peter •, and was adtually excom¬
municated, The animofity between the Guelphs and
Gibellines revived j the pope was obliged to quit
Rome ; and Italy became a feene of war and defolation,
or rather of an hundred ci '»’ wrars j W’hich, by inflaming
the minds and exciting the refentment of the Italian
princes, accuftomed them but too much to the horrid
practices of poifoning and afl'aftination.
During thefe tranfadlions, Frederic, in order to re¬
move the caufe of all thefe troubles, and gratify the
prejudices of a fuperftitious age, by the advice of his
friends refolved to perform his vow : and he accord- 6$
ingly embarked for tlie Holy Land, leaving the affairs of His expe-
Italy to the management of Renaldo duke of Spoleto.
The pope prohibited his departure before he fhould be L.iU(j. *
abfolved from the cenfures of the church ; but Frederic
went in contempt of the church, and fucceeded better
than any perfon who had gone before him. He did
not indeed defolate Afia, and gratify the barbarous
zeal of the times by fpilling the blood of infidels *, but
he concluded a treaty with Miliden, foldan of Egypt
and mailer of Syria, by which the end of his expedi¬
tion feemed fully anfwered. The foldan ceded to him
Jerufalem and its territory as far as Joppa j Beth¬
lehem, Nazareth, and all the country between Jerufa¬
lem and Ptolemais j Tyre, Sidon, and the neighbour¬
ing territories: in return for which, the emperor grant¬
ed the Saracens a truce of ten years ; and in t 230
prudently returned to Italy, where his prefence was
much wanted.
Frederic’s reign, after his return from the eaft, was
one continued quarrel with the popes. The cities of
Lombardy had revolted during his abfence, at the in-
ftigation of Gregory IX. j and before they could be
reduced, the fame pontiff excited the emperor’s fon
Henry, who had been defied king of the Romans, to
rebel againft his father. The rebellion rvas fuppreffed,
the prince was confined, and the emperor obtained a
complete viflory over the affociated towns. But his
troubles were not yet ended. The pope excommunica¬
ted him anew, and fent a bull, filled with the moft
abfurd and ridiculous language, into Germany, in order
to fow divifion between Frederic and the princes of the
empire.
Frederic retorted in the fame ftrain, in his apology
to the princes of Germany, calling Gregory the Great
Dragon, the Antichrift, &c. The emperor’s apology
was fuftained in Germany •, and finding he had no¬
thing to fear from that quarter, he refolved to take
ample vengeance on the pope and his affociates. for
that purpofe he marched to Rome, where he thought
his party was ftrong enough to procure him admiflion j
but this favourite fcheme was defeated by the aflivity
of Gregory, who ordered a crufade to be preached
againft the emperor, as an enemy of the Chriftian faith;
a ftep which incenfed Frederic fo much, that he or¬
dered all his prifoners who w?ore the crofs to be ex-
pofed to the moft cruel tortures. The two factions or
the Guelphs and Gibellines continued to rage with
greater violence than ever, involving cities, diftrifls,
and
I T A
[ 387 J
I T A
Ttaly. and even private families, in troubles, divifions, and
'^__v civil butchery 5 no quarter being given on either fide.
Meanwhile Gregoiy IX. died, and was fucceeded in
the fee of Rome by Celeftin IV. and afterwards by
Innocent IV. formerly Cardinal Fiefque, in ho had al¬
ways expreffed the great eft regard for the emperor and
his intereft. Frederic was accordingly congratulated
upon this occafion : but having more penetration than
thofe about him, he fagely replied, “ I fee little rea-
fon to rejoice 5 the cardinal was my friend, but the
pope will be my enemy.” Innocent foon proved the
<55 juftice of this conjecture. He attempted to negotiate
ts depofetl n peace for Italy but not being able to obtain from
try the Frederic his exorbitant demands, and in fear for the
pope. fafety of his own perfon, he lied into France, alTem-
bled a general council at Lyons, and in 1245 depo*
fed the emperor.
Conrad, the emperor’s fecond fon, had already been
declared king of the Romans, on the death of his bro¬
ther Henry, which foon followed his confinement •, but
the empire being now' declared vacant by the pope, the
German bilhops (for none of the princes w'ere pre-
fent), at the inftigation of his holinefs, proceeded to
the ele&iort of a new emperor •, and they chofe Henry
landgrave of Thuringia, wrho was ftyled in derifion,
The king of priifts. Innocent now renewed the cm-
fade againft Frederic. It was proclaimed by the preach¬
ing friars, finee called Dominicans, and the minor friars,
known by the name of Cordeliers or Francifcans. The
pope, however, did not confine himfelf to thefe mea-
ftures only, but engaged in confpiracieS againft the life
of an emperor who had dared to refill the decree of a
council, and oppofe the whole body of the monks and
zealots. Frederic’s life was feveral times in danger
from plots, poifonings, and afl'aftinations j which induced
him, it is faid, to make choice of Mahometan guards,
who, he was certain, would not be under the influence
of the prevailing fuperftition.
Ab<$at this time the landgrave of Thuringia dying,
the fame prelates who had taken the liberty of creating
one emperor made another •, namely, William count
of Holland, a young nobleman of 20 years of age,
who bore the fame contemptuous title with his prede-
ceffbr. Fortune, which had hitherto favoured Fre¬
deric, feemed now to defert him. He was defeated
before Parma, which he had long belieged 5 and to
complete his misfortune, he foon after learned, that
his natural fon Entius, whom he had made king of Sar¬
dinia, was worfted and taken prifoner by the Bolognefe.
In this extremity Frederic retired to his kingdom of
Naples, in order to recruit his army 5 and there died
of a fever in the year 1250. After his death, the
affairs of Germany fell into the utmoft confufion, and
Italy continued long in the fame diftradled ftate in
which he had left it. The clergy took arms againft the
laity 5 the weak were opprelfed by the ftrong 5 and all
laws divine and human were difregarded. After the
death of Frederic’s fon Conrad, who had aflumed the
imperial dignity as fucceffor to his father, and the death
of his competitor William of Holland, a variety of
candidates appeared for the empire, and leveral were
defied by difl'erent factions 5 among whom was Rich¬
ard earl of Cornwall, brother to Henry II. king of
England : but no emperor was properly acknowledged
till the year 1273, when Rudolph, count of Hapfburg,
was unanimoufly raifed to the vacant throne. During .
the interregnum which preceded the eleflicn of Ro-
dolph, Denmark, .Holland, and Hungary, entirely Qeci;ne 0t'
freed thetnfelves from the homage they were wont to the power
pay to the empire j and much about the fame time fe-or the Ger-
veral German cities erefled a municipal form of go-11
vernment, which ftill continues. Lubec, Cologne,*
Brunfwic, and Dantzic, united for their mutual de¬
fence againft the encroachments of the great lords, by
a famous afi'oeiation, called the Hdnfeatic league; and
thefe towns were afterwards joined by 80 others, be¬
longing to different ftates, which formed a kind of
commercial republic^ Italy alio, during this period,
allmned a new plan of government. I hat freedom for
which the cities of Lombardy had fo long ftfuggled,
Nvas confirmed to them for a ium of money ; they were
emancipated by the fruits of their induilry. Sicily iike-
wdfe changed its government and its prince 5 of which
revolution a particular account is given under the article
Sicily.
From the time of Frederic II. we may date the ruin
of the German power in Italy. The Florentines, the
Pifans, the Genoefe, the Luccans, &c. became inde¬
pendent, and could not again be reduced. The power
of the emperor, in fhort, was in a manner annihilated,
when Henry VII. undertook to reftore it in the be¬
ginning of the 14th century. For this purpofe a diet
was Held at Francfort, wrhere proper fupplies being
granted for the emperor’s journey 1, well known by theEXpe(i;tjoft
name of the Roman expedition, he fet out for Italy, ac-of 4enry
companied by the dukes of Auftria and Bavaria, the VP' into
archbiihop of Triers, the bilbop of Liege, the countsltaiy*
of Savoy and Flanders, and other noblemen, together
with the militia of all the imperial towns. Italy was
ftill divided by the faflions of the Guelphs and Gibel-
lines, who butchered one another without humanity or
remorfe. But their conteft was no longer the fame : it
Was not now a ftruggle between the empire and the
priefthood, but between faftion and faction, inflamed
by mutual jealoufies and animofities* Pope Clement V.
had been obliged to leave Rome, which was in the
anarchy of popular government. The Colonnas, the
Urfini, and the Roman barons, divided the city ; and
this divifion tvas the caufe of a long abode of the popes
in France, fo that Rome feemed equally loft to the
popes and the emperors. Sicily Was in the poffeflion.
of the houfe of Arragon, in confequence of the famous
maffacre called the Sicilian vefpers, which delivered that
iftand from the tyranny of the French *. Carobert, * .See Si-
king of Hungary, difputed the kingdom of Naples«Vy.
with his uncle Robert, fon of Charles II. of the houie
of Anjou. The houfe of Efte had eftabliihed itfelf at
Fefrara ; and the Venetians wanted to make them-
felves mafters of that country. The old league of the
Italian cities no longer fubfifted. It had been formed
with no other view than to oppofe the emperors : and
fince they had ncglefted Italy, the cities were wholly
employed in aggrandizing themfelves, at the expence
of each other. The Florentines and the Geno^fe made
Wrar upon the republic of Pifa. Every city was alfo
divided into fadlions within itfelf. In the midft of
thefe troubles Henry VlL appeared in Italy in the
year 1 31 1, and caufed himfelf to be crowned king 0$
Lombardy at Milan. But the Guelphs had con¬
cealed the old iron crown of the Lombard kings, as
3 C 2 if
I T A [ 388 ] I T A
Italy jf right ot reigning were attached tc a (mall cir-
l'“~ v ■ cigt 0f metai_ Henry ordered a new crown to be
made, with which the ceremony of inauguration was
periormed.
Cremona was the firil place that ventured to oppofe
the emperor. He reduced it by force, and laid it un¬
der heavy contributions. Parma, Vicenza, and Pla¬
centia, made peace with him on rcafonable conditions.
Padua paid 1 co,ooo crowns, and received an imperial
officer as governor. The Venetians prefented Henry
with a large fum of money, an imperial crown of
gold enriched with diamonds, and a chain of very cu¬
rious workmanfhip. Brefciu made a defperate relilt-
ance, and luliained a very levere fiege ; in the courfe
of which the emperor’s brother was flain, and his
army diminiffied to fuch a degree, that the inhabitants
marched out under the command of their prefedl
Thibault de Druffati, and gave him battle : but they
were repulfed with great lofs, after an obftinate en¬
gagement ; and at laffi ©bilged to fubmit, and their
city was difmantled. From Brefcia .Henry marched
to Genoa, where he was received with expreffions of
joy, and fplendidly entertained. He next proceeded
to Rome 5 where, after much bloodffied, he received
the imperial crown from the hands of the cardinals.
Clement V. who had originally invited Henry into
Italy, -growing jealous of his fuccefs, had leagued with
Robert king of Naples and the Urfini fadlion, to op-
pole his entrance into Rome. He entered it in fpite
of them by the afliftance of the Colonnas. Now ma-
fter of that ancient city, Henry appointed it a gover¬
nor j and ordered, that all the cities and ftates of Ita¬
ly ffiould pay him an annual tribute. In this order he
comprehended the kingdom of Naples, to which he was
going to make good his claim of fuperiority by arms,
when he died at Benevento in 1313, as is commonly
fuppofed, of poifon given him by a Dominican friar,
in the confecrated wine of the facrament.
Stafe of The efforts of Henry VII. were unable to reftore the
Italy finre imperial power in Italy. From this time the authority
that time. 0f emperor in that country confided in a great mea-
fure in the conveniency which the Gibellines found in
oppofing their enemies under the fandtion of his name.
The power of the pope was much of the fame nature.
He was lefs regarded in Italy than in any other coun¬
try in Chriffendom. There was indeed a great party
who called themfelves Guelphs; but they affedfed this
diftindtion only to keep themfelves independent of the
imperialiits j and the ftates and princes who called
themfelves Guelphs paid little more acknowledgement to
his holinefs than ftieltering themfelves under his name
and authority. The mcft defperate wars were carried
on by the different cities againft each other } and in
thefe wars Caftruccio Caftraccani, and Sir John Hawk-
wood an Engliftiman, are celebrated as heroes. A
detail of thefe tranfadlions would furnifti materials for
many volumes; and after all feems to be but of litt:e
importance, lince nothing material was effedfed by the
utmoft efforts of valour, and the belligerent ftates were
commonly obliged to make peace without any advan¬
tage on either fide. By degrees, however, this martial
fpirit fubfided ; and in the year 1492, the Italians
were fo little capable of refitting an enemy, that
Charles VIII. of France conquered the whole king¬
dom of Naples in fix weeks, and might eafily have fub-
dued the whole country had it not been for his owuim- Italy,
prudence. Another attempt cm Italy was made by ——v—
Louis XII. and a third by Francis I. as related un¬
der the article France. In the reigns of Louis XIII.
and XIV. an obftinate war was carried on between the
French and Spaniards, in which the Italian ftates bore
a very conliderable ihare. The war concluded in 1660,
with very little advantage to the French, who have been
always unfuccefsful in their Italian wars. The like
bad iuccefs attended them in that part of the w-orld, in
the war which commenced between Britain and Spain
in the year 1740. But the particulars of thefe wars,
with regard to the different ftates of Italy, naturally
fall to be conftdered under the hiftory of thofe ftates
into which the country is now divided j viz. Sardinia,
Milan or the Milanefe, Genoa, Venice, Tufcany or
Florence, Lucca, St Marino, Parma, Mantua, Mode¬
na, Rome, and Naples.
The air in Italy is very different, according to the Air, &c.oI
different lituations of the feveral countries contained inlta'y-
it. In thole on the north of the Apennines it is more
temperate, but on the fouth it is generally very warm.
The air of the Campania of Rome, and of the Ferra-
rele, is faid to be unhealthful ; which is owing to the
lands not being duly cultivated, nor the marfties drain¬
ed. That of the other parts is generally pure, dry,
and healthy. In fummer, the heat is very great in the
kingdom of Naples ; and would be almoft intolerable,
if it was not fomewhat alleviated by the fea breezes.
The foil of Italy in general is very fertile, being wa¬
tered by a great number of rivers. It produces a great
variety of wines, and the heft oil in Europe ; excellent
ftlk in abundance j corn of all forts, but not in fuck
plenty as in fome other countries j oranges, lemons,
citrons, pomegranates, almonds, raifins, fugar, mul¬
berry-trees without number, figs, peaches, nectarines,
apricots, pears, apples, filberts, chefnuts, &c. Moll
of thefe fruits were at firft imported by the Romans
from Afia Minor, Greece, Africa, and Syria, and
were not the natural produds of the foil. The tender
plants are covered in winter on the north fide of the
Apennines, but on the fouth fide they have no need of
it. This country alio yields good pafture j and abounds
with cattle, ftieep, goats, buffaloes, wild boars, mules,
and horfes. The forefts are well ftored with game y
and the mountains yield not only mines of iron, lead,
alum, fulphur, marble of all forts, alabatter, jafper,
porphyry, &c. but alio gold and lilver j with a great
variety of aromatic herbs, trees, ilirubs, and evergreens,
as thyme, lavender, laurel, and bays, wild olive trees,
tamarinds, juniper, oaks, and pines.
A very extenfive trade is carried on in many places
in Italy, particularly at Leghorn, Genoa, Bologna,
Venice, and Naples •, the country having a great va¬
riety of commodities and manufactures for exportation,
efpecially wine, oil, perfumes, fruits, and filks. Tra¬
vellers aifo bring large fums of money into Italy, be-
fides what they lay out in pictures, curiolities, relics,
antiquities, &c.
The Italians are generally well proportioned, though Dreis, dif-
their complexions are none of the heft As to drefs,
they follovv the fafhions of the countries on which they A'A1 t
border, or to which tney are iubjeCi j namely, thole ot
Frau e, Spain, and Germany. Wuh refpeCt to their
genius and latte in architecture, painting, earring, and
mufic,
I T C [
Italy, mufic, they are thought to excel greatly, and to leav.
. Itc'1- the other nations of Europe far behind them j but
their mufic feerns too foft and effeminate to deferve all
the praife bellowed on it; and their houfes are far in¬
ferior to thofe of England in refpeft of convenience.
No country hath produced better politicians, hiflo-
rians, poets, painters, and fculptors; we mean fince the
revival of the arts and fciences, exclufive of thofe of
ancient times. The Italians are very affable, courte¬
ous, ingenious, fober, and ready-witted j but extreme¬
ly jealous, vindiftive, lafeivious, ceremonious, and fu-
perflitious. In refpedl to jealoufy, indeed, it is faid
a very extraordinary change has taken place ; and that
the Italians are now no lefs indulgent and complaifant
to their wives than the moil polite hufbands in France
itfelf. In their tempers, the Italians feem to be a good
medium between the French and Spaniards $ neither fo
gay and volatile as the one, nor fo grave and folemn
as the other. Boiled fnails, ferved up with oil and
pepper, or fried in oil, and the hinder parts of frogs,
are reckoned dainty difhes. Kites, jackdaws, hawks,
and magpies, are alfo eaten not only by the common
people but by the better fort. Wine is drank here
both in fummer and winter cooled by ice or fnow. The
women alfedl yellow hair, as the Roman ladies and
courtezans formerly did. They alfo ufe paint and
wafhes, both for their hands and faces. The day here
is reckoned from funfet to funfet, as the Athenians
72 did of old.
Revolution. Amidlf the convulfions which agitated Europe in
confequence of the French revolution, the different
Hates of Italy wrere not permitted to enjoy repofe. Bo¬
naparte, whole unprecedented and extraordinary fuccefs
has hitherto even exceeded his military talents, made
- a rapid conqueft of the whole of this country -r the
battles of Areola and Lodi are memorable for the def-
perate valour with which they wrere fought, and Man¬
tua furrendered on the 2d of February 1797, at ten
o’clock at night. The immediate conlequence of
thefe fuccelfes was the conqueft of the popifh terri¬
tories, which was not effedled wdthout the effufion of
much blood. Different changes and modifications were
made in its political conftitution after thefe vidlories,
and the emperor of France was in the iffue proclaimed
king of Italy. A detail of military and other tranfac-
tions in Italy, in fo far as they flood connected with
the political fchemes and conquefts of the French go¬
vernment, has already been given under the article
^ France, to which we refer our readers.
Prefent po- According to Boetticher, the prefent population of
pulation. Italy including the iflands of Sicily and Sardinia, ought
not to be ellimated at more than 13,000,000. The
kingdom of Naples and Sicily is fuppofed to contain
about 6,000,000 ; the central part about 3,000,000 ;
and the northern part about 4,000,000.
ITCH, a cutaneous difeafe, appearing in fmall
watery puftu-ies on the Ikin 5 commonly of a mild na¬
ture, though fometimes attended with obftinate and
dangerous fymptoms. See Medicine Index.
IrcH-Infedi. See Acarus, Entomology Index.
In Ipeaking of the manner of finding thefe infers
in the itch, Fabricius obferves, that the failure of many
who have fought for them has been owing to their
having expedled to meet with them in the larger ve-
ficles that contain a yellowifh fluid like pus} in thefe,
389 1 IT I
' however, he tells us, he- has never found them, but in Itea.
thofe puftules only which are recent, and contain only
a watery fluid. We muff therefore, he obferves,
expedl to find them in the fame proportionate number ■ -t - *
in patients who for many months have been aftlidled
with the difeafe, as in thofe in whom its appearance is
recent, and where it is confined to the fingers or wrifts.
The caufe of this difference with refpect to the puftules,
he conjectures, may be owing to the death of the in-
feCl after it has depofited its eggs.
A fmall tranfparent veficle being found, a very mi¬
nute w'hite point, diftinCl from the furrounding fluid,
may be difeovered, and very often even without the
afliftance of a glafs ; this is the infeft, which may be
eafily taken out on the point of a needle or penknife,
and when placed on a green cloth may be feen much
more dillinClly, and obferved to move. All this, we
mult remark, probably depends on optical deception.
ITEA, a genus of plants belonging to the pentan-
dria clafs; and in the natural method ranking with
thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany Index.
ITHACA, in Ancient Geography, an iiland in the
Ionian fea, on the coaft of Epirus; the country of
Ulyfles, near Dulichium, with a town and port fituated
at the foot of Mount Neius. According to Pliny it is
about 25 miles in compafs j according to Artemidorus
only 10 5 and is now found to be only eight miles round.
It is now uninhabited, and called Jatkaco.
ITINERARY, Itinerarium •, a journal or an ac¬
count of the diltances of places. The mod remarkable
is that which goes under the names of Antoninus and
JEthicus ; or, as Barthius found in his copy, Antoninus
JEthicus; a Chriftian writer, pofterior to the times of
Conftantine. Another, called Hierofolymitanum, from
Bourdeaux to Jerufalem, and from Heraclea through
Aulona and Rome to Milan, under Conftantine. —
Itinerarium denotes a day’s march.
ITIUS portus, in Ancient Geography, the crux geo-
graphorum, fuch being the difficulty of afeertaining its
pofition. It would be endlefs to recite the feveral opi¬
nions concerning it, with the feveral reafons advanced
in fupport of them. Three ports are mentioned by
Ctefar ; two without any particular name, viz. the
Higher and the Lower, with refpe<ft to the Portus
Ithis. Calais, Boulogne, St Omer, and Whitfand,
have each in their turn had their feveral advocates.
Caftar gives two diftimftive characlers or marks wdiich
feem to agree equally to Boulogne and Whitfand,
namely, the fhortnefs of the paflage, and the fitua-
tion between two other ports j therefore nothing can
with certainty be determined about the fituation of the
Portus Ilius.
ITYS, in fabulous hiftory, a fon of Tereus king of
Thrace, by Procne daughter of Pandion king of Athens.
He was killed by his mother when he was about fix years
old, and ferved up before his father. He was changed
into a pheafant, his mother into a fwallow, and his fa¬
ther into an owl
ITZECUINTEPOTZOTLI, or Hunch-backed .
Dog, a Mexican quadruped fimilar to a dog. It is
as large as a Maltefan dog, the fkin of which is varied
with white, tawny, and black. The charadleriftic mark
is a great hunch which it bears from its neck to its
rump. This animal abounds moft in the kingdom of
Michuacan,
ITZEHOA,
J U A [ 390 ] J U A
Itzehoa ITZEHOA, an ancient and handfome town of
I! Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and duchy
Juan‘ of Holllein. It belongs to the king of Denmark,
and is feated on the river Stoer, in E. Long. 9. 25.
N. Lat. 54 8.
IV A, a genus of plants belonging to the moncecia
clafs ; and in the natural method ranking under the 49th
order, Compofitie. See BOTANY Index.
IV AH AH is the name of a canoe of the South fea
iflanders for fhort excurfions to fea : it is wall-fided,
flat-bottomed, and of different fizes, from 72 feet to
10: but their breadth is by no means in proportion j
for thofe of ten feet are about a foot wide, and thofe
of more than 70 are fcarcely two. The fighting ivahah
is the longeft, with its head and ftern confiderably rai¬
led. The fifhing ivahahs are from 40 feet long to 10 •,
thofe of 2 1; feet and upwards occafionally carry fail.
The travelling ivahah is always double, and furnilhed
with a fmall neat houfe.
JUAN DE Fuca, a ftrait on the north-weft coaft of
America, was furveyed by Captain Vancouver, and the
entrance of which he places in N. Lat. 48. 20. and
W Long. 124. Trie obje£l of this furvey was to dil-
cover a communication between the North Pacific and
North Atlantic oceans 5 but none of the inlets or chan¬
nels in this broken coaft was found to extend more than
ICO miles to the eaftwSrd of the entrance into the ftrait.
Thus it appeared, that the land forming the north
fide of that ftrait is part of an iiland, or of an archipe¬
lago, extending nearly ICO leagues in length from
fouth-eaft to north-weft \ and on the fide of this land,
moft diftant from the continent, is lituated Nootka
found. The moft peculiar circumftance of this navi¬
gation is the extreme depth of water, when contrafted
with the narrownefs of the channels.
The people of Juan de Fuca are faid to be well verfed
in the principles of trade, which they carry on in a very
fair and honourable manner. The commodities moft
.prized by them are copper, fire-arms, and great-coats.
Their dreffes, befides fkins, are a kind of woollen gar¬
ments. According to Vancouver, the dogs belonging
to this tribe of Indians are numerous, refembling thofe
of Pomerania, though larger in general. The popula¬
tion even in the greateft towns or villages does not ex¬
ceed 600, and the fmallpox is reckoned to be a difeafe
very fatal among them. Their method of difpofing of
their dead is lingular. “ Bafkets (fays Vancouver)
were found fufpended on high trees, each containing the
fkeleton of a young child, in fame of which were alfo
fmall fquare boxes filled with a kind of white pafte,
refembling fuch as I had feen the natives eat, fuppofed
to be made of the faranne root : fome of thefe boxes
were quite full ; others were nearly empty, eaten pro¬
bably by the mice, fquirrels, or birds.”
Juan, 67, de la Frontera, a town of South America,
in Chili, in the province of Chiquito, near the lake Gu-
anacho. The territory of this town is inhabited by
20,000 native Americans, who are tributary to Spain.
It contains mines of gold, and produces a kind of almonds
that are very delicate. It is feated at the foot of the
Andes, in W. Long. 66. 35. S. Lat. 23. 25.
Juan de Porto Rico, an iiland of America, and one
of the Caribbees, being loo miles in length and 50
in breadth. It belongs to the Spaniards ; and is full
of very high mountains, and extremely fertile valleys,
3
interlperfed with woods, and weft watered with fprings jiuir.
and rivulets. It produces fugar, rum, ginger, corn, -—v~“
and fruits; partly proper to the climate, and partly
introduced from Spain. Belides, there are io many
cattle, that they often kill them for the fake of the
fkins alone. liere are a great number of uncommon
tra.es, and there is a little gold in the north part of the
ifland. It is commonly laid that the air is healthy j
and yet the earl ot Cumberland, when he had taken
this ifland, loft moft of his men by ficknefs; and for
that realon was forced to abandon it. This happened
in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. It is fuojecf to ftorms
and hurricanes, like the reft of thefe iilands. It lies to
the eaft of Hifpaniola, at the diftance or 50 miles.
Juan de Porto Rico, the capital town of the ifland
of Porto Rico, with a good harbour defended by fe-
veral forts, and a bithop’s fee. It is feated on the
north coatt of the ifland, in W. Long, 65. 35. N. Lat.
18. 30.
Juan Fernandez,, an ifland in the great South fea,
in S. Lat. 33. 40. and W. Long. 78. 30. from Lon¬
don. It was formerly a place of refort for the bucca¬
neers who annoyed the weftern coaft of the Spanifh
continent. They were led to refort hither from the
multitude of goats which it nouriflied j to deprive their
enemies of wdiich advantage, the Spaniards tranfported
a confiderable number of dogs, which increafing great¬
ly, have almoft extirpated the goats, who now only
find fecurity among the fteep mountains in the northern
parts, which are inacceflible to their purfuers. There
are inftances of two men living, at difi'erent times,,
alone on this ifland for many years $ the one a Muf-
quito Indian j the other Alexander Selkirk, a Scotch¬
man, who was, after five years, taken on board arr
Englilh Ihip, which touched here in about 1710, and
brought back to Europe. From the hiftory of this
reclufe, Daniel Defoe is faid to have conceived the
idea of writing the adventures of Robinfon Crufoe.
This ifland was very propitious to the remains of Com¬
modore Anfon’s iquadron in 1741, after having been
buffeted with tempefts, and debilitated by an invete¬
rate feurvy, during a three months paffage round Cape
Horn : they continued here three months •, during
which time the dying crews, who on their arrival could
fcarcely with one. united effort heave the anchor, were
reftored to perfeft health. Captain Carteret, in the
Swallow7, in 1767, having met with many difficulties
and impediments in his paffage into the South fea*
by the ftraits of Magelhaens, attempted to make this
ifland in order to recruit the health of his men j but
he found it fortified by the Spaniards, and therefore
chofe rather to proceed to the ifland of Mafahiero.
But M. de Bougainville that fame year is faid to have
touched here ror refreshments, although in the narra¬
tive of the voyage the fad is cautioufly fuppreffed.
This iiland is not quite 15 miles long and about fix
broad ; its only fife harbour is on the north fide. It
is faid to have plenty of excellent water, and to abound
wfith a great variety of efculent vegetables highly anti-
fcorbutic •, befides which, Commodore Anion fow7ed a
variety of garden-feeds, and planted the ftones of
plums, apricots, and peaches, w' ic^i he was many years
afterwards informed had thriven greatly; and now
doubtlefs furnifh a very valuable addition to the natu¬
ral productions of this fpot. Valt ihoals of filli of
various
.] U B [ 3QI ] J U B
■Juaia various kinds frequent this coaft, particularly cod of
il a prodigious lize There are but few birds here, and
ju ce- tj10fe few are 0f fpecies well known and common.
Juan Blanco, or White Jack, a Spaniih name for pla-
tina. See Platina, Chemistry Index.
JUBA, a king of Numidia and Mauritania. He
had fucceeded his father Hiempfal, and he favoured the
caufe of Pompey againft Julius Ctefar. He defeated
Curio whom Caefar had fent to Africa, and after the
battle of Pharfalia he joined his forces to thofe of Sci-
pio. He was conquered in a battle at Thapfus, and
totally abandoned by his fubjefls. He killed himfelf
with Petreius, wdio had fhared his good fortune and
his adverfity, in the year of Rome 707. His king¬
dom became a Roman province, of which Salluft was
the firit governor.
Juba II. fon of the former, was led among the cap¬
tives to Rome to adorn the triumph of Csefar. His
captivity was the fource of the greatelt honours, and
his application to itudy procured him more glory than
he would have obtained from the inheritance of a king¬
dom. He gained the heart of the Romans by the
courteoutnefs of his manners, and Auguflus rewarded
his fidelity by giving him in marriage Cleopatra the
daughter of Antony, and conferring upon him the title
of king, and making him mailer of all the territories
which his father once poffefied, in the year of Rome 723*
His popularity w-as fo great, that the Mauritanians re¬
warded his benevolence by making him one of their
gods. The Athenians raifed him a ftatue, and the
./Ethiopians w'orfhippecl him as a deity. Juba wrote an
hillory of Rome in Greek, which is often quoted and
commended by the ancients. Of it only few fragments
remain. He alfo wrote on the hiftory of Arabia, and
the antiquities of Affyria, chiefly colle&ed from Berofus.
Befides thefe, he compofed fome treatifes upon the dra¬
ma, Roman antiquities, the nature of animals, painting,
grammar, &c. now loft.
JUBILEE, among the Jew's, denotes every fiftieth
year ; being that following the revolution of feven weeks
of years ; at which time all the flaves w'ere made free,
and all lands reverted to their ancient owners. The ju¬
bilees were not regarded after the Babylonifh captivity.
—The word, according to fome authors, comes from
the Hebrew, jobel, wdflch fignifies fifty • but this muft
be a miftake, for the Hebrew' V-P, jobel does not fig-
nify fifty ; neither do its letters, taken as cyphers, or
according to their numerical pow'ers, make that num¬
ber ; being 1 o, 6, 2, and 30, that is, 48. Others
fay, that jobel fignifies a ram, and that the jubilee was
thus called, becaufe proclaimed with a ram’s horn, in
memory of the ram that appeared to Abraham in the
thicket. Mafius choofes to derive the w'ord from Ju-
bal, the firft inventor of mufical infiruments, which,
for that reafon, were called by his name j whence the
words jobel jubilee came to fignify the year ot deli¬
verance and remiflion, becaufe proclaimed with the
found of one of thofe inftruments which at firft was no
more than the horn of a ram. Others derive jobel from
'in', jabal in hiphil Van, hobil, which ugnifies to recal
or. return •, becaufe this year reftored all Haves to their
liberty, &.c. The inftitution of tins feftival is in Lev.
xxv. 8, 17.
The learned are divided about the year of jubilee *,
fome maintaining that it was every forty-ninth, and
others that it was every fiftieth, year. The ground of JuUke.
the former opinion is chiefly this, that the forty-ninth
year being of courfe a fabbatical year, if the jubilee had
been kept on the fiftieth, the land muft have had twTo
fabbaths, or have lain fallow two years, which, w'ithout
a miracle, would have produced a dearth. On the
other hand, it is alleged, that the Scripture exprefsly
declares for the fiftieth year, Lev. xxv. 10, 11. And
befides, if the jubilee and fabbatical year had been the
fame, there would have been no need of a prohibition
to fow, reap, &c. becaufe this kind of labour w’as pro¬
hibited by the law of the fabbatical year, Lev. xxv. 4, 5.
The authors of the Univerfal Hiftory, book i. chap. 7.
note R, endeavour to reconcile thefe opinions, by ob-
ferving, that as the jubilee began in the firft month of
the civil year, which w7as the feventh of the ecclefiaftical,
it might be faid to be either the forty-ninth or fiftieth,
according as one or other of thefe computations was
followed. The political defign of the law' of the jubi¬
lee was to prevent the too great oppreflions of the poor,
as wrell as their being liable to perpetual flavery. Ty
this means a kind of equality was preferved through
all the families of Ifrael, and the diftinftion of tribes
was alfo preferved, that they might be able, when there
w7as occafion, on the jubilee-year, to prove their right
to the inheritance of their anceftors. It ferved alfo,
like the Olympiads of the Greeks, and the Luftra of
the Romans, for the readier computation of time. The
jubilee has alfo been fuppofed to be typical of the gof-
pel ftate and difpenfation, defcribed by Ifaiah, Ixi. ver.
1, 2. in reference to this period, as the “ acceptable
year of the Lord.”
Jubilee, in a more modern fenfe, denotes a grand
church folemnity or ceremony, celebrated at Rome,
w'herein the pope grants a plenary indulgence to all fin-
ners j at leaft to as many as vifit the churches of St
Peter and St Paul at Rome.
The jubilee ivas firft eftablilhed By Boniface VII. in
1300, in favour of thofe who fhould go ad limina apo~
folorum; and it was only to return every hundred
years. But the firft celebration brought in fuch ftore
of wealth to Rome, that the Germans called this the
golden year; which occafioned Clement VI. in 1343,
to reduce the period of the jubilee to fifty years. Ur¬
ban VI. in 1389, appointed it to be held every thirty-
five years, that being the age of our Saviour j and
Paul II. and Sixtus IV. in 1475, brought it down to
every twenty-five, that every perfon might have the
benefit of it once in his lite. Boniface IX. granted
the privilege of holding jubilees to feveial princes and
inonafteries : for inftance, ,to the monks of Canterbury,
who had a jubilee every fifty years 5 when peonle
flocked from all parts to vifit the tomb of Thomas a
Becket. Jubilees are now become more frequent, and
the pope grants them as often as the church or himfelf
have occafion for them. There is ufually one at the
inauguration of a new pope. To be entitled to the pri¬
vileges of the jubilee, the bull enjoins fadings, alms,
and prayers. It gives the priefts a full power to abfolve
in all cafes, even thofe otherwife referved to the pope 5
to make commutations of vows, &c. in which it dif¬
fers from a plenary indulgence. During the time of ju¬
bilee, all other indulgences are fufpended.
One of t. ur kings, viz. Edward III. caufed his birth¬
day to be obferved in manner of a jubilee, when he
became- r
J U D [ 392 ] J U D
Jucatan
‘ II
Judaifm.
became fifty years of age, in 1362, but never before or
after. This he did by releaiing prifoners, pardoning
all offences except treafon, making good laws, and
granting many privileges to the people.
There are particular jubilees in certain cities, when
feveral of their feafts fall on the fame day : at Puy en
Velay, for inftance, when the feaft of the Annuncia¬
tion happens on Good-Friday ; and at Lyons when
the feaft of St John Baptift concurs with the feaft of
Corpus Chrifti.
In 1640, the Jefuits celebrated a folemn jubilee at
Rome ; that being the centennary or hundredth year
from their inftitution $ and the fame ceremony was ob-
ferved in all their houfes throughout the world.
JUCATAN, or Yucatan, a large province of
New Spain in North America, which is a peninfula.
It is over againft the ifland of Cuba, and contains a
large quantity of timber, proper for building (hips j
^as alfo fugar, caffia, and Indian corn. The original
inhabitants are few, they having been very ill ufed by
the Spaniards. Merida is the capital town. It is a
flat level country ; and is very unhealthy, which may
be owing to the frequent inundations.
JUDAH, the fourth fon of Jacob, and father of
the chief of the tribes of the Jew’s, diftinguifhed by
his name, and honoured by giving birth to the Mefliah,
died 1636 B. C.
Jud^h Jiokkadojh, or the Saint, a rabbi celebrated
for his learning and riches, lived in the time of the
.emperor Antoninus, and wTas the friend and preceptor
of that prince. Leo of Modena, a rabbi of Venice,
tells us, that Rabbi Judah, who w-as very rich, collefled
about 26 years after the deftruflion of the temple, in
a book w'hich he called the Mifnia, the conftitutions
and traditions of the Jewifti magiftrates who preceded
him. But as this book w?as fliort and obfcure, two
Babylonifli rabbis, Rabbina and Afe, collefled all the
interpretations, difputes, and additions, that had been
made until their time upon the Mifnia, and formed the
book called the BalnjloniJh Talmud or Gemara ; w'hich
is preferable to the Jerufalem Talmud, compofed fome
years before by Rabbi Jochanan of Jerufalem. The
Mifnia is the text of the Talmud ; of which we have a
good edition in Hebrew and Latin by Surenhufius,
with notes, in 3 vols folio. It were to be wilhed the
fame had been done to the Gemara.
The Kingdom of Jvdah was of fmall extent compar¬
ed with that of the kingdom of Ifrael j confiding on¬
ly of two tribes, Benjamin and Judah : its eaft boun¬
dary, the Jordan j the Mediterranean its w'eft, in com¬
mon with the Danites, if w?e except fome places reco¬
vered by the Philiftines, and others taken by the kings
of Ifrael; on the fouth, its limits feem to have been
contracted under Hadad of the royal progeny of Edom,
(1 Kings xi. 1 4.)
Tribe of fua/m, one of the 1 2 divifions of Paleftine
by tribes (Jolh. xv.), having Idumea on the fouth,
from the extremity of the Lacus Afphaltites, alfo the
Wildernefs of Zin, Cadefbarnea, and the brook or river
of Egypt; on the eaft, the faid lake j on the weft the
Mediterranean $ and on the north, the mouth of the
faid lake •, where it receives the Jordan, Bethfemes,
Thimna, quite to Ekron on the fea.
JUDAISM, the religious doctrines and rites of the
Jews. Judaifm was but a temporary difpenfation, and
l
wras to give way, at leaft the ceremonial part of it, at Judas
the coming of the Meflias. For a complete fyftem of !|
Judaifm, fee the books of Mofes. Judaifm was ancient- Jut*Ses'
ly divided into feveral fefls ; the principal whereof were ”
the Pharifees, Sadducees, and Effenians.
At prefent there are tw’o fe£ts among the Jews, viz.
the Caraites, who admit of no rule of religion but the
law written by Mofes ; and the Rabbinifts, who add
to the law the traditions of the Talmud.
JUDAS Maccabeus, a celebrated general of the
Jews, renowned for his many victories over his enemies,
at laft flain in battle, 261 B. C. See {Hflory of the!
Jews, N° 13.
JuDAs-Tree. See Cercis, Botany Index.
JUDE, St, brother of St James the younger, and
fon of Jofeph (Mat. xiii. 55.). He preached in Mefo-
potamia, Arabia, Syria, Idumea ; and died in Berytus
for the confeffion of Chrift. He wrote that epillle
W'hich goes under his name, and after the death of moft
of the apoftles. He was cruelly put to death for re¬
proving the fuperftition of the Magi.
Jude, or the General Epi/ile of Jude, a canonical
book of the New Teftament, written againft the here¬
tics, who, by their diforderly lives and impious doc¬
trines, corrupted the faith and good morals of the Chri-
ftians. St Jude draws them in lively colours, as men
given up to their paflions, full of vanity, conducing
themfelves by worldly wifdom, and not by the fpirit of
God.
JUDEA, in Ancient Geography, taken largely, either
denotes all Paleftine, or the greater part of it j and thus
it is generally taken in the Roman hiftory : Ptolemy,
Rutilinus, Jerome, Origen, and Eufebius, take it .or
the whole of Paleftine. Here we confider it as the third
part of it on this fide the Jordan, and that the fouth-
ern part is diftinbt from Samaria and Galilee •, under
which notion it is often taken, not only in Jofephus,
but alfo in the New Teftament. It contained four
tribes; Judah, Benjamin, Dan, and Simeon, toge¬
ther with Philiftia and Idumea j fo as to be compri-
fed between Samaria on the north, Arabia Petraea on
the fouth, and to be bounded by the Mediterranean
on the weft, and by the lake Afphaltites, wdth part
of Jordan, on the eaft. Jofephus divides it into it to-
parchies; Pliny into 10} by which it has a greater
extent than that juft mentioned. See Palestine.
JUDENBURG, a handfome and confiderable town
of Germany, in the circle of Auftria, and capital of
Upper Syria, with a handfome caftle} the public
buildings w’ith the fquare are very magnificent. It is
feated on the river Meur. E. Long. 15. 20. N. Lat.
47. 20.
JUDEX, Matthew, one of the principal waiters
of the Centuries of Magdeburg, was born at Tipplef-
wolde in Mifnia, in 1528. He taught theology with
great reputation } but met with many difquiets in the
exercife of his miniftry from party-feuds. He wrote
feveral works, and died in 1564.
JUDGE, a chief magiftrate of the law, appointed
to hear caufes, to explain the law's, and to pafs fen-
tencs.
Judges, in Jewilh antiquity, certain fupreme ma¬
giftrates w'ho governed the Ifraelites from the time of
Jolhua till the reign of Saul. Thefe judges refembled
the Athenian archons cr Roman diftators. The dig¬
nity
J U D
[ 393 ] i U D
Judges, nity of judge was for life, but not always in uninter-
Judgement, rUpted fucceflion. God himfelf, by fome exprefs de-
v claration of his will, regularly appointed the judges:
But the Ifraelites did not always wait for his appoint¬
ment, but fometimes chofe themfelves a judge in times
of danger. The power of the judges extended to af.
fairs of peace and war. They wTere protedlors of the
laws, defenders of religion, avengers of all crimes j
but they could make no laws, nor impofe any new bur¬
dens upon the people. They lived without pomp or re¬
tinue, unlefs their own fortunes enabled them to do it j
for the revenues of their office confifted in voluntary
prefents from the people. They continued from the
death of Jofliua till the beginning of the reign of Saul,
being a (pace of about 339 years.
Judges, for ordinary affairs, civil and religious,
wrere appointed by Mofes in every city to terminate
differences ; in affairs of greater confequence, the dif¬
ferences were referred to the priefts of Aaron’s family,
and the judge of the people or prince at that time
eftablifhed. Mofes likewife fet up two courts in all
the cities, one confifting of priefls and Levites, to de¬
termine points concerning the law and religion ; the
other confifting of heads of families, to decide in civil
matters.
Book of Judges, a canonical book of the Old Tefta-
ment, fo called from its relating the ftate of the If¬
raelites under the adminiftration of many illuftrious
perfons who were called /W^e-r, from being both the ci¬
vil and military governors of the people, and who were
railed up by God upon fpecial occalions, after the death
of Joihua, till the time of their making a king. In the
■ time of this peculiar polity, there were feveral remark¬
able occurrences, which are recorded in this book. It
acquaints us with the grofs impiety of a new genera¬
tion which fprung up after the death of Joffua $ and
gives us a fhort view of the difpenfations of heaven to¬
wards this people, fometimes relieving and delivering
them, and at others feverely chaftifing them by the
hands of their enemies.
SelcB Judges (Judices ftlecli), in Antiquity, were
perfons fummoned by the pnetor to give their verdifl
in criminal matters in the Roman courts, as juries do
in ours. No perfon could be regularly admitted into
this number till he was 25 years of age. The Sortitio
Judicum, or impannelling the jury, was the office of
the Judex -Juefionis, and was performed after both
parties were come into court, for each had a right to
rejefr or challenge whom they pleafed, others being
iubftituted in their room. 'The number of the Judices
JeleBi varied, according to the nature of the charge.
When the proper number appeared, they were fvvorn,
took their places in the fubfellia, and heard the trial.
JUDGEMENT, among logicians, a faculty or ra¬
ther aft of the human foul, whereby it compares its i-
deas, and perceives their agreement or difagreement.
See Metaphysics j and Logic, Part II.
Judgement, in Law, is the fentence pronounced by
the court upon the matter contained in the record.
Judgements are of four forts. Firft, where the fafts are
confeffed by the parties, and the law determined by
the court •, as in cafe of judgement upon demurrer: fe-
condly, where the law is admitted by the parties, and
the fafts difputed ; as in the cafe of judgement on ver-
diB: thirdly, where both the faft and the law arifing
Vol. XI. Part I.
thereon are admitted by the defendant ; which is the Judgement,
cafe of judgements by confejjion or default: or, laftly, ^
where the plaintiff is convinced that either faft, or
law, or both, are infufficient to fupport his aftion,
and therefore abandons or withdraws his profecution \
which is the cafe in judgements upon a nonjuit or re¬
traxit.
ihe judgement, though pronounced or awarded by
the judges, is not their determination or fentence, but
the determination and fentence of the law. It is the
conclufion that naturally and regularly follows from
the premiffes of law and faft, which ftands thus : A-
gainft him who hath rode over my corn, I may recover
damages by law : but A hath roJe over my corn j
therefore I lhall recover damages againft A If the
major propofition be denied, this is a demurrer in law :
if the minor, it is then an iffue of faft : but if both be
confeffed or determined to be right, the conclufion
or judgement of tfie court cannot but follow. Which
judgement or conclufion depends not therefore on the
arbitrary caprice of the judge, but on the fettled and
invariable principles of jullice. The judgement, in
Ihort, is jthe remedy prefcribed by lawT for the redrefs
of injuries ; and the fuit or aftion is the vehicle or
means of adminiftering it. What that remedy may be,
is indeed the refult of deliberation and ftudy to point
out; and therefore the ftyle of the judgement is, not
that it is decreed or refolved by the court, for then the
judgement might appear to be their own ; but, “ it is
confidered,” confderatum e/1 per curiam, that the plain¬
tiff do recover his damages, his debt, his poiieftion,
and the like: which implies that the judgement is none
of their own ; but the aft of law, pronounced and de¬
clared by the court, after due deliberation and inquiry.
See Blackf. Comment, iii. 396.
Judgement, in criminal cafes, is the next ftage of
profecution, after trial and conviction are paft, in
fuch crimes and mifdemeanors as are either too high
or too low to be included within the benefit of clergy.
For when, upon a capital charge, the JURY' have
brought in their verdict guilty in the prefence of the
prifoner ; he is either immediately, or at a convenient
time foon after, alked by the court, if he has any
thing to offer why judgement ftiould not be awarded
againft him ? And in cafe the defendant be found guil¬
ty of a mifdemeanor (the trial of which may, and
does ufually, happen in his abfence, after he has once
appeared), a capias is awarded and iffued, to bring
him in to receive his judgement j and if he abfeonds, he
may be profecuted even to outlawry. But whenever he
appears in perfon, upon either a capital or inferior con-
viftion, he may at this period, as well as at his arraign¬
ment, offer any exceptions to the indiftment, in arrejl
or ftay of judgement: as for want of fufficient certainty-
in fetting forth either the perfon, the time, the place,
or the offence. And if the objeftions be valid, the
whole proceedings ffiall be fet afide; but the party may
be indifted again. And we may take notice, 1. Tha"t
none of the ftatutes of jeofails, for amendment of er¬
rors, extend to indiftments or proceedings in criminal
cafes; and therefore a defeftive indiftment is not aided
by a verdift, as defeftive pleadings in civil cafes are.
2. That, in favour of life, great ftriftnefs has at all Blacifi
times been obferved, in every point of an indiftment. Comment.
Sir Matthew Hale indeed complains, “ that this ftrift-
3 D nefs
J U D [ 394 ] J U D
Judgement.nefs is grown to be a blemiih and inconvenience in the
 v-“-' }aWj ancj t’ie adminiftration thereof: for that more of¬
fenders efcape by the over eafy ear given to excep¬
tions in indi&ments, than by their own innocence 5
and many times grofs murders, burglaries, robberies,
and other heinous and crying offences, remain un-
punifhed by thefe unfeemly niceties: to the reproach
of the law, to the Ihame of the government, to the
encouragement of villany, and to the difhonour of
God.” And yet, notwithftanding this laudable zeal,
no man was more tender of life than this truly excel¬
lent judge.
A pardon alfo may be pleaded in arrelf of judge¬
ment : and it has the lame advantage when pleaded
here as when pleaded upon arraignment •, viz. the
faving the ATTAINDER, and, of courfe, the CORRUP¬
TION of blood : which nothing can reffore but parlia¬
ment, when a pardon is not pleaded till after fentence.
And certainly, upon all accounts, when a man hath
obtained a pardon, he is in the right to plead it as foon
as poflible. See Pardon.
Praying the benefit of clergy may alfo be ranked
among the motions in arreft of judgement. See Benefit
tf ClBRGr.
If all thefe refources fail, the court muff pronounce
that judgement which the law hath annexed to the
crime. Of thefe fome are capital, which extend to the
life of the offender, and confilt generally in being hang¬
ed by the neck till dead j though in very atrocious
crimes other circumftances of terror, pain, or difgrace,
are fuperadded: as, in treafons of all kinds, being
drawn or dragged to the place of execution •, in high
treafon affedling the king’s perfon or government, em-
bowelling alive, beheading, and quartering j and in
murder, a public diffedtion. And in cafe of any
treafon committed by a female, the judgement is, to be
burned alive. Put the humanity of the Enghlh nation
has authorized, by a tacit confent, an almoft general
mitigation of fuch parts of thefe judgements^ as favour
of torture or cruelty : a fledge or hurdle being ufually
allowed to fuch traitors as are condemned to be drawn ;
and there being very few mftances (and thofe acciden¬
tal or by negligence) of any perfon’s being embowel-
led or burned, till previoufly deprived of lenfation by
firangling. Some pumfhments confill in exile or ba-
nifhment, by abjuration of the realm, or tranfpor-
tation beyond the feas: others, in lofs of liberty,
by perpetual or temporary imprifonment. Some ex¬
tend to confifcation, by forfeiture of lands, or move¬
ables, or both, or of the profits of lands for life: others
induce a difability of holding offices or employments,
being heirs, executors, and the like. Some, though
rarely, occafion a mutilation or difmembering, by cut¬
ting off the hand or ears: others fix a lafting iligma
on\he offender, by flitting the noftrils or branding in
the hand or face. Some are merely pecuniary, by Ha¬
ted or difcreiionary fines: and, laflly, there are others
that confift principally in their ignominy, though moff
of them are mixed with fome degree of corporeal
pain ; and thefe are infiidled chiefly for fuch crimes
as either arife from indigence, or render even opu¬
lence diffiraceful. Such as whipping, hard labour in
the houfe of corre&ion, the pillory, the flocks, and the
ducking-ftool.
Difgufling as this catalogue may feem, it will afford
pleafure to a Britifh reader, and do honour to the Bri-Judgement
tiffi laws, to compare it with that (hocking apparatus of . fl.
death and torment to be met with in the criminal codes
of almoft every other nation in Europe. And it is
moreover one of the glories of our law, that the na¬
ture, though not always the quantity or degree, of
puniffiment is afeertained for every offence; and that
it is not left in the bread of any judge, nor even of -a
jury, to alter that judgement which the law has be¬
forehand ordained for every fubjedl alike, without re-
fpe£t of perfons. For if judgements w7ere to be the
private opinions of the judge, men would then be
(laves to their magillrates j and would live in (ociety,
without knowing exadlly the conditions and obliga¬
tions which it lays them under. And, belides, as
this prevents oppreffion on the one hand j fa, on
the other, it (bides all hopes of impunity or mitiga¬
tion, with which an offender might flatter himlelf if
his punilhment depended on the humour and diferetion
of the court. Whereas, where an edablilhed penalty
is annexed to crimes, the criminal may read their
certain confequence in that law, which ought to be
the unvaried rule, as it is the inflexible judge, of his
adlions.
Judgement of God. See Judicium Dei.
JUDICATURE, the quality or profeffion of thofe
who adminiiter judice.
Judicature is alfo ufed to fignify the extent of the
jurifditlion of the judge, and the court wherein he
fits to render judice.
JUDICIA centumviralia, in Roman antiquity,
were trials before the Centumviri, to whom the preztor
committed the decifion of certain matters of inferior
nature, like our judices of peace at the quarter fef-
lions. During the judicia centumviraha, a fpear was
duck up in the fonim, to fignify that the court wras fit¬
ting.
JUDICIUM calumnite, was an adlion brought
againd the plaintiff for falfe accufation. The puniffi¬
ment, upon convidlion, was inujho fronds, or branding
in the forehead. See Inustio.
Judicium Dei, Judgement of God, was a term anci¬
ently applied to all extraordinary trials of fecret crimes j
as thofe by arms, and (ingle combat •, and the ordeals,
or thofe by fire, or red-hot ploughlhares, by plun¬
ging the arm in boiling water, or the whole body in cold
water $ in hopes God would work a miracle, rather
than differ truth and innocence to periffi. Si fuper de-
fendere non pojjit, judicio Dei fcil. aqua vel ferro,feret
de eo juf itia.—Thefe cudoms wrere a long time kept up
even among Chridians ", and they are dill in ufe in fome
nations. See Battel, Ordeal, &c.—Trials of this
fort were ufually held in churches in prefence of the
biffiops, prieds, and fecular judges j after three days
fading, confeflion, communion, and many adjurations
and ceremonies deferibed at large by Du Cange.
Judicium Barium denotes a trial by a man’s equals,
i. e. of peers by peers, and of commoners by com¬
mons. In magna chart a it is more than once infided
on as the principal bulwark of our liberties, but efpeci-
ally by chap. 29. that no freeman (hall be hurt in ei¬
ther his perfon or property, niji per legale judicium pa~
rium fuorum vel per legem teircc. And this was even
edeemed in all countries a privilege of the highed and
ifiod beneficial nature.
'Judicium
«
•TUG [ 395 1 JUG
Judicium
II
Juggle”*
Judicium Falfi, was an a£Vion which lay againft the
judges for corruption or unjuit proceedings.
Judicium Preevaricationis, was an a£lion brought
againft the profecutor, after the criminal was acquit¬
ted, for fupprefting the evidence of, or extenuating his
guilt, rather than urging it home, and bringing it to
light.
JUDOIGNE, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands,
in Brabant. Near this town the duke of Marlborough
gained that lignal vitlory over the French in 1706,
called the battle of Ramillies. It is feated on the river
Gete, 13 miles fouth-eaft of Louvain; and 16 north of
Namur.
IVEACH, the name of two baronies of Ireland, in
the county of Down, and provice of Ulfter. They
are dillinguilhed into Upper and Lower Iveach, and the
former i"s by much the largeft barony in that county.
The name of Iveach, or Hij Veach, is faid to be ta¬
ken from Achalui, in Iriih called Eachach, grand-father
to King Coalbpaig, as much as to fay “ the territory
of Eachachfor hy, in the Irilh language, is a com¬
mon adjective, denoting not only the heads and founders
of families, but alfo the territories poffefled by them.
Iveach (including both baronies) was otherwife call¬
ed Magennis's country, and in Queen Elizabeth’s time
was governed by Sir Hugh Magennis, efteemed to
have been one of th® moft polite of all the natives in
thofe parts. Through part of this barony runs a chain
of mountains conflderably high, known by the name of
Iveach mountains.
IUERNQS, in Ancient Geography, a town in the
fouth-weft of Ireland. Now Dunheram, (Camden) ;
called Donehjne by the natives, fituated on the river
Maire, in the province of Munfter.
Iuernus, or Iernus (Ptolemy), a river in the fouth-
weft of Ireland. Now called the Matre, or Kenmare,
running from eaft to weft, in the province of Munfter.
IVES, St, a fea-port town of Cornwall in England,
feated on a bay of the fame name ; which is chiefly
frequented by filhermen, for the taking of pilchards.
By this trade, and that of Cornilh flates, it has thriven
greatly, and 20 or 30 fail of (hips now belong to it. It
is a corporation, governed by a mayor, recorder, &c.
and it fends two members to parliament. Here is a
handfome fpacious church, and a grammar-fehool, which
was founded by Charles I.
Ives, St, is alfo the name of a town in Huntingdon-
ftiire, 64 miles from London. It has a fine ftone bridge
over the Oufe, had in the ninth century a mint, and
was noted for its medicinal waters. Great part of it
was burnt down fome years ago, but it was rebuilt.
Here is a very good market on Monday for fatted cat¬
tle brought from the north ; and there are two fairs in
the year. Here Oliver Cromwell rented a farm before
he was chofen a burgefs for Cambridge.
JUGERUM, in Roman antiquity, a fquare of 120
Roman feet; its proportion to the Englifh acre being
as 10.000 to 16.097.
JUGGLFRS, a kind of people whofe profeflion has
not been often deemed either refpe&able or ufeful.
Yet ProfefiTor Beckmann defends them, and pleads a-
bly the caufe of t^e praflifers of legerdemain, in the
third volume of his Hiftory of Inventions, including
rope-dancers, and fuch as exhibit feats of uncommon
(Length. He places all thefe under the general deno¬
mination of jugglers; and taking it for granted that
every ufeful employment is full, he contends that there
would not be room on the earth for all its prefent in¬
habitants, did not fome of them praflife the art of
juggling.
“ Thefe arts, he obferves, are not unprofitable, for
they afford a comfortable fubfiftence to thofe who prac-
tife them, which they ufually fpend upon the fpot, and
this he confiders as a good reafon why their ftay in a
place ought to be encouraged. He is alfo of opinion
that if the arts of juggling ferved no other end than
to amufe the moft ignorant of our citizens, it is proper
that they ihould be encouraged, for the fake of thofe
who cannot enjoy the more expenfive deceptions of an
opera. They convey inftruftion in the moft acceptable
manner, and ferve as an antidote to fuperftition. We
fcarcely think, however, that it is innocent to entice
the labouring poor, by ufelefs deceptions, to part with
their hard-earned pittance to idle vagabonds, whofe life
cannot be comfortable, which is paffed amidft feenes of
the moft grovelling diflipation.
Juggling is certainly of very great antiquity. The
deception of breathing out flames was praflifed by
fome of the {laves in Sicily about 150 years before the
commencement of the Chriftian mra. It is, however,
praftifed in modern times with much greater dexterity.
The ancients made ufe of naphtha, a liquid mineral
oil, which kindles wrhen it only approaches a flame.
According to Plutarch, Alexander the Great was af-
toniftied and delighted with the fecret effefts of naph¬
tha, which were exhibited to him at Ecbatana. Won¬
der has been excited in modern times by perfons who
could walk over burning coals or red-hot iron, which
is eafily done by rendering the fkin of the feet callous
and infenfible, fo that the nerves under it are fecured
from injury. We are told by Beckmann, that the
Hirpi, who dwelt near Rome, jumped through burn¬
ing coals; that women were accuftomed to walk over
burning coals at Caftabala, near the temple dedicated
to Diana ; that the exhibition of balls and cups is of¬
ten mentioned in the works of the ancients ; and that,
the various feats of horfemanfhip exhibited in our cir-
cufes paffed, in the 1 5th century, from Egypt to the
Byzantine court, and thence over all Europe.
JUG LANS, the walnut, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the polyandria clafs ; and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 50th order, Amentacecc. See
Botany Index.
JUGORA, a confiderable province of Mufcovy, de¬
pending on the government of Archangel. It has the
title of a duchy ; and is inhabited by a kind of Tartars,
who are very favage, and much of the fame difpofition
with the Samoiedes.
JUGULAR, among anatomifts, is applied to certain
veins and glands of the neck. See Anatomy.
JUGULARES, in the Linnaean fyftem, is the name
of an order or divifioh of fifh, the general charafier of
which is, that the ventral fins are placed before the pec¬
toral. See Ichthyology Index.
JUGUM, ati humiliating mode of punilhment in-
fliffed by the viflorious Romans upon their vanquiflied
enemies. It was thus : They fet up two fpears, and lay¬
ing a third acrofs, in the form of a gallows, they order¬
ed thofe who had furrendered themfelves to pafs un ler
this ignominious ere6tion, without arms or belts. None
3 D 2 fuffered
J U I
Jugurtha fuiTered this difgrace of paffing fub jugo but fuch as had
T *1 been obliged to furrender.
■- Ju‘'e' ■ .TUGURTHA, the illegitimate fon of Manallabal
the brother of Micipfa. Micipfa and Manaftabal were
the fons of MafinilTa king of Numidia. Micipfa, who
had inherited his father’s kingdom, educated his ne¬
phew with his two fons Adherbal and Hiempfal •, but
as he faw that the former was of an afpiring difpoll-
tion, he fent him wdth a body of troops to the affilt-
ance of Scipio, who w-as befieging Numantia, hoping
to lofe a youth w'hofe ambition feemed to threaten the
tranquillity of his children. His hopes were fruftrated j
Jugurtha ihowed himfelf brave and adlive, and he en¬
deared himfelf to the Roman general. Micipfa ap¬
pointed him fuccefibr to his kingdom with his two
fons 5 but the kindnefs of the father proved fatal to the
children. Jugurtha deftroyed Hiempfal, and dripped
Adherbal of his polTefiions, and obliged him to fly to
Rome for fufety. The Romans liftened to the well-
grounded complaints of Adherbal •, but Jugurtha’s
gold prevailed among the fenators, and the fuppliant
monarch, forfaken in his diftrefs, periihed by the fnares
of his enemy. Csecilius Metellus was at laid fent
againft Jugurtha j and his firmnefs and fuccefs foon re¬
duced the crafty Numidian, obliging him to fly among
his favagc neighbours for fupport. Marius and Sylla
fucceeded Metellus, and fought with equal fuccefs.
Jugurtha was at laid betrayed by dus father-in-law Boc-
chus, from whom he claimed afTildance j and he was
delivered into the hands of Sylla 106 years before the
Chrifdian era. He was expofed to the view of the
Roman people, and dragged in chains to adorn the
triumph of Marius. He was afterwards put in a pri-
fon, where he died fix days after of hunger.
IVICA, or Yvica, the name of an iiland in the
Mediterranean. See YviCA.
JUICE, denotes the lap of vegetables, or the li¬
quors of animals. See Anatomy, Blood, Plants,
Sap, &c.
The juices of feveral plants are exprefled to obtain
their effential falts, and for feveral medicinal purpofes,
with intention either to be ufed without further prepa¬
ration, or to be made into fyrups and extrafts. The
general method of extra&ing thefe juices is, by pound¬
ing the plant in a marble mortar, and then by putting
it into a prefs. Thus is obtained a muddy and green
liquor, which generally requires to be clarified, as we
fhall foon obferve. The juices of all plants are not
extrafted with equal eafe. Some plants, even when
frefh, contain fo little juice, that water muft be added
while they are pounded, otherwife fcarcely any juice
wmuld be obtained by expreffion. Other plants which
contain a confiderable quantity of juice, furnifh by
expreffion but a fmall quantity of it, becaufe they con¬
tain alfo much mucilage, which renders the juice fo
vifcid that it cannot flow. Water muft alfo be added
to thefe plants to obtain their juice. The juices thus
obtained from vegetables by a mechanical method, are
not, properly fpeaking, one of their principles, but
rather a collection of all the proximate principles of
plants which are foluble in water ; fuch as the fapona-
ceous extraftive matter, the mucilage, the odoriferous
principle, all the faline and faccharine fubftances j all
which are diflblved in the water of the vegetation of
J U I
the plants. Befides all thefe matters, the juice con- Juire.
tains fome part ol the refinous fubftance, and the green
colouring matter, which in almoft all vegetables is of
a refinous nature. Thefe two latter fubftances, not
being foluble in water, are only interpofed between the
parts of the other principles which are diflblved in the
juice, and confequently difturb its tranfnarency.
They neverthelefs adhere together in a certain degree,
and fo ftrongly in moft juice*, that they cannot be fe-
parated by filtration alone. When therefore thefe juices
are to be clarified, fome previous preparations muft
be ufed by which the nitration may be facilitated.
Juices which are acid, and not very mucilaginous, are
fpontaneoufly clarified by reft and gentle heat. The
juices of moft antifcorbutic plants abounding in faline
volatile principles, may be difpofed to filtration mere¬
ly by immerfion in boiling water ; and as they may be
contained in clofe bottles, while they are thus heated
in a water bath, their faline volatile part, in which
their medicinal qualities chiefly confifl, may thus be
preferved. Fermentation is alfo an effectual method of
clarifying juices which are fufceptible of it ; tor all li¬
quors which have fermented, clarify fpontaneoufly af¬
ter fermentation. But this method is not ufed to cla¬
rify juices, becaufe many of them are fufceptible of on¬
ly an imperfect fermentation, and becaufe the qualities
of moft of them are injured by that procefs. 7 he me¬
thod of clarification moft generally uled, and indifpen-
fably neceflary for thofe juices which contain much
mucilage, is boiling with the white of an egg. This
matter, wdtich has the property of coagulating in
boiling water, and of uniting with mucilage, does ac¬
cordingly, when added to the juice of plants, unite
with and coagulate their mucilage, and feparates it
from the juice in form of feum, together with the
greateft part of the refinous and earthy matters wdiich
difturb its tranfparency. And as any of thefe refi¬
nous matters which may remain in the liquor, after this
boiling with the whites of eggs, are no longer retain¬
ed by the mucilage, they may eafily be feparated by-
filtration.
The juices, efpecially before they are clarified, con¬
tain almoft all the fame principles as the plant itfelf j
becaufe in the operation by-which they are extracted,
no decompofition happens, but every thing remains, as
to its nature, in the fame ftate as in the plant. The
principles contained in the juice are only feparated from
the groffer oily, earthy, and refinous parts, which
compofe the folid matter that remains under the prefs.
Thefe juices, when well prepared, have therefore the
fame medicinal qualities as the plants from which they
are obtained. They mufi evidently differ from each
other as to the nature and proportions of the princi¬
ples with which they are impregnated, as much as the
plants from which they are extra&ed differ from each
other in thofe refpedls.
Moft vegetable juices coagulate when they are ex¬
pofed to the air, whether they are drawn out of the
plant by wounds, or naturally run out •, though what
is called naturally running out, is generally the effeft of
a wound in the plant, from a fort of canker, or fome
other internal caufe. Different parts of the fame plant
yield different juices. The fame veins in their courfe
through the different parts of the plant yield juices of
[ 396 1
J U I [ 397 ] J U I
a different appearance. Thus the juice in the root of
the cow-parfhep is of a brimifone colour j but in the
fialk it is white.
Among thofe juices of vegetables which are clammy
and readily coagulate, there are fome which readily
break with a whey. The great wild lettuce, with the
imell of opium, yields the greateft plenty of milky juice
of any known Britilh plant. When the fialk is wound¬
ed with a knife, the juice flows out readily like a thick
cream, and is white and ropy ; but if thefe wounds
are made -X the top of the flaiks, the juice that flows
out of them is dafhed with a purple tinge, as if cream
had been fprinkled over with a few drops of red wine.
Sonie little time after letting this out, it becomes much
more purple, and thickens $ and finally, the thicker
part of it feparates, and the thin whey fwims at top.
The whey or thin part of this feparated matter -is
eafily preffed out from the curd by fqueezing between,
the fingers, and the curd will then remain white -y and
0!> waffling with water it becomes like rags. The
purple whey (for in this is contained all the colour)
foon dries into a purple cake, and may be crumbled
between the fingers into a powder of the fame colour.
The white curd being dried and kept for fome time,
becomes hard and brittle. It breaks with a fliining
furface like refin, and is inflammable •, taking fire at a
candle, and burning all away with a ffrong flame. The
fame thick part being held over a gentle heat, will
draw out into tough long threads, melting like wax.
The purple cake made from the whey is quite different
from this; and when held to a candle fcarce flames at
all, but burns to a black coal. The whole virtue of
the plant feems alfo to confiff in this thin part of its
juice : for the coagulum or curd, though looking like
wax or refin, has no tafle at all j whereas the purple
cake made from the ferum is extremely bitter, and of
a talle fomewhat refembling that of opium.
Of the fame kind with the wdld lettuce are the
throatwort, fpurge, and many other plants. 1 hefe
are all replete with a milky juice which feparates into
curds and whey like that already defcribed. But this,
though a common law of nature, is not univerfal ; for
there are many plants which yield the like mflicy
juices without any feparation enfuing upon their ex-
travafation. The white juice of the fonchus never fe¬
parates, but dries into an uniform cake : the common
red wild poppy bleeds freely with a milky juice j and
the heads or capfules of feed bleed not lefs freely than
the reft of the plant, even after the flower is fallen.
This juice, on being received into a Ihell or other fmall
veffel, foon changes its white to a deep yellow colour,
and dries into a cake which feems refinous and oily,
but no whey feparates from it. The tragopogon, or
goat’s-beard, when wounded, bleeds freely a milky
juice j it is at firft white, but becomes immediately
yellow, and then more and more red, till at length it
is wholly of a dufky red. It never feparates, but
dries together into one cake ■, and is oily and refinous,
but of an infipid tafle. The great bindweed alfo bleeds
freely a white juice •, the flowers, as wTell as the ftalks
and leaves, affording this liquor. It is of a (harp
tnftc j and as many of the purging plants are of this
clafs, it would be worth trying whether this milk is
not purgative.
Thefe juices, as well as the generality of ethers
which bleed from plants, are white like milk; but
there are fome of other colours. The juice of the
great celandine is of a fine yellow colour j it flows
from the plant of the thicknefs of cream, and foon
dries into a hard cake, without any whey feparating
from it. Another yellow juice is yielded by the feed-
veffels of the yellow centaury in the month of July,
w'hen the feeds are full grown. This is very clammy j
it foon hardens altogether into a cake without any
whey feparating from it. It fticks to the fingers like
birdlime, is of the colour of pale amber, and will ne¬
ver become harder than foft wax if dried in the ihade j
but if laid in the fun, it immediately becomes hard like
refin. Thefe cakes burn like wTax, and emit a very
pleafant fmell. The great angelica alfo yields a yel-
lowifti juice on being wounded j and this will not har¬
den at all, but if kept feveral years will ftill be foft
and clammy, drawfing out into threads or half melted
relin.
Another kind of juices very different from all thefe,
are thofe of a gummy nature. Some of thefe remain
liquid a long time, and are not to be dried without
the afliftance of heat *, the others very quickly harden
of themfelves, and are not inflammable. The gum of
the juice of rhubarb leaves foon hardens ; and is after¬
wards foluble in common water, and fparkles when put
into the flame of a candle. The clufters of the com¬
mon honeyfuckle are full of a liquid gum. This they
frequently throw out, and it falls upon the leaves,
where it retains its own form. The red hairs of the
ros folis are all terminated by large bladders of a thin
watery fluid. This is alfo a liquid gum ; it fticks to
the fingers, draw's out into long threads, and Hands the
force of the fun all day. In the centre of each of thefe
dew--drops there is a fmall red bladder, wflrich Hands
immediately on the fummit of the red hair, and con¬
tains a purple juice which may be fqueezed out of it.
The pinguicula, or buttenvert, has alfo a gummy
matter on its leaves in much greater quantity than the
ros folis.
Some plants yield juices which are manifeftly of an
oily nature. Thefe, when rubbed, are not at all of a
clammy nature, but make the fingers glib and flippery,
and do not all harden on being expofed to the air.
If the ftalk of elecampane be wounded, there flows
out an oily juice fwimming upon a watery one. The
ftalks of the hemlock alfo afford a fimilar oily liquor
fvvirnming upon the other j and in like manner the
white mullein, the berries of ivy, the bay, juniper,
dog-berry tree, and the fruit of the olive, when wound¬
ed, (how their oil floating on the w'atery juice. Some
of thefe oily juices, however, harden into a kind of
refin. Our ivy yields fuch a juice very abundantly j
and the juice of the fmall purple-berried juniper is of
the fame kind, being hard and fat, and not very gum¬
my. If the bark of the common ivy is wounded in
March, there wall ooze out a tough and greafy matter
of a yellowflih colour, which, taken up between the
fingers, feels not at all gummy or flicking, but melts
in handling into a fort of oil, wfliich in procefs of
time hardens and crufts upon the w’ounds, and looks
like brown fugar. It burns with a lading flame, and
fmells very ftrong. The tops of the wild lettuce, and
the
Jiiice.
J U L [ 398 ] .7 U L
Jujubes tlie leaves growing near the tops, If examined with a
glafs, fhow a great nunber of fmall blad-
ps of an oily juice of a brownifh colour,
hardening into a kind of refin j they are eafily wiped
oiT when of any lize, and are truly an oily juice a
little hardened. It is probable alfo, that the fine blue
flour or powder, called the bloom, upon the furface of
our common plums, is no other than fuch an oily
juice exudating from their pores in fmall particles, and
hardening into a fort of refin.
JUJUBES, in the Materia Medica, the name of a
fruit of the pulpy kind, produced on a tree which Lin¬
naeus makes a fpecies of rhamnus. See RHAMNUS.
The jujubes have been made a general ingredient in
pefloral deco&ions but they are now feldom ufed on
thefe occafions, and are fcarce at all heard of in pre-
fcription, or to be met with in our fhops.
JUL, or .Tol, a Gothic word fignifying a “ fump-
tuous treat j” and particularly applied to a religious
feflival firft among the heathens and afterw^i-ds amoi*g
Chriilians. By the latter it was given to Christmas *
which is flill known under the name of lul, or Tool,
in Denmark, Norway, Iceland, and Sweden; nay, even
in the north of Britain, and whence the month of Ja-
nuarius by the Saxons was flyled Giuli, i. e. “ the Fef-
tival.” As this feall had originally been dedicated by
our heathen anceftors to the fun, their fupreme deity ;
fo the Chriflians, for the purpofe of engaging the minds
of their Ethnic (gentile) brethren, ordered it fhould
be celebrated in memory of the birth of Chrift : and
thus it has been through ages a feafl of joy and en¬
tertainment. We are indebted to Procopius for the
firfl account of this feafl.
JULEP, in Pharmacy, a medicine compofed of
fome proper liquor and a fyrup or fugar, of extempo¬
raneous preparation, without decoflion. See Materia
Medica Index.
JULIAN, the famous Roman emperor, ftyled the
uipojlate, becaufe he profefled the Chrilfian religion
before he afcended the throne, but afternrards openly
embraced Paganifm, and endeavoured to abolifh Chri-
ftianity. He made no ufe of violence, however, for
this purpofe ; for he knew that violent meafures had
alwTays rendered it more flourifhing : he therefore be¬
haved w-ith a polite mildnefs to the Chriftians; recall¬
ed all who had been banifhed on account of religion
under the reign of Conflantius ; and undertook to per¬
vert them by his careffes, and by temporal advantages
and mortifications covered over by artful pretences :
but he forbade Chriftians to plead before courts of
juftice, or to enjoy any public employments. He even
prohibited their teaching polite literature ; well know¬
ing the great advantages they drew from profane au¬
thors in their attacks upon Paganifm and irreligion.
Though he on all occafions fhowed a fovereign con¬
tempt for the Chriftians, whom he always called Gali~
learn, yet he was fenfible of the advantage they ob¬
tained by their virtue and the purity of their manners :
and therefore inceffantly propofed their example to the
Pagan priefts. At laft, however, when he found that
all other methods failed, he gave public employments
to the moft cruel enemies of the Chriftians, when the
cities in moft of the provinces were filled with tumults
and feditions, and many of them were put to death:
Julian.
magnifying
ders or dro
Though it has been pleaded by Julian’s apologiils, that fuUsn,
the behaviour of the Chriftians furniihed fufticient pie- —
tence for nxcft of his proceedings againft them, and
the animofities among themfelves furnithed him with
the means ; that they were continually prone to fedi-
tion, and made a merit of infulting the public worfliip ;
and, finally, that they made no fcruple of declaring,
that want of numbers alone prevented them from enga¬
ging in an open rebellion. Hiftorians mention, that
Julian attempted to prove the falfehood of our Lord’s
prediction with refpefl to the temple of Jerufalem ;
and refolved to have that edifice rebuilt by the Jews,
about 300 years after its deftruflion by Titus : but
all their endeavours ferved only the more perfectly to
verify what had been foretold by Jefus Chrift •, for the
Jew’s, who had affembled from all parts to Jerufalem,
digging the foundations, flames of fire burft forth and
confumed the workmen*. However, the Jews, who * See
were obftinately bent on accompliftiing that
made leveral attempts; but it is faid, that all who en¬
deavoured to lay the foundation perilhed by thefe
flames, which at laft obliged them entirely to abandon
the work. Julian being mortally wounded in a battle
with the Perfians, it is faid, that he then catched in
his hand fome of the blood which flowed from his
wound ; and throwing it towards heaven, cried, “ Thou
Galilean haft conquered.” But notwithftanding this
popular report, Theodoret relates, that Julian difeo-
vered a different difpofition ; and employed his laft mo¬
ments in converfing with Maximus the philofopher
on the dignity 0; the foul. He died the following
night, aged 32. For a particular account of his reign
and exploits, fee (Hiflory of) CONSTANTINOPLE, N° 7.
33—66.^
No prince was ever more differently reprefented by
different authors; on which account it is difficult to
form a true judgement of his real charadler. It muft,
how’ever, be acknowledged, that he was learned, libe¬
ral, temperate, brave, vigilant, and a lover of juftice :
but, on the other hand, he had apoftatifed to Paga¬
nifm j was an enemy to the Chriftian religion ; and
was, in fad, a perfecutor, though not of the moft fan-
guinary clafs. We have feveral of his difeourfes or ora¬
tions ; fome of his letters; a treatife intitled Mifopogon,
which is a fatire on the inhabitants of Antioch ; and
fome other pieces, all written in an elegant ftyle. They
were publifhed in Greek and Latin by Father Petau in
1630 in quarto ; and of which Spanheimius gave a fine
edition in folio in 1696. His moft famous work was
that compofed againft the Chriftians, of which there are
fome fragments in Cyril’s refutation of it.
Julian Period, in Chronology, a period fo called, as
being adapted to the Julian year.
It is made to commence before the creation of the
world. Its principal advantage lies here, that the fame
years of the cycles of the fun, moon, and indiftion, of
which three cycles it was made to confift by Jofeph Sca-
liger in 1580, belonging to any year of this period,
will never fall together again till after the expiration of
7980 years. There is taken for the firft year of this
period that which hath the firft of the cycle of the fun,
the firft of the cycle of the moon, and the firft of the
indidion cycle, and fo reckoning on.
The firft year of the Chriftian era is always, in our
fyftems
2
Julian
.11
Julius II.
J U L C 399 1 J U N
fyftems of chronology, the 4714th of the Julian pe¬
riod.
To find what year of the Julian period any given
year of Chrift anfwers to: To the given year of Chiift
add 4713, becaufe fo many years of the Julian period
were expired A. D. 1 ; and the fum gives the year of
the Julian period fought.
On the contrary, having the year of the Julian period
given, to find w hat year of Chrift anfwers thereto: From
the year of the Julian period given fubtraft 4713, and
the remainder unll be the year fought.
Julian, St, a harbour on the fouth of Patagonia, in
South America, where fhips ufually touch that are
bound to the South feas. S. Lat. 48. 15.
JULIFRS, a duchy in the circle of Weftphalia, in
Germany, feated between the rivers Maefe and Rhine,
and bounded by Pruffian Guelderland on the north,
by the deflorate of Triers on the foutb, by the deflo¬
rate of Cologne on the call, and by the Netherlands on
the weft. It is about 60 miles long, and 30 broad ;
and is a very plentiful country, abounding in cattle,
corn, and fine meadows, and is well fupplied with
wmod *, but it is moft remarkable for a fine breed of
horfes, and woad for dyeing, which is gathered here
in abundance. The chief towns are Juliers, Aix-la-
Chapelle, Duren, Munfter-Eifd, Bedbur, Wefin-
burgb, and Lafteren. It is fubjeft to the deflor Pa¬
latine, with the confent of the kings of Pruftia and
Poland.
Juliers, a city, capital of the duchy of Juliers in
Weftphalia j fome think this city was founded by Ju¬
lius Caefar or Julia Agrippina j but this is much quel-
tioned by others, becaufe it is not mentioned before
Antoninus’s Itinerary and Theodofius’s Tables. The
town is fmall but well fortified, and neatly built; the
houfts are of brick, and the ftreets broad and regular.
The citadel is large and very ftrong, containing a pa¬
lace of the ancient dukes, and a fpacious piazza. In
the fuburbs there is a monaftery of Carthufians, nobly
endowed by feveral dukes of Juliers. The town is but
poorly inhabited, though they have a fine woollen ma-
nufaflory in this country, and likewife another of linen.
It was taken by Prince Maurice of Naffau in 1610, and
by the Spaniards in 1622. It is feated on the river
Roer, in E. Long. 6. 35. N. Lat. 50. 55.
JULIO romano. See Romano.
JULIUS Caesar. See Calsar.
Julius II. Julian de la Rovere, pope, remarkable for
his warlike difpofition, and his political negociations :
by the latter, he engaged the principal powers of Eu¬
rope to league with him againft the republic of Venice,
called the league of Cambray, figned in 1508. The
Venetians having purchafed peace by the ceifion of part
Romania, Julius turned his arms againft Louis XII.
king of France, and appeared in perfon armed cap-a-
pee, at the fiege of Mirandola ; which place he took
by affault in 1511. But proceeding to excommunicate
Louisj the king w'ifely turned his own weapons againft
him, by calling a general council at Pifa : at which
the pope refufing to appear, wras declared to be fufpend-
ed from the holy fee •, and Loub, in his turn, excom-
municated the pope, who died foon after in 1512. He
built the famous church of St Peter at Rome, and was
a patron of the polite arts.
Julius Virus, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Julius Vt-
Nemetes in Gallia Belgica j fituated between the Tres Cl’s
Tabernae and Noviomagus. Now Germerfheim, a town June,
of the Lower Palatinate, on the weft fide of the Rhine. — v ■■ ■ .J
E. Long. 8. 15. N. Lat. 49. 12.
Julius Foi/ux. See Pollux.
1ULUS, a fon of Afcanius, born in Laviniurr. In
the fucceffion to the kingdom of Alba, AEneas Sylvius,
the Ion of AEneas and Lavinia, rvas preferred to him.
He was, however, made chief prieft.
Iulus, a genus of infefls of the order aptera. See'
Entomology Index.
JULY, the feventh month of the year; during
which the fun enters the fign Leo. The word is de¬
rived from the Latin Julius, the furname of C. Caefar
the diflator, who was born in it. Mark Antony firft
gave this month the name July, which before was call¬
ed ^uintilius, as being the fifth month of the year in
the old Roman kalendar eftablifhed by Romulus, which
began in the month of March. For the fame reafon,
Auguft vvas called Sextilis; and September, Oflober,
November, and December, ftill retain the name of their
firft rank.
%*ucefequitur, numero turba notata fuo. OviD. Fail.
On the 19th day of this month the dog-days are
commonly fuppofed to begin ; when, according to
Hippocrates and Pliny, the fea boils, wine turns four,
dogs go mad, the bile is increafed and irritated, and all
animals decline and languiih.
Juir-Flowcrs. See Dianthus, Botany Index.
JUM1EGE, a town of Normandy in France, and in
the territory of Caux, with a celebrated Benedifline
abbey. It is feated on the river Seine, in E. Long,
o. 55. N. Lat. 49. 25.
JONG! lapidei, the name given by old authors to
a fpecies of coral, of the tubularia kind, and compofed
of a congeries of fmall tubules. See Tubularia, Hel¬
minthology Index. _
JUNCTURE, any joint or doling of two bodies.
See Joint.
Juncture, in Oratory, is a part of compofition,
particularly recommended by Quintilian, and denotes
fuch an attention to the nature of the vowels, confo-
nants, and fyllables, in the conneflion of words, with
regard to their found, as will render the pronunciation
moft eafy and pleafant, and belt promote the harmony
of the fentence. Thus the coalition of two vowels,
occafioning a hollow and obfeure found, and like-
wife of fome confonants, rendering it harfh and rough,
ftiould be avoided : nor ihould the fame fyllable be
repeated at the beginning and end of words, becaufe
the found becomes hereby harfti and unpleafant. 
The following verfe in Virgil’s Ahreid is an example of
junflure.
Arm a virumque cano, Trojte qui primus ab oris.
JUNCUS, the rush, a genus of plants belonging to
the hexandria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking
under the 5th order, Tripeta/oidece. See Botany
Index. ''
JUNE, the fixth month of the year, during which
the fun enters the fign of Cancer. The word comes
from
J U N [ 4
Jungerman-ffom the Latin Junius, which fome derive a Jurione.
^ Ovid, in the 6th of his FaJIi, makes the goddefs fay,
Junius. Junius a nojlro nomine nomen habet.
Others rather derive it a junioribus, this being for young
people as the month of May was for old ones.
Junius ejl juvenum ; quifuit ante fenum.
In this month is the fummer folflice.
JUNGLRM ANNI A, a genus of plants of the na¬
tural order of algse, and belonging to the cryptogamia
clafs. See Botany Index.
JUNGIA, a genus of plants belonging to the fynge-
neha clafs. See Botany Index.
JUNIPERUS, the juniper tree; a genus of
plants belonging to the monoecia clafs ; and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 5ill order, Coniferce.
See Botany Index.
JUNIUS, Adrian, one of the moll learned men of
the age in which he lived, was born in Hoorn in EIol-
land in 1511. He travelled into all parts of Europe,
and piadiled phyfic with reputation in England, where,
among other works, he compofed a Greek and Latin
s Lexicon, to w’hich he added above 6500 woids ; an
Epithalamium on the marriage of Queer Mary wdth
King Philip of Spain ; and dhtimadverfa et de Coma
Commentarius, which is the moll applauded of all his
W'orks. He died in 1575.
Junius, Francis, profeflbr of divinity at Leyden,
w as born at Bourges in 1545, of a noble family, and
fludied fome time at Lyons. Bartholomew Aneau,
who was principal of the college in that city, gave him
excellent inflrudlions with regard to the right method
of lludying. He W'as remarkable for being proof
againft all temptations to lewdnefs ; but a libertine fo
far overpowered him by his fophiltry, that he made
him an atheift : however, he foon returned to his firil
faith ; and, averfe as he was to unlawful love, he had
so averlion to matrimony, but was married no lels
than four times. He was employed in public affairs
by Henry IV. ; and at laft was invited to Leyden to
be profeflbr of divinity ; which employment he dif-
charged with honour, till he was fnatched aw7ay by the
plague in 1602. Du Pin fays, he was a learned and
judicious critic. He w?rote, in conjun&ion with Em¬
manuel Tremellius, a Latin verfion of the Hebrew text
of the Bible. Pie alfo publifhed Commentaries on a
great part of the Holy Scriptures ; and many other
works, all in Latin.
Junius, Francis, or Francis du Jon, the fon of the
preceding, wras born at Heidelberg in 1589. He at
firil defigned to devote himfelf to a military life ; but
after the truce concluded in 1609, he applied himfelf
entirely to ftudy. He came to England in 1620, and
lived 30 years in the earl of Arundel’s family. He was
greatly efteemed not only for his profound erudition,
but alfo for the purity of his maimers ; and was fo paf-
fionately fond of the fludy of the northern languages,
that, being informed there were fome villages in Frief-
land where the ancient language of the Saxons was pre-
ferved, he went and lived two years in that country.
He returned to England in 1675 ; and after fpending a
year at Oxford, retired to Windfor, in order to viilt
VoiTius, at whofe houfe he died in 1677. un’ver'
fity of Oxford, to which he bequeathed his manufcripts,
2
o ] J U N
erefled a very handfome monument to his memory. He Junk
wrote, 1. De Pibiura Veterum, which is adiuired bv all
the learned ; the belt edition of it is that of Rotterdam Juncna!'a‘,
in 1694. He publilhed the fame work at London in v
Engliih. 2. An explication of the old Gothic manu-
fcript, called the Silver one, becaufe the four Gofpels
are there written in filver Gothic letters ; this was pub •
lifhed with notes by Thomas Marefchal or Marlhal.
3. A large commentary on the Harmony of the four
Gofpels by Tatian, which is ftill in manufcript. 4. A
Gloflary in five languages, in which he explains the
origin of the Northern languages ; publifhed at Gxfoid
in 1745. in folio, by Mr Edward Lee.
JUNK, in lea language, a name given to any rem¬
nants or pieces of old cable, which is ufually cut into
fmail portions, for the purpofe of making points, matts,
gafkets, fennit,
JUNO, in Pagan worfhip, was the filler and wife of
Jupiter, and the goddefs of kingdoms and riches ; and
alio fly led the queen of heaven : fhe prefided over mar¬
riage and childbirth, and was reprefented as the daugh¬
ter of Saturn and Rhea. She married Jupiter ; but was
not the moll complaiiant wiie : for according to Plomer,
that god w'as fometimes obliged to make ufe of all bis
authority to keep her in due fubjeblion ; and the fame
author obferves, that on her entering into a confpiracy
againfl him, he punifhed her by lufpending her in the
air with two anvils faftened to her feet, and golden
manacles on her hands, while all the other deities look¬
ed on without a poflibility of helping her. How’ever,
her jealoufy made her frequently find opportunities of
interrupting her hufband in the courfe of his amours ;
and prompted her to punifh with unrelenting fury Eu-
ropa, Semele, lo, Latona, and the refl of his milfref-
fes. Jupiter himfelf having conceived without any
commerce with a female, Juno, in revenge, conceived
Vulcan by the wind, Mars by touching a flower point¬
ed out to her by the goddefs Flora, and Hebe by eating
greedily of lettuces.
Juno, as the queen of heaven, preferved great date :
her ufual attendants were Terror and Boldnefi, Caftor,
Pollux, and 14 nymphs; but her moft faithful attend¬
ant w'as the beautiful Iris, or the rainbow. Homer
defcribes her in a chariot adorned with precious ftones,
the wheels of which were of ebony, and which was
drawn by horfes with reins of gold. But (lie is more
commonly painted drawn by peacocks. She was repre¬
fented in her temple at Corinth, feated on a throne,
W’i th a crown on her head, a pomegranate in one hand,
and in the other a fceptre with a cuckoo on its top.
This ftatue was of gold and ivory.
Some mythologifts luppofe that Juno fignifies the
air : others, that fhe w'as the Egyptian Ifis; who
being repre ented under various figures, w'as by the
Greeks and Romans reprefented as fo many dillinft
deities.
JUNONALIA, a feftival obferved by the Romans
in honour of Juno. It was inftituted on account of
certain prodigies that happened in Italy, and was cele¬
brated by matrons. In the folemnity two white cow's
were led from the temple of Apollo into the city
through the gate called Carmentalis, and two images of
Juno, made of cyprefs, were borne in proceflion. Then
marched 27 girls, habited in long robes, finging a
hymn to the goddefs j then came the decemviri, crown¬
ed
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